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A GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE
DHIVEHI LANGUAGE
Yumna Maumoon BA, MA.

Assistant Director
NATIONAL CENTRE FOR LINGUISTIC AND HISTORICAL RESEARCH

MALE, MALDIVES
9
A General Overview of the Dhivehi Language
Researched and compiled by Yumna Maumoon BA (Oxon) MA

The Language Department
National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research
Male, Republic of Maldives
Photographs by: Shamoon

Portrait Gallery
Male, Maldives
Layout & Design: Julisha Ibrahim
Special thanks to the Chairman of the National Centre for Linguistic and
Historical Research Mr Abbas Ibrahim, the Special Advisors of the Centre Ms
Naseema Muhammad, Mr Muhammad Waheed, Mr Abdullah Sodiq, the
director Ms Naseema Ahmed and also to the dedicated staff of the Centre.
ISBN 99915-1-032-X
Published by The National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research

Male, Republic of Maldives
October 2002
Printed in the Maldives by Novelty Printers and Publishers
Copyright National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research
No part of this publication may be reproduced in whole or part, or stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without written permission of the publishers. For information regarding permissions please write to The
National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research, H.Sunnyside, Male, Republic of Maldives,
nclhr@dhivehinet.net.mv
2
FOREWARD
In recent years, more and more Maldivians have been

becoming aware of the age and complexity of their own
mother-language and its importance as a symbol of their
cultural heritage. Dhivehi has also become a subject of interest
to researchers of Indic languages.
There has been little written on the Dhivehi language in a

language other than Dhivehi and so it has been difficult for
those who do not speak the language to get any information
about it. Therefore, this book A General Overview of the
Dhivehi Language by Ms Yumna Maumoon, is a most
welcome and valuable addition to the few existing books.
In writing this book, Ms Yumna Maumoon has made a very

valuable contribution towards fulfilling a long-felt need. I
thank her sincerely and offer her my congratulations, and
would like to express the hope that this is only the first of
many more books she will write in the coming years. I am sure
that this book, A General Overview of the Dhivehi
Language, will become an important asset towards a better
understanding of Dhivehi.
I also take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to his

Excellency the President Mr. Maumoon Abdul Gayoom, for
his support, guidance and encouragement, in our work at the
National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research. He has
been a source of inspiration to the members of this Centre ever
since its establishment in 1982, and our achievements in the
ensuing years have been in no small measure, a result of his
encouragement.
Abbas Ibrahim
Chairman
National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research
3
PREFACE
Dhivehi (or Divehi), is the language spoken by a population of

two hundred and seventy thousand people living in the
Republic of Maldives, an nation of islands in the middle of the
Indian Ocean. It is an Indo-Aryan language closely related to
Sinhalese of Sri Lanka.
Very little has been written on the Dhivehi language especially

in a language other than Dhivehi. Therefore there has been
little opportunity, for those who do not speak the language, to
acquire any information about the Dhivehi language.
Hence my aim in writing this book is to give introduction to

and an overview of the Dhivehi language, its origin and
historical development to the reader who is unacquainted with
the language. I have tried to look at the present status of
Dhivehi language in Maldivian society today as well as give
the reader a brief glimpse into the future of the language. It is
in no way intended to be an in depth linguistic study of the
language.
In writing this book I have mainly used research work done by

other scholars as source material. I have relied heavily on the
thesis by Sonja Fritz, The Dhivehi Language: A Descriptive
and Historical Grammar of Maldivian and its Dialects,
Heidelberg 2001 and the thesis presented to Cornell
University by Bruce D Cain; Dhivehi (Maldivian) A
Synchronic and Diachronic Study. The material in the chapter
on the Dhivehi writing systems has been taken directly from
the book Dhivehi Writing Systems researched and compiled by
the Special Advisor of the National Centre for Linguistic and
Historical Research Ms Naseema Muhammad. Therefore I
would like to acknowledge the hard work and research that
these scholars and others have done on the language.
4
I would like to take this opportunity to thank the Chairman of
the National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research Mr
Abbas Ibrahim, the Special Advisors of the Centre Ms
Naseema Muhammad, Mr Muhammad Waheed and Mr
Abdulla Sodiq and the Director Ms Naseema Ahmed for their
continual support and encouragement. I would also like to
thank the dedicated staff of the of the Centre for their support
and assistance. Finally I would like to thank my family for
always being there for me.
I hope that this book will be interesting and informative to

many who wish find out more about the Dhivehi language.
Yumna Maumoon
Assistant Director
5
Contents
PREFACE
1. INTRODUCTION
The Maldives
The Maldivian People
History and Culture
The Conversion to Islam

Significant Events in the History of the Maldives
Culture
2. THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE DHIVEHI

LANGUAGE
Theories about the Origin of Dhivehi
The Historical Layers of Dhivehi
The Influence of other Languages on Dhivehi
3. THE DHIVEHI LANGUAGE
3.1 Modern Standard Dhivehi
3.1.1 The Sound System

3.1.2 Nominal Morphology
3.1.2a The Dhivehi Case System
3.1.2b Inflection for Number, Definiteness and
Indefiniteness
3.1.2c Demonstrative Pronominals
3.1.2d Personal Pronominals
3.1.3 Numerals
3.1.4 Verbal Morphology
3.1.4a Verbal Inflection
3.2 The Dialects of Dhivehi
4. THE DHIVEHI WRITING SYSTEM
4.1 Thaana Akuru

4.2 Eveyla Akuru
4.3 Dives Akuru
5. DHIVEHI LANGUAGE TODAY AND TOMORROW
5.1 Efforts by the Government to promote and preserve

the Dhivehi language
6
1- INTRODUCTION
Dhivehi is the official language of the island nation lying in

the Indian Ocean known as the Republic of Maldives. It is
spoken by a population of two hundred and seventy thousand
(270,000) Maldivians and by a small population of
approximately fifteen thousand (15,000) speakers who live on
the island of Minicoy (India) where it is known as Mahl or
Mahal.
Dhivehi represents the southernmost Indo-Aryan language in

the world and even the southernmost Indo-European language.
It is based on Sanskrit foundations and is closely related to the
Sinhalese language spoken in Sri Lanka.1 Dhivehi is written in
a unique script called Thaana2 which is written from right to
left.
Little has been written (in a language other than Dhivehi)

about the Dhivehi language or the Maldivian people. Up until
the last decades of the 20th century, the Maldives was very
isolated from the rest of the world and little was known in the
outside world about the country, its people and their language.
Hence, in order to understand the Dhivehi language, it is
essential to have some knowledge of the country, the people
and their history and culture.
1
Sonja Gippert-Fritz, The Dhivehi Language: a Descriptive and Historical Grammar of Maldivian and
its Dialects. Heidelberg 2001
2
Pronounced Tna. I have used the spelling Thaana as it is the official spelling used in the Maldives.
9
1.1 The Maldives
The Maldives is a group of 11923 small low-lying coral

islands in the Indian Ocean spread across the equator
approximately 130 km wide and 820 km long, covering an
area of 90,000 square kilometres. These islands rise from long
dead common plateaus of a vast submarine mountain range
that extends southwards from the land mass of India.
The islands of the Maldivian archipelago are grouped into

twenty-six natural rings or atolls. The islands are grouped into
twenty atolls for administrative purposes. Only 1994 islands
are inhabited. The islands are very small, the largest being
only a few kilometres in length. All the islands (except the
island of Fua Mulaku) are very flat and covered with coconut
trees. The climate of the Maldives is tropical; hot and humid.
There have been fears that global warming and sea-level rise
might lead to the total obliteration of the Maldive islands
within the next century.
The present population of the Maldives is 270,101 with a sex

ratio of 103 males per 100 females5. Approximately one-
fourth of the total population live on the capital island, Mal
which is an island of about one and a half square miles,
situated approximately in the centre of the chain of islands.
The present-day Maldives is a small island developing country

with a narrow resource base in relation to its population and
lacking in known mineral resources. The countrys economy is
dependent on tourism and fishing and foreign imports.
3
Statistical Yearbook Of The Maldives 2002; Ministry of Planning and National Development, Male,
Rep of Maldives. This number is variable as new islands are being continually formed while other
islands are being eroded.
4
Statistical Yearbook of the Maldives 2002; Ministry of Planning and National Development, Male,
Rep of Maldives.
5
Statistical Yearbook Of The Maldives 2002; Ministry of Planning and National Development, Male,
Rep of Maldives.
10
1.2 The Maldivian People
The people of the Maldives are predominantly of Aryan stock.

According to Albert Gray:
As to its origin, the race which now inhabits the

Maldivian archipelago (as well as Maliku or Minicoy
islands) and which has occupied it from the earliest
time of which we have any record is unquestionably of
the same (Aryan) stock as the Sinhalese. This
conclusion is borne out by evidence of language,
physical traits, tradition, folklore, manners and
customs.
However, little is known about whom the first settlers of the

Maldives were or where they came from.
According to Professor Stanley Gardiner who visited the

Maldives in 1899, to study the physical characteristics of the
Maldivian people, Maldivians showed Aryan, African, Arab
as well as Indonesian features. Even today, one can still see
the same physical features. Some Maldivians have South
Indian features while others have distinctly African features.
Some have Arab features while others look Malay or
Indonesian. So Maldivians can be said to be predominantly
Indo-Aryan with an admixture of African, Arab and
Indonesian blood.
11
1.3 History and Culture
There is no written history of the Maldives before its

conversion to Islam in 1153 A.D. However, various
archaeological sites, many of which are ruins of Buddhist
temples, bear vivid testimony to the Buddhist past of the
Maldives. Proper archaeological excavation, however, has
been done only on one site in the Maldives namely the
Kuruhinna Thargandu of Kaashidhoo6. A clam shell found at
this site has been dated to 40 B.C. A.D. 1157. This suggests
that the Maldives has been inhabited for at least two thousand
years. However, for lack of evidence the pre-Islamic history of
the Maldivian archipelago remains practically unknown. It is
not known who the first settlers in the Maldives were or where
they came from.
Since there are no written records of the Maldives before its

conversion to Islam in 1153 A.D, it is necessary to refer to
external reports in order to get more information about the
pre-Islamic past of the Maldives.
It is probable that the Maldives were already known to the

