Knox County Tennessee Stormwater Management Manual

7.3 Culvert Design

A culvert is a short, closed (covered) conduit that conveys stormwater runoff under an
embankment, usually a roadway. The primary purpose of a culvert is to convey surface water, but
properly designed it may also be used to restrict flow and reduce downstream peak flows. In
addition to the hydraulic function, a culvert must also support the embankment and/or roadway,
and protect traffic and adjacent property owners from flood hazards to the extent practicable.

Most culvert design is empirical and relies on nomographs and standard procedures. The purpose
of this section is to provide an overview of culvert design standards and procedures.

7.3.1 Symbols and Definitions

To provide consistency within this section the symbols listed in Table 7-1 will be used. These
symbols were selected because of their wide use.

Table 7-1. Culvert Design Symbols and Definitions

Symbol Definition Units
A Area of cross section of flow ft2
B Barrel width ft
Cd Overtopping discharge coefficient -
D Culvert diameter or barrel width in or ft
d Depth of flow ft
dc Critical depth of flow ft
du Uniform depth of flow ft
g Acceleration due to gravity ft/s2
Hf Depth of pool or head, above the face section of invert ft
ho Height of hydraulic grade line above outlet invert ft
Headwater depth above invert of culvert (depth from inlet
HW ft
to upstream total energy grade line)
Ke Inlet loss coefficient -
L Length of culvert ft
N Number of barrels -
Q Rate of discharge cfs
S Slope of culvert ft/ft
TW Tailwater depth above invert of culvert ft
V Mean velocity of flow ft/s
Vc Critical velocity ft/s

7.3.2 Design Standards and Considerations

The design of a culvert should take into account many different engineering and technical aspects
at the culvert site and adjacent areas. The list below presents the key considerations for the
design of culverts.

Culverts can serve double duty as flow retarding structures in grass channel design. Care
should be taken to design them as storage control structures if flow depths exceed several
feet, and to ensure public safety.
Improved inlet designs can absorb considerable energy for steeper sloped and skewed inlet
condition designs, thus helping to protect channels.
All culverts designed and installed in Knox County shall conform to the design standards listed in
the following sections.

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The 25-year frequency storm shall be routed through all culverts and the 100-year storm shall be
used as a check, to verify structures (e.g., houses, commercial buildings) are not flooded or
increased damage does not occur to the highway or adjacent property for this design event.

Both minimum and maximum velocities shall be considered when designing a culvert. The
maximum velocity shall be consistent with channel stability requirements at the culvert outlet. The
maximum allowable velocity is 15 feet per second. Outlet protection shall be provided where
discharge velocities will cause erosion problems. To ensure self-cleaning during partial depth flow,
culverts shall have a minimum velocity of 2.5 feet per second at design flow or lower, with a
minimum slope of 0.5%.

Buoyancy protection shall be provided for all flexible culverts. This can be provided through the
use of headwalls, endwalls, slope paving or other means of anchoring.

The culvert length and slope shall be chosen to approximate existing topography. To the degree practicable,
the culvert invert should be aligned with the channel bottom and the skew angle of the stream, and the culvert
entrance should match the geometry of the roadway embankment.

! " #
Debris control shall be performed in a manner consistent with Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9
entitled Debris Control Structures (FHWA, 1971), which contains criteria pertaining to the design of
debris control structures.

$ % &
Headwater is water above the culvert invert at the entrance end of the culvert. The allowable
headwater elevation is that elevation above which damage may be caused to adjacent property
and/or the roadway. The headwater elevation is determined from an evaluation of land use
upstream of the culvert and the proposed or existing roadway elevation. It is this allowable
headwater depth that is the primary basis for sizing a culvert.

The following criteria related to headwater should be considered when designing a culvert for the
25-year design storm event.

The allowable headwater is the depth of water that can be ponded at the upstream end of the
culvert during the 100 yr event with clogged conditions, which will be limited by one or more of
the following constraints or conditions.
(1) The allowable headwater must not damage upstream property.
(2) The ponding depth is to be no greater than the low point in the road grade.
(3) The ponding depth is to be no greater than the elevation where flow diverts around the
culvert.
(4) Headwater elevations shall be established to delineate potential flood zones.

