Further electronic engineering

Page 2

Contents

Further electronic
engineering

Worksheet 1 - Cells and batteries

Worksheet 2 - Current measurement

Worksheet 3 - Voltage measurement

Worksheet 4 - Ohms Law

Worksheet 5 - Series and parallel circuits

11

Worksheet 6 - Voltage dividers

13

Worksheet 7 - Current dividers

15

Worksheet 8 - Using Kirchhoffs Laws

17

Worksheet 9 - Power in DC circuits

19

Worksheet 10 - Electrostatics and capacitors

21

Worksheet 11 - Capacitor charge and discharge

23

Worksheet 12 - Electromagnetism

25

Worksheet 13 - Inductors and inductance

27

Worksheet 14 - AC measurements

29

Worksheet 15 - AC and inductors

31

Worksheet 16 - AC and capacitors

33

Worksheet 17 - L-R series circuit

35

Worksheet 18 - C-R series circuit

37

Worksheet 19 - L-C-R series circuit

39

Worksheet 20 - Transformers

41

Worksheet 21 - Practical transformers

43

Worksheet 22 - Diode characteristics

45

Worksheet 23 - Half-wave rectifier

47

Worksheet 24 - Full-wave bridge rectifier

49

Revision questions

51

Answers to revision questions

54

Tutors notes

55

Answers to worksheet questions

70

About this document:

Code:
LK4583
Developed for product code LK9862 - Further electronic engineering

Date

Release notes

Release version

18 04 2012

First version released

LK4583-1 Version 1

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 3

Worksheet 1

Further electronic
engineering

Cells and batteries

Many different types of battery are used to provide the
power supplies in electrical and electronic equipment.
They can be categorized by materials used in them.
Types include lead-acid, nickel-cadmium (NiCad) and
nickel metal hydride (NiMH).
Here are the e.m.f.s of some single-cell batteries:
Alkaline (primary dry cell)
1.5 V
Lead-acid (secondary cell)
2V
Nickel-cadmium (secondary cell)
1.2 V
Nickel-metal hydride (secondary cell)
1.2 V
Zinc-carbon (primary dry cell)
1.5 V

w1a

The cells within them can be either primary (non-rechargeable) or secondary (rechargeable).
In primary cells, the active constituents are used up at the end of the cells life, whereas for
secondary cells, the chemical reaction is reversible and the cell can be re-charged many times.
Batteries consist of a number of individual cells connected in series or in parallel. For example, a
24 V lead-acid battery will usually have 12 cells (each with an e.m.f. of 2 V) connected in series.
This first worksheet examines batteries and the cells within them.
Over to you:
Set up each of the series-connected battery arrangements
shown opposite. The diagram below shows one way of arranging
the cells on the baseboard.
For each, use a multimeter (set to the 20 V DC range) to measure
the output voltage.

w1b

For the single-cell battery (a), measure the voltage, E1.

For the two-cell battery (b), check that the voltage, V = E1 + E2
For the three-cell battery (c), check that V = E1 + E2 + E3

w1c

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 4

Worksheet 1

Further electronic
engineering

Cells and batteries

Over to you:
Set up each of the parallel-connected battery arrangements shown opposite.
For each use measure the output voltage.
For the single-cell battery (a), measure voltage E1.
For the two-cell battery (b), check that the voltage, V =
E1 = E2.
For (c), check that V = E1 = E2 = E3.

w1d

For your records:

Summarise your findings for voltages in series-connected cells.
Summarise your findings for voltages in parallel-connected cells.
With a series-connected battery the same load current flows through each of the cells.
With a parallel-connected battery the load current is shared between the cells.

Questions
1. How many nickel-cadmium cells are required in a series-connected 24V battery?
2. Two batteries are connected in parallel to supply 180A for an engine starter motor.
How much current is supplied by each battery?
3. An emergency lamp uses eight 1.5V dry-cells connected in series.
What voltage is applied to the lamp?
4. A 24V battery supplies 18 parallel-connected emergency lights. Each light requires 1.5A.
What current is supplied by the battery?
5. Why should parallel connection of dissimilar types of batteries be avoided?
Answers are provided on page 70.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 5

Worksheet 2

Further electronic
engineering

Current measurement

The symbols for three electrical meters are shown on

the right. Ammeters measure current, voltmeters measure voltage (potential difference) and ohmmeters measure resistance.

Ammeter
Voltmeter

w2a

Ohmmeter
They are often combined as a multimeter, which offers
a convenient and cheap way to measure a range of
electrical quantities. The photograph shows a typical multimeter.
AC
It can measure both AC and DC quantities, and the symbols shown DC
opposite distinguish between the two:

w2c

w2b

This worksheet shows you how to use a multimeter to measure the current
flowing in a circuit.

Over to you:
A. Series circuit:
w2d

Set up the arrangement shown, using 12V 0.1A bulbs.

Make sure that the power supply is set to 12V.
This is a series circuit - There is only one route for the electric current
to flow around the circuit.
Measure the current flowing at point P.
To do this, plug the wires from the ammeter into the posts at the ends
of the link at point P, and remove the link. This is shown in the picture.
Record the result in the table.

w2e

Now replace the link at P.

Measure and record the current at point Q in the same way.
Next, measure and record the current at points R and S.
Position
Current

B. Parallel circuit:

Set up the second circuit, again using 12V 0.1A bulbs.

The power supply is still set to 12V.
This is a parallel circuit - there are branches in the circuit, and a
number of ways for current to flow around it.
Measure the current at the points shown in
the circuit diagram and record them in the
table given opposite:

Position
Current

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w2f

Page 6

Worksheet 2

Further electronic
engineering

Current measurement
So what?
Using a multimeter to measure current:
Plug one wire into the black COM socket.
Plug another into the red mA socket.

Select the 200mA DC range by turning the dial to the 200m mark next to the A
symbol.

w3i

Break the circuit where you want to measure the current, by removing a link, and then plug
the two wires in its place.
Press the red ON/OFF switch when you are ready to take a reading.
Change to a lower range if the reading allows it. (A 1 on the display means that the reading
is too big for the chosen range.)
A possible problem!
The ammeter range is protected by a fuse located inside the body of the multimeter. This fuse
may have blown, in which case the ammeter range will not work. Report any problems to your
tutor so that the fuse can be checked.
A challenge:
The first circuit you built was a series circuit. The second was not.
See if you can spot a pattern for the behaviour of currents in each of the circuits!
For your records:
Use your findings to complete the following statements:
In a series circuit, the .................... current flows in all parts.
In a parallel circuit, the currents in all the parallel branches add up to the current leaving
the ....................
Copy the circuit diagrams given below, and calculate the readings on ammeters A to H.
w2h

w2i

w2j

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 7

Worksheet 3

Further electronic
engineering

Voltage measurement

We can visualise electric current easily - its the flow of tiny electrons . More
precisely, electric current measures the number of electrons per second
passing a particular point in the circuit.
Its more difficult to picture voltage, but you can think of it as the pressure
that causes the current to flow.
Fortunately, its easier to measure voltage than current. Theres no need to
break the circuit - just add the voltmeter in parallel with the component you
are interested in!

w2c

Ammeters are connected in series but voltmeters are connected in parallel!

This worksheet shows you how to use a multimeter as a voltmeter.
Over to you:
A. Series circuit:
Set up the arrangement shown, using 12V 0.1A bulbs,
but without the voltmeters.
Make sure that the power supply is set to 12V.
w3b

This is a series circuit with only one route around it.

Measure the voltage across the first bulb, shown as P.
To do this, plug the wires from the voltmeter into the posts at
either end of the bulb. Dont remove any connecting links!
Record the result in the table.

Position
Voltage

Next, measure and record the voltage across the second bulb, Q, in the same way.
Then measure and record the voltage across the bulb, R.
B. Parallel circuit:
Set up the second circuit, again using 12V 0.1A bulbs.
w3d

The power supply is still set to 12V.

This is a parallel circuit - notice the branches in the circuit.
Measure the voltage at the points P, Q and R and record
them in the table given opposite:

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Position
Voltage

Page 8

Worksheet 3

Further electronic
engineering

Voltage measurement
So what?
Using a multimeter to measure voltage:

A multimeter can measure both AC and DC quantities. The symbols were given on the last
worksheet.
Plug one wire into the black COM socket.
Plug another into the red V socket.
symbol.
Select the 20V DC range by turning the dial to the 20 mark next to the V
(It is good practice to set the meter on a range that is much higher than the reading you are
expecting. Then you can refine the measurement by choosing a lower range that suits the
voltage you find.)

w3i

Plug the two wires into the sockets at the ends of the component under investigation.
Press the red ON/OFF switch when you are ready to take a reading.
If you see a - sign in front of the reading, it means that the voltmeter leads are connected the
wrong way round. Swap them over to correct this!
Two challenges:
Looking at the results for the first circuit, add together the readings of the voltmeters at points
P, Q and R. What do you notice about this total?
Find a pattern in the results for the behaviour of the second and third circuits.

For your records:

In a series circuit, the voltages across the components add up to the voltage across
the .................... .

In a parallel circuit, the components all have the .................... voltage across them.

Copy the following circuit diagrams, and calculate the voltages across bulbs A to E.
w3f

w3g

w3h

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 9

Worksheet 4

Further electronic
engineering

Ohms Law
Current I - how many electrons pass per second.

Voltage V - a measure of how much energy the electrons gain or

lose as they flow around a circuit.
Resistance R - how difficult it is for the electrons to pass through
a material. In squeezing through, the electrons lose energy to the
resistor, which warms up as a result.

w4a

The photograph shows Georg Simon Ohm - a significant figure in

the study of electrical and electronic principles!
Ohms law leads to a very important relationship in electricity: V = I x R
Over to you:
Build the circuit shown in the diagram.
The picture shows one way to set this up.

w4b

Make sure that the power supply is set to 3V!