Phoenicians. The ancient geographer, Claudius Ptolemaeus,
who lived in the 2nd century A.D., mentions 1378 islands8
nearby the island of Taprobane (Sri Lanka) which most
probably refers to the Maldives and the Laccadives. In his
report on the year 362 A.D, Ammianus Marcellinus informs
his emperor Julian about Divae et Serendivae, nationes
Indicae9 which are located in the Indian Ocean. He is most
6
Pronounced kid however, I have used the conventional spelling used in the Maldives. The site at
Kaashidhoo was excavated from 1996-1998 as a co-operation project between Dr Egil Mikkelson, Oslo
University, Professor Solbritt Benneth, museum director and archeologist at The Museum of Medeival
Stockholm and The National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research, Mal.
7
Archaeological Excavations of a Monastery at Kaashidhoo- Cowrie shells and their Buddhist context
in the Maldives; Dr Egil Mikkelson, University of Oslo, Norway, National Centre for Linguistic and
Historical Research, Male 2000.
8
Claudii Ptolemaei Geographia I-III. Ed. C.F.A Nobbe. Leipzig 1843-45; repr. Hildesheim 1996. Lib.
VII, Cap.4,11., 175.
9
Ammianus Marcellinus, Romische Geschichte (Latin and German, commentary by W.SEYFARTH.
part 3, book 22-25, 3rd ed., Darmstadt 1986; 1st ed. Berlin 1970) 20-21.
12
certainly referring to the Maldives and Sri Lanka. This
reference to the Maldives shows that as early as the year 362
A.D., the Maldives was a known as a separate nation.
Another probable mention of the Maldives is in the Buddhist

chronicle, the Mahavamsa which relates about the first
migrations of Indo-Aryans to the Maldives and Sri Lanka. In
the Mahavamsa the passage where the prince-regent Vijaya
was cast out by his father, the legendary Sinhalese king
Simhabahu, because of evil conduct Vijaya and his male
friends as well as his wives and children were provided with
three ships. These three ships put to sea and landed on
different islands. The island where the women landed was
called Mahiladipaka (Pali lit. woman-island; mahila-
woman + dp/ dvp island + suffix k).10
Mahaldb, the Arabic name of the Maldives which was used

by several Arab travellers and geographers was obviously
derived from the Pali form Mahiladpika.
The first Arab author to mention the Maldives is Al-Biruni

who talks of Serendib (Ceylon) and the Dbgt or Dbgt
islands (the Maldives and the Laccadives) as numerous islands
scattered in the middle of the Indian Ocean, where the islands
rise out of the water like sand-downs11, in the book he wrote in
1030 A.D. about his travels in India. The first extensive
description of the Maldives was given by the traveller Ibn
Batuta (1304-1377) who calls the islands Dbat al-Mahal12.
If the legend as told in the Mahavamsa has any truth, it

indicates that maybe the first migrations of Indo-Aryans from
10
Sonja Gippert-Fritz, The Dhivehi Language: a Descriptive and Historical Grammar of Maldivian and
Its Dialect. Heidelberg 2001
11
Alberunis India translated by Edward C.Sachau. Vol I, p.233, London 1888/1914
12
Ibn Batt; Ibn Batt in the Maldives and Ceylon, translated by Albert Gray, Journal Ceylon Branch
of Royal Asiatic Society, 1982
13
the Indian sub-continent to Sri Lanka and the Maldives took
place simultaneously. However, as there is no written
evidence on the Maldivian side there is no way of knowing
whether the first settlers to the Maldives came directly from
the mainland or via Sri Lanka. Also the question of when the
first settlers arrived in the Maldives remains unanswered.
Many questions about when the first settlers arrived in the

Maldives or where they came from still remain to be
answered. Archaeological or linguistic evidence may point to
the answers. However, at present, much further study needs to
be done in these areas before any of these questions can be
answered.
1.3.1 The Conversion to Islam
The most significant event in the history of the Maldives is its

conversion to Islam in 1153 A.D. The written history of the
Maldives begins from this time. The names of the sultans who
reigned in the Maldives since its conversion to Islam are
documented without interruption.
The Maldives is said to have embraced Islam in 1153 A.D.

when the king of the Maldives Dhovimi Kalaminja or Sir
Tribhuvana ditta Mahradun converted to Islam and ordered
all his subjects to convert to Islam. After his conversion to
Islam this king was known as Al-sultn Muhammad ibn
Abdullah or Darumavanta Rasgefnu (the Benevolent King).
Legend has it that the king was converted to Islam by an Arab

traveller called Abul Barakth Ysuf al-Barbar who, by
reciting from the Qurn, exorcised a sea-demon known as the
Rannamri which terrorized the people of Male. There is a
14
reference to this legend in the Isdhoo Loamaafaanu13 written
in 1195/1196.14
According to the Isdhoo Loamaafaanu the Maldives officially

embraced Islam in 1153, however it took many years to
convert the whole of the Maldives to Islam. At the time that
the Loamaafaanu was written there were still some islands
whose inhabitants had not converted to Islam.
Another legend in Hasan Tjuddns Thareekh15 says that the

Maldives was converted to Islam by a mystic called Ysuf
amsuddn al-Tabrz from Tabrz in Persia.16
In the accounts of his travels Ibn Batuta states that the

Maldives was converted to Islam by Abul-Barakt Ysuf al-
Barbar. His tomb is the Meduzirat opposite the Male Friday
Mosque (Hukuru miskit)17. He says this based on the
inscription he saw on the wooden plaque found in Male
Friday Mosque when he visited the Maldives in 1343-4. This
wooden plaque is in the National Museum at present.
However, there is some confusion about the name of the
traveller who converted the Maldives to Islam as the writing
on the plaque is not clearly legible because of its present
condition.
Whoever converted the Maldives to Islam, or under whatever

circumstances the Maldives converted, the conversion to Islam
can be said to be the most significant event in Maldivian
history and it changed the Maldivian way of life dramatically.
It affected every aspect of their lives, their way of thinking,
their culture and their language. After conversion to Islam
13
pronounced Isd Lmfnu however I have used the official spelling used in the Maldives which is
Loamaafaanu these are official records of land grants, written on copper plates, given to mosques built
by Sultans after the Maldives converted to Islam.
14
Isdhoo Loamaafaanu copper-plate grant written in 1195/1196 found in the Isdhoo mosque.
15
Pronounced Trx however I have used the official spelling used in the Maldives which is Thaareekh.
16
H.C.P.Bell; The Maldive Islands. Monograph on the Histroy, Archeology and Epigraphy; Ceylon
Government Press, Colombo, 1940
17
Muhammad Amin, 1949
15
Arab influences on the Maldivian economy, culture and
language were very strong.
In order to understand the various factors that influenced

Maldivian culture and the Dhivehi language it is important to
take a look at the most significant events in Maldivian history.
1.3.2 Significant Events in the History of the Maldives
The written history of the Maldives begins from the time of its
conversion to Islam. The Thareekh 18 covers a period of 670
years of Maldivian history from the reign of Sultan
Muhammad ul dil (1142-1176 A.D.) to the reign of Sultan
Muhammad Mu`nudn I (1799-1835 A.D). Apart from
political events the Thareekh also covers natural occurrences
such as earthquakes, tidal waves, eclipses, etc.
Another source of Maldivian history is the Raadhavalhi19

which is a chronological list of all the kings and the queens
who ruled the Maldives after Islamization, and gives some
information not found in the Thareekh. Apart from these
sources the four Loamafaanu or copper-plate grants are
valuable sources.
According to legend, and according to the few written sources

available, one of the events which had a deep impact on the
Maldivian way of life was the taking over the sovereignty of
the islands by the Portuguese during the 16th century.
18
Hassan Tjuddns Thareekh
19
Rdavali I have used the official spelling used in the Maldives which is Raadhavalhi.
16
In early 16th century the Portuguese established themselves in
Goa (India) and tried to control the trade routes from Africa to
the Far East. Goa became the headquarters for their activities
and they became formidable in controlling the sea trade and
they started taking over small and weak territories in the
region.
At that time, there were ships carrying spices and other

valuable commodities travelling through the Maldives and
high quality Maldivian coir was being used all over South
Asia for rigging. The Portuguese wanted to occupy the
Maldives in order to control the sea trade as well as get
Maldivian coir and dried fish.
The Portuguese conquered the Maldives in 1558 A.D. and

ruled for fifteen years. This period is known in Maldivian
history as a period of terror and violence when the Portuguese
tried to convert Maldivians to Christianity by force.
Portuguese rule was finally brought to an end by the

Mohammad Thakurufaanu (who is revered as a national hero)
and his two brothers who organized a resistance and took over
the islands under Portuguese control. After eight years of
guerrilla fighting, the Utheemu brothers took over the capital
Male and ended the Portuguese rule. The Portuguese,
however, continued to raid the Maldives for another seventy-
five years.
Another instance of foreign influence on the Maldives was the

period when the country was under a protectorate treaty with
the British in 1887. With this treaty the Maldives gave up its
right to sign treaties with other countries while the British
agreed to protect the Maldives from foreign influences without
interfering with countrys internal affairs. The British interest
in the Maldives was purely strategic. They wanted to prevent
the Maldives getting into the hands of other colonial powers of
the time, namely the French and the Dutch. The impact of the
17
British on the Maldivian economy, politics and society was
minimal compared to the experience of other countries under
the direct colonial rule of the British. Hence the British did not
have much influence on Maldivian culture.
The dawn of the 20th century saw many political changes

taking place in the Maldives. The institution of the Sultanate
had become weak and educated people with a modern outlook
wanted to change the political system. In 1932, the first
written constitution of the Maldives was passed by Sultan
Muhammad amsuddn. A Citizens Majlis and a Council of
Ministers came into existence. However this constitution was
abolished in 1933 and another constitution was redrawn in
1934. This was a time of great political unrest in the Maldives.
During this period the Maldives was ruled by the Hasan Fard
and Muhammad Amn Dd who was later to become the first
president of the Republic of Maldives.
In 1953, after the death of the Sultan designate Abdul Majd

Dd, a public referendum was held to decide whether the
people wanted a monarchy or a republic, and with the consent
of the people the Maldives was declared a Republic with
Muhammad Amn Dd as its first president. His new
Republican constitution gave voting rights to women.
Amn Dd was a visionary and a pioneer in modernizing the

Maldives. He introduced the idea of modern schools, modern
health facilities, and he introduced modern technology such as
the telephone, power plant, etc. He started education for
women. In this way he made many valuable contributions
towards the development and modernization of the country.
However despite his vision there was opposition to some of

his ideas and this was aggravated by the food shortages that
the Maldives experienced during the aftermath of the Second
World War. As a result in August 1953, while Amn Dd was
abroad, there was an uprising against the government and the
18
Constitution was suspended. On his return to the Maldives
Amn was arrested and sentenced to be banished for an
attempted coup detat. Amn Dd died in January 1954 while
still in banishment.
The first Republic ended with the death of Amn Dd and the
Sultanate was once again revived under another constitution in
March 1954. Muhammad Fard Dd the son of Abdul Majd
Dd became the Sultan.
On 26th July 1965, the Maldives became independent from

the British. This day is marked as the Maldivian Independence
Day.
On 11th November 1968 the Maldives was again declared a

