Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 2.1 Introduction ‘As already pointed out, the most obvious effect of a shunt fault is a sudden build up of current. Therefore, it is only natural that the magnitude of current be utilized as a positive indication of existence of a fault. It is no wonder, therefore, that the over-current protection is the most widely used form of protection. In many situations, it may be the only protection provided. This type of protection which depends on only the magnitude of the current, without taking any cognizance of its phase angle, is known as the non-directional over-current protection. However, many times it is required to discriminate between faults in front of the breaker and faults behind the breaker. This is possible only if we take into account, not only the magnitude of the current but also its phase with respect to the voltage at the relay location. In such cases, the protection is known as the directional over-current protection. A little thought will convince the readers that a directional over-current protection affords greater selectivity than a non-directional over-current protection. ‘We must not forget that any type of protection is first a concept. Then, it needs t be implemented. The vehicle of implementation the relay. We can thus imagine a non@ directional over-current relay, which provides the non-directional over-current protection and so on. Historically, however, fuses have preceded the over-current relays for providing over- current protection. We will, therefore, take a brief look at fuses in the next section. 2.2 Fuse Fuses are the oldest protective devices that have survived from the dawn of the age of electricity to the present times. This can be attributed to their intuitive simplicity. The fuse allows the normal current to flow but melts itself out, thus breaking the circuit, when the current exceeds a certain magnitude for a certain amount of time. It combines the functions of sensing, comparing, and interrupting the current into one. Figure 2.1(a) depicts the external appearance of a high rupturing capacity (HRC) fuse. The current 26Over-current Protection of Transmission Lunes 27 verai ime characteristic of a fuse is shown in Figure 2.1(b), The waveform of the short- ircuit current interrupted by a fuse is shown in Figure 2.1(c), where it can be seen that the fuse interrupts the current even before it attains its peak value [aanO) Fusing time Rates current Curent (b) Time-current characteristic of a fuse ae Prospective peak Current Instant of Interruption (c) Short-cireuit current interrupted by a fuse Figure 2.1. High rupturing capacity (HRC) fuse. 2.3 Thermal Relays ‘Thermal relays, of the bimetallic type, work on the principle of strain generated due to unequal linear expansion of two different metals as a result of heat generated by the28 Fundamenials of Power System Protection passage of the fault current. Figure 2.2(a) shows a bimetallic relay consisting of strips AB and CD of two different materials, Both the strips get heated up by the same amount but are deformed by differing amounts, Figure 2.2(b) shows the rclay operation. The material with higher coefficient of expansion is at the outer surface of the curve while that with lower coefficien’: is at the inner surface. Low coefficient --e ‘of expansion Heater col! Vv. Trp contacts Ar High coefficient f expansion Trip contact ®) Figure 2.2 A bimetallic relay Since the heating effect is proportional to the square of the current, the energy dissipated is given by (J?R)t, where ¢ is the time for which the current flows through the relay. Since accumulation of sufficient amount of heat depends on the thermal inertia of the relay, which tends to be rather large, these relays are used where very quick operation is not ealled for, A typical application of the thermal relay is to provide protection against prolonged overloading of motors. ‘The thermal overload relay thus lets the motor supply overload for a preset amount of time before tripping it off. 2.4 Over-current Relay An over-current (OO) relay has @ single input in the form of ac current. ‘The output of the relay is a normally-open contact, which changes over to closed state when the relay trips. The relay has two settings. These are the time setting and the plug setting. The time setting decides the operating time of the relay while the plug setting decides the current required for the relay to pick up. The name plug setting comes from theTransmission Lines 29 alectromechanical over-current relay. In these relays, we have to insert a shorting plugin a plug-setting bridge, so az to change the number of turns of the operating coil to get a particular pick-up value. The same terminology continues to be used in the modern relays, The block diagram of an OC relay is shown in Figure 2.3 ‘Time seting —— Input current —»y Time over-current on Teip output Plug setting (Pick-up) Figure 2.3 Block diagram of an over-current relay. ‘The plug-setting multiplier, PSM, is defined as follows: Jrotay PSM = “BS where Ivey is the current through the relay operating coil and PS is the plug-setting of the relay. The value of PSM tells us about the severity of the current as seen by the relay. A PSM less than 1 means that normal load current is flowing. At PSM > 1, the relay is supposed to pick up. Higher values of PSM indicate how serious the fault is. For example, let us consider a 1.0 A relay (ie, a relay with current coil designed to carry 1.0 A on a continuous basis) whose plug has been set at 0.5 A, ie. at 50%. Assume that, for a certain fault, the relay current is 5.0 A. The relay, therefore, is said to be operating at a PSM of (5.0/0.5) = 10. 2.4.1. Instantaneous OC Relay It is to be noted that the word instantaneous has a different connotation in the field of power system protection. Instantaneous actually means no intentional time delay. Howscever fast we want the relay to operate; it needs a certain minimum amount of time. ‘The operating time of an instantaneous relay is of the order of a few milliseconds, Such a relay has only the pick-up setting and does not have any time setting. The construction and the characteristics of an instantaneous attracted armature type relay is shown in Figure 2.4, wherein it can be seen that as the armature of the relay gets attracted towards the coil, the air-gap becomes smaller, and hence the reluctance becomes smaller. This results in increased flux which causes the force on the armature to build up (force being proportional to the square of the flux density). This is a positive feedback action which results in the armature moving quickly in an instantaneous snap action. The operating torque on the armature is proportional to the square of the current.30, Fundamentals of Power System Protection _ g | Ly 0 Trip contact a) BB cae Sl Flux Operating ume $F creat amperes) Plok-up value Figure 2.4 Instantaneous over-current relay characteristic e 2.4.2 Definite Time Over-current Relay A definite time over-current relay can be adjusted to issue a trip output at a definite (and adjustable) amount of time, after it picks up. Thus, it has a time-setting adjustment and a pick-up adjustment. The characteristic and the block diagram are shown in Figure 2.5. Tine tra ae : 2 conensa] {rip ost : i Lo i : e Pug ttn : 9 seting a é Tine sting poring tre Pick-up value Figure 2.5 Definite time over-current relay characteristic, 2.4.3. Inverse Time Over-current