In general, the constraint that gives the lowest allowable headwater elevation (HW) establishes
the criteria for the hydraulic calculations.

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2
For drainage facilities with cross-sectional area equal to or less than 30 ft , HW/D should be
equal to or less than 1.5.
2
For drainage facilities with cross-sectional area greater than 30 ft , HW/D should be equal to or
less than 1.2.
The headwater should be checked using the peak discharge for the 100-year frequency event
(Qp100) to ensure compliance with storm system design criteria. As well, the culvert should be
sized to maintain flood-free conditions on classified roadways.
The maximum acceptable outlet velocity shall be identified (see Section 7.4.3) in drainage
calculations included with the Stormwater Management Plan.
Acceptable flow velocities shall be achieved by one of two ways: the headwater shall be set to
an appropriate elevation; or, stabilization or energy dissipation shall be provided where
acceptable velocities are exceeded.
Other site-specific design considerations shall be addressed as required by the Director.

' & #
The hydraulic conditions downstream of the culvert site must be evaluated to determine a tailwater
depth for a range of discharge. At times, there may be a need for calculating backwater curves to
establish the tailwater conditions. The following conditions must be considered when establishing
tailwater conditions.

If the culvert outlet is operating with a free outfall, the critical depth and equivalent hydraulic
grade line should be determined.
For culverts that discharge to an open channel, the stage-discharge curve for the channel must
be determined (see Section 7.4).
If an upstream culvert outlet is located near a downstream culvert inlet, the headwater
elevation of the downstream culvert may establish the design tailwater depth for the upstream
culvert.
If the culvert discharges to a lake, pond, or other major water body, the expected high water
elevation of the particular water body can be used to establish the culvert tailwater.

(
If storage is being assumed or will occur upstream of the culvert, storage routing must be
performed in accordance with the information provided in Section 7.3.4.6.

) # * +
Hydraulic efficiency and cost can be significantly affected by inlet conditions. The inlet coefficient
Ke, is a measure of the hydraulic efficiency of the inlet, with lower values indicating greater
efficiency. Recommended inlet coefficients are given in Table 7-2.

Table 7-2. Inlet Coefficients

(Source: USDOT, 1985)

Type of Structure & Design of Entrance Coefficient Ke

Pipe Concrete
Projecting from fill, socket end (groove-end) 0.2
Projecting from fill, square cut end 0.5
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls
Socket end of pipe (groove-end) 0.2

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Square-edge 0.5
Rounded [radius = 1/12(D)] 0.2
Mitered to conform to fill slope 0.7
End-Section conforming to fill slope* 0.5
o o
Beveled edges, 33.7 or 45 bevels 0.2
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
1
Pipe, or Pipe-Arch, Corrugated Metal
Projecting from fill (no headwall) 0.9
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls square-edge 0.5
Mitered to fill slope, paved or unpaved slope 0.7
End-Section conforming to fill slope* 0.5
o o
Beveled edges, 33.7 or 45 bevels 0.2
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
Box, Reinforced Concrete
Headwall parallel to embankment (no wingwalls)
Square-edged on 3 edges 0.5
Rounded on 3 edges to radius of [1/12(D)] or beveled edges on 0.2
3 sides
o o
Wingwalls at 30 to 75 to barrel
Square-edged at crown 0.4
Crown edge rounded to radius of [1/12(D)] or beveled top edge 0.2
o o
Wingwalls at 10 or 25 to barrel
Square-edged at crown 0.5
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
1
Although laboratory tests have not been completed on Ke values for High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) pipes,
the Ke values for corrugated metal pipes are recommended for HDPE pipes.
* Note: End Section conforming to fill slope, made of either metal or concrete, are the sections commonly available
from manufacturers. From limited hydraulic tests they are equivalent in operation to a headwall in both inlet and
outlet control.

