Safety and Health

For
Engineers

Roger L. Brauer

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

Session Nine
23 October 2015

Agenda

Hazard and Their Control

Chemicals
Confined Space

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

Chemicals

Basic element of life

Materials made from chemicals are elements of car, clothing, furniture, tools, and
other things in contact daily
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Heath) compiles 5000
chemicals that have inherent hazards
Some important factors for considering Hazard Chemicals

Compound that known hazards may not be hazards at low concentration

Compound that are not normally dangerous may because so for certain uses

Some compound become dangerous when combine with other compound

Materials made from chemicals are elements of car, clothing, furniture, tools, and
other things in contact daily

Chemical Regulation and Standards

Indoor
Continues to grow on the concern about indoor air quality

OSHA Regulate workplace

EPA Regulate public places

DOT Regulate public transportation

Local Government Smoking in public services

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

Chemicals
Chemical Regulation and Standards

Outdoors
Many laws and regulations governing air and water quality and the handling and
disposal of hazardous materials

Air (clean air act 70/77/99)

Water (clean water act 72 ; safe drinking water, act 74/92 standards for the
taste, color, appearance, and limit for certain chemicals and bacteria)

Control of hazardous materials (Federal Insecticide, fungicide, rodenticide

act of 1972) tracking hazardous material from creation to disposal

Clean up (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and

Liability act 1980) Clean up of existing hazardous waste sites

Right to know (Right to know act 86) Public demand for more information
about dangers of particular chemicals

Product
There are regulations covering chemicals in certain products. For example
additives and coloring agents fall under control of Food and Drug Administration
(FDA), which also controls certain chemicals in cosmetics.

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Chemicals
Chemical Regulation and Standards

Processes
Chemical engineers and other specialist work on the safety of equipment ,
system, and process for the manufacture of chemicals, petroleum, and other
products. The Process may use heat, pressure, chemical reactions, and other
methods to achieve the end products.
Many process are based on continuous and control materials instead of batch.
Part of the design responsibility is to reduce or eliminate risks in the processes
and to include sensors, warning system, automated or manual adjustment, or
shutdown when processes go outside the acceptable range.
OSHA has established a performance standard for evaluating hazards and risks
of such process and defining control for the hazards.

Workplaces
American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienist (ACGIH) has published
a booklet listing the recommended exposure limits for workers. It is intended a
guide to help limit harmful chemical exposure for workers.
ACGIH standards are recommended practice for industrial hygienist practicing in
industry .
OSHA standards are enforceable as government regulations.

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Chemicals
Hazards
3 items of information to determine the hazardous agents
- what the agent is and what form it is
- the concentration
- the duration and form of exposure
The main hazard for chemicals
1. Health effect
2. Fire and explosions
3. Reactivity with other materials

Type of Airborne Contaminants

Dust (airborne solids, 0.1-26 micron. Dust larger than 5 micron settle out in air). Result
from process breaking materials into small size (grinding and mixing)

Fumes (fine solids less than 1 micron, are often formed by condensation of vapors).
Exp. Heating of lead vaporizers, some lead material that quickly condenses to small,
solid particles.

Smoke (carbon or soot particles, less than 0.1 micron, result from incomplete
combustion of carbonaceous material)

Aerosol (airborne solid or liquid particulates disperse in air)

Mist (fine droplets suspended in or falling through air. Condensation from gas to the
liquid state, or breaking up of liquid by atomizing, splashing or foaming)

Vapors (gaseous phase of a substance that is liquid at normal temperature and

pressure)
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Chemicals
Hazards

Health Effect
Degree of damage depends on
- type and form of substances
- type and rate of exposure
- what happens to the substance in the body

Latency Period : Some chemicals have immediate effects (strong acid/caustic

contacting tissue destroying it) chemical burn.
Other chemicals may not manifest their effect for some time.
Delay between exposure and observable effect is a latency period.
Latency period for some carcinogens as long as 20 40 years.

Acute versus Chronic exposure

Some chemicals, diseases, or effects do not appear until after repeated
exposures. In other case, a single expose may be efficient to induce effects
Local Versus Systematic effects
Local effects occur when substances cause injury to skin, eyes, or
respiratory tract after one or more exposures.
Systematic effects occur when substances enter the body and produce
damage to organ or biological functions. The effects may be behavioral or
physical. Example of damage : kidney dysfunction or failure.
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Chemicals
Hazards

Asphyxiate
Asphyxiate material do not have direct effects on the body or its organs, but
they displace oxygen in a breathing atmosphere.