Republic, after a public referendum, and the prime minister at
the time Mr Ibrhim Nsir became the first president of the
second Republic. Many socio-economic changes took place
during Nasirs term in office. Tourism was introduced to the
Maldives in the early 1970s. The fishing industry and the
shipping lines improved the countrys economy. The country
opened more and more to the outside world. Consumer items
started coming into the Maldive islands. Modernization and
opening up to the outside world started to bring many changes
to the traditional way of life.
In 1978, the current president Maumoon Abdul Gayoom was

elected to the office of the president. He has since then been
re-elected for four consecutive terms (in 1983, 1988, 1993 and
1998). Under the leadership of President Gayoom the country
has seen remarkable improvement in the countrys economy
through major developments in tourism and fisheries
industries. There has also been vast improvement in social
services such as health and education (especially to the outer
atolls). Universal primary education has been achieved and
access to secondary education has been increasing steadily
19
with setting up of atoll schools. Well-balanced foreign
relations is also a notable achievement.
President Gayoom is well-known to the world today especially

through his stand on environment issues. He has repeatedly
brought the worlds attention to the issues of global warming
and sea-level rise and its effects on small island states such as
the Maldives.
Today the Maldives is renowned in the world of international

tourism and it enjoys the highest literacy, highest per capita
income and the highest value for its money among the South
Asian countries.
During the past two decades the economy of the Maldives has
undergone a dramatic transformation with new economic
activities such as construction, trade, transport and
communication sprouting around the tourism sector
The developments in the latter part of the 20th century such as

the growth of tourism, modernization, and the opening up of
the country to the outside world has had great impact on the
Maldivian way of life and way of thinking. Before these
developments, Maldivians lived a traditional way of life based
on fishing (and agriculture in some islands). These changes
have affected every aspect of the Maldivian way of life,
culture and language. Therefore in order to understand the
development of the Dhivehi language and the factors which
influenced it, one has to have some understanding of the
Maldivian way of life and the changes that are taking place in
the Maldives today with the advent of modernization.
1.3.3 Culture
During the course of Maldivian history a unique Maldivian

island culture has developed in close harmony with the island
environment. This includes uniquely Maldivian ways of
20
building houses and boats, preparing food, clothing, medicine,
craft-making techniques, music and dance, rituals and social
practices that form part of everyday life.
Traditionally Maldivians were either fishermen or farmers

who lived in small island communities. Their life was very
much connected to their natural surroundings, especially to the
sea. This strong link is reflected in the Dhivehi language. For
example, Dhivehi has many names for the different parts of
the sea surrounding an island, mdu the shallow part of the
sea near an island, vilu the deeper darker part of the sea away
from the island, kandu deep sea. Dhivehi has different
names for different types of islands, for example, ra island
finolu small island without any coconut trees, faru reef.
The word atoll is a word that the English language has
borrowed from Dhivehi atolu a number of islands naturally
arranged in a ring formation. Dhivehi also has names for a
great variety of fish that are found in the waters of the
Maldives. Many of the proverbs and figures of speech in
Dhivehi and much of the imagery in Dhivehi oral literature,
such as the raivaru poetry is also connected to the sea and the
island environment. Hence, we can see that the island
environment of the Maldives has played a very important role
in the development of the Maldivian way of life as well as in
the development of the Dhivehi language.
Oral literature and traditions were a very important part of

traditional Maldivian way of life. An example is the raivaru
poetry of the Maldives which is a special type of Dhivehi
poetry recited in a certain manner. Epic poems such as Don
Hiyala i Alifulu20 were originally recited in the raivaru form.
The oral traditions of the Maldives is rich in stories of folk
heroes and heroines and tales of love and the supernatural.
Craft-making was also an important part of the traditional
20
Epic Dhivehi poem about two star-crossed lovers passed down from generation to generation through
oral recitation in the raivaru form.
21
Maldivian society. Crafts such as kun21-making and lacquer
work are still carried on today. Maldivians have their own
unique forms of music and dance such as bodu beru,
mlineun etc.
As discussed above traditional Maldivian society had its own

ways of building houses, boats, practising herbal medicine, its
own folk music, dance and ritual practices and the Dhivehi
language is rich in words to with all the spheres of the
traditional Maldivian way of life. However, it is not in the
scope of this book to go into detail about these aspects of the
traditional way of life of the Maldivians. The important thing,
however, is to understand the dramatic changes that have
taken place in Maldivian society over the last few decades
with the advent of modernization and development. The
traditional subsistence-based society is rapidly changing into a
modern urban society. Many of the age-old customs and
practices are being replaced by modern ways of doing things
and modern technology. Maldivian society has now entered
the age of Information Technology (IT). It is now at a
crossroad where the people have to maintain a delicate balance
between their own unique cultural practices and a mass global
culture.
21
Traditional Maldivian hand-woven mat.
22
2-THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE
DHIVEHI LANGUAGE
Archaeological evidence as well as early references to the

Maldives suggests that the Maldives has been inhabited for at
least two thousand years. However, since there are no early
documents or writing22 of any sort it is difficult to do any
research into the origin and early historical development of the
Dhivehi language. However linguistic study of the different
dialects of the Maldives as well as comparative linguistic
study with other South Asian languages can give us a fair idea
about the development of the Dhivehi language. Much
research needs to be done in these areas before any firm
conclusions to be reached.
2.1 Theories about the Origin of the Dhivehi Language
At present, there are several theories about the origin of the

Dhivehi language from the studies done so far.
The foundation of the historical linguistic analysis of both

Dhivehi and Sinhalese was laid by Wilhelm Geiger (1856
1943). In Geigers comparative study of Dhivehi and
Sinhalese he assumes that the Dhivehi language is a dialectical
offspring of Sinhalese and therefore is a daughter language
of Sinhalese.23 However, the material he collected was not
sufficient to judge the degree of relationship of Dhivehi and
Sinhalese.24
Geiger concludes that Dhivehi must have split from Sinhalese

not earlier that the 10th century A.D. This means that
22
The earliest writing found to date is an inscription on a coral stone found in the year 2001, at the
archaeological site at Landhoo in Noonu Atoll. The inscription is estimated to be from around the 6th C
A.D.
23
Wilhelm Geiger; Maldivian Linguistic Studies; Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society, 1919, volume XXVII Extra Number
24
Sonja Fritz; The Dhivehi Language; A Descriptive and Historical Grammar of Maldivian and its
Dialects. Heidelberg 2001.
23
migrations of Sinhalese people must have taken place around
this time. However, there is nothing in Maldivian history or
the Sinhalese chronicles, even in legendary form that alludes
to such a migration. Furthermore, archaeological evidence as
well as references to the Maldives in early writings show that
the Maldives has been inhabited for nearly two thousand
years.
Vitharana suggests that Dhivehi did not evolve as a separate

language to Sinhala until 12th century A.D. when the Maldives
converted to Islam25, but Reynolds and others have suggested
that Dhivehi started showing indications of divergence as
early as the 4th century A.D.26
De Silva proposes that Dhivehi and Sinhalese must have

branched off from a common mother language. He says that
the earliest Indic element in Maldivian (Dhivehi) is not so
much a result of branching off from Sinhalese as a result of a
simultaneous separation with Sinhalese from the Indic
languages of the mainland of India.27
De Silva is referring to the Dravidian influences seen in the

Dhivehi language such as in the old place names.
De Silvas theory is supported by the legend of Prince Vijaya

as told in the Mahavamsa because if this legend is to be
believed, the migration of Indo-Aryan colonists to the
Maldives and Sri Lanka from the mainland (India) must have
taken place simultaneously. This means that Dhivehi and
Sinhalese must be sister languages that developed from a
common Prakrit.28
25
Vitharana (1995:16)
26
Reynolds (1974:197)
27
De Silva, M.W.S Some Observations on the History of Maldivian in Transactions of the Philological
Society, London 1970.
28
Dialects.Heidelberg 2001.
24
However, despite the research work that has been
devoted to Dhivehi in recent times, and its results
which also elucidate parts of the history of the
language, it is still too early to decide with certainty
whether Dhivehi and Sinhala developed at about the
same time from a common Prakrit ancestor which
would allow us to call them sister languages in the
literal sense of the word, as proposed by De Silva. We
cannot disprove the opposite that Dhivehi might
represent a daughter language which split of from it
in prehistoric time: it is clear however, that this time
must have been much earlier than Geiger proposed.29
Therefore there is still no conclusive proof whether the

Dhivehi language developed directly from Sinhalese or
whether Dhivehi and Sinhalese developed simultaneously
from a common Prakrit. There is also no way of proving when
Dhivehi started developing as a separate language. As we can
see there are differing theories about the origin of Dhivehi and
the reason for such differences is that, on the one hand,
Dhivehi shares features with Sinhala that appear relatively late
while on the other hand it also shows significant indications of
early divergence.
Whatever the origin of Dhivehi, linguists agree that Dhivehi is

an Indo-Aryan language very closely related to Sinhalese, but
which also has older Indic elements in it.
29
Dialects
Heidelberg 2001.
25
2.2 The Historical Layers of the Dhivehi Language
Dhivehi has a continuous written history of about eight

hundred (800) years. That is from the time of the conversion
to Islam. The earliest writings were on the Loamaafaanu
(copper-plate grants) of the 12th and 13th centuries. Early
inscriptions on coral stone have also been found. The oldest
inscription found to date is an inscription on a coral stone
found at an archaeological site on the island of Landhoo in
Noonu Atoll. This inscription is estimated to be from the
around the 7th or 8th century30.
Linguistic studies show that Dhivehi is based on Sanskrit

foundations and it developed in relative isolation with little
contact with the other languages until the time of the
conversion to Islam. Throughout its history Dhivehi seems to
have had regular contact with Sinhalese (especially the
southern dialects of Dhivehi).
The 800 years of continuous written history of Dhivehi can be

broadly divided into the three periods Old Dhivehi, Middle
Dhivehi and Modern Dhivehi, according to the different
scripts used for writing Dhivehi. This can be seen in the table31
below:
30
It has not been confirmed, as yet, whether this inscription is from the 7th or the 8th century A.D.
National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research, Male, Maldives. 2002
31
Sonja Fritz: Presentation on the Historical Development of Dhivehi, Male 2002.
26
The historical layers of Dhivehi
Continuous written history of 800 years
Three periods
- Modern Dhivehi Modern Dhivehi
written in Thaana (Male Standard)
Ca. 1700 A.D.until today
- Middle dhivehi Middle Dhivehi

Written in Dhives Akuru (Dhives Akuru)
Ca. 1450 until 1850
- Old Dhivehi Old Dhivehi

written in Eveyla Akuru (Eveyla Akuru)
Ca. 1150 until 1450
2.3 Influences of other Languages on the Development of

Dhivehi
Since the beginning of the written history of Maldives it can

be seen that Dhivehi was influenced by many cultures and
languages during the course of its development.
After the Maldives converted to Islam in 1153, Persian and