The variable resistor allows us to change the
voltage across the 100 resistor.

to ammeter

Before you switch on, select the 20mA DC range on

the ammeter, and the 20V DC range on the voltmeter.
w4c

Notice the positions of the red and black connecting

wires. This ensures that the meters are connected the
right way round to avoid - signs on the readings.

to voltmeter

Turn the knob on the variable resistor fully anticlockwise, to set the voltage supplied to a minimum.
Turn the knob slowly clockwise until the voltage across the resistor reaches 0.1V. Then read
the current flowing through the resistor.
Resistor Resistor
voltage
current
Turn the voltage up to 0.2V, and take the current reading again.
0.1V
Keep doing this until the voltage reaches 1.0V. (Dont go past
0.2V
this or the resistor may overheat.)
Write your results in a table like the one opposite.
1.0V

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Page 10

Worksheet 4

Further electronic
engineering

Ohms Law
So what?

Using a multimeter to measure resistance:

You cannot measure resistance while the component is in the circuit. It must be removed first.
Plug one wire into the black COM socket, and the other into the V socket.
Select the 200k range, (or a range much higher than the reading you are expecting.)
Plug wires into the two sockets at the ends of the component under investigation.
Voltage in V

Press the red ON/OFF switch when you are ready.

Turn the dial to a lower range, until you find the reading.
A challenge:
Plot a graph to show your results.

w4d

Ohms law predicts a straight line, so draw the best straight

line through your points.
If you know how, calculate the gradient of your graph. Ohms
law calls this quantity the resistance of the resistor.

Current in mA

For your records:

Ohms law gives us the equations: V = I x R R = V / I I = V / R
where R = resistance in ohms, I = current in amps and V = voltage.
(This also works with R in kilohms and I in milliamps, because the kilo and milli cancel out.)
Copy the following diagrams, and calculate the missing quantities:

w4f

Resistor Colour Code:

Resistors come ringed with coloured bands to show the resistance value.
Each colour represents a number, given in the table below.
Black

Brown

Red

Orange Yellow Green

3

Blue

Purple

Grey

White

To read the colour code:

start from the opposite end to the gold or silver band;
write down the number shown by the first colour band;
do the same for the second colour band;
add the number of 0s shown in the next band (e.g. for red, add two 0s.)
the final band gives the tolerance - how accurately it is made, (gold = 5%, silver = 10%.)
For the resistors in the photograph:
Resistance = 7 (purple) 5 (green) 000 (orange) = 75000 with a tolerance of 5%
Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w4e

Page 11

Worksheet 5

Further electronic
engineering

Series and parallel circuits

In nearly all electrical circuits, some components are connected

in series, while others are in parallel.
w5a

To apply the rules that you learned earlier, you have to recognise
which parts of a circuit are in series and which are in parallel.
In a complex circuit, components in parallel have the same voltage across them, but may carry
different currents, while components in series have the same current flowing through them, but
may have different voltages across them.
Over to you:
Connect a 270 resistor, a 1k resistor and a 2.2k resistor, as shown in the diagram.
The 270 and 1k resistor are in series, while the 2.2k resistor is in parallel with the
combination.
Use extra connecting links so that the current can be
measured at points A, B, C and D. The photograph shows
one way to do this.

w5b

Set the power supply to give a 4.5V output.

Remove the connecting link at A, and connect a
multimeter to read the current. Record it in the table.
Remove the multimeter and replace link A.
Remove the connecting link at B, and use a
multimeter to measure the current here.
Record it in the table.

w5c

In the same way, measure and record the

current at points C, and D.
Connect the multimeter to read the voltage
across resistor R1. Record it in the table.

Power supply voltage

Then connect the multimeter up to read the voltage across R2 and R3, in turn, and record them
in the table.

Current at point B in mA

Current at point A in mA
Current at point C in mA
Current at point D in mA
Voltage across R1 (270 resistor)
Voltage across R2(1k resistor)
Voltage across R3(2.2k resistor)

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

4.5V

Page 12

Worksheet 5

Further electronic
engineering

Series and parallel circuits

So what?

The same current flows through R1 and R2, as they are in series. This is the current you
measured at point C.
The current readings at A and D should be the same, as these measure the total current
leaving and returning to the power supply.
The current from the power supply splits, with part going through R1 (and then R2), while the
rest flows through R3. In other words, adding together the readings at B and C should give a
total equal to the reading at A (and D).
The full power supply voltage appears across R3, but is split between R1 and R2.
Complete rows 1, 2 and 3 of the following table.
Power supply voltage

4.5V

Average of currents at A and D in mA ( = I)

Sum of currents at B and C in mA
Sum of voltages across R1 and R2 ( =VS)
Total resistance RT = VS / I
Combined resistance of R1 and R2 (in series) (=RC)
Total resistance of all three resistors RT = RC x R3 / RC + R3

Complete the table by calculating the total resistance RT of the three resistors by:
using I and VS in the formula R = V / I;
adding together the resistance of R1 and R2, as these are in series, to give RC, their combined resistance, and then using RT = RC x R3 / RC + R3.
Think of reasons why these two approaches might give different values for RT. Which, do you
think, gives the more reliable result?
Questions
For the circuit shown opposite, calculate:
1. The total resistance;
2. The current at P;
3. The voltage across R3, the 6k resistor;
4. The current at R;
5. The current at Q;
6. The voltage across R1, the 8k resistor.
Answers are given on page 70.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w5d

Page 13

Worksheet 6

Further electronic
engineering

Voltage dividers

Resistors are used to protect other components from excessive current.

They can also be used in voltage dividers to split the voltage from a power
supply into smaller predictable portions. This is particularly useful when one
of the resistors is a sensing component, such as a LDR (light-dependent
resistor,) or a thermistor, (temperature-dependent resistor.)

w6a

Voltage dividers form the basis of many sensors. The output voltage can
represent temperature, light-level, pressure, humidity, strain or other physical quantities.
Over to you:
Connect two 10k resistors in series, as shown in the circuit diagram.
Set the power supply to give a 6V output.
Remove the connecting link at A, and connect a multimeter,
set on the 2mA DC range, to measure the current.
Record the value in the table.

w6b

Remove the multimeter and replace link A.

Set up the multimeter to read DC voltages of about 5V, and connect it to read the voltage
across resistor R1, and then across R2. Record these in the second column of the table.
Next, set the power supply to 9V, and repeat the measurements. Record them in the third
column of the table.
R1 = 10k, R2 = 10k
Power supply voltage

6V

9V

Current at point A in mA
Voltage V1 across R1
Voltage V2 across R2

Now, swap resistor R1 for a 1k resistor.

Repeat the process and record the results in the second table.
Finally, replace both resistors, with a 2.2k resistor for R1, and a 22k resistor for R2.
Repeat the measurements and record them in the third table.
R1 = 1k, R2 = 10k
Power supply voltage

R1 = 2.2k, R2 = 22k
9V

Power supply voltage

Current at point A in mA

Current at point A in mA

Voltage V1 across R1

Voltage V1 across R1

Voltage V2 across R2

Voltage V2 across R2

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9V

Page 14

Worksheet 6

Further electronic
engineering

Voltage dividers
So what?
First of all, look at the theoretical behaviour of this circuit -

Resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series. Their total resistance, is given by:
RT =(R1 + R2).
The full power supply voltage, VS, appears across this total resistance, RT, and so the current
I, flowing through the two resistors is given by:
I = VS / RT
The voltage across resistor R1 is given by:
V1 = I x R1
The voltage across resistor R2 is given by:
V2 = I x R2
Calculate RT, I, R1 and R2 for each of the circuits looked at, and complete the next table with
your results:
Circuit

RT

V1

V2

R1 = 10k, R2 = 10k, Vs = 6V
R1 = 10k, R2 = 10k, Vs = 9V
R1 = 1k, R2 = 10k, Vs = 9V
R1 = 2.2k, R2 = 22k, Vs = 9V

Compare the values of V1 and V2 with those you measured for each circuit.
Why might you expect the experimental values to be different?
For your records:
There is a straightforward way to view these results:
The voltage from the power supply is shared between the resistors,
so that V1 + V2 = VS.
The bigger the resistor, the bigger its share of the voltage.
In the first circuit, R1 = R2 = 10k so V1 = V2 = VS.
In the second and third circuits, R2 = 10 x R1, and so V2 = 10 x V1.
The second and third circuits produce the same result, but the current is different.
Sometimes it is best to use big resistor values, to reduce battery drain and power dissipation.
However, using lower resistor values allows us to draw more current from the voltage
divider circuit without really affecting voltages V1 and V2.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 15

Worksheet 7

Further electronic
engineering

Current dividers

Voltage dividers use resistors connected in series to split a voltage

into calculable fractions.
Current dividers use resistors connected in parallel to set up known
fractions of current.

w7a

Current dividers are used in ammeters. A known fraction of the total

current passes through the meter and is measured. From that the
total current is calculated.
Over to you:
Connect two 10k resistors in parallel, as shown in the circuit diagram.
Set the power supply to give a 6V output.
Remove the connecting link at A. Connect a multimeter, on
the 2mA DC range, to measure the current, I1, at A (the total
current leaving the power supply.) Record the value in the
table.
Remove the multimeter and replace link A.
Measure the current at B, I2, in the same way, and record the result in the table.
Set up the multimeter to read DC voltages of about 10V, and connect it across the power
supply to read VS. Record it in the table.
Next, set the power supply to 9V, and repeat the measurements. Record them in the table.
R1 = 10k, R2 = 10k
Power supply voltage
Current at point A, I1, in mA
Current at point B, I2, in mA

Lastly, swap resistor R1 for a 1k resistor. Change the multimeter range to 10mA.
Repeat the process, with the power supply still set to 9V, and record the results in a second
table.
R1 = 1k, R2 = 10k
Power supply voltage
Current at point A, I1, in mA
Current at point B, I2, in mA

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w7b

Page 16

Worksheet 7

Further electronic
engineering

Current dividers
So what?
First of all, the theoretical behaviour The voltage across resistor R1 =VS, and so:

w5c

VS = I1 x R1
Similarly,
VS = I2 x R2
which means that:
or:

I1 x R1 = I2 x R2
I1 = I2 x (R2 / R1)

The current I from the power supply splits into I1 and I2 at the junction.
In other words:
I = I1 + I2
Using the equation for I1 given above: I = I2 x (R2 / R1) + I2
= I2 ( 1 + R2 / R1)
Re-arranging this gives

I2 = I x (

R1 )
R1 + R2

This can be used to calculate the current I2 flowing in the branch of the circuit.
Use this formula to calculate I2 in the three cases you looked at in your investigation. Write
your results in the following table:
Circuit

I2 in mA

R1 = 10k, R2 = 10k, Power supply set to 6V

R1 = 10k, R2 = 10k, Power supply set to 9V
R1 = 1k, R2 = 10k, Power supply set to 9V

Compare the calculated values of I2 with those you measured for each circuit.
Again, why might you expect the experimental value to be different to the theoretical one?
For your records:
As with voltage dividers, there is a straightforward way to view these results:
The current from the power supply is shared between the resistors,
so that

I = I1 + I2

The bigger the resistor, the smaller its share of the current.
In the first and second circuits, R1 = R2 = 10k so I1 = I2 = I .
In the third circuit, R2 = 10 x R1, and so I1 = 10 x I2.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 17

Worksheet 8

Further electronic
engineering

Using Kirchhoffs Laws

Kirchhoffs Current Law - What flows in must flow out

The algebraic sum of all currents at any junction is zero.

