2.

1 Introduction
As already pointed out, the most obvious effect of a shunt fault is a sudden build up of
current. Therefore, it is only natural that the magnitude of current be utilized as a
positive indication of existence of a fault. I t is no wonder, therefore, that the over-current
protection is the most widely used form of protection. In many situations, it may be the
only protection provided. This type of protection which depends on only the magnitude
of the current, without taking any cognizance of its phase angle, is known as the
non-directional over-current protection.
However, many times it is required to discriminate between faults rn front of the
breaker and faults behind the breaker. This is possible only if we take into account, not
only the magnitude of the current but also its phase with respect to the voltage a t the
relay location. In such cases, the protection is known as the directional over-current
protection. A little thought will convince the readers that a directional over-current
protection affords greater selectivity than a non-directional over-current protection.
We must not forget that any type of protection is first a concept. Then, it needs to
be implemented. The vehicle of implementation is the relay. We can thus imagine a non 0
directional over-current relay, which provides the non-directional over-current protection
and so on.
Historically, however, fuses have preceded the over-current relays for providing over-
current protection. We will, therefore, take a brief look a t fuses in the next section.

2.2 Fuse
Fuses are the oldest protective devices that have survived from the dawn of the age of
electricity to the present times. This can be attributed to their intuitive simplicity The
fuse allows the normal current to flow but melts itself out, thus breaking the circuit,
when the current exceeds a certain magnitude for a certain amount of. time. It combines
the functions of sensing, comparing, and interrupting the current into one. Figure Z.l(a)
depicts the external appearance of a high rupturing capacity (HRC) fuse. The current
26
 versus time characteristic of a fuse is shown in Figure Z.l(b,. The waveform of che short-
circuit current interrupted by a fuse is shown in Figure 2.l(c). where it can be seen that
the fuse interrupts the current even before it attains its peak value.

(a) External appearance of a HRC fuse

(b) Time-current characteristic of a fuse

t 1,
/ Prospective peak
\

Fault current
I

Instant of ,:
interruption k,

I
,
,
\
'
I

_'
J

(c) Short-circuit current interrupted by a fuse

Figure 2.1 High rupturing capacity (HRC) fuse.

I

2.3 Thermal Relays

Thermal relays, of the bimetallic type, work on the principle of strain generated due to
unequal linear expansion of two different metals as a result of heat generated by the
28 F~tr~dainirrerirnls
o f Power Svsrerrr Prvtecrion

passage of the fault current. Figure 2.2(a) shows a bimetallic relay consisting of strips AB .
and CD of two different materials. Both the strips get heated up by the same amount but
are deformed by diqering amounts. Figure 2.2(b) shows the rclay operation. The material .
with higher coefficient of expansion is a t the outer surface of the curve while that with
lower coefficient is at the inner surface.
Low coefficient r - O
of expansion Heater coil
4 I / 'Trip c

High coefficient
of expansion

Figure 2.2 A bimetallic relay

Since the heating effect is propnrtional to the square of the current, the energy
dissipated is given by (1?R)t,where t is the time for which the current flows through the
relay. (i
Since accumulation of sufficient amount of heat depends on the thermal inertia of the
relay, which tends to be rather large, these relays are used where. . .very
. ~ q
. u. i c-k m a t i o n
-~ ~

- application of the thermal relay is to provide protection a g a w

is not d e d f ~A. typical
prolonpeddo_ve~&a&ngo f m o t ~ p . The thermal overload relay thus let; the motor supply
overload for a preset amount of time before tripping it off.

2.4 Over-current Relay

An over-current (OC) relay has a single input in the form of ac current. The output of
the relay is a normally-open contact, which changes over to closed state when the relay
trips. The relay has two settings. These are the time setting and the plug setting. The
time setting decides the operating time of the relay while the plug setting decides the
current required for the relay to pick up. T h e name plug setting comes from the
 ~Izctromechanicdover-current relay. In these relays, we have io ~ n s e r at shorting ?lug in
J. plug-setting bridge, so as to change che numher of turns of the operating cod to get a
particular pick-up value. The same terminologlv continues to be used in the modern
relays. The block diagram of an OC reldy is ahown in Figure 2.3.

a
Time setting

Input current Time over-current ~ r c poutput

relay

Plug setting (Pick-up)

Figure 2.3 Block diagram of an over-current relay.

The plug-setting multiplier, PSM, is defined as follows:

Irelay
PSM = - /
PS
where Irelay is the current through the relay operating coil and PS is the plug-setting of
the relay. The value of PSM tells us about the severity of the current as seen by the relay
A PSM less than 1 means that normal load current is flowing. At PSM > 1, the relay is
supposed to pick up. Higher values of PSM indicate how serious the fault is.
For example, let us consider a 1.0 A relay (i.e. a relay with current coil designed t o
carry 1.0 A on a continuous basis) whose plug has been set a t 0.5 A, i.e. at 50%. Assume
that, for a certain fault, the relay current is 5.0 A. The relay, therefore, is said to be
operating a t a PSM of (5.0/0.5) = 10.