Arabic made a significant impact on the Dhivehi language. It
borrowed extensively from Arabic, especially religious and
judicial terms. Early examples of borrowings from Persian and
Arabic can be seen in early writings such as the Loamaafaanu.
Examples are religious terms such namdu prayer and rda
fasting, (Persian namzu, rza) and kfaru infidel(Arabic
kafir32). Constant contact with Persian and Arab traders of the
Indian Ocean meant that Dhivehi also borrowed many words a
32
Dialects
27
non-religious nature from Arabic and Persian. This is seen in
many words in the field of navigation and shipping and words
such as kandili a type of lamp (qindl candle, lamp
Arabic/Persian) is found in the Isdhoo Loamaafaanu.33
Portuguese influence, from the period that the Maldives came

under the colonial power of the Portuguese in the 16th century
A.D., can be seen in words such as lonsi hunting spear
(Portuguese lana spear) and mzu table (Portuguese
mesa).34
The middle of the 20th century saw many Maldivians going

abroad to study in India, Pakistan and in some Arab countries
and when these Maldivians returned home they used a lot of
Urdu and Arabic words in their writing. As a result, Dhivehi
(especially literary or learned Dhivehi) has a lot of Urdu as
well as Arabic loan words. For example bahru spring
(bahru spring: Urdu), gulan garden (gulan garden:
Urdu) and so on. Words borrowed include words such as
galan pen (qalam pen) and gams shirt (qams shirt:
Arabic).
Around the 1970s and 1980s the English knowledge of

Maldivians increased with educational opportunities and more
and more Maldives started going abroad to study in Western
countries. With the advent of tourism, the Maldives opened
more and more to the outside world and the need for English
language increased. The Government schools in Male (the
capital) were teaching in English medium. Hence, Dhivehi
language began to be greatly influenced by English. This can
be seen in the great number of loan words from English. For
example, kru car baiskalu bicycle, isklu school and so
on.
33
Hassan Maniku; A Concise Etymological Vocabulary of Dhivehi Language, The Royal Asiatic
Society of Sri Lanka, 2000.
34
It is not clear whether these words came into Dhivehi directly from Portuguese. According to Hassan
Maniku it is more likely that these words came into Dhivehi through Sinhala. Hassan Maniku; A
Concise Etymological Vocabulary of Dhivehi Language, The Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka, 2000.
28
The latter half of the 20th century saw the Maldives
undergoing modernization at a very fast pace. This also meant
a sudden influx of new things, new ideas and concepts quite
alien to the traditional Maldivian society. This also meant that
the Dhivehi language had to face the challenge of finding
ways of naming these new things and expressing these new
ideas and concepts. As a result Dhivehi language borrowed
extensively from the English language. For example all words
to do with modern technology have been borrowed from
English: rdi radio, tv TV, conpiutaru computer etc.
In addition to the borrowing of words from other languages

Dhivehi phonology has also been greatly influenced by other
languages. For example in 1957, eleven new letters were
introduced into the Thaana alphabet to represent Arabic
phonemes. This will be looked at in detail the section on the
Dhivehi sound system.
The Dhivehi script also underwent a dramatic change through

the influence of another language namely Arabic. The script
changed from Dhives Akuru (written from left to write) to
Thaana Akuru (written from right to left) around 1700 A.D.
This dramatic change in script was brought about mainly to
accommodate Arabic words into the script. In the late 1970s
the Thaana script was replaced by the Latin script, where
Dhivehi was written in the Roman script, for a brief period of
time. The scripts will be discussed in further detail in the
section on the Dhivehi Writing Systems.
Up until the end of the 20th century Dhivehi evolved

peacefully through contact with other languages. However,
like many minority languages of the world today, Dhivehi
language is facing the threat of the spread of a mass global
culture.
29
3. THE DHIVEHI LANGUAGE
Dhivehi language, Dhivehi bas or island language is the

national language of the Maldive islands where it is spoken by
a population of about two hundred and seventy thousand
people. It is also spoken in Minicoy (India) where it is known
as Mahl.
Linguists agree that Dhivehi is an Indo-Aryan language

closely related to Sinhalese (spoken in Sri Lanka). Dhivehi
represents the southernmost Indo-Aryan language and even
the southernmost Indo-European language. Together with the
closely related Sinhalese (the Indo-Aryan language spoken by
the major part of Sri Lankas population) Dhivehi establishes a
special subgroup within the Modern Indo-Aryan languages.35
35
Dialects, Heidelberg 2001.
30
31
Dhivehi has always been more a spoken language than a
written language. Therefore Dhivehi language has always
been rich in oral literature such as the raivaru poetry of the
Maldives. Concerning its vocabulary, grammatical categories
and its stylistic possibilities Dhivehi is not a poor language
at all given its abundant dialectal variation on the one hand
and its rich tradition of folklore on the other36.
Dhivehi has relatively meagre written sources as not much

was written in Dhivehi until very recent times. It was only
during the 1950s and 1960s during the time of Amn Dd that
literary writing in Dhivehi began.
Dhivehi has several notable dialects. The standard dialect or

Modern Standard Dhivehi is the dialect used in the capital
Male and the central atolls. This is the official dialect used in
written Dhivehi and taught in schools. The relationship of the
written language to Modern Standard Dhivehi is quite close.
Dialects from the far north down to Laamu Atoll are quite
closely related to the standard. The greatest dialectal variation
is found in the far south in Huvadhu, Fua Mulaku and Addu
atolls where each atoll has its own dialect more closely related
to each other, but very different from those of the north.37
Dhivehi is written in its own unique script called Thaana

which is written from right to left. The Thaana script has
influences of other South Asian scripts as well as Arabic.38
36
37
Wijesundera et al: Historical and Linguistic Survey of Dhivehi, Final Report, University of Colombo,
Sri Lanka,1988.
38
Writing Systems of the World; J.W.Gair and B.D Cain , Section 50: Dhivehi Writing Systems
32
3.1 Modern Standard Dhivehi39
Modern Standard Dhivehi is the standard language used in

written Dhivehi and all formal communication and taught at
schools. Standard Dhivehi is based on the Mal dialect. In this
chapter we will look at the sound system, and the basic
morphology and grammar of Modern Standard Dhivehi
language.
3.1.1 The Sound System
The sound system of Dhivehi is similar to that of South Indian

languages. Like other Modern Indo-Aryan languages the
Dhivehi phonemic inventory shows an opposition of long and
short vowels, of dental and retroflex consonants as well as
single and geminate consonants.40
39
The contents of this chapter is mainly from Bruce D.Cain; Dhivehi (Maldivian) A Synchronic and
Diachronic Study, PhD thesis presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School and Cornell University.
40
33
The following table shows the segmental phonemes of
Dhivehi:
Dhivehi Consonants
Labial Dental Retroflex Palatal Velar
Stops Voiceless p t t c k
.
Voiced b d d j g
.
m n n n
Prenasalized b d d g
.
Nasals m n ()
Semivowels y
Lateral l l
.
Flap r
Fricative Voiceless f s h
Voiced v z
Dhivehi Vowels
i u
e o
A
Dental and retroflex stops are contrastive in Dhivehi. For

example: madun means quietly madun means seldom. The
segments /t/ and /d/ are articulated just behind the front teeth.
Dhivehi retroflex segments / /, /d/, // and /l/ are produced at
the very rear part of the alveolar ridge.
Dhivehi has prenasalized stops mb, nd, nd, and ng. Examples
are handu moon and handu uncooked rice and anga
mouth. These segments only occur intervocalically. Dhivehi
34
and Sinhala are the only Indo-Aryan languages that have
prenasalized stops.41
The influence of other languages has played a great role in

Dhivehi phonology. For example the phoneme /z/ comes
entirely from foreign influence: gzi judge is from Persian,
mzi past is from Urdu.
The phoneme /p/ also occurs only in borrowed words in

Modern Standard Dhivehi (for example riptu report). At
one point Maldivian (Dhivehi) did not have the phoneme /f/,
and /p/ occurred in the language without contrastive
aspiration. Some time in the 1600s word initial and
intervocalic /p/ changed to /f/ perhaps as a result of Arabic
influence.42 Historical documents from the 11th century, for
example, show five rendered as /pas/ whereas today it is
/fas/.43
In standard Dhivehi when the phoneme /s/ occurs in the final

position of a word it changes to /h/ intervocalically when
inflected. For example bas word becomes bahek a word
and mas fish becomes mahek a fish. /s/ and /h/ are
sometimes contrastive. For example word initially hing
operating and sing lion and intervocalically aharu year
and asaru effect.
// a retroflex grooved fricative is peculiar to Dhivehi among

the Indo-Aryan languages. In some dialects it is pronounced as
[r] a voiceless retroflex flap or trill.
Modern Standard Dhivehi has borrowed many phonemes from

Arabic. These phonemes are used exclusively in loan words
from Arabic, for example, the phoneme /x/ in words such as
xdim male servant (Arabic). The following table shows the
41
Bruce D.Cain; Dhivehi (Maldivian) A Synchronic and Diachronic Study, PhD thesis presented to the
Faculty of the Graduate School and Cornell University
42
Geiger 1919: 116
43
Disanayake 1986: 69
35
phonemes that have been borrowed from Arabic together with
their transliteration into Thaana.
The vowel system of modern Dhivehi is strictly symmetrical.

It has five basic vowels with two degrees of vowel length:
/a/ and //: /kai/ thorn and /ki/ coconut
/i/ and //: /biru/ fear and /bru/ deaf
/u/ and //: /duni/ bow and /dni/ bird
/e/ and //: /beru/ drum and /bru/ outside
/o/ and //: /bok/ frog and /b/ head
3.1.2 Nominal Morphology
The nominal system of Dhivehi comprises nouns, pronouns,

adjectives and numerals as parts of speech.
Nouns
Dhivehi nouns fall into two categories: human and non-

human. The difference is most clearly seen in plural
inflections. For example mh person (definite, singular)
becomes mh-un people while kakuni crab becomes kakuni-
tak. Sometimes the plural suffix men is used with a few
kinship terms. For example, bappamen fathers (bappa
father + -men)
Grammatical gender is absent. For example, adjective and

noun agreement patterns do not show gender classes. For
example: fas fot five books, fas gas five trees fas
masverin five fishermen, fas anhenun five women do not
show any gender classes.
36
Dhivehi has largely dropped the grammatical gender in favour
of human and non-human notional gender.44 This distinction
between human and non-human notional gender classes is
important in the formation of plurals (as described above) and
in the selection of case endings (see section below).
3.1.2a .The Dhivehi Case System
Dhivehi has five cases for both human and non-human

referents.
Non-Human Human
Direct: fot [foy] book dari son/daughter
Dative: fot-a [fota] to the book dariy-a to the son / daughter
Genetive: fotu-ge of the book dar -ge the sons / daughters
Instrumental fotu-n from the book dar -ge faratu-nfrom the