Relay Inverse time characteristic fits in very well, with the requirement that the more severe a fault is, the faster it should be cleared to avoid damage to the apparatus. This type of characteristic is naturally obtained from an electromechanical relay, which has led to its widespread use and standardization, With the advent of microprocessor-based relays, it is now possible to generate any imaginable time-current characteristic. However, in order to maintain compatibility with the very large number of electromechanical relays, still inservice, certain inverse time characteristics, described in the next section, ave been standardized, Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) over-current relay This is possibly the most widely used characteristic. The characteristic is inverse in the initial part, which tends to a definite minimum operating time as the current becomes very high. The reason for the operating time becoming definite minimum, at high values of current, is that in the electromechanical relays the flux saturates at high values of current and the relay operating torque, which is proportional to the square of the flux, does not increase substantially after the saturation sets in. Such a characteristic came about because of the limitation of the electromechanical technology. Ideally, we may demand that the operating time be inverse in nature throughout the operating range. The mathematical relation between the current and the operating time of [DMT characteristic can be written as 1, = 214(TMS) “su where PSM is the plug-setting multiplier and TMS is the time-multiplier setting of the relay. Thus, the operating time is directly proportional to the TMS and inversely proportional to the PSM. The characteristics of the IDMT relay are shown in Figure 2.6. Operating time (seconds) 2 ieee Oey ge Ore Orit laeta aio (era i7tts Plug-setirig multiplier (relay current as a multiple of plug setting) Figure 2.6 Inverse definite minimum time relay characteristics (TMS = 1.0).32 Fundamentals of Power System Protection Very inverse time over-current relay ‘The inverseness of this characteristic is higher than that of the IDMT characteristic. The mathematical relation between the current and the operating time of such a characteristic can be written as 7: - 13.5(TMS) ail (PSM) ‘The characteristic of the relay is shown in Figure 2.6. Extremely inverse time over-current relay ‘The inverseness of this characteristic is higher than that of the very inverse characteristic. The mathematical relation between the current and the operating time of such a characteristic can be written as 80.0(TMS) | e tap = S0-0¢TMS) | (f° * sw 1) ‘The characteristic of the relay is shown in Figure 2.6. 2.5 Implementation of Over-current Relay Using Induction Disk = In otder to understand the working of an induction disk type relay; let us first see how torque can be produced by two alternating fluxes acting on a common metallic but non- magnetic rotor. Figure 2.7 shows two alternating fluxes , and @; having a phase difference of 6 between them. Induced flux me Pe eOver-current Protection of Transmission Lines 33 Thus, we have t= Om, sin wt 2 = Om, sin (wt + 6) Each flux induces a voltage in the disc, and hence gives rise to induced currents ig, and i,,. Assuming that the eddy current path has negligible inductance, we can write do in TA = om, c08 a . d ing @ SE = hy, cos ion + As shown in Figure 2.7, 9; interacts with f,, to produce force Fy. Likewise ¢, interacts with ig, to produce a force Fp, Assuming @ to be constant, we have Fi = biigg © mim, Sin OF cos (wt + 6) Fy = aig, © OniOng 8in (Wt + 8} cos at ‘The net force (F, ~ F;) is thus, given by W Fo~ Fy Ont (sin (wt + 8) cos wt ~ cos (at + 8 sin ot} Fa Fy = On0n, in ‘The following important conclusions can be drawn from the above expression for torque: which simplifies to ‘+ Two alternating fluxes with a phase shift are needed for torque production, i.e. a single alternating flux would not produce torque ‘+ Maximum torque is produced when two alternating fluxes are shifted in phase by 90°. + The resultant torque is steady, i.e. it is not a function of time, as time t is not involved in the expression for torque. Since in an over-current relay, there is only one input quantity, it will not be possible to produce torque unless two fluxes shifted in phase are produced. ‘The above principle has been used in the induction disc type over-current relay whose construction is shown in Figure 2.8. Herein two fluxes shifted in time phase are obtained from the input current, by using a shading coil. The flux in the shaded coil lags the main flux. The torque thus produced by the interaction of the two fluxes, neglecting saturation, is proportional to I since each of the flux is proportional to I. This is the deflecting torque Terectige The spiral spring provides the control torque Tymsting: The control torque can be considered to be directly proportional to the angle 5, through which the back-stop has been retarded from the trip position. The permanent magnet provides the damping torque, which is active only when the disc is in motion and is thus proportional to the rate of change of angle dé/dt. The torque equation can therefore be written as34 Fundamentals of Power System Protection TMS aajustment cial Bock-sion ‘y orate contet — shadng col SSK 308 —————? — ae a Ai, =e ; anon | akmcim ESE s 4 | a ee . me Operating col tron core —P i Figure 2.8 Construction of an induction dise relay. | Tetming > Tentetna + Teemging or KP>85+ where K is deflection constant, $ is the spring constant, and D is the damping constant, All these constants depend upon the design of the relay. e When the disc is on the verge of deflection, we can equate the torques and write ' a ats 1 Set Ks - Kyl? and Ky = | The solution of the above equation is of the form | 5 = Kye - | where Ky and Ky are functions of K, and Kz, ie. S, D and 12, Now, { At t=O, 8 At t= tag | ‘We can find the operating time by finding the value of time ¢ for which 5 becomes zero. The value of diniia is decided by the time-multiplier setting, : . - |Over-currens Protection of Transmission Lines 38 ‘The exact analysis of the dynamics of induction disc is quite involved. However, it can be noted that by proper design of the magnetic circuit a wide range of characteristics from extremely inverse to definite time can be obtained. 2.6 Application of Definite Time OC Relays for Protection of a Distribution Feeder Consider a three-phase feeder as shown in the single-line diagram of Figure 2.9, with two line sections AB and BC. Assume that DTOC relays are used at buses A and B, There are loads at all the three buses. ‘Three-phase tine Fault current Fault location Figure 2.9 Application of DTOC relays for feeder protection. ‘The protection problem can be stated as follows: Given the magnitudes of all the loads and the fault currents at all the buses, how to set the DTOC relays at buses A and B so that the entire feeder gets over-current protection arranged as primary and back-up protection. ‘The first step in designing the over-current protection is to select the ratios for all the CTs, The secondary current of the CT is decided by the rating of the relay current coil. The CT primary current is decided by the maximum load current to be carried by the CT primary. Next we have to do the relay setting. It may be noted that setting of the relay, where the DTOC relays are involved, means: 1. How to select the pick-up value of the relay? 