@ 2.4.1 Instantaneous OC Relay

It is to be noted that the word instantaneous has a different connotation in the field of
power system protection. Instantaneous actually means no intentional time delay.
Howsoever fast we want the relay to operate; it needs a certain minimum amount of time.
The operating time of an instantaneous relay is of the order of a few milliseconds. Such
a relay has only the pick-up setting and does not have any time setting. The construction
and the characteristics of an instantaneous attracted armature type relay is shown in
Figure 2.4, wherein it can be seen that as the armature of the relay gets attracted towards
the coil, the air-gap becomes smaller, and hence the reluctance becomes smaller. This
results in increased flux which causes the force on the armature to build up (force being
proportional to the square of the flux density). This is a positive feedback action which
results in the armature moving quickly in an instantaneous snap action. The operating
torque on the armature is proportional to the square of the current.
 30 F ~ ~ ~ r c l r ~ r r ~o ef ~Po~ver
~ t a l s Sj~sreti7P,vr?crior~

-
:C:
0
0
a,
-
.-m
-
.-
-E
-
.-E
.--
m
C

E Operating lime
0
d
I
- f
t
Pick-up value
Current (amperes)
I

Figure 2.4 Instantaneous over-current relay characteristic.

a
2.4.2 Definite Time Over-current Relay
A definite time over-current relay can be adjusted to issue a trip output at a definite (and
adjustable) amount of time, after it picks up. Thus, it has a time-setting adjustment and
a pick-up adjustment. The characteristic and the block diagram are shown in
Figure 2.9.
A
..
Time setting

m
-m
.-E
C
.-
t
d
Current
Plug setting @'
Plug setting
Trip output
-.

.-
j. t

?
0
Time setting Operating time 1
----- r - - - J. (, 1
i
f
Pick-up value
Current + f

Figure 2.5 Definite time over-current relay characteristic.

2.4.3 Inverse Time Over-current Relay

Inverse time characteristic fits in very well, with the requirement that the more severe
a fault is, the faster it should be cleared to avoid damage to the apparatus. This type of
characteristic is naturally obtained from an electromechanical relay, which has led to its
:' widespread use and standardization. With the advent of microprocessor-based relays, it is
,,
!I now possible to generate any imaginable time-current characteristic. However, in order to
I:,
r:
,I
maintain compatibility with the very large number of electromechanical relays, still in
 service, certain i f i v r s e time characteristics, described in the nesz sectior., have beer,
standardized.

Inverse definite minimum time (IDi)IT) oaer-current relay

This is possibly the most widely used characteristic. The characteristic is inverse in the
initial part, which tends to a definite minimum operating time as the current becomes
very high. The reason for the operating time becoming definite minimum, a t high values
of current, is that in the electromechanical relays the flux saturates at high values of
current and the relay operating torque, which is proportional to the square of the flux,
does not increase substantially after the saturation sets in. Such a characteristic came
about because of the limitation of the electromechanical technology Ideally, we may
demand that the operating time be inverse in nature throughout the operating range. The
mathematical relation between the current and the operating time of IDMT characteristic
- can be written as

I I

where PSM is the plug-setting multiplier and TMS is the time-multiplier setting of the
relay. Thus, the operating time is directly proportional to the TMS and inversely
proportional to the PSM. The characteristics of the IDMT relay are shown in
Figure 2.6.

Plug-setting rnult~pller(relay current as a rnultlpie of plug setting)

Figure 2.6 Inverse definite minimum time relay characteristics (TMS = 1.0).

-
 32 Funda~nenmlso j Power Sysrern Prorectioi~

Very inverse time over-current relay

The inverseness of this characteristic is higher than that of the IDMT characteristic. The
mathematical relation between the current and the operating time of such a characteristic
can be written as

The characteristic of the relay is shown in Figure 2.6.

Extremely inverse time over-current relay

The inverseness of this characteristic is higher than that of the very inverse
characteristic. The mathematical relation between the current and the operating
- time of
such a characteristic can he written as
m .
It,; 80.0 (TMS)
(PSM)~
- 1

The characteristic of the relay is shown in Figure 2.6.

2.5 Implementation of Over-current Relay Using Induction

I
Disk --
In order to understand the working of an induction disk type relay; let u s first see how
,'i ,
torque can be produced by two alternating fluxes acting on a common metallic but non-
magnetic rotor. Figure 2.7 shows two alternating fluxes and @2 having a phase
f
T difference of 0 between them.
Induced flux
f
hernating fluxes

Ed<-. -

//

1
I'

aluminiurn disc

F i g u'e 2.7 Operating principle of induction disc type relay.

 Over-crrrrcnr Protectlort of Traizsnris~ro~~
Lines 33

Thus, we have
$1 = ,$, sin ot
pz = h,sin (at + 8 )
Each flux induces a voltage in the disc, and hence gives rise to induced currents ih and
'
b ~ Assuming
x that the eddy current path has negligible inductance, we can write

4 2 a $2 = o h 2cos (ot +
7 8)

As shown in Figure 2.7, 4 interacts with i, to produce force Fl. Likewise $2 interacts
with i,, to produce a force Fz. Assuming w to be constant, we have
@ F1 = $liCz a sin wt cos ( w t + 8)
F2 = hi,,a &,&, sin ( w t + 8) cos wt
The net force (F2 - F l ) is thus, given by
3'2 - FI a [sin ( w t + 8) cos ot - cos ( w t + 8) sin wt ]
which simplifies to
I F2 - F1 sin 81, $m1&2

The following important conclusions can be drawn from the above expression for
torque:
Two alternating fluxes with a phase shift are needed for torque production,
i.e. a single alternating flux would not produce torque.
Maximum torque is produced when two alternating fluxes are shifted in phase
by 90".
The resultant torque is steady, i.e. it is not a function of time, as time t is not
involved in the expression for torque.
Since in an over-current relay, there is only one input quantity, it will not be possible
to produce torque unless two fluxes shifted in phase are produced.
The above principle has been used in the induction disc type over-current relay whose
construction is shown in Figure 2.8. Herein two fluxes shifted in time phase are obtained
from the input current, by using a shading coil. The flux in the shaded coil lags the main
flux. The torque thus produced by the interaction of the two fluxes, neglecting saturation,
is proportional to I 2 since each of the flux is proportional to I. This is the deflecting
torque TdeneCtinp The spiral spring provides the control torque Tcontrolling The control
: torque can be considered to be directly proportional to the angle 6, through which the
back-stop has been retarded from the trip position. The permanent magnet provides the
damping torque, which is active only when the disc is in motion and is thus proportional
to the rate of change of angle dFldt. The torque equation can therefore be written as
34 F~rrirln~ne~~tals
of Power S y s t e ~ Protr.crioll
f~