Nuisance Dust
Some materials are simply a nuisance. They may cause irritation, coughing,
or similar symptom, but have no long term effects. Certain dusts are
classified as nuisance dust.
Individual Differences
Not everyone exhibits the same effects or degree of effects from a chemical
exposure
Pneumoconiosis
Pneumoconiosis is a disease of the lung resulting from the inhalation of
various kinds of dusts and other particles. The disease has several names
depending on the material one is exposed (asbestosis asbestos fibers,
silicosis free silica).
Carcinogens
A substance that produce cancer in animals or humans under certain
quantified exposure. There are specific test to determine when a material to
be classified as carcinogen.

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

Chemicals
Toxicology
Toxicity is the capacity of materials to produce injury or harm after it reaches a site
in or on the body where harm can result.
Toxicology is the science that deals with the nature and effects of poisons.
Toxicity Rating System

Rating

Description

Remark

Unknown

Insufficient data are available to enable a valid

data assessment of toxic hazard to be made

None /
No toxicity

Produce no toxic effect under any condition of

normal usage
- Require overwhelming dosage to give effect to
human
-

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Chemicals
Toxicology
Rating
1

Description
Low slight toxicity
(Four types)

Remark
a. Acute local
- Slight effect on the skin, eyes, regardless the
extend of exposure
b. Acute systemic
- Enter the body by inhalation, ingestion, or
dermal contact
- Slight effect
c. Chronic local
- Repeated or continuous exposure
- Slight effect
d. Chronic systemic
- Continuous exposure by inhalation, ingestion,
or dermal contact
- Slight effect

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Chemicals
Toxicology
Rating
2

Description
Moderate toxicity
(Four types)

Remark
May cause reversible or irreversible changes in
the body, but it not necessary severe enough to
cause serious physical impairment or threaten
life
a. Acute local
- Single exposure lasting seconds, minutes, or
hours
- Moderate toxicity
b. Acute systemic
- Single exposure absorbed by inhalation
- Moderate toxicity
c. Chronic local
d. Chronic systemic

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Chemicals
Toxicology
Rating
3

Description

Remark

High, Severe toxicity

(Four types)

a. Acute local
Single exposure
- Sufficient severity threaten life, permanent
physical impairment
-

b. Acute systemic
Single exposure
- Sufficient severity
-

c. Chronic local
d. Chronic systemic

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Chemicals
Toxicology

Degree of Toxicity Ratings

Toxicity
Rating
Dangerously toxic
Seriously toxic
Highly toxic
Moderately toxic
Slightly toxic
Extremely Low toxic

Probable Lethal Dose for a 70 kg

Human
A taste
A teaspoonful
An ounce
A pint
A quart
More than a quart

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Experimental LD50 Dose

per kg of Body Weight
< 1.0 mg
1 - 50 mg
50 500 mg
0.5 5 g
5 15 g
> 15 g

Chemicals
Toxicology

Routes of Entry

Inhalation
- during respiration, airborne gas and particulates are carried into the upper
respiratory system and lungs
- body may absorb the materials into the blood stream or may encapsulate
the material in the lung tissue
- inhaled materials or portion of them maybe exhaled as well

Ingestion
- involves eating and drinking materials
- ingested materials are absorbed into the blood after traveling to the
intestinal track

Absorption through the skin

- some material enter the blood stream through the skin
- elevated skin temperature or moisture on the skin may enhance cutaneus
absorption
- some skin areas, such as the back of the hand and follicle rich area, exhibit
higher absorption rate

Injection
- material maybe injected purposely or accidentally
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Chemicals
Toxicological Data

Methods for Accessing Toxicity

Most often from controlled study
Nearly all substances fail to exhibit effects at very low exposure levels, but at
the same level effects begin to appear (threshold level)
The relationship between exposure and effects is not linier

Human Experimentation
One way to collect data on toxicity of materials is through experimentation
with human
- In general society does not condone human experimentation
- Strong national concern for some disease or illness
- When a pharmaceutical has high benefit and relatively low risk