2. How to set the operating time of the relay? How to select the pick-up value of the relay? The setting problem has been pictorially depicted in Figure 2.10. ‘We can set the pick-up value of the relay, keeping in mind, that the relay should allow normal load as well as a certain degree of overload to be supplied. Thus the pick-up value36 Fundamentals of Power System Protection of the relay should be more than the allowable maximum load. At the same time, the relay should be sensitive enough to respond to the smallest fault, Thus, the pick-up value should be less than the smallest fault current. Therefore, we can write the following rule, as far as setting the pick-up value of the OC relay is concerned: Fi max < Zou < Ti min = Pug setting (amos) 0 Pring bebe] 1 be Load current—>t [ee ied ae Ltr taut curent —>t SS Figure 2.10 ‘Tho plug setting of DTOC relays How to set the operating time of the relay Here we are guided by the principle that a relay must get an adequate chance to protect the zone under its primary protection. Only if the primary protection does not clear the fault, the back-up protection should initiate tripping. Thus as soon as the fault takes place, it is sensed by both the primary and the back-up protection. Naturally, the primary protection is the first to operate, its operating time being less than that of the back-up. relay. Figure 2.11 shows the relationship between the operating time of the primary relay and that of the back-up relay. We have to allow for the overshoot of the primary relay, so that there is proper coordination between the primary and the back-up. Overshoot time @ If fault is cleared beyond this point the relay Ra does not reset \ <——- Relay Ry operating time, Ta, _ | * Tan ine i f ey } Fault instant BE ¥ 1 Relay Ra ‘ 1 eps : Raty Re operaing Creat breaker @ : Ic Hime Tea] everaing tne. Ten a easel — ee |—»Time ieee Figure 2.11 The time setting of DTOC relays.Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 37 is defined as the time for which the relay mechanism continues to move, even after the operating coil has been de-energized. Overshoot is because of the moment of inertia of the moving system, In the light of the above discussion, the correct procedure would be to start the setting from the tail end of the feeder system. The relay, which is at the end of the radial feeder, can be made to operate without any delay, as it does not have to coordinate with any other relay: In the given example of Figure 2.9, let us assume that the operating time of Rs is set to 0.1 5. Thus relay Ra should wait for 0.1 s plus, a time equal to the operating time of circuit at bus B (7cpg) plus overshoot time of relay A (Tosa). Thus, we can write Tag = 0.1 s (fastest) Tra = Tae + Tess + Tosa Assuming CB operating time = 0.5 s and overshoot time = 0.2 5, we have Tra = 0.1 +05 + 0.2 = 08s The time step between the operating times of the two relays, which is equal to the sum of the operating time of the circuit breaker at B and the overshoot time of relay A, is essential for maintaining selectivity between relays at A and B. Hence this interval is referred to as the selective time interval (STI). The worksheet for the settings of the relays thus can be written as shown in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 Purpose and setting of relays Relay Purpose Pick-up value Time setting Primary protection Fastest p, olseetion BC Tuc < Toons < Ieemin Tan = 0.18 a Note: Ry is at the tail end of the system Back-up protection of (in + Tic) 200% 160% = Tip Tp a Baa on Than = 3500 8 Town = 2000 A show * 4000 tes = 3000 A Figure 2.13 Setting of IDMT OC relays,Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 39 + The purpose of rely Ry is to provide primary protection to line BC. + The purpose of relay Rj is to provide primary protection to line AB and back-up to line BC. We start: the setting process from he tail end of the syatem. (a) Deciding the CT ratios and plug settings: (@ At relay B, the maximum load current, assuming 25% overload is: 80 A + (0.25 x 80 A) = 100A Assuming 1 A relay to be used, the CT ratio can be selected to be 100: 1. The plug setting PS can be done at 100%, ie. PS = 1.0 A. (ii) At relay A the maximum load current, assuming 25% overload is: (160 + 80) + 0.25 (160 + 80) = 300 A Assuming 1 A relay to be used, the CT ratio can be selected to be 300 : 1. The plug setting can be done at 100%, ie. PS = 1.0 A. (b) Deciding the time-multiplier settings: Starting from the most remote relay Rg (@ Since Rg does not have to maintain selectivity with any other relay, it can be made to operate the fastest. Thus the TMS of Rs can be selected as 0.1 (ii) Now, to maintain selectivity between R, and Rg, the following constraint must be met: Operating time of] [Operating time of] [Circuit breaker B| [Overshoot time) R, for maximum | =| Rg for maximum | +| operating time |+ of Ry fault at B necee fault at B | i The operating time of Ry for maximum fault just beyond bus B can be found from 0.14(T™MS) For maximum fault at B, fault current = 3000 A on primary side which becomes (3000/100) = 30 A secondary. Since plug setting is done at 1.0 A, I 30 Hes y = 90 ‘The TMS of Ry has already been set at 0.1. Substituting these values, we get PSM = = 0.1988 = 0.28 Let Toone = 0.8 s. Then, Trp + Toop = 0.78 ‘This value of 0.7 s is the desired operating time of Ra. Assuming overshoot time of Ra to be 10% of 0.7 5, ie. Tos, = 0.07 s. ‘Thus, we get the required operating time of Ra for maximum fault at bus B: Tra, max ton ap = 0.2 +05 + 0.07 = 0.77540 Fundamentals of Power System Protection ‘The TMS of Ra can be found from the following expression for the operating time of Ry 0.14(TMS) * PsMo?— 1 We have, for Rg, for the above condition, PSM = rsiy/PS = (3000/300)/1 = 10 Hence, for Ry 0.77 aoe? — TMS = 0.775 = 0.26 This finishes the setting of both the relays. We can verify that the selectivity for minimum fault at bus B is automatically maintained. 7 Minimum fault current for fault at bus B = 2000 A. Relay B current corresponding to this is 200/100 = 20 A. Since plug setting is 1 A, this translates into a PSM of 20. For relay Ry, TMS = 0.1. Thus, operating time of Rg for minimum fault at bus B will be: 0.1400. Tania ane 8 = Tas = ee = 0,226 and Toa = 05 8 Expected operating time of Ry for this fault should be greater than 0.226 + 0.5 + 0.1(0.226 + 0.5) = 0.726 + 0.0726 = 0.7986 = 0.8 s (approx.) Now, let us find out the actual operating time of Ry for minimum fault at bus B: Minimum fault current = 2000 A Relay Ra current corresponding to this is: 2000/300 = 6.66 A Since plug setting is 1 A, this translates into a PSM of 6.66. For relay Ra, ‘TMS = 0.26. Thus the operating time of Rg for minimum fault at bus B will be: 0.14(0.26) = = 21026) 0.94 Tra mic taste = Tee = Fega00— 7 : e This value of 0.94 s is greater than the minimum operating time of 0.8 s, required for maintaining selectivity between Ry and Ra ‘The results can be listed as follows: Relay CT ratio Plug setting = TMS Ry 1001 LA OL Ry 300: 1 1A 0.26 ‘The sketch of fault clearing time as a function of fault location for IDMT relays is shown in Figure 2.14 ‘We can deduce the following general rules from the above setting exercise: + Start the setting from the relay at the tail end of the system. + Plug setting should be such that: J, max < PS < Ip min atthe end of next setion 4-€. for plug setting consider minimum fault