ThlS adjustment dial

Movable contact

0Figure 2.8
- -
---------,------
5

,
Constmction of an induction disc relay. ':.,
.
..

where K is deflection constant, S is the spring constant, and D is the damping constant.
All these constants depend upon the design of the relay.
When the disc is on the verge of deflection, we can equate the torques and write
i
d6 K
S and K2 = -
-
dt
+ K,6 - ~~1~= 0, K, = D
The solution of the above equation is of the form i
I
6 = K,e-" KK,
where K, and K4 are functions of K1 and K2, i.e. S, D and 1'. Now,
At t = 0; 6= 6,,,t,,1

At t = top; 6 = 0
We can find the operating time by finding the value of time t for which 6 becomes
zero. The value of Finitial is decided by the time-multiplier setting.
 The exact analysis of the dynamics of induction disc is quite involved. However, it can
be noted that by proper design of the magnetic circuit a wide range of characteristics from
extremely inverse to definite time can be obtained.

2.6 Application of Definite Time O C Relays for Protection

of a Distribution Feeder
Consider a three-phase feeder as shown in the single-line diagram of Figure 2.9, with two
line sections AB and BC. Assume that DTOC relays are used at buses A and B. There are
loads at all the three buses.
Three-phase line
Bus C

I
I

Fault location
Figure 2.9 Application of DTOC relays for feeder protection.

The protection problem can be stated as follows:

Given the magnitudes of all the loads and the fault currents at all the buses, how to

e set the DTOC relays a t buses A and B so that the entire feeder gets over-current
protection arranged as primary and back-up protection.
The first step in designing the over-current protection is to select the ratios for all
the CTs. The secondary current of the CT is decided by the rating of the relay current
coil. The CT primary current is decided by the maximum load current to be carried by
the CT primary. Next we have to do the relay setting. It may be noted that setting of the
relay, where the DTOC relays are involved, means:
1. How to select the pick-up value of the relay?
2. How to set the operating time of the relay?

How to select the pick-up value of the relay?

The setting problem has been pictorially depicted in Figure 2.10.
We can set the pick-up value of the relay, keeping in mind, that the relay should allow
normal load as well as a certain degree of overload to be supplied. Thus the pick-up value
36 Fu,idrz~ui.rlmlsof Power S.vsterrz Protecriun

of the relay should be more than the allowable maximum load. At the same time, the relay
should be sensitive enough to respond to the smallest fault. Thus, the pick-up value
should be less than the smallest fault current. Therefore, we can write the foliowing rule,
as far as setting the pick-up value of the OC relay is concerned:
1 IL,
m a < Ipu< Ic,mln 1 -

Permissible ,I I
I
overload I
Minimum fault current --+ I

I
% Maximum fault current
Figure 2.10 The plug setting of DTOC relays

How to set the operating time of the relay

Here we are guided by the principle that a relay must get an adequate chance to protect
the zone under its primary protection. Only if the primary protection does'not clear the
fault, the back-up protection should initiate tripping. Thus as soon as the fault takes
place, it is sensed by both the primary and the back-up protection. ~ a t u r a l l j !the primary
protectioil is the first to operate, its operating time being less than that of the back-up
relay. Figure 2.11 shows the relationship between the operating time of the primary relay
and that of the back-up relay. We have to allow for the overshoot of the primary relay, so
that there is proper coordination between the primary and the back-up. Overshoot time I)
If fault is cleared beyond this porn1 Overshoot
the relay RA does not reset '-"yL ' time To,,.
Relay R, operating time. T,,,
v -Time
4
I
Fault instant +
I Reiay RA
I trips
f I
Relay Re operating Circuit breaker B
<
time, T,,,
- TR,A' TR.B Tca.6
+
perating time. Tc,,
+ TOSA -, 4,, ,--+Time

Figure 2.11 The time setting of DTOC relays.

 Over-currer~rProtecrio~lof Tro~r.vnissionLines 37

is defined as the time for which the relay mechanism continues to move, even after the
operating coil has been de-energized. Overshoot is because of the moment of inertia of the
moving system.
i n the light of the above discussion, the correct procedure would be to start
the setting from the tail end of the feeder system. The relay, which is at the end of the
radial feeder, can be made to operate without any delay, as i t does not have to coordinate
with any other relay. In the given example of Figure 2.9, iet us assume that the operating
time of RB is set to 0.1 6 . Thus relay RA should wait for 0.1 s plus, a time equal to the
operating time of circuit at bus B (TCB,B) plus overshoot time of relay A (ToS,*). Thus,
we can write
TR,B= 0.1 s (fastest)

Assuming CB operating time = 0.5 s and overshoot time = 0.2 s, we have

TR,, = 0.1 + 0.5 + 0.2 = 0.8 s

The time step between the operating times of the two relays, which is equal to the sum
of the operating time of the circuit breaker at B and the overshoot time of relay A, is
essential for maintaining selectivity between relays at A and B. Hence this interval is
referred to as the selective time interval (STI). The worksheet for the settings of the relays
thus can be written as shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Purpose and setting of relays