sons/ daughters side
Locative: fotu-ga in the book dar -ge gai-g in/ on the

sons / daughters body
Note that the declensions of human and non-human

substantives differ in the instrumental and locative cases. The
human substantive does not use instrumental and locative
cases as such, but postposition phrases with the same function.
The direct case consists only of the stem and includes

nominative and accusative case functions. Other case endings
are added to the stem. If the stem ends in a consonant then a
/u/ is added if the case ending begins with a consonant. For
44
Faculty of the Graduate School and Cornell University
37
example fot book becomes fotu-ge book-GEN. Stems
ending in short vowels other than /u/ lengthen it before
genitive and locative cases. For example dida flag becomes
did-g flag-LOC.
The locative case marker has three freely alternating forms: -

g,-ga and -gai. The -gai form appears mostly in written
texts.
3.1.2b Inflections for Number, Definiteness and Indefinitess
In Modern Standard Dhivehi, non-human nouns do not inflect

for number generally. For example ek fot one book, de fot
two books and tin fot three books and so on. For human
nouns the singular and plural forms are used: mhek person
(indefinite singular) and de mhun two people, tin mhun and
so on.
The plural suffix tak is used for both human and non-human
nouns when the number is not specified. For example fot-tak
books, mhun-tak people.
Dhivehi has three categories of definiteness: definite,

indefinite and unspecified. The definite for non-human nouns
is the stem form: fot (the) book For human referents there is
the definite suffix : mvadiy- the head carpenter.
Indefinite is marked with the suffix ek which is derived from
the numeral one. The unspecified marker is aku: mh-aku
some person (unspecified).
Suffixing of the numeral one to indicate indefinite is unique

to Dhivehi and Sinhala among the modern Indic languages
(with the exception of Nuri).45
45
Wijayaratne 1956: 180.
38
In Dhivehi the indefinite suffix can occur with plurals of both
human and non-human nouns to designate an unknown
quantity: mhun-tak-ek people-unspecified / unknown
quantity, fot-tak-ek some books unspecified / unknown
quantity. This usage is not found in Sinhala.46
3.1.2c. Demonstrative Pronominals
Dhivehi has three basic demonstrative adjective / pronouns

that indicate spatial deixis as follows:
mi this, these: proximity to the speaker
ti/tiya that, those: proximity to the hearer
e that, those: distant from both the speaker and

the hearer
The Dhivehi demonstratives can stand alone for pronouns for

inanimate objects without further inflection. The e that, those
is used to refer to something already mentioned or understood
in the discourse: e-dhuvahu that day, e-thaa that place
46
De Silva 1970:152
39
3.1.2d. Personal Pronominal Forms
The basic personal pronominal system of standard Dhivehi is

as follows:
aharen/ma I aharemen/mamen we
timanna I(first person in reported speech)
kal you kalmen you all
n (s)he emhun/ebaimhun they/those people

mna
ti it ccehi those things

that thing
Note that the third person pronouns consist of the

demonstrative e that followed by other nominals: ti (e eti),
emhun (e mhun). All the pronouns beginning with e have
alternate forms relating to proximal distinctions. For example
na, the generic third person singular, (s)he is used to denote a
person at a distance from the speaker and the addressee while
mna (s)he is used to denote a person near the speaker.
The pronoun timan/timanna is used for the first person in

reported speech.
The pronouns given in the above table are the pronouns used
among equals or in informal situations. There are other
pronouns used when addressing a superior or in more formal
situations:
alugandu I alugandumen we
tiyabfula you tiyabfulun you all
ebfula (s)he ebfulun they
40
The pronouns given above are those most commonly used in
Modern Standard Dhivehi. There are some archaic forms such
as imba you which is not used in standard Dhivehi anymore
though it is still used in some dialects.
In Dhivehi, religious vocabulary has special pronouns. In

prayer the first person singular is alu (literally slave) and the
first person plural is alamen. The first person pronoun for
Allah is timansuvmnge I(God). The first person pronoun
for the Prophet Muhammad is timankalgefnu where
kalgefnu is a high ranking honorific title.
3.1.2e Interrogative Pronominals
Dhivehi question words begin with k-, a feature shared with

many Indo-Aryan languages.47 The following are the
interrogative particles of Dhivehi:
kku who kon which?
kob where kk what?
kihinek how? kvve why?
koniraku when? (literally which time?)
3.1.3 Numerals
Dhivehi uses two numeral systems. Both of them are identical

up to 30. After 30, however, one system places the unit
numeral stem before the decade (for example et-tirs 31 one
and thirty) while the other combines the stem of the decade
47
Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University
41
with the unit numeral (for example tirs-ekek 31 thirty +
one). The latter system also has numerals multiplied by ten for
decades 70, 80, and 90.
The following table shows the Dhivehi numeral 1-40, the

decades up to 100, etc.
Dhivehi Numerals
No Stem Nominal No Numeral No Numeral

0 sun sumek
1 sk [e] ekek 11 egra 21 ekvs
2 de dek 12 bra 22 bvs
3 tin tinek 13 tra 23 tvs
4 hataru hatarek 14 sda 24 sauvs
5 fas fahek 15 fanara 25 fansavs
6 ha hayek 16 sla 26 sabbs
7 hat [hay ?] hatek 17 satra 27 hatvs
8 a [a] aek 18 ara 28 asavs
navra ona navvs
9 nuva nuvayek 19 vihi 29 ona tiris
10 diha dihayek 20 vihi 30 tirs
No Numeral- Decade - No Numeral - Decade -

Decade Numeral Decade Numeral
31 ettirs tirs ekek 50 fanss fanss
32 battirs tirs dek 60 hatti fasdolas
33 tettirs tirs tinek 70 hayttari hayddiha
34 sauratirs tirs hatarek 80 hi addiha
35 fansatirs tirs fahek 90 navai nuvadiha
36 satirs tirs hayek
37 satutirs tirs hatek 100 satka
38 autirs tirs aek 200 duisatta
39 onasls tirs nuvayek 300 tin sateka
40 sals sals 1000 ek hs
42
Numerals 1-10 have a stem form used adjectivally and in
compounds, and an indefinite form used for counting.
The decade plus numeral system is used more currently. This

system has remnants of an older system. The decade fas dolas
60 (literally five twelves) comes from a much older
duodecimal system which has nearly disappeared in the
Maldives. This number system was used for very special
purposes, connected to the Maldivian way of life, such as
counting coconuts. In this system the number 1-10 was the
same as those given in the above table, but from 11 upward
the system was reckoned by twelves48. For example dolahek is
12 and dolas ekek is 13 (literally 12+1)
11 ekolahek / ekolas 22 dolas dihayek 48 fanas

12 dolahek / dolas 23 dolas ekolas 60 fas dolas
13 dolas ekek 24 fassihi 72 f hiti
14 dolas dk 25 fassihi ekek, 84 hayddolas etc
15 dolas tinek , etc 36 tin dolas 96 hiya
This duodecimal system is not known in Sri Lanka or in India

so it is unique to the Maldives. A duodecimal system was used
in Mesopotamia but how this system could have come to the
Maldives is a matter of speculation.49
In the Dhivehi numeral system ordinals are derived by adding

vana to the stem form of the numeral. For example:
first evvana (ek+vana) twentieth vihi-vana
second de-vana thirtieth tirs-vana
third tin-vana fiftieth fanss-vana

etc etc
48
Maniku 1995: 9-10y
49
Maloney 1980: 134-137
43
3.1.4 Verbal Morphology
The Dhivehi verbal system is characterized by a derivational

relationship between active, causative and
involitive/intransitive verb forms:
Active Invol/Intrans. Causative
hadan making heden growing haddan to cultivate
vattani dropping vetteni falling vattuvani to make

someone drop
naan dancing neen dancing nattuvan to make

involuntarily someone dance
Generally verbs with thematic vowel a- stems are active or

causative (for example hadan / haddan) while verbs with a
thematic vowel e- stems are involitive or intransitive (for
example heden ).
However, some verbs with e-thematic vowel stems are active

and transitive (for example, kule-n playing) while some
verbs with a-thematic vowel stems are semantically involitive
(for example, kassa-n sliding involitive / intransitive).
Honorifics play an important role in Dhivehi. A form very

similar to the causative form is used for honorific verbs. For
example:
verb honorific verb
vattan dropping vattavan

naan dancing nattavan
hadan making haddavan
44
3.1.4a. Verbal inflections
In terms of how verbs pattern together morphologically, the

division between polysyllabic and monosyllabic verb stems is
an important one as polysyllabic verbs are far more regular
than the monosyllabic ones50. The present stem, past stem, and
present participle provide the basis of various finite and
medial verbs in Dhivehi.
The following table gives the Dhivehi verb paradigm.

DhivehiVerbParadigm(arrangedbystem)
Mono. Poly -a- -n- Stems IN- verbs

Present
Stem ka- jaha - ganna- enge -
'eat' strike' 'get' ' know'
Finite:
Pres. Pro. kan jahan gannan ege -
future kne jahne gannne egne
Future.N3 knan jahnan gannnan
Fut . Pro.. kn jahn gannn egn
Habit. N3 kan jahan gannan
Habitual kai jah gan eg
Imperative kai jah gan
Hortative kam jaham gannam
Medial
Pres.Rel. k jah ganna eg
Infinitive kn jahan gannan egen
Reason kt jaht gannt eget
Simult kamun jahamun gannamun egemun
Simult kaniko jahaniko gannaniko egeniko
50
Wijesundera et al. A Historical and Linguistic Survey of Dhivehi; 1988, 54-57.
45
Past Stem kei - jehi - gat- egunu
Finite
Past kei jehi gat egunu
Past.N3 kein jehin gatin
Past Pro. ke jeh gat egun
Irrealis kes jehs gats enguns
Irrealis.N3 kemus jehmus gatmus
Medial:
Past Rel. kei jehi gat egunu
Temporal kema jehma gatma egunma
Inchoat kessure jehssure gatssure edunssure
Concess keyas jehiyas gatas egunas
jessas
Pres
Participle kai jahai gane egi
Finite:
Perfect kaifi jahaifi ganefi egijje
perfect . N3 kaifin jahaifin ganefin
Optative kaifne jahaifne ganefne egidne
Opt. N3 kaifnan jahaifnan ganefnan .
Medial:
Cond. kaifiyy jahaifiyy ganefiyy engijjeyy
Suc - gen kaigen jahaigen ganegen engigen
Suc - fa kaif jahf ganef engif
jahaif
Habitual is the same as simple present (kai s/he eats).
Progressive (Pro) indicates a progressive or continuous aspect