current at the end of the next section,Qver-current Protection »f Transmission Lines 41 + TMS should be decided such that the selectivity with the next relay downstream is maintained for maximum fault current at the beginning of the next section, Three-phase tine Bus A | Buse. Bus C ze soe CB lan 1 of Ra and Re (maximum faut) ‘Operating t Fault location Figure 2.14 Variation of fault current against fault location for IDMT relays under maximum fault condition. ‘These rules are shown in Figure 2.15 for a simple system consisting of two buses. The same principle can be extended to an n bus system. In fact, a computer algorithm can be developed to automate this task in case of a large system. Three-phase line : Bus A bop 8 Bus ¢ Souce 2, fea—> a ine a a = ow iow ! re ! ce YR Lata! ley Ry ee fanaa Jemin, 8 Fein Ni mae. Ie ra. Sean Pug setting of Re shoul be Such that: hage> PSO Ra > oe 2 Oreroad) nme PS Of Re > (ae + Overced [TMS of Rp can be sot at the smallest value of 0.1 Pug seting of Ry shoud be Suc tat z TS of shoud be ouch hat Operaing Te Rx] _ [Oneralng tne of Re] , [Graitbraaker 6] , [Overnoo! eee) ie Sexes’) + [Eaae Figure 2.15 Rules for setting IDMT OC relays.42 Fundamentals of Power System Protection 2.7.1. Choice Between IDMT and DTOC Relays It can be seen that IDMT relays offer significant improvement in fault clearing times over DTOC relays. A question that naturally arises is: if this is so, there should be no need to use DTOC relays. However, there are situations where IDMT relays do not offer significant advantages over DTOC relays. For example, consider a system where Zs >> Z;, Since the fault current as a function of fault location is proportional to ie as ‘ad ze it would remain more or Jess constant throughout the length of the feeder, therefore, the inverseness of the IDMT characteristics cannot be exploited. In such situations, DTOC relays being cheaper may be preferred. Such feeders are also described as electrically short in length, irrespective of their physical length. ‘Thus we can say that DTOC relays are suitable for lines which are short in length. It is @ practice to recommend DTOC relays when z 2 2. See Figure 2.16. am Tong tne 2 << Z, Fault current Faull location Figure 2.16 Choice between DTOC and IDMT relays. 2.8 Protection of a Three-phase Feeder Up to this point we have shown three-phase feeders with the help of a single-line diagram. ‘The single-line diagram hides the complexity of the three-phase system. The three-phase system is subject to phase faults as well as ground faults. For providing complete protection to a three-phase feeder, we can begin with three relays connected to three CTs as shown in Figure 2.17. As can be seen from Table 2.2, all the 11 numbers of shunt faults are catered for by the three relays. The relays at bus A will be coordinated with those at bus B using the procedure illustrated in Section 2.7. It may be pointed out here, that fault current for a single line to ground fault, depends upon the system grounding as well as the tower footing resistance. Therefore, it may happen that the fault current for a single line to ground fault, may be less than the load current. In such cases, it will not be possible to cater to such faults if we use theOver-current Protection of Transmission tines 43 Three-phase C3 ee [et Phase c Tip bates] Trip contacts Figure 2.17 OC protection of a three-phase feeder. Table 2.2 Protection of a three-phase feeder ‘Relays which will operate Fault Three-phase fault ‘Two-phase fault + one ground relays of Figure 2.17 fault relay of Figure 2.18 ag R R,, R, bg R RS cg R RR, ab Ry Re Ry bec Ry, R, R. ea R., Ry R, Ry abe RR ie beg RR RR cog Re Re Ry, Ry Ry abc Ray Ry, Re Ras Re abeg Ri, Ra, Re ee scheme shown in Figure 2.17. A little thought will show that if we connect an OC relay in the residual current path as shown in Figure 2.18, it will be blind to the load current. (which is balanced three-phase current) and see only the ground fault currents. The current in this path will be zero or near zero during normal balanced load conditions as44 Fundamemals of Power System Protection well as during a three-phase fault. Thus, the setting of this relay, which is in the residual , current path, can be made independent of load current and can indeed be much smaller than the load current. Further, as illustrated in Figure 2.18, it is not necessary to use all the three relays ~ for detection and protection against phase faults. We can get rid of any one phase fault relay without affecting the performance of the scheme. In Figure 2.18, the relay in the phase & has been removed. bh 4 & in as os BA) ¥ 5 Phase fault0C 3 5 re omnes f i. 1 call 3 3 BEI — [Lana ot aoe Trip battery aa y OG relay Ry a eles conarss i Figure 2.18 Two-phase fault relays and one ground fault relay for OC protection of a three-phase feeder. ‘Table 2.2 shows the operation of relays for all the 11 shunt faults for OC schemes of Figure 2.17 and Figure 2.18, which shows that all the 11 shunt faults are catered for by these schemes, 2.9 Directional Over-current Relay Figure 2.19 shows a double-end-fed power system. The zones to be generated by the relays, are also shown. Consider that we have only over-current relays at our disposal. Will it be possible to implement the desired zones using simple over-current relays? In order to answer this question, let us focus on OC relays at bus C. Note that OC relays operate on the magnitude of fault current and cannot sense the direction of the fault. Consider fault F,. As per the desired zones, only CBs 4 and 5 should trip. However, it can be easily seon that if plain OC relays are used, CBs 3, 4, 5, and 6 will all trip as iOver-current Protection of Transmission Lines 4S the fault will be seen by OC relays at these locations. Thus, the desired zones are not generated. The desired relay response is shown in Tabie 2.3 with respect to faults F, and F, Desired zones Of protectign Figure 2.19 Need for directional relay. ‘Table 2.3 Response of OC relays to generate desired zones of protection Direction of Desired Direction of ‘Desired Fault fault power response fault power response of flow at busC of OC relay —_—_flow at bus C OC relay «a3 seen from & ats 2s seen from 6 at 6 ‘Away Trip Towards Restrain from bus C Dus © 5 Towards Restrain Away Trip bus C from bus © Thus it can be seen from Table 2.3, that whenever the fault power ows away from the bus, it is desired that the OC relay should trip. It should restrain if it sees the fault power flowing towards the bus. 2.9.1 Other Situations Where Directional OC Relays are Necessary ‘There are other situations where it becomes necessary to use directional relays to supervise OC relays. One such situation is a single-end-fed system of parallel feeders, shown in Figure 2.20, where a fault on any of the parallel lines is fed not only from the faulted line but from the healthy line as well. If directional relays are not provided, in conjunction with OC relays, then the desired zones will not be generated. This will result in both lines being tripped out for any fault on any one of the lines. Tt may be noted that directional relays with tripping direction away from the bus will be required at locations ‘2’ and ‘3’ in Figure 2.20. However, at locations ‘1’ and ‘4’, non-directional over-current relays will suffice. Since directional relay units cost more and also need the provision of PTs, they should be used only when absolutely