Relay Purpose Pick-up value Time setting

Primary protection Fastest
of section BC IL,C
< I p u 4 B < II,c,
mln TR,U= 0.1 s
Ru Note: RB is at the
tail end of the system
Back-up protection of + IL,c)
(IL,B < II,C
< Ipu4* min TR,A= TRB+ TCB,B
+ TOS,A
section BC = 0.1 + 0.5 + 0.2
RA
Primary protection of = 0.8 s
section AB

Note that the setting process has to be started from the relay which is at the tail end
of the system. This is because this relay is not at all constrained by selectivity problems.
All other upstream relay settings are tied up with their downstream neighbours.
The result of this setting process is shown in Figure 2.12. It can be seen from this
figure that as the fault moves towards the source, the fault currents become larger and
the fault clearing time also becomes longer. This is because the relays nearer the source
are deliberately delayed so that they are selective with relays downstream Thus, the relay
nearest to the source is the slowest. This is not desirable. I t can be shown that a
significant improvement in fault clearing time, as we move towards the source, is
obtained if we use the Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) relays.
38 F~rndu17ienralsof Power Systrln Prorecrio~i

Three-ohase line

Fault location

r'
'2
2 0.8 s
w
n ST1 = 0.7 s
0 Operating time
-m
X
of Ra = 0.8 s
2
Fault location
Figure 2.12 Setting of DTOC relays for OC protection of a feeder.
--

2.7 Application of Inverse Definite Minimum T h e Relay

on a Distribution Feeder
Consider a radial feeder with two buses A a n d B where IDMT OC relays a r e to be used
(Figure 2.13). It should be noted that:

0
Source

E
2s
Bus A
CB-
v
Three-phase line

m-
'R,A
Bus B
.r
7.
- M
IR, B
-

Load I,,," Load l ~ , ~

= 160 A = 80 A
-
Bus A Bus B Bus C
If m,n = 3500 A IF, mln = 2000 A I,, ,, = 1000 A
I,, mx = 4000 A 4mx = 3000 A , ,% = 1500 A
Figure 2.13 Setting of IDMT OC relays.
 Over-current Proteciion of Transmission iznes 39

The purpose of relay RB is to prov~deprimary protection to line 3C.

r The purpose of relay RA is to provide primary protection to line 33 and back-up
to line BC.
We start the setting process from ;he tail end of the system.
(a) Deciding the CT ratios and plug settings:
(i) At relay B, the maximum load current, assuming 25% overload is:
80 A + (0.25 x 80 A) = 100 A
Assuming 1 A relay to be used, the CT ratio can be selected to be 100 : 1. The plug
setting PS can be done at loo%, i.e. PS = 1.0 A.
(ii) At relay A the maximum load current, assuming 25% overload is:

Assuming 1 A relay to be used, the CT ratio can be selected to be 300 : 1. The plug
1) setting can be done at loo%, i.e. PS = 1.0 A.
(b) Deciding the time-multiplier settings: Starting from the most remote relay RB
(i) Since RB does not have to maintain selectivity with any other relay, it can be
made to operate the fastest. Thus the TMS of RB can be selected as 0.1.
(ii) Now, to maintain selectivity between RA and RB,the folloulng constraint must
be met:

fault at B
The operating time of RB for maximum fault just beyond bus B can be found from

For maximum fault at B, fault current = 3000 A on primary side which becomes
(30001100) = 30 A secondary. Since plug setting is done at 1.0 A,

PSM = ---- =
30
- = 30
PS 1
The TMS of RB has already been set at 0.1. Substituting these values, we get

Let TCB,B= 0.5 S. Then,

TR,B + TCB,B= 0.7 s
This value of 0.7 s is the desired operating time of RA. Assuming overshoot time of RA
to be 10% of 0.7 s, i.e. TOS.*= 0.07 8.
Thus, we get the required operating time of RA for maximum fault at bus B:
T R , A m a x f a u l t=a t0.2
B + 0.5 + 0.07 = 0.77 s
40 Fltrldarnentals of Power Svstern Protectiorl

The TMS of RAcan be found from the following expression for the operating time of RA:
0.14 (TMS)
0.77 =
PSM~."- 1
We have, for RA, for the above condition, PSM = I,,,,lPS = (3000/300)/1 = 10
Hence. for R a
!1o0.O2 - 1)
TMS = 0.77 = 0.26
0.14
This finishes the setting of both the relays.
We can verify that the selectivity for minimum fault at bus B is automatically
maintained.
Minimum fault current for fault at bus B = 2000 A. Relay B current corresponding
to this is 20001100 = 20 A. Since plug setting is 1 A, this translates into a PSM of 20.
For relay Rg, TMS = 0.1. Thus, operating time of RB for minimum fault at bus B will be:
0.14(0.1)
a
TR,B,min fault at B ~ - = o,226
= T ~ =, 200.02
and
TCB,s= 0.5 s
Expected operating time of RA for this fault should be greater than
0.226 + 0.5 + O.l(O.226 + 0.5) = 0.726 + 0.0726 = 0.7986 = 0.8 s (approx.)
NOW,let us find out the actual operating time of RA for minimum fault at bus 3:
..
Minimum fault current = 2000 A
Relay RA current corresponding to this is: 20001300 = 6.66 A
Since plug setting is 1 A, this translates into a PSM of 6.66. For relay RAT
TMS = 0.26. Thus the operating time of RA for minimum fault at bus B will be:

This value of 0.94 s is greater than the minimum operating time of 0.8 s, required for
maintaining selectivity between RA and RE.
The results can be listed as follows:
Relay CT ratio Plug setting TMS
RB 100 : 1 1A 0.1
RA 300 : 1 1A 0 26
The sketch of fault clearing time as a function of fault location for IDMT relays is shown
in Figure 2.14.
We can deduce the following general rules from the above setting exercise:
Start the setting from the relay at the tail end of the system.
Plug setting should be such that: IL, max < P S < If,,in at the end ornert sRtion i.e. for
plug setting consider m i n i m u m fault current at the e n d of the next section.
 * TMS should be decided such that the selectivity with the next relay downstream
is maintained for maximum fault current at the beginning of the next section.
Three-phase iine
R,,eA !