(kan eating)
46
Irrealis indicates a counterfactual state or activity as in x
would have done y (kes x would have eaten)
Reason because x does y (kt because x eat/s)
Temporal when/because (kema when x had eaten

or because x had eaten
Inchoactive since (kessure since x ate)
Simultaneous while (kamun while eating

kaniko while eating)
Concessive even if (keyas even if x eat/s)
Hortative lets (kam lets eat)
Note: N3 means non-third person meaning I/you/we.
As we can see from the above table, Dhivehi verbs fall into
four main categories as determined by the shape of the present
stem.
Dhivehi also has a number of irregular verbs that show a

mixed pattern of inflection.
3.1.4b Compound Verbs
Dhivehi has many compound verbs. For example the verb

gannan taking/getting/ buying is used in compound
constructions to indicate a reflexive action. For example, verbs
like biru gannan to be afraid (literally to get fear) and ladu
gannan to be shy (literally to get shyness/ shame) are
compounds formed from this verb.
47
One of the most common ways that a compound verb is
formed is a noun or adjective followed by an inflected verb
such as kuran to do/to make which is used very often. For
example bodu kuran raising children (bodu big + kuran
to do/to make) or bs kuran to treat (bs medicine+
kuran to do).
These are the main characteristics of the verbal morphology of

Dhivehi. However, this chapter will not go into further detail
as this is a very complex subject and beyond the scope of this
book.
3.2 The Dialects of Dhivehi
The speakers of Dhivehi are scattered over twenty atolls

separated by vast expanses of sea. The geographical
circumstances have prevented the people of the different atolls
(especially those of the southern atolls) from being in close
contact with each other. This has led to remarkable dialectal
differentiation among Dhivehi speakers.
Dhivehi groups can be broadly grouped into a northern and a

southern dialect. The northern dialect refers to the dialects
spoken from the island of Minicoy up to Haddunmati (Laamu
Atoll). The dialects spoken in the north do not show much
differentiation and is very close to Standard Dhivehi.
The northernmost dialect of Dhivehi can be said to be the

dialect spoken in Maliku (Minicoy) known as Mahl. This
dialect is still mutually intelligible with Standard Dhivehi
The southern dialect refers to the dialects spoken in the three

southern atolls traditionally called Huvad, Fua Mulaku and
Add atoll.51
51
The modern official names used for administrative purposes are Gf Alif / Gf Dl atoll, aviyani
atoll and Sn Atoll.
48
Map of the Maldives
49
These three atolls are geographically separated from the rest of
the Maldives and this has resulted in great dialectal differences
between these three atolls and the rest of the Maldives .The
dialectal differences between these southern dialects and the
northern dialects are so great that speakers of the northern
dialects have difficulty understanding the southern dialects.
However, speakers of the southern dialects understand the
northern dialects, because of acquired intelligibility, as the
northern dialects are so close to standard Dhivehi. There are
also considerable differences between the dialects of three
southern atolls. The tables below show some of the differences
between Standard Dhivehi and the dialects of Haddunmati,
Huvad Atoll, Fua Mulaku and Add Atoll.
Demonstratives
Fua
demonstrative Standard Huvadu Addu Mulaku
This (near me) mi m m

That (near you) tiya t
ti
That (over there) e eh eh eh/
Fua
Demonstrative Standard Haddunmati Huvadu Addu
Mulaku
here (near me) mit mitan mitn mitan
mib
there (near
you) tiyat ttn
there (over
there) et etan etan etn etan
eb
50
Present Verbs
verb Standard Haddunmati Huvadu
drink bo -n bo -nu bo-nnu
eat ka -n ka - nu ka - nnu
bala -
look bala - n bala -nu
nnu
dova -
run duva - n dov - nu
nnu
write liya -n liya -nu leya -nnu
dama -
put dama -n dama -nu
nnu
Future Verbs
Fua
verb Standard Haddunmati Huvadu Addu Mulaku
drink bne bonuun bonnei bhe bonnen
eat kne kanun kannei khe kannen
look balne balnun balannei balhe balannen
run duvne duvnu dovannei duvhe duvannen
write liyne liynu leyannei lnehe leyanne
put damne damn damannei damhe damannen
51
Interrogatives
Fua
Interrog Standard Haddunmati Huvadu Addu
Mulaku
who kku kku(m) keyah kya keye
kku -he (f) kanka
what kce kccehe keyenteke konta knteke
kon -ecce
why kvve kiyevvegen kehenakunvu kiyemue kumavve
ekenke kihinvve
where kob koban kovai kontki kob
kob -eh kontka kontaneki
when kon- kon- kon - kon- kon-
iraku irakun- h hidaku kalaki kalaki
kan-henen-
how kihine kehenakun kehenaka kihina
he
how
kita kitak keteke kitaka kitek
many
kitei
As seen from the above table the dialects show many

differences in their vocabularies. In many cases different
etyma is used for the same concept. But there are also
divergences concerning whole systems. A very good example
are the personal pronouns:
52
Pronouns
Fua
pronoun Standard Haddunmati Huvadu Addu Mulaku
aharen /
I ma ma ai ava/ma ava/ma
alugandu
ahara -
We men aharu me ahann-ne afiri af/afun
alugandu -
men
You(sg) kal imba ta/to ta/t t/t
You(pl) kal-men imbeh tehelne(m) teverin t-men
tehme(f) tafirin ti mh
He na esora ede/eya eye Evu
She na emha eye eye Eya

They emhun emhun ehelne(m) everin emen(m)
ey -
ebaemhun ehene(f) men(f)
In phonological development the interdialectal differences are

less significant. As a rule the vowel system of the standard
language is more conservative than the southern dialects while
in the consonant system the southern dialect show some
archaic features which the northern dialects and the standard
language seems to have lost.52 For example, the southern
dialects seem to have preserved the phonematic difference
between /n/ and /n/ while the standard language and northern
dialects have not preserved this difference. Comparative
syntax, however, does not show any systematic differences
between the dialects.
52
53
According to Fritz:
In many respects, the dialects of Dhivehi represent

different diachronical stages in the development of the
language. Especially in the field of morphology, the
amount of archaic features steadily increase from the
north to the south. Within the three southernmost
atolls, the dialect of the Addu islands which form the
southern tip of the whole Maldivian archipelago is
characterized by the highest degree of archaicity53.
Thus, the different classes of verb conjugation and
nominal inflection are best preserved there,
morphological simplifications and, as a consequence
increasing from atoll to atoll towards the north.54
In recent years with the increase in inter-atoll transport and

communication, and the spread of mass media (radio and
television which are broadcast to the islands from the capital,
Male) it has been observed that the unwritten dialects of
Dhivehi are getting lost in favour of an increasing competence
of the standard language55. The standard language is used for
education and administration throughout the atolls.
53
Sonja Fritz puts forward this theory based on research into the dialects of Add and Fua Mulaku. She
is yet to do research on the dialect of Huvad Atoll. Only then can she determine whether the dialect of
Add of Huvad is more archaic.
54
55
54
4. DHIVEHI WRITING SYSTEMS56
The oldest inscription found in the Maldives to date is an

inscription on a coral stone found at an archaeological site on
the island of Landhoo in Noonu Atoll. This inscription is
estimated to be from the 8th century. This inscription is
written in a script close to the southern Grantha Script.
The oldest paleographically datable inscription found in the

Maldives is a Sanskrit inscription of Vajrayana Buddhism
dating back to the 9th or 10th century A. D. This inscription is
written in an early form of the Nagari script.57 (The same
script is also found in some parts of the Loamaafaanu of the
12th century A.D.
Until the late 18th century A.D., Dhivehi was written in a

script which had strong similarities to South Asian scripts such
as Grantha, Elu and Vatteluttu. The early form of this script is
conveniently called Eveyla Akuru, and is used in the
loamaafaanu of the 12th and 13th centuries. It is also found
inscribed on some of the ancient Buddhist relics found at sites
in Male. Eveyla Akuru underwent many changes over the
centuries and evolved into the latter form called Dhives (or
Dhivehi ) Akuru, meaning island letters. In the early 18th
century, a new script called Thaana Akuru was introduced into
formal writing and eventually replaced the old Dhives script.
The Thaana script is written from right to left unlike the
earlier scripts and has originated partly from the numerals
used in Arabic writing, and partly from an old set of local
numerals.
The earliest writing in Thaana Akuru found so far, dates back

to 1705 A. D., but it is possible that earlier documents exist.
This early writing shows a strong Arabic influence in the use
56
The contents of this chapter is from the book Dhivehi Writing Sysems, National Centre for
Linguistic and Historical Research, Male 1999. The book was researched and compiled by the Special
Advosor Ms Naseema Muhammad.
57
Ragupathi, 1994
55
of vowel strokes and in the shape of writing individual letters.
It can be seen that some of the characteristics of the Arabic
alphabet have been modified showing that the creators of this
alphabet were scholars of Arabic as well as Dhivehi. The
period of the first Thaana documents coincided with the time
when Hasan Tjuddn (the Dhivehi historian and scholar of
Arabic) lived in Male. He was held in high esteem by the
ruling Sultan, who is said to have sought his counsel on
important matters. It is therefore possible that Hasan Tjuddn
may have helped in formulating the structure and writing of
the new Thaana script.
This chapter is an examination of the best known scripts used

in the Maldives from the 12th century until the present time.
These are Eveyla Akuru, Dhives Akuru and Thaana Akuru.
4.1 Thaana Akuru
Thaana is the unique right to left script in which Dhivehi is

written today. Thaana Akuru is the script that replaced Dhives
Akuru in the late eighteenth century. The earliest existing
records of Thaana found so far, date from 1705 A.D.
According to oral tradition in the Maldives, the Thaana script
was introduced to the islands by a chief and his companions
who came from North, indicating that it was the national hero
Muhammad Thakurufnu who introduced this script in the 16th
century A.D. But there is no factual evidence supporting this
tradition, and on examination of the existing early documents,
it is more likely that Thaana was developed late in the 17th
century.
The Thaana script represents a radical change in the form of

the letters and the system of Dhivehi writing. This script did
not evolve from Dhives or Eveyla Akuru, but was developed
from other sources to fit the needs of the Dhivehi language. It
is written from right to left unlike the earlier scripts, showing
the Arabic and Persian influence of the post-Islamic era.
56
The origin of the name Thaana is unclear. Since many
Dhivehi words have their origins in old Sanskrit and a few in
old Indonesian as well as some other languages, Maldivian
historian Muhammad Ibrhm Lutf, Special Advisor to the
National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research, Male,
agrees that one of the following derivations might be possible.
Tna (Sanskrit), meaning offspring or posterity.