In other words, I1 = I2 + I3

w8a

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law -

Around any loop in the circuit, the algebraic sum of voltages is

zero. The expression algebraic sum simply means that we
must take the direction of current flow into account.

w8b

There are three loops in the circuit you will investigate.

These are shown in different colours in the diagram.

Over to you:
Connect a 1k, a 2.2k and a 10k resistor, as shown in the circuit diagram.
Set the power supply to give a 9V output.
Remove the connecting link at P.
Connect a multimeter, on the 10mA DC range, to measure
the current at P, (the total current leaving the power supply,)
and record it in the table.
Remove the multimeter and replace link P.
Measure the current at Q and then R in the same way, and record the results in the table.
Set up the multimeter to read DC voltages of about 10V, and use it to measure the voltages
across the three resistors. Record them in the table.
Measurement

Value

Current at point P in mA
Current at point Q in mA
Current at point R in mA
Voltage across R1
Voltage across R2
Voltage across R3

Next, we are going to analyse these results using Kirchhoffs Current and Voltage Laws.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w8c

Page 18

Worksheet 8

Further electronic
engineering

Using Kirchhoffs Laws

So what?
Kirchhoffs current law gives us the relationship:

I1 = I2 + I3
Now apply Kirchhoffs voltage law to each of the three loops.
The green loop: 9 = V1 + V2
equation 1
The orange loop: 9 = V1 + V3
equation 2
The blue loop:
0 = V2 + V3
Ohms law gives us the relationships:
V1 = I1 x R1 = (I2 + I3) x R1
V2 = I2 x R2
V3 = I3 x R3
Inserting the values of the resistors (in k) gives:
V1 = (I2 + I3) x 1 = (I2 + I3)
V2 = I2 x 10
V3 = I3 x 2.2
Using these, equation 1 becomes
9 = (I2 + I3) + (10 x I2)
or
9 = 11 I2 + I3
which means that
I3 = 9 - 11 I2
and equation 2 becomes
9 = (I2 + I3) + (2.2 x I3)
or
9 = I2 + 3.2 I3
Inserting the value of I3 gives
9 = I2 + 3.2 (9 - 11 I2)
so
(35.2 - 1) I2 = 28.8 - 9
which gives I2 = 0.58 mA
Substituting this in earlier equations I3 = 9 - 11 I2 = 9 - 11 x 0.58 = 2.63 mA
and so I1 = 0.58 + 2.63 = 3.21 mA
In turn, these values give
V1 = 3.21 x 1 = 3.2 V
V2 = 0.58 x 10 = 5.8 V
V3 = 2.63 x 2.2 = 5.8 V (not surprisingly!)
Check your measured values against these results!
For your records:
Kirchhoffs Current Law - What flows in must flow out

The algebraic sum of all currents at any junction is zero.

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law -

Around any loop in the circuit, the algebraic sum of voltages is zero.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w8d

w8e

Page 19

Worksheet 9

Further electronic
engineering

Power in DC circuits
Electrical power is vital to the operation of many complex
systems. An aircraft, for example, would not be able to fly
without electricity.
The ability to generate and make efficient use of electrical
power is central in the modern world. As a result, you need a
sound grasp of electrical power and energy conversion.

w9a

This worksheet provides a useful introduction to this topic.

Over to you:
Set up each the circuit in turn .
For each bulb, measure:
the current through it,
the voltage across it.
(First, decide where to connect the ammeter and voltmeter!)
w9b
w9c
w9d

A few relationships that you need to know:

A reminder:
Electric current is a measure of how many electrons are passing per second.
Voltage is a measure of the energy the electrons gain or lose on passing through a component.
Fact 1:

Number of coulombs Q = Current I x time t

(Common sense - current measures how many electrons pass per second, so to find out how may have
passed in 10 seconds, for example, you simply multiply the current by 10!)

Fact 2:

One volt means one joule of energy given to or lost by one coulomb of charge.

(A 12V battery gives each coulomb of charge that passes through it 12J of energy. If the voltage dropped
across a resistor is 2V, every coulomb that passes through it loses 2J of energy (i.e. converts 2J to heat
energy. Its the electrons struggling to squeeze past the atoms in the resistor - it makes them hot!)

Fact 3:

Power is the rate at which energy is converted.

(So - a power rating of one watt of means that one joule of energy is converted from one form to another
every second. The old style of domestic light bulbs had power ratings of about 60W. Newer energysaving types have a rating of 15W for the same brightness, because they convert waste less electrical
energy as heat!)

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 20

Worksheet 9

Further electronic
engineering

Power in DC circuits
So what?
Formula juggling - ignore all but the result if you wish:
P = E / t from fact 3
but
Q = I x t from fact 1
or, cancelling out the t
The cast:
P = power in watts
I = current in amps

and E = Q x V from fact 2

so
P=IxtxV/t
Result P = I x V

so P = Q x V / t

E = energy converted in joules Q = charge in coulombs

V = voltage dropped in volts! t = time energy conversion took in seconds

Use your results to answer the following:

Calculate:
the power dissipated in each bulb (using the formula P = I x V)
how long it takes each bulb to take 1J of energy from the electrons;
how much energy (in joules) the power supply is losing each second.
Each of the three circuits that you investigated transferred energy at different rates.
The amount of energy transferred depends not only on the number of lamps but also on
the way they are connected. Think about the energy dissipated in each of the three
circuits. Which circuit will transfers the least energy and which the most in a given time?
Explain to your colleague why this is
..

Which battery will go flat first?

Explain your answer in terms of the amount of energy converted.
For your records:

Power is the rate at which energy is being used.

When a component has a voltage V across it, and a current I flowing through it, it is
converting energy from one form to another at a rate given by the power formula
P = I x V.

Questions:
1. A DC power unit supplies 28V to two parallel loads, each rated at 288W, for 10 minutes.
What current is supplied to each load?
What energy is supplied by the power unit in that 10 minutes?
2. The battery in an emergency radio beacon can supply 480kJ of energy. The battery is rated
at 12V 1A. For how many hours will the beacon operate?
Answers are provided on page 70.
Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 21

Worksheet 10

Further electronic
engineering

Electrostatics and capacitors

Static electricity can be produced by friction (for example,
rubbing a balloon on a woollen sweater).
Bodies charged by this method have either positive or
negative polarity, depending on whether a deficit or excess
of charge-carrying electrons is present.

w10a

Bodies can remain in this state for some time. Stray static
charge like this cause electrical noise and interference to
avionic and communications equipment . Special measures,
such as static discharging wicks - are used to avoid the build-up of charge on aircraft.
Capacitors, extremely useful electrical components, provide us with a means of accumulating
and storing electric charge. A simple capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by an
insulating dielectric, such as polyester film. The charge present is the product of the capacitance
of the capacitor (in Farad) and the applied voltage (in Volt). In other words Q = C x V coulomb.
Over to you (optional investigation):
Make your own capacitor with a square of thin card between two
square aluminium plates. Keep it clamped together by placing it
between heavy glass plates with a heavy object on top.
Measure the capacitance of your capacitor using a digital
multimeter switched to the 2nF range.

w10b

Increase the separation of the plates by adding extra pieces of

card (up to six).
Each time, measure and record the capacitance.
Thickness of card

C in nF

Next change the amount by which the plates overlap (whilst keeping the plates parallel).
Mark lines on the capacitor at 75%, 50%, 37.5%, 25% and 12.5% of the surface and for each
overlap, measure and record the capacitance in the table.
Area of overlap

100%
(A)

75%

(3A/4)

50%

(A/2)

C in nF

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

37.5%

(3A/8)

25%

(A/4)

12.5%

(A/8)

Page 22

Worksheet 10

Further electronic
engineering

Electrostatics and capacitors

So what?
Use your results to:

Plot a graph showing how the capacitance changes with plate separation.
Plot a graph showing how capacitance changes with the overlapping area of the plates.
What conclusions can you draw from the first graph?
What conclusions can you draw from the second graph?

For your records:

Increasing the separation of the plates reduces the capacitance.
More precisely, capacitance is inversely proportional to the plate separation.
Increasing the overlap of the plates increases the capacitance.
More precisely, capacitance is directly proportional to the plate area.
Combining these results we can arrive at the important relationship:
C

A
A A
=k = 0 r
d
d
d

where:
C = capacitance;
A = plate area;
d = plate separation;
0 = permittivity of free space;
r = relative permittivity of the dielectric material (insulator).

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 23

Worksheet 11

Further electronic
engineering

Capacitor charge and discharge

Capacitors provide a means of storing electric charge, acting as a

reservoir for electrical energy. Charge can be transferred to a capacitor
by connecting it to a power supply or a battery.
When the capacitor discharges, the stored energy is released, usually as
heat. Later, the capacitor can be recharged. The stored energy is then
replenished.

w11a

In this worksheet, you investigate capacitor charge and discharge.