Fault location
Figure 2.14 Variation of fault current against fault location for IDMT relays under
maximum fault condition.

These rules are shown in Figure 2.15 for a simple system consisting of two buses. The
same principle can be extended to an n bus system. In fact, a computer algorithm can be
developed to automate this task in case of a large system.

Source
Zs
Bus A
cB-1~.
r m-
Three-phase line
Bus B
- IR B
Bus C

Load / Load ;
/LA I IL,B I
0
b 4
C,min, B
4 wx. B
Plug sett~ngof Re should be such that:
1 If,,,,, > PS of RB > (IL, + Overload)
TMS of R0 can be set at the smallest value of 0.1.1
Plugsetting of R, should be such that
(I, ,,c > PS of RA > [(IL + IL C) + ~verloadli
TMS of RA should be such that:

, for If,, , , operating time time of R,

Figure 2.15 Rules for setting IDMT OC relays,

 42 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

2.7.1 Choice Beiween IDMT and DTOC Relays

It can be seen that IDMT relays offer significant improvement in fault clearing times over
DTOC relays. A question that naturally arises is: if this is so, there should be no need
to use DTOC relays. However, there are situations where IDMT relays do not offer
significant advantages over DTOC relays. For example, consider a system where
Zs >> ZL. Since the fault current as a function of fault location is proportional to
E E
-
Zc , it would remain more or less constant throughout the length of the
I -
f - Z " + z"
-Lz
cs
-
feeder, therefore, the inverseness of the IDMT characteristics cannot be exploited. In such
situations, DTOC relays being cheaper may be preferred. Such feeders are also described
as electrically short in length, irrespective of their physical length. Thus we can say that
DTOC relays are suitable for lines which are short in length.

It is a practice to recommend DTOC relays when

zs 2
- 2 . See Figure 2.16.
ZL

E
A

Zs ..
Short line

$
ZL

2
P
-z I

=
L

U I, - E
=3 2 s + ZL
m
I >
Fault location

Figure 2.16 Choice between DTOC and IDMT relays.

2.8 Protection of a Three-phase Feeder a

Up to this point we have shown three-phase feeders with the help of a single-line diagram.
The single-line diagram hides the complexity of the three-phase system. The three-phase
system is subject to phase faults as well as ground faults. For providing complete
protection to a three-phase feeder, we can begin with three relays connected to three CTs
as shown in Figure 2.17. As can be seen from Table 2.2, all the 11 numbers of shunt faults
are catered for by the three relays.
The relays a t bus A will be coordinated with those a t bus B using the procedure
illustrated in Section 2.7.
It may be pointed out here, that fault current for a single line to ground fault,
depends upon the system grounding as well as the tower footing resistance. Therefore, it
may happen that the fault current for a single line to ground fault, may be less than the
load current. In such cases, it will not be possible to cater to such faults if we use the
d,
 Ovrr-cxrrenr Proreerio~~
of Transmission L111rs 43

<----------- ,jne*-B ------------>

Phase a m

CT ratio n : 1

Figure 2.17 OC protection of a three-phase feeder.

Table 2.2 Protection of a three-phase feeder

Relays which will operate
Fault Three-phase fault Two-phase fault + one ground
relays of ~ i ~ u2.17
re fa& relay of Figure 2.18
a-R R, R,, RE
b-g
c-g
a-b
b-c
c-a
a-6-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-6-c
a-6-c-g

scheme shown in Figure 2.17. A little thought will show that if we connect an OC relay
In the residual current path a s shown in Figure 2.18, it will be blind to the load current
(which is balanced three-phase current) and see only the ground fault currents. The
current in this path will be zero or near zero during normal balanced load conditions as
44 Fl~?zdnn~entals
of Power Systen~Protection

well as during a three-phase fault. Thus, the setting of this relay, which is in the residual .
current path, can be made independent of load current and can indeed be much smaller
than the load current.
Further, as illustrated in Figure 2.18, it is not necessary to use all the three relays -
for detection and protection against phase faults. We can get rid of any one phase fault
relay without affecting the performance of the scheme. In Figure 2.18, the relay in the
phase b has been removed.

T r ~ pcolt

R, Rg R'
Trlp battery Ground fault
OC relay R,

contacts

Figure 2.18 Two-phase fault relays and one ground fault relay for OC protection i
of a three-phase feeder.
@ i
Table 2.2 shows the operation of relays for all the 11 shunt faults for OC schemes of :i
.i

t
Figure 2.17 and Figure 2.18, which shows that all the 11 shunt faults are catered for by .I
2
these schemes. 1
. !I
I
2.9 Directional Over-current Relay ,i,
B

Figure 2.19 shows a double-end-fed power system. The zones to be generated by the relays Ii
are also shown. Consider that we have only over-current relays a t our disposal. Will it be F
.i
possible to implement the desired zones using simple over-current relays? In order to
answer this question, let us focus on OC relays a t bus C. Note that OC relays operate on
i
the magnitude of fault current and cannot sense the direction of the fault.
Consider fault F,. As per the desired zones, only CBs 4 and 5 should trip. However, j
t
it can be easily seen that if plain OC relays are used, CBs 3, 4, 5, and 6 will all trip as ?
$
'1
-- . -- -- ~ - ~ ~~~ ~~ ..,---..T.--- .~, +
-, -'i
 Over-current Protecrion o f T~ans~?~ission
Lines 45

the fault will be seen by OC reiays at these !ocations. Thus, the desired zones are not
generated. The desired relay response is shown in Tabie 2.3 with respect to faults Fa
and F,.