necessary.a 46 Fundamentals of Power System Provection (a Peat tees, sopranos son amt tH Meving sition Fault (6) Desired zones and tripping direction of OC relays Figure 2.20 Single-end-fed parallel feeder needs directional OC protection. Consider the ring main feeder system shown in Figure 2.21. This is another situation where directional supervision of OC relays is called for. It is well known that the ring main feeder allows supply to be maintained to all the loads in spite of fault on any section of the feeder. A fault in any section causes only the CBs associated with that section to trip out, and because of the ring topology, power flows from the alternate path. 88 Ty Figure 2.21 Protection of ring feeder using directional OC relays.48. Fundamentals of Power System Protection Characteristics of directional relay A directional relay can be compared to a contact making wattmeter. A wattmeter develops maximum positive torque when the current and voltage supplied to the current coil and the pressure coil are in phase. If we define the maximum torque angle (MTA) as the angle hetween the voltage and current at which the relay develops maximum torque, then a wattmeter can be called a directional relay with MTA of zero degree. ‘The phasor diagram for a directional relay is depicted in Figure 2.23. Directional relay _- Induction cup ee (OOOO) te i Restain \ lee Operating torque = Ky go dco cos (8 — 9) = Ky Vos lee 608 (8 ~ 3) Figure 2.23 Phasor diagram for a directional relay based on induction principle, Voc is the voltage applied to the pressure eoil. The current drawn by the pressure coil Ipc lags the voltage by a large angle 4c. As the fault moves from the forward to the reverse direction, the current undergoes a large change in its phase whereas the phase of the voltage does not change substantially. ‘Thus, voltage signal is the reference against which the phase angle of the current is measured. Now, in a relay based on induction principle, the two fluxes responsible for torque production, ¢p¢ and @cc should be shifted in phase by 90°, for them to produce maximum torque, The torque becomes zero when the current phasor is +90" away fom the MTA.Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 49 position. This gives the direction of the current phasor for maximum torque, the maximum torque angle 1, and the boundary between tripping and restraining regions on the phasor diagram, ‘The operating torque of the directional relay can be expressed as: Operating torque Topersting © Ope dee sin (8 + Bc) From phasor diagram it can be seen that: Opp + 2 = 90" Oc = 90° - Tr operating = Orc dec sin (8 + 90° - 1) = Ope dec sin [(8 - 7) + 90°] = Ky oc too wos (0 - 3) Since dpc = Veo and gcc © Lec Toperating = Kz Vec Toc cos (8 - 1) From the phasor diagram, it ean be easily seen that the maximum torque angle t is given by T= 90° - Oe Since the pressure coil is highly inductive, the value of Qo is of the order of 70° to 80°. This gives MTA of 20° to 10°, However, @pc and hence t can be adjusted to any desired value if an external resistance or capacitance is introduced into the pressure coil circuit. 2.9.3 Application of Directional Relay to a Three-phase Feeder In case of application of directional relays to a three-phase feeder, phase faults need to be considered separately from ground faults. There are various possibilities of energizing these relays; hence the various alternatives need to be carefully considered. The directional relay must meet the following requirements: 1, The relay must operate for forward faults. 2, The relay must restrain during reverse faults. 3. The relay must not operate during faults other than for which it has been provided, ie. the relay must not maloperate. Directional phase fault protection Consider a directional relay for protection against all phase faults involving phase a, ieas, abe, ac, a-c-g, a-b-, and a-b-g faults. Let us consider an a-» fault. It is logical to choose current [, to energize the current coil. However, the choice of voltage to be applied to the pressure coil is not immediately apparent, Figures 2.24 and 2.25 explore the possibility of using voltage Vas and Vz. for the pressure coil of the directional relay catering to phase faults involving phase a. From Figure 2.24, it can be seen that the voltage Vz, tends to collapse during a-b fault. Further, the angle between V,, and I, during50 Fundamentals of Power System Protection fault is substantially large. For the MTA angle shown, the relay does not develop positive torque during forward fault. From these figures, it can be easily seen that both these voltages are not suitable, as they do not meet the requirement set out in Section 2.9.3. Teo, UPE postion Restrain MTA tine lat Forward fault (@) Phasor diagram during a-b fault J, —+} Directional relay |» Trip Lae Yoo ——>| MTA = Reverse fault () Phasor relationships during UPF load, forward and (©) Exploxing the possibitiy of energizing the Teverse fault for phase 2 directional relay phase a directional lay with Voy ‘energized by ly and Yay Figure 2.24 Exploring the possibility of energizing the pressure coil of phase a directional relay with voltage Vis. Phase LUPE position ofl, ha haa yt > Trip Reverse faut 0" MTA tine (©) Phas tlatonsis dung UPF oad oar an (b) Exploring the possbiy of energizing the reverse lat for paces Grecional tay ieee acy ae snerged oy and Vs Figure 2.25 Exploring the possibility of energizing pressure coil of phase a directional relay with voltage Vi, * Forward tout @Overcurrent Protection of Transmission Lines $1 Figure 2.26 shows that the voltaze Vj, hapvens to be the correct choice. Since the unity power factor (UPF) position of J, leads Vi, by 90°, this connection is known as the 90° connection. Phase sequence fas LUPF poston Otte Int THe 8" rrmtne Foyt tat Restrain, | . ve Vee Va a Veet i (8) Phasor diagram during a-b fault : by >| Directional relay Voge] TA b> Tip tar Reverse fault (c} Phasor relationstips during UPF load, forward and (b) Correct energization of phase a directional relay reverse fault for phase a diractional relay with J, and Vac resulting in the 90° connection energized by J, and Vpe (the 80° connection) Figure 2.26 Correct energization of directional relay: 90° connection The 30° and the 60° connections As already pointed out there are other possibilities for energizing the voltage coils of directional relays. However, all the possible voltages may not mect the requirement of no _taloperations, Hence, the choice has been narrowed down to three. The other two possible voltages, for phase a directional relay, are V;_ and (Vj, + Vs.). These are known ay the 30° and the 60° connections because of the angular relationship between the unity power factor (UPF) position of [, and these voltages during the pre-fault condition. ‘Table 2.4 summarizes various combinations of voltages and currents to be fed to directional phase fault relays catering to phase faults involving the three phases, for the 90°, 30° and 60° connections. ‘Table 2.4 Summary of phase fault relay excitation Type of Phase faults Phase faults "Phase faults connection involving phase, a involving phase, involving phase, © Current Voltage Current Voltage _Current_ Voltage 90° iy Vee I ie 30" ia Vee Lb ke 60" . fees: ty te _—52. Fundamentals of Power System Protection Directional ground fault protection ‘The directional ground fault relay develops correct tripping tendency when fed by the residual current Iy and residual voltage Vp. This is shown in Figure 2.27. EN pase 43g Ve Ey=% (2) Phaser diagram for a-g fault 5 Restrain Tp 3h teat MTA tine (0) Phasor relationships between actuating quantities during fcrward and reverse faults ‘Ground fault Yp——>, Directional relay L-—> Trip (pt ly + [) = %p——>) MTA "Wat Vat Va {(c) Directional ground fault relay energized by residual voltage and current Figure 2.27 Directional ground fault relay energization. 