Tnah (Indonesian), meaning land or country.
Tan (Maldivian), meaning place.
The Thaana alphabet consists of twenty-four letters, to which

eleven letters that represent Arabic phonemes were later
added. The first nine letters of the Thaana alphabet were
derived from the first nine Arabic numerals. The next nine
letters were derived from a set of old Dhivehi numerals.58 The
last six letters of the alphabet are adaptations of existing letters
to accommodate the remaining sounds. The Thaana alphabet
is given in the table below:
58
Salahuddn, 1928
57
(TANA ALPHABET)
Arabic
No numeral Letter Transliteration Modern Name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
58
Individual letters in Thaana are called viyani, but in modern
usage, where the pronunciation of the letter is the same as that
of the corresponding letter in Arabic, the viyani in the name of
the letter has been dropped and the name of the corresponding
Arabic letter adopted.
e.g. aviyani alifu
baviyani ba
naviyani nunu
In 1957, an additional set of letters was created for

phonologically correct transliteration of Arabic loan words.
This was done by adding dots to existing Thaana characters.
These letters are called Tikijehi Thaana, meaning dotted
Thaana59.
Tikijehi Thaana
Thaana
K H W M B X g Q
Arabic
Transcribed h,x h d s t g q
Thaana
C J G V R Y t z
Arabic
Transcribed s d G w r t z z
59
Paper 16-13-57, Ministry of Education, Mal, Maldives
59
The symbol R was added to the Thaana alphabet at a later
date to express the phonological value zh, e.g. television,
treasure. This symbol was introduced mainly to facilitate
writing of loan words from English.
In Thaana, the consonant symbols do not carry the inherent a

vowel sound as in the older scripts. The vowels are shown by
diacritic strokes called fili placed above or below the letter.
These vowel strokes of Thaana are shown in the table below.
Fili or vowel
Transliteration Name
strokes
60
Diphthongs in Thaana are written with the change of quality
in the sound shown by w (alifu) written as an independent

vowel as the second member. These are shown in the table
below:
Diphthong Transliteration
The w (alifu) in Thaana is included among the consonants,

but has no sound in itself. It is used as a consonant when
marked with a fili. It is also used, as shown earlier, as the
second member in a diphthong to express the change in the
sound quality.
In the Thaana alphabet sukun is shown by the symbol o placed

above a letter. This sign indicates a syllabic consonant
showing a glottal stop, doubling of a letter, a y-off-glide, a
nasal, or the vowel-less s sibilant, depending on the consonant
above which it is placed. There are five special letters on
which the sukun is used. These are:-
61
alifu sukun
snu sukun
nnu sukun
t sukun
aviyani sukun
Thaana is a system of writing which was developed to meet

the needs of the Dhivehi language. It has changed
considerably from its early style. The rules of writing have
been modified to meet the present day demands and although
the influence of Arabic and Persian can be seen clearly,
vestiges of the early Dives Akuru system can still be found in
its basic rules.
In 1977, the Dhivehi script was officially changed to the

Roman script. This script was called the Latin Akuru. All
government and official documents had to be written in this
script and it was taught in schools. This change was brought
about mainly to enable Dhivehi typing using the Roman-letter
keyboard. This change, however, lasted for only a short period
of time as the official script used for writing Dhivehi was
again changed to Thaana in 1978. Thaana typewriter was
introduced in 1987. The Roman script is still sometimes used
to write Dhivehi even today for convenience. Today it is
frequently used in electronic communication such as e-mail
and SMS messages and in computer databases.
62
The following table gives the alphabet of the Latin Akuru:
"Latin" Akuru
Th th
T H h
h
L l
L Sh sh
S
C g
G N n
n
Gn gn
N R r
r
S s
S B b
b
D d
D Lh lh
L
Z z
Z K k
k
T t
T w
Y y
Y V v
v
P p
P M m
m
J j
J F f
f
Ch ch
C Dh dh
d
4.2 Eveyla Akuru
63
Eveyla Akuru was the system of writing used in the Maldives
in the 12th century A.D. and possibly some centuries earlier.
Early Eveyla Akuru writing has been found on madrepore
stelae, tentatively dated to circa 9th 10th century A.D. The
later Eveyla Akuru is found in the Loamaafaanu of the later
12th century (i.e. 1195/1196). These later scripts have been
deciphered and their transliteration gives us a guide to ancient
Dhivehi writing and language.
All ancient scripts were called Dhives Akuru or Dhivehi

Akuru, literally meaning scripts of island people, by
Maldivians. When H.C.P. Bell visited the Maldives in 1922,
he called this particular script Eveyla Akuru to distinguish it
from its later variant called Dhives Akuru.60 Eveyla means
ancient in the Dhivehi language ( e means that and veyla
means the time or period. Thus together eveyla means that
time or ancient time). Eveyla Akuru, therefore simply means
ancient letters and the name has remained until the present
time.
The Eveyla script in this chapter dates back to 1195/1196

A.D., and is taken from Loamaafaanu of the 12th century, as
well as from the work done by the later Maldivian scholar Al
Najb. The script in general bears a strong resemblance to the
old Grantha, Vatteluttu and Sinhala Elu scripts and the present
day Malayalam script. This leads to the conjecture that the old
Eveyla script could have come from the southern scripts of the
Indian subcontinent.
Many writers have spoken of the close resemblance of this

script to the Sinhala Elu script of the 10th to 12th century A.D.
According to M.W. Sugathapala de Silva, Wilhelm Geiger
(who studied the Eveyla Akuru) said that the affinity was:
60
Bell, 1922.
64
not so much with Medieval Sinhalese as to the Tulu
of the Malabar District of Southern India, which lie
opposite the Laccadive and the Maldive Islands, or
doubtless even more nearer to an older Grantha type of
Tulu-Malayalam, or Arya Eluttu.
The system of writing in Eveyla Akuru is syllabic in structure.

Letters are written from left to right, spacing of words is not
observed and the writing is broken off at the end of a line. As
a result, the line may end or begin in the middle of a word.
The letters represent two categories of sound, vowels and

consonants. In the initial position vowels are represented in
general by separate letters. Non initially, they are shown by
vowel strokes or fili. A fili may occur in front of, after, above
or below a consonant. When a consonant is written separately,
without a fili and unattached to another letter, it symbolizes
the consonant sound with the inherent vowel sound a.
For example:
ka ga ma
The vowel symbols used in Eveyla Akuru are listed with their
corresponding phonological values in the table below. These
symbols were generally used in the initial position of words,
fili (vowel strokes) were used in non initial positions.
65
The following fili or vowel strokes are used to represent vowel sound.61
61
Najb and Shafq, 1993
66
Fili Sound Example Transliteration
The consonant symbols in Eveyla Akuru along with their phonological values
are listed below.62
62
Maniku and Wijewardene 1986, Najb, Shafq 1993.
67
68
In the transliteration and translation work done by the
Maldivian scholars, the later Al Najb and Ahmed Shafq, the
letter was given the phonological value and the letter
the value t.
In the transliteration and the translation of the Isdhoo and

Dhambidhoo63 Loamaafaanu by Maldivian scholar Hasan
Ahmed Manik and the Sri Lankan Professors Wijewardana
and Disanayeke, the letter was given the phonological value
of and was transliterated as tt.
The phonological value in Dhivehi is said by linguists to

have evolved from the of earlier times.64 In modern
Dhivehi the words incorporating the symbol in the copperplate
writings of the 12th century are used with the phonological
value and not with the value t . The team of scholars who
deciphered the Isdhoo Loamaafaanu in 1986 concluded that
there were the following aspirate letters in the document.
After the conversation of the Maldives to Islam, it became

clear that Eveyla Akuru had shortcomings when Arabic words
had to be written in official documentation. This probably led
to the formation of new symbols and modifications in the
writing system, which eventually led to the gradual evolution
of its successor Dives Akuru.
63
Dambid : I have used the traditional Maldivian transliteration
64
Cain 1996
69
4.3 Dives Akuru
The ancient Eveyla Akuru found in the 12th century

Loamaafaanu and on the coral-stone relics, evolved into the
more advanced Dhives Akuru over a period of about two
hundred years.
A Loamaafaanu of 1357 AD, called the Bodugalu Miskit

Loamaafaanu written in the sixteenth year of Sultn
Rehendi Khadheejas65 reign, is the earliest example of this
script. This Loamaafaanu show distinct changes from the
characters seen in the earlier Loamaafaanu, indicating the
beginning of the Eveyla scripts evolution into the later style
called Dhives Akuru.
The best example of Dhives Akuru can be seen in the

inscriptions in the beautiful Hukuru Miskit (Friday Mosque)
in Male on tombstones, and in some finely written official
land grants inscribed on parchment. This script was
extensively used for official documentation until the beginning
of the 18th century. From 1705 A.D. onwards, official
documents were written in Thaana and Dhives Akuru, but
after 1780 A.D. the Dhives Akuru script fell into disuse, and
its place was taken by the Thaana script.
Some features of Eveyla Akuru have been retained in the

Dives script. As in the earlier Eveyla Akuru, Dhives Akuru
also represents two categories of sound, vowels and
consonants. It is also written from left to right and consonant
characters standing on their own have the inherent a sound.
However, many modifications have been made to the shape of
letters and new symbols have been incorporated into the
alphabet, to represent new sounds. These are the symbols for
z, j, and c. In Dhives Akuru p is represented by and f is
65
Xadj; I have used the traditional Maldivian transliteration.
70
shown by the same letter, but without the dot below. A
new symbol was also formed to express the palatal n.
Vowel symbols and diacritics on consonants are used to

represent vowels and new symbols have been formed to
represent doubling and joining of consonants.
71
The Vowel Symbols of Dhives Akuru:
72
Fili Sound Example Transliteration
The consonant symbols of Dhives Akuru, along with their

phonological values are listed in the table below. Here the
existing consonant symbols from Eveyla Akuru have been
modified and new symbols to represent sound values for z, j,
and c have been introduced. Also, the symbol which stood for
both p and f sounds, was given to f and the same symbol with
a dot added below was given to the value p. A new symbol for
the palatal n was also introduced.
73
From the beginning of the 18th century, until about 1870 A.D.,
Dhives Akuru and Thaana Akuru were used together for
official documentation. But at the end of this period, Dhives
Akuru was replaced by Thaana.
74
5. THE DHIVEHI LANGUAGE TODAY AND TOMORROW
The Dhivehi language is a unique language with an abundance

of dialectical variation and a rich tradition of oral folklore.
Jakob Grimms famous sentence our language is also our
history holds true for the Dhivehi language as it is possibly
the only basis for investigation into the prehistory of the
Maldives and the Dhivehi people. Dhivehi language is also the
key to the traditional way of life of the Maldivian people
which is changing fast in the face of modernization. It might
very soon be the only link that Maldivians have to their past.
Today, Dhivehi language can be said to be undergoing a

process of standardisation. Many of the spoken dialects of
Dhivehi are slowly getting mixed with the standard language
and are slowly dying out. The educational level of Maldivians
is increasing therefore more is being written in Dhivehi and
more books are being produced in Dhivehi than ever before.
Standards are being set for the written language. On the one
hand Dhivehi language is being recorded for posterity in
writing, while on the other hand rich oral traditions of Dhivehi
and the rich diversity of the spoken dialects are being lost.
The very rapid pace of modernization that the Maldives has

been experiencing over the last few decades has meant that
Maldivians have had to adapt from a traditional, subsistence
way of life to a modern, urban way of life within a very short
period of time. The Dhivehi language also had to face the
challenge of adapting to this new way of life. There is a need
for new words in Dhivehi to express new ideas and concepts
imported into the Maldivian society mainly from the western
world.
Today, the knowledge of the English language is widespread

in the Maldives. Education is in English medium and English
is widely used in all areas especially in the private sector.
There is immense socio-economic pressure for Maldivians to
75
learn English and to teach their children English, sometimes at
the expense of their own mother tongue (Dhivehi). In the
Maldivian society of today, a sound knowledge of English is
necessary to obtain higher education abroad. The scope for
higher education in the Maldives is limited (the Maldives
College for Higher Education was established only very
recently) so Maldivians have to go abroad for higher
education. Hence, a good knowledge of a language other than
Dhivehi is absolutely essential for study abroad.
Under such immense socio-economic pressure some