Over to you:
Charging a capacitor:
Build the circuit shown opposite, using values R = 10k and C = 1,000F.
Make sure that the DC power supply is set to 9V.

w11b

Use a multimeter, on the 20V DC scale to measure the voltage

across the capacitor.
Press and hold down switch S to discharge the capacitor fully.
Release S so that the capacitor begins to charge, and measure and record the capacitor
voltage every 10 seconds.
Repeat this process using values of C = 2,200F and R = 10k , and then C = 1,000F with
R = 22k. You now have three sets of readings, set out in three tables like the one below:
R=
Time in s

10

20

k , C =
30

40

F
50

60

70

80

90

100 110 120

Capacitor voltage in V

Discharging a capacitor:
Build the circuit shown opposite, with R = 10k and C = 1,000F.
Again, make sure that the power supply is set to 9V DC and
that the multimeter is on the 20V DC range.
Press and hold down switch S to charge the capacitor fully.
The charge will build up rapidly as there is no resistance to
limit the charging current.
Release S so that the capacitor begins to discharge and record the voltage every 10 seconds
in a table like the one above.
Repeat the same process for values of C = 2,200F and R = 10k , and then C = 1,000F
with R = 22k. You should once again have three sets of readings set out in three tables.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w11c

Page 24

Worksheet 11

Further electronic
engineering

Capacitor charge and discharge

So what?
Use your results to:

plot three graphs showing how the capacitors charge, when connected to series
resistors, (over the period from 0 to 120s.)
plot three graphs showing the discharge of capacitors through shunt resistors, (again
over the period from 0 to 120s.)
The diagrams show typical shapes for these graphs. Guided by your experimental points,
draw smooth curves for each graph.
Voltage

Voltage

Charging a capacitor

Discharging a capacitor

Time

Time

Take a close look at your graphs. Does the capacitor ever completely charge or discharge?
What effect do the values chosen for C and R have on the rate at which the capacitor
charges or discharges?
For each charging graph, find the time it takes for the capacitor voltage to reach 63% of its
final value. Compare this with the corresponding time constant (= R x C, where R is in M
and C in F.)
For each discharging graph, find the time it takes for the capacitor voltage to fall to 37% of its
initial value. Once again, compare this time value with the corresponding time constant).
The charge and discharge curves show exponential growth and exponential decay
respectively. Find out as much as you can about the exponential constant, e.
For your records:
A capacitor charges faster initially, as a larger charging current flows, and then the rate of
charging slows down. The shape of the charging curve is an example of exponential growth.
When a capacitor discharges, the voltage across it falls rapidly to begin with, and then falls
more slowly. This is an example of exponential decay.
The rate of change of voltage for both charge and discharge is governed by the time constant
for the R-C network. The time constant T is calculated using the formula:
T=RxC
and it has units of seconds if R is in and C in F,
or if R is in M when C is in F.
Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w11d

Page 25

Worksheet 12

Further electronic
engineering

Electromagnetism

Many electrical components, such as the generator shown here,

are based on the application of electromagnetism.
To generate an emf, you need a magnetic field, a wire conductor
and some relative movement as you will see from this
investigation.

w12a

Over to you:
Set up the arrangement shown in the diagram.
The amount of electricity generated will be tiny.
We can observe it using:

w14b
w12b

the Locktronics milliammeter module, connected as shown;

a multimeter, connected to points X and Y;
an oscilloscope, connected to points X and Y.
If using the multimeter, set it to its most sensitive DC current scale. However, this samples
the input signal periodically. The meter may miss an event that takes place in between
samples so you may need several attempts to see convincing results.
For the oscilloscope, suitable settings are given at the bottom of the page.
Move the magnet into the coil as fast as you can.
Watch what happens to the output, as you do so.
w12c

Next reverse the direction of motion, and pull the magnet out, watching what happens as you
do so.
Optional extension:
Investigate the effect of speed of movement on the emf produced.

Typical oscilloscope settings:

Timebase
1s/div (X multiplier x1)
Voltage range
Input A 200mV DC (Y multiplier x1)
Input B Off
Trigger mode
Auto
Trigger channel
Ch.A
Trigger direction Rising
Trigger threshold 10mV

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 26

Worksheet 12

Further electronic
engineering

Electromagnetism
So what?
From the results, the generated current and voltage have:
a magnitude that depends on the speed of movement;
a polarity that depends on the direction of motion.

Typical results for the oscilloscope are shown here. Inserting

the magnet generates a pulse of current in one direction, and withdrawing it produces a pulse of
opposite polarity. (Experiment with other time base settings to try to get better results.)
Heres the underlying physics:
When the wire moves at right-angles to the magnetic field, the electrons move with it.
Whenever electrons move, they generate a magnetic field.
This interacts with the field of the magnet, exerting a force on the electrons at right-angles
to the direction of motion and to the magnetic field.
This force pushes electrons along the wire, generating a voltage and a current if there is an
electrical circuit.
Using a coil of wire increases the size of voltage and current generated because each wire
turn in it is moving inside the magnetic field, and so has electricity generated in it.
The effects of all the turns add together, increasing the amount of electricity generated.
Flemings Right-hand Rule:
Fleming devised a painful way of predicting the direction of the
generated current .
Use your right-hand to produce the gesture shown in the picture. Fore
finger, centre finger and thumb are all at right-angles to each other!
When the Fore finger points in the direction of the magnetic Field (from
North pole to South pole,) and the thuMb points in the direction of the
Motion, the Centre finger points in the direction of the resulting Current. This is also known as the dynamo rule.

w12e

Optional extension:
If you have other coils available, and other magnets, you could show that the magnitude also
depends on the number of turns of wire in the coil and the strength of the magnetic field.
For your records:
Use the results of the investigation to answer the following questions:
What factors determine the emf generated?
How can you predict the polarity of the emf generated?

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w12d

Page 27

Worksheet 13

Further electronic
engineering

Inductors and inductance

A current flowing in a conductor creates a magnetic field in the space

around it. This can be intensified by winding the conductor into a coil and
then inserting a core of a material such as iron, steel or ferrite, a ceramic
material containing iron oxide.

w13a

When a changing current passes through an inductor, an induced emf

appears across its terminals. This opposes the change that created it,
which explains why larger inductors are often referred to as chokes.
Inductors are used in many applications, from filters to fluorescent lighting and ignition units.
Over to you:
Build the circuit shown.
The push-to-make switch, S is connected in series with
R, a current-limiting resistor. The inductor, L is the
primary of the 2:1 transformer, (the secondary winding
is left disconnected).

w13b

Set the power supply to 12V DC.

Connect an oscilloscope to display the voltage drop across the inductor. Make sure the leads
are connected with the polarity shown on the diagram. Typical settings for the oscilloscope
are given in the next section.
Switch on the DC power supply and then press, and hold the switch closed so that current
flows through the inductor.
Keep the switch closed for a few seconds then release it and observe the result on the
oscilloscope . You should see a sudden, very large negative voltage spike.
You may have to repeat this step several times to obtain a satisfactory display

Typical oscilloscope settings:

Timebase
1 ms/div (X multiplier x1)
Voltage range
Input A 20 V DC (Y multiplier x1)
Input B Off
Trigger mode
Repeat
Trigger channel
Trigger direction Falling
Trigger threshold

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Ch.A
1000 mV

Page 28

Worksheet 13

Further electronic
engineering

Inductors and inductance

So what?
The trace shows a typical display
produced when the switch is
released.
It shows the large negative spike
generated as the magnetic field in
the inductor suddenly collapses,
when the current is interrupted.

w13c

Heres the physics:

When the switch is closed, a steady current flows in the inductor and produces a steady
magnetic field in its core.
When the current is interrupted by opening the switch, the magnetic field collapses rapidly
because theres nothing to maintain it.
When the field collapses through the turns of the inductor coil, a voltage is generated
across the terminals of the inductor. This can be many times greater than the supply
voltage.
The induced voltage is negative. In other words it opposes the original direction of current
flow, and as a result it is called a back emf.
A large back emf. can cause considerable damage such as arcing at switch or relay
contacts and destruction of low-voltage electronic components.

For your records:

Back emf:
appears whenever current is suddenly removed from an inductor.
opposes the original current flow.
can be very large and many times greater than the supply voltage.
We often take precautions to limit the back emf generated when an inductive component
(such as a relay coil) is switched on and off.
Later, you see that this can be achieved easily using a diode, connected with reverse bias, in
parallel with the inductive component.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 29

Worksheet 14

Further electronic
engineering

AC measurements

w14a

The ability to make accurate measurements of alternating current

and voltage is an important skill. In reality, AC measurements are
not quite so easy to make as DC.
First of all, heres a brief introduction to some of the quantities and
terminology that you will need to get to grips with:
AC voltage and current
When measuring alternating voltage and
current, we usually use root-mean-square
(RMS) values. These are the effective value
of an alternating current. They are the DC
equivalents that would produce the same
heating effect if applied to a resistor.

w14b

It is sometimes useful to use the peak or

peak-to-peak value of an AC waveform as
they are easy to measure using an
oscilloscope (see the picture).
Frequency
The frequency of a repetitive waveform is the number of cycles of the waveform which occur in
one second. Frequency is expressed in hertz, (Hz), and a frequency of 1Hz is equivalent to one
cycle per second. Hence, a signal frequency of 400Hz means that 400 cycles of it occur every
second.
Periodic time
The periodic time (or period) of a signal is the time taken for one complete cycle of the wave.
The relationship between periodic time, t, (in s) and frequency, f, (in Hz) is:
t = 1 / f or f = 1 / t
For example, the periodic time of a 400Hz AC signal is 2.5ms.
Waveforms
Waveforms show us how voltage or current signals vary with time. Common types of waveform
include sine (or sinusoidal), square, triangle, ramp (which may be either positive or negative
going), and pulse. In this module we are concerned
only with the most basic of waveforms, the sine wave.
Waveforms are viewed and measured using an
oscilloscope, either a conventional type or a virtual
instrument (like Picoscope).

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w14c

Page 30

Worksheet 14

Further electronic
engineering

AC measurements
Over to you:

Connect an oscilloscope to display the output of an audio frequency signal generator.

(Typical oscilloscope settings are given at the bottom of the page.)
Adjust the signal generator to produce a sine wave output at 100Hz. and set the amplitude of
the signal so that the display on the oscilloscope is exactly 2V peak-peak.
Sketch the oscilloscope display on the graph paper and make
sure that you label the voltage and time axes.
Use the X-axis time scale on the oscilloscope to measure
accurately the time for one complete cycle (i.e. the periodic
time). Show this in the table.
Set the signal generator to 200Hz, 400Hz, 600Hz, 800Hz and
finally 1,000Hz and at each frequency measure and record the
period time in the table.