2.9.4 Directional OC Protection of a Three-phase Feeder Figure 2.28 shows a three-phase feeder protected by directional relays supervised by OC relays. f t ; 5Over-curven Protection 2 }OC relays ele ret Phase fault cirectional OC relays Ry, Re Ground faut OC 6c Figure 2.28 Complete scheme for directional OC protection of three-phase feeder. 2.9.5 Directional Protection Under Non-fault Condi Power Relay) ions (Reverse ‘There are situations where directional relays have to be used under non-fault conditions. Such an application of directional relay exists in reverse power protection of a turbo- alternator. To distinguish between the two, let us call these directional relays as power directional relay. ‘These situations are different from those where directional relays are applied during fault conditions in the manner that, in case of the power relays, there is no collapse of system voltage. Directional relays for short circuit protection are 50 connected that they develop maximum operating torque under fault conditions. However, directional power relays are so connected that they develop maximum torque when direction of power flow reverses.$4 Fundamen Is of Power Sustem Protection Consider a power relay with an MTA of 30° Figure (2.29). In order to be used as a power relay it can be fed with J, and Vi. It can be seon that [, leads V, by 30° during reverse power flow, thus developing maximum tripping torque. Forward fetes Power directional relay — + Reverse power Veo ———>| pjractonal relay L_. tip Figure 2.29 Connections of a power directional relay with MTA of 30° e 2.10 Drawbacks of Over-current Relays The reach and operating time of the over-current relay depend upon the magnitude of fault current. The fault current that would reeult in case of a fault at a particular location, depends upon 1. The type of fault, i.e. whether it is a ground fault or a phase fault. 2. The source impedance as shown in Figure 2.30. 25> Large Faut, Z5> Sma Lis us Inverse time OC relay Tyree-phase fauit 2, increases 25 decreases ineeases - * tT eiay Fault location Figure 2.30 Fault current and reach is a function of fault type and source impedance.Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 35 Since neither the type of fault nor the source impedance is predictable, the reach of the over-current relay keeps on changing depending upon the source conditions and the type of fault. Thus, even though the relays are set with great care, since their reach is subject to variations, they are likely to suffer from loss of selectivity. Such a loss of selectivity can be tolerated to some extent in the low-voltage distribution systems, where the only objective to be met is the continuity of supply to the consumer. However in EHV interconnected system (grid), loss of selectivity can lead to danger to the stability of the power system, in addition to large disruptions to loads. Therefore, over-current relays cannot be relied upon as a primary means of protection in EHV systems, Another principle of relaying, known as distance measurement, offers a much more accurate reach, which is independent of source conditions and type of fault. This is discussed in Chapter 6, Review Questions 1, What are the necessary conditions for two alternating fluxes acting on a common rotor (a) to produce some torque and (b) to produce maximum torque? 2, What are the situations where DTOC relays are preferred over IDMT relays? 3, What is the difference between plug setting and pick-up value of an OC relay? 4. What are the drawbacks of using DTOC relays for the protection of long feeders? 5. Why does the fault current vary between a minimum and a maximum at any location? ‘The generator impedance does not affect the fault current to a great extent in the low-voltage distribution system. Explain. 7. Explain the overshoot time of a relay and its significance. 8 What do you mean by loss of selectivity between two OC relays in adjoining line sections? What are its eauses? 9. While setting the pick-up value, the minimum fault current at the end of the adjoining feeder needs to be considered; but while setting the TMS the maximum fault current at the beginning of the next section needs to be considered. Explain. 10, What do you mean by an OC relay, supervised by a directional element? 11. What is the meaning of the term ‘directional’ vis a vis directional relaying? 12, What is meant by maximum torque angle vis a vis a directional relay? 18. How will you adjust the MTA of a directional relay? 14, What is the difference hetween the reverse power relay and the directional relay? 15, Why polarizing voltage from a healthy phase is used in three-phase directional relays? 16, While diferent connections lke 90, 20%, and 60° exist in case of directional phase fault relays, why is it that no such connections exist for directional ground fault relays? 17, What are the situations where there is no need to use directional OC relays and the situations where directional relays must be used? 18, Give the procedure for time setting of relays on a ring main feeder system.56 Fundamencals of Power System Protection Problems 1. The pressure coil of a directional relay has an impedance of (100 + 274.74) ohms, ‘What is the MTA for this relay? What change will have to be made to the pressure circuit so as to change this angle to (a) 30° and (b) 15°? 2. For the system shown below, design the complete OC protection using the IDMT. relays. Thus, decide the CT ratios, the plug settings and the TMS at all locations. A 8 ¢ 2 € ‘ Load ion 0a 70 @ Minimum fault current 1500 A 1000A = 780 A 585 A 390 A. Maximum fault current 6000 A__5000 A 3000 A 2000A_———1000 ADifferential Protection 3.1 Introduction Differential protection is based on the fact that any fault within an electrical equipment would cause the current entering it, to be different, from that leaving it. Thus, we can compare the two curtents either in magnitude or in phase or both and issue a trip output if the difference exceeds a predetermined set value. This method of detecting faults is very attractive when both ends of the apparatus are physically located near each other. A typical situation, where this is true, is in the case of a transformer, a generator or a busbar. In the case of transmission lines, the ends are too far apart for conventional differential relaying to be directly applied. 