Maldivian parents are speaking to their children in English
even before they learn their own language. This is because
these parents feel that it is more important to teach their
children English than Dhivehi as it will broaden their
opportunities for studying abroad and it also means better job
prospects. They may also feel that Dhivehi language is old-
fashioned and archaic and of not much use in this modern
world. However, most Maldivians are aware that the Dhivehi
language is a symbol of their identity and that even though
Dhivehi has dialectal differences it is still a strong unifying
force for Maldivians.
Today, many linguists are concerned with the endangered

languages and the death of minority languages in the face of
globalization. Organizations such as UNESCO have also
recently tried to bring the worlds attention to the issues of the
death of minority languages in face of globalization. Hence,
from the year 2000, UNESCO proclaimed 21st February as
International Mother Language Day. According to research
by linguistics, of the 6800 that exists today more than half
would die before the end of this century. Some linguists say
that only about six or seven major languages would survive
while the rest die out.
Today the Dhivehi language too can be classified as a

potentially endangered language because it is socially and
76
economically disadvantaged, under heavy pressure from a
larger language (namely English), and beginning to lose child
speakers.66 According to David Crystal there are three broad
stages that a language goes through when it is dying. These
stages can be said to be the stages that Dhivehi is going
through today. The first is immense socio-economic pressure
for the people to speak a dominant language. In the case of
Dhivehi speakers today, they are facing immense pressure to
speak English (as discussed earlier). The second stage is a
stage of emerging bilingualism as people become increasingly
efficient in the new language while still retaining competence
in their old one. Dhivehi language has been going through
this stage since the 1980s and 1990s because since this time
more and more Maldivians are becoming proficient in English
while still being competent in Dhivehi.
Today, Dhivehi can be said to be entering the third stage in

which the younger generation are becoming increasingly
proficient in the new language, identifying more and more
with it, and finding their first language less relevant to their
new needs.67 Today, many of the younger generation of
Maldivians are identifying more and more with English
language and finding that Dhivehi, their first language, is less
relevant to their needs. However, at the same time many
Maldivians are aware of the importance of Dhivehi as a
crucial part of identity and their cultural heritage. According
to Crystal, in this third and final stage of language death,
parents begin to speak to their children in the new language
and the new language is used more and more and the first
language is used less and less in important political and
economic areas. This can be seen in the case of Dhivehi
language at present.
66
David Crystal; Language Death, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
67
77
Today, Dhivehi language is the national language of the
Maldives and it is still very much the principal means of
communication all over the Maldivian archipelago. However,
English is the medium of instruction at school and it is widely
used in many political and economic domains. Most written
communications in the private sector are in English while
most written communication within the government is in
Dhivehi. This is mainly because all formal communication
within the government has to be in Dhivehi. Thus Maldivian
society can be said to be in a state of bilingualism, both
Dhivehi and English are widely used and have equally
important but differing roles. The Dhivehi language is
important as a means of expressing the communitys identity
and for preserving historical links, and for communication
within the family, maintaining social relationships, and for
communication in all formal situations. English is important as
a means of communication with the outside world and as a
medium of education and it is essential for the development
or progress of the community (in the sense of achieving a
higher standard of living).
Crystal proposes that a language can exist in a healthy state of

bilingualism without the minority language or mother tongue
dying but this depends on the attitude of the people to their
mother language. So if we are to predict the future of the
Dhivehi language we can say that there is a chance that it
could exist in a state of healthy bilingualism with English
but this depends on the attitude of Dhivehi speakers to their
language, whether they take pride in their language, whether
they enjoy listening to others using the language and use it
themselves whenever they can and as creatively as they can. If
most Dhivehi speakers take pride in their language and enjoy
using it, it has a good chance of survival.
78
5.1 Efforts by the Government to Preserve and Promote
the Dhivehi Language
Over the past twenty years the government of Maldives has

also put in a lot of effort to promote the Dhivehi language.
In 1979, the Maldivian government established the Council

for Dhivehi Language and Literature with the broad mandate
to promote the Dhivehi language and literature and to do
research into the language. The council was to function
directly under the Presidents Office. In 1982, this council
became the Language Department at the National Centre for
Linguistic and Historical Research. Since 1982, this
Department has been organizing and running various courses
and holding national competitions to promote literary skills
such as public speaking and creative writing in Dhivehi
language. It has been writing and publishing numerous books
on the Dhivehi language and literature.68 It has also been
working on an official dictionary of the Dhivehi language.
Recently, the Language Department has put a lot of emphasis

on raising public awareness about the importance of the
Dhivehi language as a crucial part of the Maldivian national
identity and the most important key to their heritage and
history. It has worked hard at fostering a sense of pride in the
Dhivehi language in the Maldivian youth of today through
various courses, literary activities and book production. Since
the year 2000, the Centre has helped mark the International
Mother Language Day and has used this occasion to raise
public awareness on issues of language and identity. The
Centre has also played a very important role in the production
and promotion of literary books in Dhivehi. In the past couple
of years, the government has given a lot of importance to the
production of childrens books in the Dhivehi language as
there is a serious lack of books for children in the Dhivehi.
68
This is book is also the work of the Language Department at the National Centre for Linguistic and
Historical Research.
79
Book production in Dhivehi has increased dramatically in
recent years.
Another significant stride forward for the Dhivehi language is

that today it can be used in electronic technology. Private
individuals have played a very important role in this. Private
parties have made numerous Thaana fonts which are widely
used in the Maldives now. In the year 2000, the official
Dhivehi dictionary Bas fot came out in electronic (Compact
Disc) format for the first time. The use of Dhivehi in
electronic technology can be seen as a positive sign as
electronic technology can help in preserving and promoting
the Dhivehi language.
Therefore, even if the Dhivehi language can be classified as a

potentially endangered language it can also be said to be a
viable but small language because it is spoken by a
relatively isolated small community with a strong internal
organization where the speakers are aware of the way that
their language is a marker of identity69 and efforts are being
made both in the public and the private sector to ensue its
survival. This means that there is a good chance for the
survival of the Dhivehi language. However, in the end the
Maldivian peoples attitude towards their mother language
will determine its survival in the future. It would indeed be a
great loss for humanity (not just for Maldivians) to lose a
unique language such as Dhivehi with its rich oral traditions
and dialects.
69
80
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cain, Bruce.D, 2000. Dhivehi (Maldivian): A Synchronic and

Diachronic Study PhD thesis presented to the Faculty of the
Graduate School at Cornell University.
Crystal, David , 2000. Language Death. Cambridge University

Press.
De Silva, M W S. 1970. Some Observations on the History of

Maldivian in Transactions of the Philological Society, London.
Fritz, Sonja. 2001. The Dhivehi Language: A Descriptive and

Historical Grammar of the Maldivian and its Dialects,
Heidelberg
Geiger, Wilhem; Maldivian Linguistic Studies: Journal of the

Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
Muhammad, Naseema, 1999. Dhivehi Writing Systems, National

Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research , Male, Maldives.
Maniku, Hassan A, 1995. A Concise Etymological Vocabulary of

Dhivehi Language, The Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka.
Colombo
Reynolds, Christopher H B, 1974, Buddhism and The Maldivian

Language in Buddhist Studies in Honour of I. B. Horner,
Dordrecht
Vitharana, V. 1987, SriLanka - Maldivian Cultural Affinities.

Academy of Sri Lankan Culture.
Wijesundera et al, 1988. Historical and Linguistic Survey of the

Dhivehi Language, Final Report. University of Colombo, Sri
Lanka.
81

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A GENERALOVERVI

Yumna Maumoon BA, MA.

NATIONAL CENTRE FOR LINGUISTIC AND HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Researched and compiled by Yumna Maumoon BA (Oxon) MA

Photographs by: Shamoon

Layout & Design: Julisha Ibrahim

Published by The National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research

Printed in the Maldives by Novelty Printers and Publishers

Copyright National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research

In recent years, more and more Maldivians have been

There has been little written on the Dhivehi language in a

In writing this book, Ms Yumna Maumoon has made a very

I also take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to his

National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research

Dhivehi (or Divehi), is the language spoken by a population of

Very little has been written on the Dhivehi language especially

Hence my aim in writing this book is to give introduction to

In writing this book I have mainly used research work done by

I hope that this book will be interesting and informative to

The Conversion to Islam

2. THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE DHIVEHI

3. THE DHIVEHI LANGUAGE

3.1 Modern Standard Dhivehi

3.1.1 The Sound System

4. THE DHIVEHI WRITING SYSTEM

4.1 Thaana Akuru

5. DHIVEHI LANGUAGE TODAY AND TOMORROW

5.1 Efforts by the Government to promote and preserve

Dhivehi is the official language of the island nation lying in

Dhivehi represents the southernmost Indo-Aryan language in

Little has been written (in a language other than Dhivehi)

The Maldives is a group of 11923 small low-lying coral

The islands of the Maldivian archipelago are grouped into

The present population of the Maldives is 270,101 with a sex

The present-day Maldives is a small island developing country

The people of the Maldives are predominantly of Aryan stock.

As to its origin, the race which now inhabits the

However, little is known about whom the first settlers of the

According to Professor Stanley Gardiner who visited the

There is no written history of the Maldives before its

Since there are no written records of the Maldives before its

It is probable that the Maldives were already known to the

Another probable mention of the Maldives is in the Buddhist

Mahaldb, the Arabic name of the Maldives which was used

The first Arab author to mention the Maldives is Al-Biruni

If the legend as told in the Mahavamsa has any truth, it

Many questions about when the first settlers arrived in the

1.3.1 The Conversion to Islam

The most significant event in the history of the Maldives is its

The Maldives is said to have embraced Islam in 1153 A.D.

Legend has it that the king was converted to Islam by an Arab

According to the Isdhoo Loamaafaanu the Maldives officially

Another legend in Hasan Tjuddns Thareekh15 says that the

In the accounts of his travels Ibn Batuta states that the

Whoever converted the Maldives to Islam, or under whatever

In order to understand the various factors that influenced

1.3.2 Significant Events in the History of the Maldives