Frequency
(Hz)

Periodic
time (ms)

100
200
400
600
800
1000

Use the data in the table to plot a graph of periodic time against frequency.
Use this to verify the relationship f = 1/t.

For your records:

Write a short description of the following AC terms:
amplitude;
frequency;
period.
The rms (root-mean-square) value of a sinusoidal AC signal gives the equivalent DC voltage which has the same effect. To replace an AC power source, which has a rms voltage of
12V, you could use a 12V DC source instead.
The rms and peak values of a sinusoidal AC signal are related by the relationship:
Peak value = rms value x 2
Typical oscilloscope settings:
Timebase - 1ms/div (X multiplier x1)
Voltage range - Input A - 5V DC (Y multiplier x1)
Input B - Off
Trigger Mode - Auto
Trigger Channel - Ch.A
Trigger Direction - Rising
Trigger Threshold - 10mV

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 31

Worksheet 15

Further electronic
engineering

AC and inductors

w15a

Resistors oppose electric currents. Inductors oppose changes to electric

currents, but the mechanism is different. An electric current flowing in the
inductor, sets up a magnetic field. Increasing the current increases the
magnetic field, and that takes energy from the current, opposing the
increase. Reducing the current reduces the magnetic field, and that
releases energy, which tries to maintain the current.
Inductors behave rather like flywheels on a rotating shaft. Their angular momentum tries to keep
the shaft rotating at the same speed. When the shaft starts to slow down, the energy stored in
the flywheel tries to keep it going. When the shaft tries to speed up, the flywheel requires energy
to speed it up, and so the flywheel seems to resist the change.
Over to you:
Connect a 47mH inductor in series with a signal generator, as
shown in the circuit diagram.

w15b

Use enough connecting links so that the current can be

measured at point A. The photograph shows one way to do this.
Set the signal generator to output an AC voltage at a frequency of
50Hz.
Remove the connecting link at A, and connect a multimeter, set to
read up to 20mA AC, in its place.
In the table, record the current flowing at point A.
Remove the multimeter and replace link A.
Set up the multimeter to read AC voltages of up to 20V and
connect it in parallel with the inductor.
Record the voltage in the table.
Now change the signal generator frequency to 100Hz and repeat
the measurements. Record them in the table.
Do the same for frequencies of 500Hz and 1kHz (1,000Hz). Again, record the measurements
in the table.
Frequency

Current I Voltage V

50 Hz
100 Hz
500 Hz
1 kHz

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w15c

Page 32

Worksheet 15

Further electronic
engineering

AC and inductors
So what?

Resistors behave in a linear way. From Ohms Law we know that if you double the current
through the resistor, you double the voltage dropped across it, and so on. The ratio of voltage
to current is called resistance.
Inductors are more complicated. If you double the rate of change of current through the
inductor, you double the voltage dropped across it, and so on. The ratio of voltage to rate of
change of current is called inductance.
The higher the frequency of the AC, the faster the current changes, and so the greater the
voltage drop across the inductor. In other words, the voltage dropped depends on the
frequency of the AC supply. This is not the case with pure resistors, where frequency has no
effect.
We describe this behaviour in terms of the (inductive) reactance, XL, defined, in the same
way as resistance, as XL = V / I. As a result, the units of reactance are ohms.
The inductive reactance measures the opposition of the inductor to changing current. The
higher the frequency ,f, the greater the change in current. In fact, the formula for inductive
reactance is: XL = 2 f L
Using your measurements, calculate the XL, from the formula:
and compare that with the value calculated using

XL = V / I

XL = 2 f L where L = 47mH.

Carry out these calculations and complete the following table with your results:
Frequency

Inductive reactance Inductive reactance

XL = V / I
XL = 2 f L

50Hz
100Hz
500Hz
1kHz

For your records:

The opposition of an inductor to changing currents is called inductive reactance, XL, given by
the formula: XL = 2 f L where f is the AC frequency, and L is the inductance of the inductor.
It can also be obtained from the formula XL = V / I, where V and I are rms voltage and current
respectively.
Inductance is measured in a unit called the Henry, (H) and reactance in ohms.
Complete the following:
When the AC frequency is doubled, the inductive reactance is .
When the AC frequency is halved, the inductive reactance is .
Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 33

Worksheet 16

Further electronic
engineering

AC and capacitors

An electric current sets up a magnetic field inside an inductor. This then

oppose changes to electric currents. An electric current sets up an electric
field across the plates of a capacitor. This opposes changes to the voltage
applied to the capacitor.

w16a

Before the voltage can increase, electrons must flow onto the plates of the
capacitor, increasing the electric field. This requires energy.
When the voltage starts to decrease, electrons flow off the plates, reducing the electric field.
These electrons try to maintain the voltage across the capacitors plates.
Capacitors behave rather like buckets in a water circuit. They must fill up before any water flows
anywhere else in the circuit. When the flow of water starts to fall, excess water flows from the
bucket, trying to maintain the flow.
Over to you:
Connect a 1F capacitor in series with the signal generator, as
shown in the circuit diagram.
Use enough connecting links so that the current can be measured
at point A.

w16b

Set the signal generator to output an AC voltage at a frequency of

50Hz.
Remove the connecting link at A, and connect a multimeter, set to
read up to 20mA AC, in its place.
Record the current flowing at point A in the table.
Remove the multimeter and replace link A.
Set up the multimeter to read AC voltages of up to 20V and connect it in parallel with the capacitor.
Record the voltage in the table.
Now change the signal generator frequency to 100Hz and repeat the measurements. Record
them in the table.
Do the same for frequencies of 500Hz and 1kHz (1,000Hz). Again, record the measurements
in the table.
Frequency

Current I Voltage V

50 Hz
100 Hz
500 Hz
1 kHz

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w16c

Page 34

Worksheet 16

Further electronic
engineering

AC and capacitors
So what?

For resistors, double the current through the resistor and you double the voltage dropped
across it, and so on. For inductors, double the rate of change of current through the inductor
and you double the voltage dropped across it, and so on.
Capacitors oppose changing voltage. The faster the rate of change of voltage, the greater the
current needed to charge or discharge the capacitor. The higher the frequency of the AC, the
faster the voltage changes, and so the greater the current flowing in the circuit.
In other words, the current depends on the frequency of the AC supply.
We describe this behaviour in terms of the capacitive reactance, XC, defined, in the same
way as resistance, as XC = V / I. As before, the units of reactance are ohms.
Capacitive reactance measures the opposition of the capacitor to changing current. The
formula for capacitive reactance is:

XC = 1/(2 f C)

Capacitors are mirror images of inductors. As the frequency of the AC supply increases, an
inductor offers more opposition, (inductive reactance increases, and current decreases)
whereas a capacitor offers less opposition, (capacitive reactance and current both decrease).
Using your measurements, calculate the XC, using both :
XC = V / I

and

XC = 1 / (2 f C)

where C = 1F

Carry out those calculations and complete the following table with your results:
Frequency

Capacitive reactance
XC = V / I

Capacitive reactance
XC = 1 / (2 f C)

50Hz
100Hz
500Hz
1kHz

For your records:

The opposition of a capacitor to changing voltage is called capacitive reactance, XC, given by:
XC = 1 / (2 f C) where f is the frequency of the AC signal, and C is the capacitance.
It can also be obtained from the formula XC = V / I, where V and I are rms voltage and
current respectively.
Capacitance is measured in farads (F), though, in practice, this unit is too large. Most capacitors have values given in microfarads (F).
Complete the following:
When the AC frequency is doubled, the capacitive reactance is
When the AC frequency is halved, the capacitive reactance is

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 35

Worksheet 17

Further electronic
engineering

L-R series circuit

w17a

When an inductor and a resistor are connected in series, the pair act as a
voltage divider, but with an important difference - the way they share an AC voltage
changes with frequency. The circuit is known as a series L-R circuit.
As it is a series circuit, the same current flows everywhere.
The opposition to the current comes in two forms, the resistance of the resistor,
which is independent of frequency, and the reactance of the inductor, which
increases as the frequency increases. Together, these combine to make what is
known as the impedance of the circuit.
Over to you:
Connect a 270 resistor, and a 47mH inductor in series with
the signal generator, as shown in the circuit diagram.
Use enough connecting links so that the current can be
measured at point A.

w17b

Set the signal generator to output an AC voltage at a

frequency of 100Hz.
Remove the link at A, and connect a multimeter, set to read up to 20mA AC, in its place.
Record the current flowing at point A in the table.
Remove the multimeter and replace link A.
Set up the multimeter to read AC voltages of up to 20V. Connect it to measure the signal
generator voltage, VS, applied across the two components, and record it in the table.
Measure the voltage VL, across the inductor, and then the voltage VR, across the resistor.
Record these voltages in the table.
Next, set the signal generator to a frequency of 1kHz. and repeat the measurements.
Record them in the table.
Measurement

AC frequency = 100Hz

Current at point A in mA
Supply voltage VS
Voltage VR across 270 resistor
Voltage VL across 47mH inductor

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

AC frequency = 1kHz

Page 36

Worksheet 17

Further electronic
engineering

L-R series circuit

So what?

Theory allows us to calculate the quantities that you just measured. You can then compare the
two results.
The two effects limiting the current are:
the resistance of the resistor, R = 270;
the reactance XL of the inductor.
At the first frequency, 100Hz:

XL = 2 f L = 2 (100) x (47 x 10-3) = 29.5

The voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current through it. The voltage across the
inductor is 900 ahead of the current . As a result, we cannot simply add together resistance
and reactance. Instead, we combine them using the impedance formula which takes phase
into account: Z = (R2 + (XL - XC)2)
In this case, there is no capacitive reactance, and so:
Z = (R2 + XL 2) = ((270)2 + (29.5)2) = 271.61
We can use this to calculate current, using the formula:
I = VS / Z

where VS = AC signal generator voltage

Use your measured value of VS to calculate I.