No opportunity to inform general testing on substances toxicity to human

data must be from others

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

Chemicals
Toxicological Data

Human experience
Sometimes accidental exposure provide opportunity to complete data on the toxicity
substance (chronic or acute)
- No control on exposure difficult to know the exposure level
- Exposure level and conditions were estimated from limited information by using
epidemiological procedure (epidemiology is the study of disease in human population)
- Based on pattern of disease could be related to the exposure
(exp. Workers exposed to certain pesticides exhibited similar disease patterns that
stimulated further testing, which ultimately lowered exposure standards, or
even led a
Animal Studies ban on certain materials
-

Most toxicity data come from controlled and replicated animal studies
A problem in toxicity testing involves time
- Some substance produce disease after a long latency period or chronic
exposure
- To replicate slow exposure or wait for latency periods would be very expensive

Microorganism testing
- Monitor the growth pattern of particular bacteria, and contrast bacteria
exposed to a chemical compared with unexposed samples
- Screen substances rapidly for particular characteristics
Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

Chemicals
Controls

Three classes of controls for protecting people from exposure to hazardous

materials in the workplace
1.
Engineering control
2.
Work practices and administrative controls
3.
Personal protective equipment
Engineering control

Substitution
- Replacing a hazardous material with a non hazardous one
- If the proposed alternative material does not perform, substitution may not
be a desirable situation

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

Chemicals
Controls
Engineering control (cont..)

Isolation
- Uses a barrier between a source of contaminants and workers
- Usually involves an exhaust ventilation
- Some time there is a port with built-in gloves for worker to perform
some function inside the enclosure
- Workers are located in the enclosure with a controlled uncontaminated
atmosphere from which they can see an operation and control it
remotely
- Separating hazardous operation from non hazardous ones

Ventilation
- Useful for airborne contaminants
- General ventilations : Moves fresh outside air into the general work space
to dilute or displace contaminants to keep concentration as or below
allowable levels. Several limitations :
- requires movement of large volume of air
- outdoor air may already contaminated
- heating, cooling, or dehumidifying outdoors air is costly
- may not dilute substances at cell location
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Chemicals
Controls

Ventilation (cont..)
- Local Exhaust Ventilations
- requires smaller volume than general ventilation
- capture contaminants at or near the sources (before hazardous
substances reach the breathing zone)
- exhaust air need treatment to remove and collect contaminant

Work practices and administrative controls

House Keeping
- Removal of dust accumulation and rapid clean up of spills
- Regular removal hazardous dust from floors, walls, and other surfaces is
important
- Removal should avoid dispersing into the air
- Vacuum cleaning equipment should be used
- Sweeping, compressed air, or blower should not be used, it causes
airborne
- In certain case, spraying water on materials may eliminate the source of
dust
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Chemicals
Controls
Work practices and administrative controls

Material Handling and Transfer Procedures

- Transfer operation require closed transfer operation to avoid hazardous
vapor and airborne dust during loading and unloading
- Use containers to collect overfill spill or leaking material between transfer
- Leak detection program

Leak Detection Program

- Visual inspection and automatic devices
- Schedule inspections of valves, piping, and other potential for leaks

Training
- Proper training of workers and supervisors to supplement other controls
- Standard and low training is required to encounter and protect from hazard

Personal Hygiene
- Cleaning skin that becomes contaminated during normal working days or
as the result of a spill or accidents
- Evaluate washing facilities, emergency showers, and other proper
cleaning agents to remove contaminants
- Emergency eyewash for possibility for contaminating and injury eyes
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Chemicals
Controls
Work practices and administrative controls (cont..)

Personal Protecting Equipment

- Use PPE may be necessary when adequate engineering controls, work
practices, or administrative reform cannot be achieved
- Maintenance workers and those involve in spill clean up need PPE

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

Chemicals
Confined Space

Hazard
- Three main hazard of confine space
- Oxygen deficiency (<18%)
- Presence of substances heavier than air gases then settle in a closed
container
- Oxygen depleting bacteria that consume oxygen (rusting process)
- Flammable and Combustable Gases
- Heat may ignite material
- Result from residual fuel, methane produce (anaerobic)
- Pressurized Atmosphere
- Produce injury when open

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Chemicals
Confined Space

Control
- Before entering, confine space must be depressurized
- Connection to potential hazardous, material must be isolated and sealed,
energy sources must be locked and tag out
- Atmosphere must be tested for oxygen content, toxic material, and flammable
gasses and vapors
- Ventilation for breathable air supply, reduce flammable hazard to less than
LFL
- If heated process involved, precautions for fire protection is necessary
- Activities may create noise, heat, and cold hazard, precautions must be in
place
- At least two workers involve and permit