Figure 2.19 Need for directional relay.

Table 2.3 Response of OC relays to generate desired zones of protection

Direction of Desired Direction of Desired

Fault fault power response fault power response of
flow at bus C of OC relay flow at bus C OC relay
as seen from 5 at 5 as seen from 6 at 6
Fo Away Trip Towards Restrain
from bus C bus C
Fb Towards Restrain Away Trip
bus C from bus C

Thus it can be seen from Table 2.3, that whenever the fault power flows away from
the bus, it is desired that the OC relay should trip. It should restrain if it sees the fault
power flowing towards the bus.

2.9.1 Other Situations Where Directional OC Relays are Necessary

There are other situations where it becomes necessary to use directional relays to
supervise OC relays. One such situation is a single-end-fed system of parallel feeders,
shown in Figure 2.20, where a fault on any of the parallel lines is fed not only from the
faulted line but from the healthy line as well.
If directional relays are not provided, in conjunctio~with OC relays, then the desired
zones will not be generated. This will result in both lines being tripped out for any fault
on any one of the lines.
I t may be noted that directional relays with tripping direction away from the bus will
be required at locations '2' and '3' in Figure 2.20. However, at locations '1' and '4',
non-directional over-current relays will suffice. Since directional relay units cost more
and aiso need the provision of PTs, they should be used only when absolutely necessary.
46 Fu~rda,ne~lrals
of Power Svsre171Prorecnorr

(a) Parallel feeders, singleend-fed system 4~oad

++ 1_------.-.--------------------------2_-
+,T"pping direction
E :---_
-
::
................................ --n--'
*

4 -a_-------- 3 ----------
---.--------
--- -.
,_--

4+ ';j
?
(b) Desired zones and tripping direction of OC relays !

Figure 2.20 Single-end-fed parallel feeder needs directional OC protect~on.

Consider the ring main feeder system shown in Figure 2.21. This is another situation
where directional supervision of OC relays is called for. It is well known that the ring
main feeder allows supply to be maintained to all the loads in spite of fault on any section
of the feeder. A fault in any section causes only the CBs associated with that section to
trip out, and because of the ring topology, power flows from the alternate path.

$\
Load - / Load

Figure 2.21 Protection of ring feeder using directional OC relays

Characteristics of directional relay
4 directional relay can be compared to a contact making wattmeter. A wattmeter develops
maximum positive torque when the current and voltage supplied to the current coil and
the pressure coil are in phase. If we define the maximum torque angle (MTA) as the angle
between the voltage and current at which the relay develops maximum torque, then a
wattmeter can be called a directional relay with MTA of zero degree.
The phasor diagram for a directional relay is depicted in Figure 2.23.
!

From CT

,.Position of lCc for . .~

i
,,' maximum torque
I
i '

j
I.
1 ;
..
j
$ 8
, ,
!
Operating torque = K , cos ( 8 -
@pC @CC
= K2 \ipc ICc cos ( 9 - T)
7)
'1i
I'. t
' b
I
i
Figure 2.23 Phasor diagram for a directional relay based on induction principle. i1
i
Vpc is the voltage applied to the pressure coil. The current drawn by the pressure coil :/ .,
lags the voltage by a large angle BPc
IPC -11 ,
As the fault moves from the forward to the reverse direction, the current undergoes ,i
a large change in its phase whereas the phase of the voltage does not change substantially. ,I
Thus, voltage signal is the reference against which the phase angle of the current is .i;
measured. t.
Now, in a relay based on induction principle, the two fluxes responsible for torque 8
1
production, and $cc should be shifted in phase by 90°,for them to produce maximum i
torque. The torque becomes zero when the current phasor is 290" away from the MTA i
;
 Ove,--cu~.r-e~zr
Protecrion af Transmission Llnes 49
--
position. Thls e v e s the direction of the current phasor for max~mum torque, the
maximum torque angle T, and the boundary between tripping and restraining regions on
the phasor d~agram.
The operating torque of the directional relay can be expressed as:
Operating torque To,,,t,,, x @PC @CC sin ( 0 + 6pC)
From phasor diagram it can be seen that:
OpC + = 90'

:. a $pC kc sin (8 + 90" -

Toperating 7)

Q $pc @cCsin [(0 - T) + 90°]

= Kl Spc $CCcos (8 - d
Since $pc a VPc and @cC Q Ice
Toperating= K2 VPCICCcos ( 0 - 7)

From the phasor diagram, it can be easily seen that the maximum torque angle T is
given by
T = 90" - 6?pC

Since the pressure coil is highly inductive, the value of 6pC is of the order of 70" to 80".
This gives MTA of 20" to 10". However, 0pc and hence T can be adjusted to any desired
value if an external resistance or capacitance is introduced into the pressure coil circuit.

2.9.3 Application of Directional Relay to a Three-phase feeder

In case of application of directional relays to a three-phase feeder, phase faults need to be
considered separately from ground faults. There are various possibilities of energizing
these relays; hence the various alternatives need to be carefully considered. The
directional relay must meet the following requirements:
1. The relay must operate for forward faults.
2. The relay must restrain during reverse faults.
3. The relay must not operate during faults other than for which it has been
provided, i.e. the relay must not maloperate.