Use this in the formula VR = I x R to calculate the voltage VR across the resistor.
Use it again in the formula VL = I x XL to calculate the voltage, VL, across the inductor.
Check these results against your measured values.
At the second frequency, 1kHz:
the share of the AC voltage changes - the higher frequency increases the reactance of
the inductor to 10 times its earlier value, so XL = 295.3 , and the inductor takes a much
bigger share of the AC voltage;
the output impedance of the signal generator may change;
Repeat the calculations at 1kHz, and check your results against the measured values.

For your records:

When the rms value of supply voltage is used, all currents and voltages will be rms.
At frequency f, the reactance of the inductor is: XL = 2 f L.
The impedance of a L-R circuit is:

Z = (R2 + XL 2)

The rms current is given by: I = VS / Z

where VS = AC supply rms voltage.

The resulting rms voltage across the resistor: VR = I x R

The resulting rms voltage across the inductor: VL = I x XL

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 37

Worksheet 18

Further electronic
engineering

C-R series circuit

An inductor and a resistor, connected in series, act as a voltage divider, which

depends on AC frequency. For the inductor, reactance increases as the
frequency increases.

w18a

A similar effect is seen when a capacitor and resistor are connected in series,
but with an important difference - the reactance of the capacitor decreases as
the frequency increases.
As before, since it is a series circuit, the same current flows in all parts of the circuit.
Over to you:
Connect a 270 resistor, and a 1F capacitor in series with
the signal generator, as shown in the circuit diagram.
Use enough connecting links so that the current can be measured at point A.
Set the signal generator to output a voltage with a frequency
of 100Hz.
Remove the connecting link at A, and connect a multimeter, set to read up to 20mA AC, in its
place. Record the current flowing at point A in the table.
Remove the multimeter and replace link A.
Set up the multimeter to read AC voltages of up to 20V. Connect it to measure the signal
generator output voltage, VS, applied across the two components, and record it in the table.
Measure the voltage VC, across the capacitor, and then the voltage VR, across the resistor.
Record these voltages in the table.
Next, set the signal generator to a frequency of 1kHz., repeat the measurements and record
them in the table.
Measurement

AC frequency = 100Hz

Current at point A in mA
Voltage VR across R
Voltage VC across C

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

AC frequency = 1kHz

w18b

Page 38

Worksheet 18

Further electronic
engineering

C-R series circuit

So what?

Once again, theory allows us to calculate the quantities that you just measured, and then you
can then compare the results.
The two effects limiting the current are:
the resistance of the resistor, R = 270;
the reactance XC of the capacitor:
At the first frequency, 100Hz: XC = 1 / (2 f C) = 1 / (2 (100) x (1 x 10-6) = 1591.5
Voltage and current are in phase in the resistor. There is a phase lag of 900 between voltage
and current in the capacitor. Again, the formula for impedance, Z, takes this phase shift into
account. In this case, there is no inductive reactance, and so:
using Z = (R2 + (XL - XC)2) = (R2 + XC 2)
= ((270)2 + (1591.5)2) = 1614.3
We can use this value of impedance to calculate the current, using the formula:
I = VS / Z

where VS = AC signal generator voltage

Use your measured value of VS to calculate I.

Use this in the formula VR = I x R to calculate the voltage VR across the resistor.
Use it again in the formula VL = I x XC to calculate the voltage, VC, across the capacitor.
Check these results against your measured values.
At the second frequency, 1kHz:
again, the share of the AC voltage changes. The higher frequency reduces the reactance of the capacitor to one-tenth its earlier value - i.e. 159.2 . The capacitor takes a
much lower share of the AC voltage;
the output impedance of the signal generator may change.
Repeat the calculations at 1kHz, and check your results against the measured values.

For your records:

At a frequency f, the reactance of a capacitor is:
The impedance of a C-R circuit is:

XC = 1 / (2 f C).

Z = (R2 + XC 2).

The rms current is given by: I = VS / Z

where VS = AC supply rms voltage.

The resulting rms voltage across the resistor is VR = I x R.

The resulting rms voltage across the capacitor VC = I x XC.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 39

Worksheet 19

Further electronic
engineering

L-C-R series circuit

At this point, AC circuits become very interesting!

In inductors, reactance increases with frequency. In capacitors
it decreases with frequency, and in resistors frequency has no
effect

w19a

A series LCR circuit has all three, though the resistance may
be that of the inductor wire itself, rather than that of a discrete
resistor.
At one particular frequency, the resonant frequency, the circuit behaves in an extraordinary way!
Over to you:
Connect a 47mH inductor and a 1F capacitor in series, as
shown in the circuit diagram.
Set the signal generator to output an AC voltage at a
frequency of 100Hz.

w19b

Remove the connecting link at A, and connect a multimeter,

set to read up to 20mA AC, in its place.
Record the current flowing at point A in the table.
Remove the multimeter and replace the link.
Set up the multimeter to read AC voltages of up to 20V. Connect it to measure the signal
generator output voltage, VS, and record it in the table.
Change the frequency to 200Hz, and repeat the measurements. Again record them in the
table.
Repeat the measurements for each of the frequencies listed and record them in the table.
Frequency in Hz

Sig. gen. output VS Current at A in mA

100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Impedance in k

Page 40

Worksheet 19

Further electronic
engineering

L-C-R series circuit

So what?

Your results table may not make it obvious what is happening, partly because the output
impedance of the AC power supply will probably have an effect on output voltage. This will
become clearer when we look at the impedance of the circuit.
Complete the table, by calculating the impedance, Z, at each frequency, using the formula:
Z = VS / I
At low frequencies, the capacitor has a high reactance, and the inductor a low reactance.
As the frequency rises, the capacitors reactance falls, but the inductors reactance increases.
At one value of frequency, called the resonant frequency, the combined effect of the two is a
minimum.
At this frequency, the impedance of the circuit is a minimum.
Plot a graph of impedance against frequency, and use it to estimate the resonant frequency.
A typical frequency response curve is shown below.

For your records:

For a series LCR circuit, the impedance is a minimum at the resonant frequency, fR.
This can be calculated from the formula fR = 1 / 2 (L x C)

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 41

Worksheet 20

Further electronic
engineering

Transformers

A huge advantage of generating electricity as AC is that it allows the use of

transformers, to step-up or step-down an AC voltage to any desired value.
Our treatment of the transformer links it, in four steps, to the principles we met
earlier, where we saw that an electric current is generated
when a magnetic field moves across a conductor.

w20a

w20c

In the transformer, the moving magnetic field is produced by an

electromagnet supplied with AC.
Over to you:
Step 1 - Moving the magnet:
Build the arrangement shown opposite.
Suitable oscilloscope settings are given below.
Plunge a magnet into the coil, and then pull it out, watching the
oscilloscope as you do so.

To
oscilloscope

Step 2 - Electromagnet, not magnet:

Now, connect the second coil, at X and Y, to a DC power supply, set to 3V.
Switch the DC supply on and off, watching the trace as you do so.
Step 3 - AC not DC:
This time, create a moving magnetic field by connecting points X and Y to a signal generator,
set to an amplitude of 3V and a frequency of around 1kHz.
Switch on the signal generator, and watch the trace.
Step 4 - Intensify the field:
Slide a ferrite core down the middle of the two coils, and notice the effect this has.
We now have a simple but very inefficient transformer!
Optional extension:
Investigate the effect of:
changing the amplitude of the AC supply from the signal generator;
changing the frequency of the AC supply from the signal generator;
linking the coils with cores made from other materials, like steel, instead of ferrite.
Typical oscilloscope settings:
Timebase
Steps 1 and 2: 1s/div Steps 3 and 4: 1ms /div
(X multiplier x1)
Voltage range
Input A - 500mV DC (Y multiplier x1)
(needs increasing for step 4.)
Input B - Off
Trigger Mode
Auto
Trigger Channel - Ch.A
Trigger Direction Rising
Trigger Threshold - 10mV
Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w20f

Page 42

Worksheet 20

Further electronic
engineering

Transformers
So what?

mV
100

The pictures show typical traces for this investigation:

80

60

40

the upper one shows current spikes generated when the

DC supply to the second coil is switched on and off.

20

w20e

-20

-40

-60

the lower one shows current generated when the

second coil is connected to the AC supply .

-80

-100

s
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5
01Jun2010 14:35

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

mV
100

80

We saw earlier that the essential ingredients to generate

electricity are a magnet, wire and movement. Here, we have
replaced the magnet with an electromagnet (second coil),
and produced movement by using an alternating magnetic
field.

60

40

20

w20d

-20

-40

-60

-80

-100

ms
0

10

15

20

25
01Jun2010 14:44

30

35

40

45

One coil, called the primary, is supplied with AC current, and generates an alternating magnetic
field. This links with the other coil, called the secondary. As a result, an alternating voltage is
generated in the secondary. This is the principle of the transformer.
Some refinements:
The strength of the magnetic field in the primary depends on factors like:
the number of turns of wire in the primary coil
the current flowing through it, which, in turn, depends on the voltage applied to it.
The voltage generated in the secondary coil depends on factors like:
the strength of the magnetic field generated by the primary
the number of turns of wire in the secondary coil
how effectively the magnetic field of the primary links with it.
In other words, the voltage generated in the secondary depends on the number of turns in the
primary, and the number of turns in the secondary. The next worksheet explores this link.

For your records:

Copy the circuit symbol for the transformer, given at the top of the previous page.
Describe the role played by each of the three components in the transformer:
the primary coil,
the secondary coil,
the core.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 43

Worksheet 21

Further electronic
engineering

Practical transformers
Transformers play an important role in many electrical and
electronic applications by allowing AC voltages to be stepped
up or down to any desired value.
In this worksheet you investigate the operation of a small
transformer, which has a laminated steel core, when used for
step-down and then step-up operation.

w21a

Over to you:
Step-down transformer:
In a step-down transformer, the primary coil, the one supplied with AC power, has more turns of
wire than the secondary, the one that generates the transformer output voltage.
Here we use a commercial transformer with a turns ratio of 2:1, meaning that one coil has twice
as many turns as the other. The primary will be the 2 coil, and the secondary the 1 coil.
Build the system shown, which delivers power to a 1k load.
(Ignore any labelling on the transformer itself.)
Connect a signal generator to the 2 coil (primary), using the low
impedance output (typically 50.) Set it to output a sine wave with
frequency 300Hz, and amplitude 6.0V.
(If in doubt, check these with your instructor.)
Connect a multimeter, set on the 20V AC voltage range, to measure voltage VP across the
primary (the 2) coil, and then VS across the secondary (the 1 coil.)
Set the multimeter to the 20mA AC current range, and connect it to replace the link below the
2 coil, to read the primary current, IP.
Replace the connecting link and measure the secondary current, IS in the same way.
Record all measurements in the table.
Step-up transformer:
In a step-up transformer, the primary coil has fewer turns than the secondary. In this case, the
primary will be the 1 coil, and the secondary the 2 coil.
The system is the same as above, except that the transformer carrier is now upside down.
Connect the multimeter to measure the secondary voltage VS. Adjust the amplitude of the
signal from the signal generator until VS is the same as in the previous investigation.
Now measure and record VP, IP and IS.
Reading
VP

Step-down

VS
IP
IS
Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Step-up

w21b

Page 44

Worksheet 21

Further electronic
engineering

Practical transformers
So what?