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Chemicals
Confined Space Entry
Individual Competence
Before an individual enters a confined space:

He should have received adequate training

Be re-assessed or have received refresher training

Be in possession of a relevant training certificate

Be physically fit

Not suffer from any psychological problems

P.P.E
When required:

Personal monitors

Safety harness/lifeline

Gloves

Hearing protection

Breathing apparatus

Any others based on job requirements

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

Confined Space Entry

Work Permit

Identification of the job, location and hazards

The date of the work and duration of the permit
Gas tests prior entry and at pre-determined intervals recorded on the permit
All isolations required or other specific conditions needed to perform the job
safely
Daily checks regarding permit compliance to be done by supervision
No permit, no entry !!
To be requested 24 hrs prior entry to CTJV
Permit must be signed by the relevant persons
Posted at the entrance of the confined space

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

Confined Space Entry

Job Watcher Requirements

Hole Watch to be trained

Hole Watch to record personnel in and out the confined space in the log book or tally
board
Hole Watch: communication with personnel inside the confined space and with rescue
team

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Confined Space Entry

Job Watcher Responsibilities

To monitor entrants during the job and during entry & exit to help insure
their safety
The attendant may not abandon his post for any reason while personnel
are in the space unless relieved by another qualified attendant.
To control access to the confined space
To summon emergency assistance as needed
To assess hazards in and around the space, and take action on the
same
To keep records of confined space work, such as air test results,
personnel entry/exit, etc.

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Confined Space Entry

Entrant

To immediately exit a space, without question, upon word of the attendant,

no matter what the reason
To follow all safety rules and procedures that apply to the job
To be familiar with the work to be performed and the procedures that apply
to the job. (Pre-Start Toolbox)
To use the appropriate PPE whenever necessary
Do not enter in any confined space without a valid confined space entry
permit. !!!

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

Confined Space Entry

Atmosphere Requirements

Gas testing approved prior entry by CTJV Safety Dept.

Isolation
Ventilation
No gas cylinders inside confined space allowed
Risk assessment
Oxygen level: between 19.5 % and 23%.
Flammable gases: 0 % of Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
Carbon Monoxide (co): under 20 ppm
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2s): 0 ppm

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Confined Space Entry

Electrical

Potentially flammables area: explosion proof equipment to be used

Cables secured/safe routes
Isolation procedures

Lighting

Low voltage: below 24 volts

Double wound full isolation step down transformer
Battery system
Hand held torch
Protective guards to prevent breakage

Electrical Equipment

Double wound full isolation stepdown transformer to reduce outlet voltage below
50 volts
Battery operated
Transformers must be kept outside the confined space

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

HYDROGEN SULPHIDE H2S

Decomposition of materials. Human waste.

Rotten egg odour at low concentrations.
Possibly no warning at high concentrations.
PPM
Effect
10 ppm
Permissible Exposure Level
50 - 100
Mild Irritation - eyes, throat
200 - 300
Significant Irritation
500 -700
Unconsciousness, Death
>1000 Unconsciousness, Death
Minutes

Time
8 Hours
1 Hour
1 Hour
1/2 - 1 Hour

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

CARBON MONOXIDE

Odourless, Colourless Gas.

Combustion By-Product.
Quickly collapse at high concentrations.
PPM
Effect
50
Permissible Exposure Level
200
Slight headache, discomfort
600
Headache, discomfort

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

Time
8 Hours
3 Hours
1 Hour

Confined Space Entry

Flammable Atmosphere
2 Critical Factors:

Oxygen content in the air.

Presence of a flammable gas, or vapour

Proper air/gas mixture can lead to an explosion
Typical Ignition Sources:

Sparking or electric tool

Welding / cutting operations

Smoking
Common Types:

Methane, Acetylene Gas

Fuel, Solvent, Paint, Vapour

Coal or Grain Dust

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

Confined Space Entry

Supervisor Responsibilities

To assure adequate protection is provided to the entrants by verifying adequate

lockout/tagout and that all hazards are securely isolated
To support the attendants authority in controlling access to a confined space
To verify that all personnel have exited prior to closing the space
To assure that all personnel involved are aware of the hazards associated with the
space. (Conduct Pre-Start Toolbox)
To assure that rescue services are available prior to entry

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15

COMMUNICATION
Options
Voice
Radio
Lifeline
Whistle

Safety and Health/MA/Oct'15