,+ with Headwalls
Headwalls may be used for a variety of reasons, including increasing the efficiency of the inlet,
providing embankment stability, providing embankment protection against erosion, providing
protection from buoyancy, and shortening the length of the required structure. Headwalls are
required for all metal culverts and where buoyancy protection is necessary. If high headwater
depths are to be encountered, or the approach velocity in the channel will cause scour, a short
channel apron shall be provided at the toe of the headwall.

This apron should extend at least one pipe diameter upstream from the entrance, and the top of the
apron should not protrude above the normal streambed elevation.
- &
Wingwalls must be used where the side slopes of the channel adjacent to the entrance are
unstable or where the culvert is skewed to the normal channel flow.

+ * +
Where inlet conditions control the amount of flow that can pass through the culvert, improved inlets
can greatly increase the hydraulic performance of the culvert.

.
Reinforced concrete pipe (RCP) is recommended for use (1) under a roadway, (2) when pipe
slopes are less than 1%, or (3) for all flowing streams. RCP must be used for culverts designed for
a 100-year storm, if the culverts lie in public lands or easements.

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RCP and fully coated corrugated metal pipe can be used in all other cases. High-density
polyethylene (HDPE) pipe may also be used where permitted by the Director. Table 7-3 gives
recommended Mannings n values for different materials.

Table 7-3. Manning's n Values

(Source: USDOT, 1985)
Type of Conduit Wall & Joint Description Mannings n
Concrete Pipe Good joints, smooth walls 0.012
Good joints, rough walls 0.016
Poor joints, rough walls 0.017
Concrete Box Good joints, smooth finished walls 0.012
Poor joints, rough, unfinished walls 0.018
Corrugated Metal 2-2/3- by -inch corrugations 0.024
Pipes and Boxes 6- by 1-inch corrugations 0.025
Annular 5- by 1-inch corrugations 0.026
Corregations 3- by 1-inch corrugations 0.028
6-by 2-inch structural plate 0.035
9-by 2-1/2 inch structural plate 0.035
Corrugated Metal 2-2/3-by -inch corrugated 24-inch plate 0.012
Pipes, Helical width
Corrugations, Full
Circular Flow
Spiral Rib Metal Pipe 3/4 by 3/4 in recesses at 12 inch spacing, 0.013
good joints
High Density Corrugated Smooth Liner 0.015
Polyethylene (HDPE) Corrugated 0.020
Polyvinyl Chloride 0.011
(PVC)
Note: For further information concerning Manning n values for selected conduits consult Hydraulic Design of
Highway Culverts, Federal Highway Administration, HDS No. 5, page 163

# * / &
Culvert skews shall not exceed 45 degrees as measured from a line perpendicular to the roadway
centerline without approval.

# * 0
The minimum allowable pipe diameter shall be 15 inches.

$- %
Weep holes are sometimes used to relieve uplift pressure. Filter materials shall be used in
conjunction with the weep holes in order to intercept the flow and prevent the formation of piping
channels. The filter materials shall be designed as an underdrain filter so as not to become
clogged and so that piping cannot occur through the pervious material and the weep hole.

1
Water shall not discharge from a culvert in an erosive manner. Outlet protection shall be provided
for all design storms. See Section 7.5 for information on the design of outlet protection.

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(2 * #
Where compatible with good hydraulic engineering, a site should be selected that will permit the
culvert to be constructed to cause the least impact on the stream, wetlands and other
environmentally sensitive features that may be located on the site. This selection must consider
the entire site, including any necessary lead channels.

7.3.3 Design Procedures

' 3 & #
There are two types of flow conditions for culverts that are based upon the location of the control
section and the critical flow depth. These flow conditions are presented in Figure 7-7 and are
described briefly below.
Figure 7-7. Culvert Flow Conditions
(Adapted from: USDOT, 1985)

Inlet Control Flow Condition Outlet Control Flow Condition

Water Surface Water Surface

Water Surface
Water Surface
HW
HW
TW Control
TW
Section
dc [Control Section] Downstream

A. Submerged

Water Surface

HW Headwater H
TW Tailwater HW
dc Critical Depth
H Losses Through Culvert
B. Unsubmerged dc [Control Section]

Inlet Control Inlet control occurs when the culvert barrel is capable of conveying more flow than
the inlet will accept. This typically happens when a culvert is operating on a steep slope. The
control section of a culvert is located just inside the entrance. Critical depth occurs at or near this
location, and the flow regime immediately downstream is supercritical.