The last worksheet looked at transformer principles, but the final device was very inefficient.
This one uses an improved version - two coils, side by side, as before, but
linked by a much more elaborate core, threading through the centre of the
coils, and wrapped around the outside too. The result - more effective linkage
between the magnetic field generated in the primary and the secondary coil.

w21c

What the results show:

Look at the ratio VP:VS for both step-up and step-down
transformers. The transformer equation says that, for an
ideal transformer:
VP / VS = NP / NS
where NP and NS are the number of turns on the two coils.

Laminated steel core

Secondary
Output

AC
supply
Input

Next look at the ratio IP:IS for both transformers.

In general terms:

Load

Primary
Magnetic flux linking primary
and secondary windings

a step-up transformer steps up the voltage (virtually doubles it)

but steps down the current - IP, is much greater than IS.
a step-down transformer steps down the voltage, but delivers
the same secondary current for a much smaller primary current.
Both delivered the same voltage, VS, to the 1k load, and so IS, the secondary current,
was very similar in both cases.
The acid test:
What about the power? Was it stepped up or stepped down?
Using the formula:
Power delivered to the primary coil,

Power = Current x Voltage:

PP = IP x VP = ...................................mW

Power delivered from the secondary,

PS = IS x VS = ....................................mW

For an ideal transformer (100% efficient):

PP = PS
and IS / IP = NP / NS

(Optional extension:)
Investigate the effect of applied frequency on the output of the transformer. Research the
topic of power matching to explain your results.
For your records:
Copy the transformer equation, and explain what it means, in words.
Explain what is meant by step-up and step-down when applied to transformers.
Include the role of the number of turns of wire, and specify exactly what is stepped up, and
what is stepped down in each case.
Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w21d

w21e

Page 45

Worksheet 22

Further electronic
engineering

Diode characteristics

Diodes allow current to flow in one direction but not the other. The
performance of a diode can be illustrated by plotting a graph of
forward and reverse current against the applied voltage. This
graph allows us to predict accurately how a diode will behave in a
particular circuit and decide whether or not it is suitable that
application.

w22a

In this worksheet you compare the characteristics of two different

diodes. One is a general purpose low-voltage silicon diode
(1N4001) whilst the other is made from germanium (OA91).
Over to you:
Build the circuit shown opposite, to allow you to measure
the forward characteristics of the diodes.

w22b

Set the DC power supply for an output of 4.5V.

Set the voltmeter to the 20V DC range and the ammeter to
the 20mA DC range.
Use the pot to vary the voltage, VF, applied to the diode from
0.1V to 0.7V in steps of 0.1V.
At each step, measure and record the forward current, IF, in
the table.
Repeat this procedure for the other diode.

Forward characteristics
IF (1N4001)

VF

IF (OA91)

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5

Next invert the diode, and change the power supply voltage
to 13.5V, as shown in the lower diagram, .This allows you to
measure the reverse characteristics of the two diodes.

0.6
0.7

Change the ammeter to the 200A DC range.

w22c

Once again, use the pot to vary the voltage applied to the
diode, now called VR, but this time you will only need to
take current readings, IR, at 0V, 5V and 10V.
Record them in the table.

Reverse characteristics
VR

Repeat the process for the other diode.

0
5.0
10.0

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

IR (1N4001)

IR (OA91)

Page 46

Worksheet 22

Further electronic
engineering

Diode characteristics

So what?
Use the axes like those shown below to plot your results as graphs of applied voltage against
current for both the forward and reverse directions and for both diodes.
Notice that the voltage and current scales are different for the two directions.

w22d

Describe what the graphs tell you about the behaviour of the two kinds of diode.
What forward voltage is required to make each of the diodes begin to conduct?
Silicon .....................

Germanium .....................

For your records:

Diodes are usually made from semiconducting crystals. The behaviour of the device depends
on the material it is made from, as the graph shows.
The diode is a one-way valve. It allows a current to
flow through it in only one direction.
(A resistor behaves in exactly the same way no matter
which way the current flows. Try it !)
When it is forward-biased, a silicon diode conducts, with
a voltage drop of about 0.7V across it.
When reverse-biased, it does not conduct (for low
voltages, at any rate.)
When forward-biased, a germanium diode conducts,
with a voltage drop of about 0.3V across it.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w22a

Page 47

Worksheet 23

Further electronic
engineering

Half-wave rectifier

One of the most common applications for a diode is to convert

alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) in a rectifier circuit.
This exploits the unidirectional properties of a diode - current flows
only when the anode is positive with respect to the cathode.
w23a

The next issue is to maintain the current flow while the diode is not
conducting. This involves the use of a large value capacitor acting as
a reservoir for charge. This maintains current flow, and output
voltage, until the diode conducts again.
Over to you:
Build circuit A. The AC power supply provides the input. The
180 resistor acts as the load for the rectifier circuit.
Connect a DC voltmeter to measure the DC output voltage,
VOUT. Record it in the first line of the table.

w23b

Connect a dual trace oscilloscope, using two x10 probes, so

that channel A displays at least two complete cycles of the input
waveform and channel B displays the corresponding output.
Connect the oscilloscope ground terminals to the negative rail
of the circuit.
Modify the circuit by adding a 47F capacitor, C, connected
as in circuit B.
Take care to connect it the right way round, as shown!

Capacitor
None - circuit A
47F

Notice the effect on the oscilloscope trace.

100F

Again measure and record the output voltage, VOUT.

150F

Repeat this process for all the other values of capacitor C,

given in the table.

1000F

Typical oscilloscope settings:

Timebase
10 ms/div
Voltage range (Both Inputs ) 5V DC with x10 probes
Trigger Mode
Trigger Direction

Repeat
Rising

Trigger Channel

ch.A

Trigger Threshold - 4 mV

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

VOUT

Page 48

Worksheet 23

Further electronic
engineering

Half-wave rectifier
So what?

The diode allows current to flow through it (and the load) in one direction only. It acts as a small
resistor for currents trying to flow in one direction (when it is forward-biased,) and as a very
large resistor for currents trying to flow in the other direction, (when reverse-biased.)

The first diagram shows a typical trace obtained from the

first circuit. The AC input is turned into a DC output
(rectified.) Notice that, while the output is DC (as it never
crosses the 0V line,) it is not steady DC.

The second diagram shows the same signal, using a

different time base setting for the oscilloscope (2ms/div.) to
show the rectification in more detail.

w23c

A - AC current changes direction here

B - DC current does not change direction

In particular, notice that the DC output, (the lower one), is

approximately 0.7V lower than the AC input. The diode does
not really conduct until the voltage across it reaches 0.7V.
Thereafter, there is a 0.7V drop across the diode, leaving the
DC output 0.7V below the AC input at all points.

A closer view

w23d

0.7V gap

With capacitor in circuit

DC

The third diagram shows the effect of adding a smoothing

capacitor. The output voltage is now both DC and steady.
w23e

For your records:

Sketch a voltage-time graph for the output signal for circuit A.
Sketch a voltage-time graph for the output signal for circuit B with the 1000F capacitor.
Explain the difference between these two graphs.
Which value of reservoir capacitance produced the highest value of DC output voltage?
Why was this?

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 49

Worksheet 24

Further electronic
engineering

Full-wave bridge rectifier

The diode in a half-wave rectifier conducts for no more than 50% of the
time. This is inefficient and requires large reservoir capacitors.
Most practical power supplies use four diodes to maintain the current
flow through the load on both positive and negative half-cycles of the
supply.

w24a

In practice, they use either four individual diodes (as shown opposite) or
a single component, a bridge rectifier, where the four diodes are
encapsulated in a single package.
Over to you:
Build the circuit shown opposite, using the AC power
supply as the input once again.
Measure the DC output voltage, VOUT and record it in the
first line of the table (for Capacitor - None.).

w24b

Using the same time base and voltage sensitivity settings

as before, connect an oscilloscope to display at least two complete cycles of the output.
Do not try to display the input waveform at the same time.
The common ground connection will short-circuit one of the diodes!
The input waveform is the same as that displayed in the previous worksheet.
Modify the circuit by adding a 47F reservoir capacitor, C, as in the second circuit.
Take care to connect it the right way round, as shown!
Notice the effect on the oscilloscope trace.
Measure and record the DC output voltage, VOUT.
w24c

Use each of the other capacitor values shown in the

table. Measure and record the DC output voltage,
VOUT, for each.

Capacitor

VOUT

None
47F
100F
150F
1000F

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 50

Worksheet 24

Further electronic
engineering

Full-wave bridge rectifier

So what?
The circuit diagram for the full-wave rectifier is shown opposite.

It was pointed out that you cannot measure the input and output
waveforms simultaneously.

w24d

To do that, you would connect one channel to points A and C to

measure the input, and the other to points B and D to measure the
output. However, most oscilloscopes have a common 0V connection between the two channels.
This would connect points C and D together, say, and thus short-circuit one of the diodes.
The three oscilloscope traces show typical waveforms for:
the AC signal going into the full-wave rectifier,

the DC output

w24e

w24f

the effect of the reservoir capacitor.