Directional phase fault protection

Consider a directional relay for protection against all phase faults involving phase a ,
i.e. a-b, a-b-g, a-c, a-c-g, a-b-c, and a-b-c-g faults. Let us consider an a-b fault. It is logical
to choose current I, to energize the current coil. However, the choice of voltage to be
applied to the pressure coil is not immediately apparent. Figures 2.24 and 2.25 explore
the possibility of using voltage Vd and V,, for the pressure coil of the directional relay
catering to phase faults involving phase a. From Figure 2.24, it can be seen that the
voltage Vabtends to collapse duringa-b fault. Further, the angle between V,b and I, during
50 F~~~~do~rrenrrils
of Power System Protection

fault i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y large. F o r t h e iMTA a n g l e s h o w n , t h e r e l a y does n o t develop p o s i t i v e

t o r q u e during f o r w a r d f a u l t . F r o m these figures, it c a n b e easily seen that b o t h these
voltages a r e n o t suitable, as t h e y d o n o t m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t set o u t in S e c t i o n 2.9.3.

Phase
sequence

Restrain

vt vbt vb
(a) Phasor diagram during a-b fault

0
0

relay Trip
Reverse fault
(c) Phasor relationships during UPF load, forward and
(b) Exploring the possibility of energizing the reverse fault for phase a directional relay
phase a directional relay with V,, energized by I, and 'J,b

Figure 2.24 E x p l o r i n g t h e possibility o f energizing the pressure coil o f phase a

directional relay w i t h voltage VOb.

, .
..
sequence
la "a, f
vca, 1 vab. f
UPF position
Of I,
Forward fault

vc v,, v,
(a) Phasor diagram during a-b fault

0
0
0
0

1a.t
relay Trip Reverse fault
MTA line

(c) Phasor relationships during UPF load, forward and

(b) Exploring the possibility of energizing the reverse fault for phase a directional relay
phase a directional relay with V,, energized by I , and V,,.

Figure 2.25 Exploring the possibility of energizing pressure coil o f phase a directional
relay w i t h voltage V,,.
 Over-cr;r!-elir Protecrio~lof Tro~~sr~~lssio!l
Liner 51

Figure 2.26 shows that the voltage Vb,happens t o be the correct choice. Since the unity
power factor !UPF> position of I, leads Vbc by 90°, chis connection is known as the 90"
connection.

Phase
sequence

UPF position
of I, '8. f
Trip
MTA line Folward
Restrain

(a) Phasor diagram during a-b fault

la

Vbc
- Directional
relay
MTA = r
Trip
k 0
I ,f
,0

Reverse fault
0
0

(c) Phasor relationships during UPF load, forward and

(b) Correct energization of phase a directional relay reverse fault for phase a directional relay
with I, and V,, resulting in the 90" connection energized by I, and Vbc(the 90" connection).
Figure 2.26 Correct energization of directional relay: 90" connection

The 30" and the 60" connections

As already pointed out there are other possibilities for energizing the voltage coils of
directional relays. However, all the possible voltages may not meet the requirement of no
,maloperations. Hence, the choice has been narrowed down to three. The other two
possible voltages, for phase a directional relay, are V,, and (V,,+ V,,).These are known
as the 30" and the 60' connections because of the angular relationship between the unity
power factor (UPn position of & and these voltages during the pre-fault condition.
Table 2.4 summarizes various combinations of voltages and currents to be fed to
directional phase fault relays catering to phase faults involving the three phases, for the
90°, 30" and 60" connections.

Table 2.4 Summary of phase fault relay excitation

Type o f Phase faults Phase faults Phase faults

connection inuoluing phase, a inuoluzng phase, b involving phase, c
Current Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage
90" 10 Vbc Ib Vca Ic Vmb
30" I, Vm Ib Vb, 1, VC~
60" I, Vm + Vbe .- Ib Vhn + vc,~ Ic x b f Vnb
52 of Power System Protectro~r
Frr~rdarne~zmls

Directional ground fault protection

The directional ground fault relay develops correct tripping tendency when fed by the
residual current I. and residual voltage Vo. This is shown in Figure 2.27.

Phase
sequence
'8
= Ea - IaZs
4 = 31, . I
,
i
i

I
i
E, = V, E, = V,
(a) Phasor dlagram for a-g fault
i
h .. Restrain

MTA line

-
(b) Phasor relationships between actuat~ngquant~tiesduring foward and reverse faults L
/
Ground fault

(V, + Vb + V,) = 3V0 1- Directional

relay Trip
(I, + lb + fC)

(c) Directional ground fault

= 310
-w
relay energized by residual voltage and current i

Figure 2.27 Directional ground fault relay energization. 1

I

I
2.9.4 Directional O C Protection of a Three-phase Feeder i

Figure 2.28 shows a three-phase feeder protected by directional relays supervised by OC

relays. i
$
 Ground fault OC

Figure 2.28 Complete scheme for directional OC protection of a three-phase feeder

2.9.5 Directional Protection Under Non-fault Conditions (Reverse

Power Relay)
There are situations where directional relays have to be used under non-fault conditions.
Such an application of directional relay exists in reverse power protection of a turbo-
alternator. To distinguish between the two, let u s call these directional relays as power
directional relay.
These situations are different from those where directional relays are applied during
fault conditions in the manner that, in case of the power relays, there is no collapse of
system voltage. Directional relays for short circuit protection are so connected that they
develop maximum operating torque under fault conditions. However, directional power
relays are so connected that they develop maximum torque when direction of power flow
reverses.
54 of Power J~sronProrccnon
F~~~z~l~~iize~~ruis

Consider a power relay with an MTA of 30" Figure (2.29). In order to be used as a
power relay it can be fed with I, and Vc,.
It can he seen that I, leads Vc, by 30" during reverse power flow, thus developing
maximum tripping torque.