Outlet Control Outlet control flow occurs when the culvert barrel is not capable of conveying as
much flow as the inlet opening will accept. The control section for outlet control flow in a culvert is
located at the barrel exit or further downstream. Either subcritical or pressure flow exists in the
culvert barrel under these conditions.

Proper culvert design and analysis requires checking for both inlet and outlet control to determine
which will govern particular culvert designs. For more information on inlet and outlet control, see
Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts (USDOT, 1985).

There are two procedures for designing culverts: manual use of inlet and outlet control
nomographs; and the use computer programs such as HY8 or Haestad Methods programs such as
CulvertMaster or FlowMaster. It is recommended that a computer model be used for culvert
design. The computer software packages available use the theoretical basis from the nomographs
to size culverts. In addition, these software packages can evaluate improved inlets, route
hydrographs, consider road overtopping, and evaluate outlet streambed scour. By using water
surface profiles, this procedure is more accurate in predicting backwater effects and outlet scour.

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4
The use of culvert design nomographs requires a trial and error solution. Nomograph solutions
provide reliable designs for many applications. It should be remembered that velocity, hydrograph
routing, roadway overtopping, and outlet scour require additional, separate computations beyond
what can be obtained from the nomographs. Figures 7-8(a) and (b) show examples of an inlet
control and outlet control nomograph for the design of concrete pipe culverts. For other culvert
designs, refer to the complete set of nomographs in Appendix A.

!
The following design procedure requires the use of inlet and outlet nomographs.

(Step 1) List design data:

Q = discharge (cfs) L = culvert length (ft)
S = culvert slope (ft/ft) TW= tailwater depth (ft)
V = velocity for trial diameter (ft/s) Ke = inlet loss coefficient
HW= allowable headwater depth for the design storm (ft) D = pipe diameter (in)

(Step 2) Determine trial culvert size by assuming a trial velocity 5 to 8 ft/s and computing the
culvert area, A = Q/V. Determine the culvert diameter.

(Step 3) Find the actual HW for the trial size culvert for both inlet and outlet control.

For inlet control, enter inlet control nomograph with D and Q and find HW/D for the proper
entrance type.
Compute HW and, if too large or too small, try another culvert size before computing HW for
outlet control.
For outlet control enter the outlet control nomograph with the culvert length, entrance loss
coefficient, and trial culvert diameter.
To compute HW, connect the length scale for the type of entrance condition and culvert
diameter scale with a straight line, pivot on the turning line, and draw a straight line from the
design discharge through the turning point to the head loss scale H. Compute the headwater
elevation HW from Equation 7-10.

Equation 7-10 HW = H + ho LS

where: H =head loss, ft

ho = (critical depth + D) or tailwater depth, whichever is greater (maximum = D)
L = culvert length
S = culvert slope

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Figure 7-8(a). Headwater Depth for Concrete Pipe Culvert with Inlet Control
(Source: USDOT, 1985)

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Figure 7-8(b). Head for Concrete Pipe Culverts Flowing Full

(Source: USDOT, 1985)

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(Step 4) Compare the computed headwaters and use the higher HW nomograph to determine if the culvert
is under inlet or outlet control.

If inlet control governs, then the design is complete and no further analysis is
required.
If outlet control governs and the HW is unacceptable, select a larger trial size and find
another HW with the outlet control nomographs. Since the smaller size of culvert had been
selected for allowable HW by the inlet control nomographs, the inlet control for the larger
pipe need not be checked.

(Step 5) Calculate exit velocity and if erosion problems might be expected, refer to Section 7.5 for
appropriate energy dissipation designs.

3 # * 56 & 1*
A performance curve for any culvert can be obtained from the nomographs by repeating the steps
outlined above for a range of discharges that are of interest for that particular culvert design. A
graph is then plotted of headwater versus discharge with sufficient points so that a curve can be
drawn through the range of interest. These curves are applicable through a range of headwater
depths and velocities versus discharges for specific lengths and types of culvert. Such
computations are made much easier by the use of computer programs.