3.2 Dot Markings : Differential protection utilizes CTs at each terminal of the equipment under protection. Careful attention needs to be paid to the ‘dot markings’ (also known as ‘polarity marks’) on these CTs. We, therefore, briefly review the concept of dot markings. Consider a set of three mutually coupled coils 4, B, and C with terminals Ay-A,, B,-By and Cy-C2 a3 shown in Figure 3.1. The question is: how shall we put dot marks on the terminals of these coils? To answer this question, let us energize coil A as shown in Figure 3.2 so that the terminal A; becomes positive with respect to terminal Aj, Now, this will cause an alternating current to flow through coil A, and thus set up an alternating flux @, in the direction shown, at the instant of time under consideration. This flux also links both coils B and C. Voltages will be induced in these coils. Now if a load were to be connected between terminals B, and Bz, a current ‘will be established. According to Lenz’s law, this current would flow in such a direction s0 as to oppose the very cause (flux 4) that was responsible for its (current in coil B) production. Therefore, the direction of current through coil B will be such that the flux (ga) due to it opposes the flux @,. Thus, current will flow out of terminal B,, making B, instantaneously positive with respect to By ST58. Funulamentals of Power System Protection - Ao a A 8 Be co © Co—t e Figure 8.1 Dot markings. Figure 3.2. Dot marks: induced currents and flux. Therefore, By will have the same polarity as that of A. Thus, dot marks ean be put on I A, and B, as shown in Figure. 3.3 to signify that these two terminals will be similarly phased.fen Differcasiat Protection 59 Similar arguments show that current must leave terminal C, at the instant under consideration, Thus, C; will be similarly phased as A,. We, therefore, put dot marks on terminals Aj, Bo, and Cy A little thought will convince the reader that we can instead put dot marks on terminals Ay, By, and C2, as shown in Figure 3.3. Dot mark — Ay Dot mark Bs CG Dot fark c Figure 3.3 Dot marks: symbolic method of representation. From the above discussion, we can generalize the following properties of dot markings: When current enters the dot mark on the primary side of a CT, the current must leave the similarly marked dot mark on the secondary side. If currents are made to enter dot marked terminals on two or more coupled coils then the fluxes produced by these currents are such that they add up. 3.3. Simple Differential Protection 3.3.1 Simple Differential Protection: Behaviour During Load Figure 3.4 shows a simple differential relaying scheme (also known as Merz~Price scheme). The currents entering and leaving the equipment to be protected are stepped down with the help of CTs on either side. Careful attention must be paid to the dot marks placed on the CTs.60 Fundamentals of Power System Protection ct — isla | equiement uncer * brotection , a instantanaous OC relay Plug seting Spill curent Figure 3.4 Simple differential protection. ‘The following rule can be applied in order to trace the currents in the circuit: When current enters the dot mark on the primary side of the CT, the cierrent must lea the similarly marked dot mark on the secondary side. For the operating condition of normal load flow shown in Figure 3.4, the currents transformed by the two CTs, being equal in magnitude as well as in phase, just circulate on the secondary side. There is no tendency for the current to spill into the over-current relay. The over-current relay connected in the spill path is wired to trip the two circuit breakers on either side of the equipment being protected. ‘Assuming that the protected equipment is either a 1: 1 ratio transformer or say a generator winding or a busbar, the two currents on the primary side will be equal. Hence the ratios of the two protective CTs will also be identical. The CT secondary circuits are so connected that in case the conditions are normal, the secondary currents simply circulate through the ‘pilot’ leads connecting the two secondary windings. For the operating condition of normal load flow, there is no current through the ‘apill path’ where an over-current relay is located, Hence, the OC relay will not trip the two CBs. Thus, the simple differential relay meets the first and foremost requirement that it remains stable during normal operating conditions. 3.3.2 Simple Differential Protection: Behaviour During Lo Fault Next, the differential relaying scheme should also remain stable for any fault which is outside its protective zone. Such faults are called external faults or through faults Figure 3.5 shows that during external faults too, the current leaving the protected zone is the same as that entering it, Assuming that the CTs transform the two currents with the same fidelity, there will be no current in the spill path and the scheme remains stable. 3.3.3 Simple Differential Protection: Behaviour During Internal Fault Figure 3.6 shows an internal fault of magnitude J, j.,. The current leaving the protected zone is now J, whereas that entering it is Jy, such that, [ = [z + Ig my As can be seenrental Protection 61 Equipment under protection | External ir / New Figure 3.5 Simple differential scheme remains stable on external faults. from the figure, current in the spill path is now (Ir ine/n), where 1 is the CT ratio. Assuming that the spill current is more than the pick-up value of the over-current relay, both the circuit breakers will be tripped out. Thus, the scheme meets the basic e requirement of clearing internal faults. fet hom P . 3¢—| Equipment under i. 5 t frotecton aS + 4 ‘ a haf a Internal fault 4 Tht hm n ne A fo Plug setting = Jp : e Figure 3.6 Simple differential scheme trips on internal faults. ‘The minimum internal fault current that will cause the tripping, is given by Inmin = (CT ratio) (Plug setting of the OC relay) = nIp, 3.3.4 Simple Differential Protection, Double-end-fed: Behaviour : During Internal Fault _ In the preceding analysis, we have assumed a single-end-fed system. How does the differential scheme behave in case of a double-end-fed system? ‘A double-end-fed system is shown in Figure 3.7, the internal fault is now fed from both sides. The internal fault current, I; jn. is now equal to (Ty + Ia). Again, we see that the spill current is equal to (Tr, ine /”). i cca PontesEquipment under protection Figure 9.7. Simple differential scheme in a doubleend-fed system operatas for gy internal fault Assuming that the spill current is greater than J,,, the plug setting of the OC relay, the relay will operate and trip out the circuit breakers on either side of the protected equipment. 3.4 Zone of Protection of the Differential Relay ‘The differential scheme generates a well-defined and closed zone of protegtion. This zone encompaaces everything between the two CTs as shown in Figure 3.8. Thus, we talk of any fault between the two CTs as an ‘internal fault’. To the differential stheme, all other faults are ‘external faults’ or ‘through faults’. Ideally, therefore, a differential scheme is supposed to respond only to internal faults, and restrain from tripping on external or through faults. - Zone of serena e protection Equipment under protection External faut External fault fomguren eyential Protection 63 Thus, an ideal differential scheme should be abie to respond to the smallest internal fault but restrain from tripping on the largest external fault. This ideal is difficult to achieve, especially for very heavy ‘through faults’ because of the non-ideal nature of the various components of the protective system. This is discussed in the following sections. 