Forward Power directional relay

power No trip
I

Reverse
power Trip

'8 - Directional relay

MTA = 30"

Figure 2.29 Connections of a power directional relay with MTA of 30".

2.1 0 Drawbacks of Over-current Relays

The reach and operating time of the over-current relay depend upon the magnitude of
fault current. The fault current that would result in case of a fault at a particular location
depends upon:
1. The type of fault, i.e. whether it is a ground fault or a phase fault
2. The source impedance as shown in Flgure 2.30.

ZS+ Large

T U inversp +;-a Fault L-L-G

Zs + Small OC relay L-L-G

L-G fault
x T ree-phase fault

1 Fault location

Figure 2.30 Fault current and reach is a function of fault type and source impedance.
 Since neither the type of fault nor the source impedance is predictable, the reach of
the over-current relay keeps on changing depending upon the source conditions and the
type of fault. Thus, even though the relays are set with gieat care, since their reach is
subject to variations, they are likely to suffer from loss of selectivity Such a loss of
selectivity can be tolerated to some extent in the low-voltage distribution systems, where
the only objective to be met is the continuity of supply to the consumer. However in EHV
interconnected system (grid), loss of selectivity can lead to danger to the stability of the
power system, in addition to large disruptions to loads. Therefore, over-current relays
cannot be relied upon as a primary means of protection in EHV systems.
Another principle of relaying, known as distance measurement, offers a much more
accurate reach, which is independent of source conditions and type of fault. This is
discussed in Chapter 6.

Review Questions
1. What are the necessary conditions for two alternating fluxes acting on a common
rotor (a) to produce some torque and (b) to produce maximum torque?
2. What are the situations where DTOC relays are preferred over IDMT relays?
3. What is the difference between plug setting and pick-up value of an OC relay?
4. What are the drawbacks of using DTOC relays for the protection of long feeders?
5. Why does the fault current vary between a minimum and a maximum at any
location?
6. The generator impedance does not affect the fault current to a great extent in the
low-voltage distribution system. Explain.
7. Explain the overshoot time of a relay and its significance.
8. What do you mean by loss of selectivity between two OC relays in adjoining line
sections? What are its causes?
9. While setting the pick-up value, the minimum fault current at the end of the
adjoining feeder needs to be considered; but while setting the TMS the maximum
fault current at the beginning of the next section needs to be considered. Explain.
10. What do you mean by an OC relay, supervised by a directional element?
11. What is the meaning- of the term 'directional' vis a vis directional relaying?
12. What is meant by maximum torque angle vis a vis a directional relay?
13. How will you adjust the MTA of a directional relay?
14. What is the difference between the reverse power relay and the directional relay?
15. Why polarizing voltage from a healthy phase is used in three-phase directional
relays?
16. While different connections like 90",30°,and 60" exist in case of directional phase
fault relays, why is it that no such connections exist for directional ground fault
relays?
17. What are the situations where there is no need to use directional OC relays and
the situations where directional relays must be used?
18. Give the procedure for time setting of relays on a ring main feeder system.
56 of Porver Systern Prorecriorz
F~lr~dan~enrals

Problems
1. The pressure coil of a directional relay has an impedance of (100 + j 274.74) ohms.
What is the MTA for this relay? What change will have to be made to the pressure
circuit so as to change this angle to (a) 30" and ( b ) 15"?
2. For the system shown below, design the complete OC protection using the IDMT
relays. Thus, decide the CT ratios, the plug settings and the TMS a t all locations.

Losd 115 A 80 A 100 A 77 AT

Minimum fault current 1500 A 1000 A 780 A 585 A 390 A
Maximum fault current 6000 A 5000 A 3000 A 2000 A 1000 A
3.1 Introduction
Differential protection is based on the fact that any fault within an electrical equipment
would cause the current entering it, to be different, from that leaving it. Thus, we can
compare the two currents either in magnitude or in phase or both and issue a trip output
if the difference exceeds a predetermined set value. This method of detecting faults is very
attractive when both ends of the apparatus are physically located near each other. A
typical situation, where this is true, is in the case of a transformer, a generator or a
busbar. In the case of transmission lines, the ends are too far apart for conventional
differential relaying to be directly applied.

3.2 Dot Markings

Differential protection utilizes CTs at each terminal of the equipment under protection.
Careful attention needs to be paid to the 'dot markings' (also known as 'polarity marks')
on t h e s e ' c ~ s .We, therefore, briefly review the concept of dot markings.
Consider a set of three mutually coupled coils A, B, and C with terminals A1-A2,
B,-BZ and CI-CZas shown in Figure 3.1. The question is: how shall we put dot marks on
the terminals of these coils?
To answer this question, let us energize coil A as shown in Figure 3.2 so that the
terminal Al becomes positive with respect to terminal A2. Now, this will cause an
alternating current to flow through coil A, and thus set up an alternating flux q~ in the
direction shown, at the instant of time under consideration. This flux also links both coils
B and C. Voltages will be induced in these coils. Now if a load were to be connected
between terminals B1 and B2, a current'will be established. According to Lenz's law, this
current would flow in such a direction so as to oppose the very cause (flux #A) that was
responsible for its (current in coil B) production. Therefore, the direction of current
through coil B will be such that the flux ( $ B ) due to it opposes the flux $A. Thus, current
will flow out of terminal B2, making B2 instantaneously positive with respect to B1.