To complete the culvert design, roadway overtopping must be analyzed. A performance curve
showing the culvert flow as well as the flow across the roadway is a useful analysis tool. Rather
than using a trial and error procedure to determine the flow division between the overtopping flow
and the culvert flow, an overall performance curve can be developed.

The overall performance curve can be determined using the following general procedure.

(Step 1) Select a range of flow rates and determine the corresponding headwater elevations for the culvert
flow alone. The flow rates should fall above and below the design discharge and cover the entire
flow range of interest. Both inlet and outlet control headwaters should be calculated.

(Step 2) Combine the inlet and outlet control performance curves to define a single performance curve for
the culvert.

(Step 3) When the culvert headwater elevations exceed the roadway crest elevation, overtopping will
begin. Calculate the equivalent upstream water surface depth above the roadway (crest of weir)
for each selected flow rate. Use these water surface depths and equation 7-11 to calculate flow
rates across the roadway.

Q = C d L(HW )
1.5
Equation 7-11

where: Q = overtopping flow rate (cfs)

Cd = overtopping discharge coefficient
L = length of roadway (ft)
HW = upstream depth, measured from the roadway crest to the water surface up-stream of
the weir drawdown (ft)

Note: See Figure 7-9 for guidance in determining a value for Cd. For more information on
calculating overtopping flow rates see pages 38 - 40 in the Hydraulic Design of Highway
Culverts (USDOT, 1985).

(Step 4) Add the culvert flow and the roadway overtopping flow at the corresponding headwater elevations
to obtain the overall culvert performance curve.

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Figure 7-9. Discharge Coefficients for Roadway Overtopping

(Source: USDOT, 1985)

$ 6
A significant storage capacity behind a highway embankment attenuates a flood hydrograph.
Because of the reduction of the peak discharge associated with this attenuation, the required
capacity of the culvert, and its size, may be reduced considerably. If significant storage is
anticipated behind a culvert, the design should be checked by routing the design hydrographs
through the culvert to determine the discharge and stage behind the culvert. See Section 7.3.7 and
Volume 2, Chapter 3, Section 3.2 for more information on routing. Additional routing procedures
are outlined in Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts (USDOT, 1985).

Note: Storage should be taken into consideration only if the storage area will remain available for the life of
the culvert as a result of purchase of ownership or right-of-way or an easement has been acquired.

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7.3.4 Culvert Design Example

The following example problem illustrates the procedures to be used in designing culverts using the
nomographs.

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Knox County Tennessee Stormwater Management Manual

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7.3.5 Design Procedures for Beveled-Edged Inlets

Improved inlets include inlet geometry refinements beyond those normally used in conventional
culvert design practice. Several degrees of improvements are possible, including bevel-edged,
side-tapered, and slope-tapered inlets. Those designers interested in using side- and slope-
tapered inlets should consult the detailed design criteria and example designs outlined in the
Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts (USDOT, 1985).

!
Four inlet control figures for culverts with beveled edges are included in Appendix A.

Chart Use for :

3 circular pipe culverts with beveled rings
9 wingwalls with flare angles of 18 to 45 degrees
o o
10 90 headwalls (same for 90 wingwalls)
11 skewed headwalls

The following symbols are used in Figure 7-10:

B - width of culvert barrel or diameter of pipe culvert;

D - height of box culvert or diameter of pipe culvert;
H - depth of pool or head, above the face section of invert;
N - number of barrels; and,
Q - design discharge.

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Figure 7-10. Culvert Design Calculation Form

(Source: USDOT, 1985)

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!
The figures (Appendix A) for bevel-edged inlets are used for design in the same manner as the
conventional inlet design nomographs discussed earlier.