3.5 Actual Behaviour of a Simple Differential Scheme In our discussion so far we have tacitly assumed that the CTs are ideal. However, in practice, CTTs are subject to ratio and phase angle errors. Both these errors depend upon the burden on the CTs, which in turn depends on the lead lengths and the impedance of the relay coil. The errors, in general, increase as the primary current increases, as in the case of external faults. Figure 3.9 shows the primary and the secondary current phasors during an external fault. Ideally, for ‘through faults’, secondary currents of both the CTs would be equal in magnitude and in phase with each other, and thus the spill current would be zero. However, as shown in Figure 3.9, CT, has an actual ratio of n, and phase-angle error of 6, while CT; has an actual ratio of nz and phase angle error of 62. The difference between these two currents, therefore, ends up as spill current, as shown in Figure 3.9. Since both the ratio and phase angle errors aggravate as primary current increases, the spill current builds up as the ‘through fault’ current goes on increasing. ees at Equipment under -+ protection I fe hen na External ‘fault ve ‘n= nominal CT ratio ny and ny = actual CT ratios {deal positions of 4, and f, 7 b Primary current Figure 3.9 Spill current because of CT errors64 Fundamentals of Power System Provection 3.5.1. Through Fault Stability and Stability Ratio ‘As the ‘through fault’ current goes on increasing, various imperfections of the CTs get magnified, This causes the spill current to build up. Therefore, as the ‘through fault’ current goes on increasing, a8 shown in Figure 3.10, there comes a stage when the spill current, due to the difference between the secondary currents of the two CTs, exceeds the pick-up value of the over-current relay in the spill path. This causes the relay to operate, disconnecting the equipment under protection from rest of the system. This is clearly a case of maloperation, since the relay has tripped on external fault. In such instances, the differential scheme is said to have lost stability. To signify the ability of the differential scheme to restrain from tripping on external faults, we define ‘through fault stability limit’ as the maximum ‘through fault’ current beyond which the scheme loses stability. In Figure 3.10, ‘through fault stability limit’ is shown as Jay. External fault characteristics Pick-up value of OC felay in spil path i. ie came eee eee Through fault current > Spit current Through fault stabity ME Figure 5.10 Characteristics of simple differential relay, Compare this with the situation of an internal fault. The minimum internal fault current required for the scheme to operate, correctly in this case, is decided by pick-up value of the over-current relay in the spill path. To signify the spread between the minimum internal fault current at which the scheme operates and the maximum ‘through fault’ current beyond which the scheme (mal)operates, we define a term called stability ratio as: maximum ‘through fault’ current beyond which scheme (mal)operates Stability ratio = - i minimum internal fault current required for tripping wc higher _{he slabilty ratio, the better is the ability of the system to discriminate etween external and internal faults, The stability ratio can be improved by improvin; the match between the two CTs. =.Differential Protection 68 3.5.2 Equivalent Circuit of CT Figure 3.11 shows the equivalent circuit of the OT as referred to the secondary side by fy Secondary Burden @ ®) a 2 =~ knoe point & Excitation characteristic of CT g Magretizing current, /, © Figure 3.11 Equivalent circuit of CT.66 Fundunvmats of Power System Protection Rig; and Lj aro the resistance and the leakage inductance of the prmary winding as * referred to the secondary side. Rmog ANd Lmge form the shunt magnetizing branch. The magnetizing inductance is highly nonlinear. Rag and Lage are the resistance and leakage inductance of the secondary winding. The impedance Zjy,e, inchides the resistance and the inductance of the relay coils and resistance of the pilot wire (leads). Also shown in Figure 3.11(c) is a sketch of the magnetization characteristic of the CT (also known as open-circuit characteristic. Out of the current J, transformed by the ideal CT, the magnetizing branch draws the magnetization current I,, It is to be noted that the magnetizing current is a nonlinear function of the excitation voltage Vyq. During normal operating conditions, when Vege is small, the current I, can be safely neglected. However, at higher values of primary current, (and therefore secondary current), as in case of ‘through faults’, the secondary voltage, Vane, Which is equal to T,(Zu + Zyusden) increases and causes I, to become an appreciable fraction of the current transformed by the ideal CT. Thus, we can no longer ignore I, Differential scheme considering CY equivalent circuit Figure 3.12 shows the simple differential scheme in which CT equivalent circuit has been explicitly included. The various currents shown in Figure 3.12 are those that result ae © Eaton lo,- bo) Spill curent ) Figure 3.12 Simple differential scheme with CT equivalent circuits included. ne } i i : 5 |Differential Protection 67 during an external fault condition, Assuming that both CTs have the same nominal ratio of transformation n, we see that a spill current equal to the difference of the two magnetizing currents results. Since the magnetizing currents of the two CTs will generally vary widely, there is a substantial spill current during ‘through fault’ conditions. This results into loss of stability and maloperation of the simple differential scheme. Thus, the simple differential scheme, which looks attractively simple, cannot be used in practice without further modifications This is especially true in case of transformer protection. The CTs on the two sides of the transformer have to work at different primary system voltage. Because the currents ‘on the two sides of the transformer are, in general, different, the ratios of transformation of the CTs are also different. Their designs are therefore different, making it impossible to get a close match between their characteristics. This explains why the spill current goes on increasing as the ‘through fault’ current increases. In case of busbar protection, the primary voltages of the two CTs are the same, and the CT ratios are also the same. However, busbars are subjected to very heavy ‘through fault’ currents, which tend to magnify the differences between the characteristics of the two CTs. Thus, for busbar protection too, the simple differential scheme needs to be further modified Both these aspects have been dealt with in detail in subsequent chapters. 3.6 Percentage Differential Relay ‘The simple differential relay can be made more stable, if somehow, a restraining torque proportional to the ‘through fault’ current could be developed—the operating torque still being proportional to the spill current. ‘This idea has been implemented in the percentage differential relay shown in Figure 3.13. This relay has a restraining coil which is tapped at the centre, thus forming two sections with equal number of turns, N;/2. The restraining coil is connected in the circulating current path, thus receiving the ‘through fault’ current, The operating coil, having N, number of turns, is connected in the spill. path. Let us work out the torque equation for this relay. Ampere-turns acting on the left-hand section of the restraining coil = “ph Ampere-turns acting on the right-hand section of the restraining coil Ne ‘Total ampere-turns acting on the restraining coil = E(L, + fp) Noting that torque in an electromagnetic relay is proportional to the square of the flux, Torque produced by the restraining coil where M is a constant of proportionality. Restraining torque produced by control spring = Tyeing