For box culverts the dimensions of the bevels to be used are based on the culvert dimensions. The
top bevel dimension is determined by multiplying the height of the culvert by a factor. The side
bevel dimensions are determined by multiplying the width of the culvert by a factor. For a 1:1
bevel, the factor is 0.5 inch/ft. For a 1.5:1 bevel the factor is 1 inch/ft. For example, the minimum
bevel dimensions for an 8 ft x 6 ft box culvert with 1:1 bevels would be:

Top Bevel = d = 6 ft x 0.5 inch/ft = 3 inches; and,

Side Bevel = b = 8 ft x 0.5 inch/ft = 4 inches.

For a 1.5:1 bevel, the dimension computations would result in d = 6 and b = 8 inches.

!
The improved inlet design figures (Appendix A) are based on research results from culvert models
with barrel width, B, to depth, D, ratios of 0.5:1 to 2:1. For box culverts with more than one barrel,
the figures are used in the same manner as for a single barrel, except that the bevels must be
sized on the basis of the total clear opening rather than on individual barrel size. For example, in a
double 8 ft by 8 ft box culvert:

The top bevel is proportioned based on the height of 8 feet which results in a bevel of 4 in. for
the 1:1 bevel and 8 in. for the 1.5:1 bevel.

The side bevel is proportioned based on the clear width of 16 feet, which results in a bevel of
8 in. for the 1:1 bevel and 16 in. for the 1.5:1 bevel.

. 5" +
For multi-barrel culvert installations exceeding a 3:1 width to depth ratio, the side bevels become
excessively large when proportioned on the basis of the total clear width. For these structures, it is
recommended that the side bevel be sized in proportion to the total clear width, B, or three times
the height, whichever is smaller.

The top bevel dimension should always be based on the culvert height.

The shape of the upstream edge of the intermediate walls of multi-barrel installations is not as
important to the hydraulic performance of a culvert as the edge condition of the top and sides.
Therefore, the edges of these walls may be square, rounded with a radius of one-half their
thickness, chamfered, or beveled. The intermediate walls may also project from the face and slope
downward to the channel bottom to help direct debris through the culvert.

Multi-barrel pipe culverts shall be designed as a series of single barrel installations since each pipe
requires a separate bevel.

/ & +
It is recommended that Chart 11 for skewed inlets (Appendix A) not be used for multiple barrel
installations, as the intermediate wall could cause an extreme contraction in the downstream
barrels. This would result in under design due to a greatly reduced capacity. Skewed inlets (at an
angle with the centerline of the stream) should be avoided whenever possible and should not be
used with side- or slope-tapered inlets. It is important to align culverts with streams in order to
avoid erosion problems associated with changing the direction of the natural stream flow.

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7.3.6 Flood Routing and Culvert Design

Flood routing through a culvert is a practice that evaluates the effect of temporary upstream
ponding caused by the culvert' s backwater. If flood routing is not considered, it is possible that the
findings from culvert analyses will be conservative. If the selected allowable headwater is accepted
without flood routing, then costly over design of both the culvert and outlet protection may result,
depending on the amount of temporary storage involved. However, if storage is used in the design
of culverts, consideration should be given to:

the total area of flooding,

the average time that bankfull stage is exceeded for the design flood up to 48 hours in rural
areas or 6 hours in urban areas, and
ensuring that the storage area will remain available for the life of the culvert through the
purchase of right-of-way or easement.

$ !
The design procedure for flood routing through a culvert is the same as for reservoir routing. The
site data and roadway geometry are obtained and the hydrology analysis completed to include
estimating a hydrograph. Once this essential information is available, the culvert can be designed.
Flood routing through a culvert can be time consuming. It is recommended that a computer
program be used to perform routing calculations; however, an engineer should be familiar with the
culvert flood routing design process.

A multiple trial and error procedure is required for culvert flood routing as presented in the general
design steps listed below.

(Step 1) A trial culvert(s) is selected.

(Step 2) A trial discharge for a particular hydrograph time increment (selected time increment to
estimate discharge from the design hydrograph) is selected.

(Step 3) Flood routing computations are made with successive trial discharges until the flood
routing equation is satisfied.

(Step 4) The hydraulic findings are compared to the selected site criteria.

(Step 5) If the selected site criteria are satisfied, then a trial discharge for the next time increment
is selected and this procedure is repeated; if not, a new trial culvert is selected and the
entire procedure is repeated.

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