The DC output, in the middle trace, is an improvement on the half-wave output, in that current
flows through the load throughout the AC cycle. Again, it is DC , because the trace never
crosses the 0V line. However, again, a reservoir capacitor is needed to provide smooth DC.
For your records:
Sketch a voltage-time graph of the full-wave rectified DC output signal, without smoothing.
Compare the performance of the full-wave rectifier with the half-wave rectifier.
Which circuit performed the best, and why?
The output of this full-wave rectifier, using four diodes, is 1.4V less than the AC input peak
value, and is not smooth DC.
Again, a large capacitor can be connected across the output of the rectifier to smooth the DC
signal produced.
Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

w24g

Page 51

Revision questions

Further electronic
engineering

About these questions

These questions are designed to provide you with a useful aid to revision. You should allow 25
minutes to answer them and then check your answers with those given on page 54.
1. When six 1.5V dry cells are connected in series the resulting battery voltage will be:
(a)
1.5V
(b)
6V
(c)
9V
2. A sine wave has a frequency of 40ms. What is its frequency?
(a)
25Hz
(b)
40Hz
(c)
80Hz
3. The components shown on the right are:
(a)
resistors.
(b)
capacitors.
(c)
inductors.
q3

4. A sine wave has a peak value of 10V. What is its rms value?
(a)
5V
(b)
7.07V
(c)
14.14V
5. The connection marked X on the diode shown in the right is the:
(a)
anode.
(b)
base.
(c)
cathode.
6. Ohms Law states that:
(a)
V=IR
(b)
V=I/R
(c)
V=R/I

q4

7. Inductive reactance:
(a)
increases with frequency.
(b)
decreases with frequency.
(c)
does not change with frequency.
8. If the frequency of the current flowing in a resistor is doubled the current will:
(a)
be doubled.
(b)
be halved.
(c)
stay the same.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 52

Revision questions

Further electronic
engineering

9. The component shown on the right is:

(a)
a resistor.
(b)
an inductor.
(c)
a capacitor.

q9

10. The units of electric charge are:

(a)
amperes.
(b)
coulombs.
(c)
farads.
11. A potential difference of 120V appears across a resistance of 15k.
Which one of the following gives the current that will be flowing in the resistor?
(a)
8mA
(b)
125mA
(c)
180mA
12. A transformer has an input of 120V and a turns ratio of 4:1. What will the output voltage be:
(a)
30V
(b)
60V
(c)
480V.
13. In a series L-C-R circuit at resonance, the impedance will be:
(a)
maximum.
(b)
minimum.
(c)
zero.
14. Which one of the following gives the peak value and frequency of the
waveform shown opposite:
(a)
5V, 500Hz
(b)
5V, 2Hz
(c)
10V, 2000Hz
15. Which one of the following gives the units of electrical energy?
(a)
amperes
(b)
joules
(c)
watts
16. A diode will conduct when:
(a)
the anode is made positive with respect to the cathode.
(b)
the cathode is made positive with respect to the anode.
(c)
the anode and cathode are at exactly the same potential.
17. When a diode is forward biased it will:
(a)
exhibit a very low resistance.
(b)
exhibit a very high resistance.
(c)
exhibit no resistance at all.
Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

q14

Page 53

Revision questions

Further electronic
engineering

18. Which one of the following gives the forward voltage normally associated with a silicon diode?
(a)
0.1V
(b)
0.6V
(c)
2.0V
19. In the reverse direction a diode will conduct:
(a)
a large amount of current.
(b)
the same current as in the forward direction.
(c)
hardly any current at all.
20. The function of a reservoir capacitor in a power supply is to:
(a)
transform the input voltage to the required level.
(b)
release charge when the rectifier diode(s) are non-conducting.
(c)
convert half-wave operation to full-wave operation.
21. Resistors of 15 and 60 are connected in series across a 15V supply.
Which one of the following gives the voltage dropped across the 60 resistor?
(a)
3V
(b)
12V
(c)
15V
22. An capacitor with a reactance of 150 is connected in series with a 200 resistor.
Which one of the following gives the impedance of the circuit?
(a)
50
(b)
250
(c)
350
23. At 400Hz the reactance of a capacitor is 300. At 1.6kHz its reactance will be:
(a)
75
(b)
150
(c)
1200
24. The component shown on the right is a:
(a)
resistor.
(b)
capacitor.
(c)
transformer.
25. The output of rectifier will be kept more constant by using:
(a)
a relatively small value of reservoir capacitance.
(b)
a relatively large value of reservoir capacitance.
(c)
no reservoir capacitance at all.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

q24

Page 54

Answers to
revision questions

Further electronic
engineering

Answers to revision questions (see page 51)

1.

(c)

2.

(a)

3.

(a)

4.

(b)

5.

(c)

6.

(a)

7.

(a)

8.

(c)

9.

(b)

10.

(b)

11.

(a)

12.

(a)

13.

(b)

14.

(a)

15.

(b)

16.

(a)

17.

(a)

18.

(b)

19.

(c)

20.

(b)

21.

(b)

22.

(b)

23.

(a)

24.

(c)

25.

(b)

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 55

Tutors notes

Further electronic
engineering
About this course

Introduction
This workbook is intended to reinforce the learning that takes place in the classroom or lecture
room for intermediate level courses such as the BTEC National unit (QCF Level 3) in Electrical
and Electronic Principles (J/600/0255). It provides a series of practical activities and
investigations, designed to complement the BTEC syllabus.
The learning outcomes are as follows:
Use circuit theory to determine voltage, current and resistance in direct current (DC) circuits.
Understand the concepts of capacitance and determine capacitance values in DC circuits.
Know the principles and properties of magnetism.
Be able to use single-phase alternating current (AC) theory.
Locktronics equipment makes it simple and quick to construct and investigate simple electrical
and electronic circuits. Thanks to the symbols printed on each component carrier, the result can
look exactly like the circuit diagram.
Prior Knowledge
Students should have previously studied (or should be concurrently studying) Module 1
(Mathematics) and Module 2 (Physics) or should have equivalent knowledge at Level 2.

Learning Objectives
On successful completion of this course the student will have learned:
to use a multimeter and oscilloscope to carry out basic DC and AC circuit measurements;
to identify series and parallel branches within a circuit network;
the relationship between current, voltage and resistance in simple DC and AC circuits;
the relationships between power, voltage, current, resistance, energy and time
the relationship between resistance, reactance and impedance in an AC circuit;
the relationship between charge, voltage and capacitance;
the relationship between motion, current flow and induced emf;
the relationship between reactance, frequency and capacitance (or inductance);
the behaviour of a series resonant L-C-R circuits;
the relationship between Q-factor and bandwidth;
the relationship between turns ratio, voltage ratio and current ratio for an ideal transformer
the behaviour of a diode when forward and reverse biased;
the operation of simple half-wave and full-wave (bridge) rectifiers.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 56

Tutors notes

Further electronic
engineering

What students will need:

Students need the equipment shown in the
table, together with the following items of test
equipment:
1 digital multimeter
1 oscilloscope (single or dual trace)
1 audio frequency signal generator with lowimpedance output (preferably 50, or less).
In addition, students may need a small supply
of thin card and two aluminium plates in order
to complete Worksheet 10 (optional). A
multimeter with a capacitance range will also
be required for this investigation.
Power source:
The majority of the investigations in this
workbook require a DC power source such as
the HP2666, which is an adjustable DC power
supply offering output voltages of 3V, 4.5V, 6V,
7.5V, 9V or 12, with currents typically up to 1A.
The voltage is changed by turning the selector
dial just above the earth pin until the arrow
points to the required voltage. Tutors may
decide to make any adjustment necessary to
the power supply voltage themselves, or may
allow students to make necessary changes.
The two power supply worksheets require the
use of an 12V 1A AC supply such as the
HP3728. This is a fixed voltage supply.
Alternative versions are available for use in
Europe and the USA.

Qty

Code

Description

HP2045

Plastic tray

HP2666

Power supply

HP4039

Tray Lid

HP5540

Deep tray

HP7750

Daughter tray foam cutout

HP7750

Daughter tray foam cutout

HP9564

62mm daughter tray

HP9564

62mm daughter tray

LK0123

Small bar magnet

LK2340

AC voltage source carrier

LK2346

MES bulb, 12V, 0.1A

LK3982

Voltmeter, 0V to 15V

LK4000

Locktronics User Guide

LK4002

Resistor, 100 ohm, 1W, 5% (DIN)

LK4003

Capacitor, 1,000 uF, Electrolytic 30V

LK4123

Transformer, 2:1 turns ratio

LK5202

Resistor, 1k, 1/4W, 5% (DIN)

LK5203

Resistor, 10k, 1/4W, 5% (DIN)

LK5205

Resistor, 270 ohm, 1/2W, 5% (DIN)

LK5207

Resistor, 180 ohm, 1/2W, 5% (DIN)

LK5208

Potentiometer, 250 ohm (DIN)

LK5224

Capacitor, 47uF, Electrolytic, 25V

LK5242

Diode, germanium

LK5243

Diode, power, 1A, 50V

12

LK5250

Connecting Link

LK5266

Bridge rectifier

LK5291

Lampholder, MES

LK5570

Pair of leads, red and black, 600mm, 4mm to croc clip

LK5607

Lead, yellow, 500mm, 4mm to 4mm stackable

LK5609

Lead, blue, 500mm, 4mm to 4mm stackable

LK6202

Capacitor, 100uF, Electrolytic, 25V

LK6203

Capacitor, 2,200 uF, Electrolytic, 25V

LK6205

Capacitor, 1 uF, Polyester

LK6207

Switch, push to make, metal strip

LK6211

Resistor, 22k, 1/4W, 5% (DIN)

LK6214R2

LK6218

Resistor, 2.2k, 1/4W, 5% (DIN)

LK6223

Capacitor, 150 uF, Electrolytic, 25V

LK6492

Curriculum CD ROM

LK7409

AA battery holder carrier

LK7483

1:1 transformer with retractable ferrite core

LK8275

Power supply carrier with battery symbol

LK8900

7 x 5 metric baseboard with 4mm pillars

LK9381

Ammeter, 0mA to 100mA

LK9998

400 Turn coil carrier

Locktronics HP2666 power supply

showing voltage selector.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Choke, 47mH

Page 57

Tutors notes

Further electronic
engineering

Using this course:

It is expected that the worksheets are printed / photocopied, preferably in colour, for the
students use. Students should retain their own copy of the entire workbook.
Worksheets usually contain:
an introduction to the topic under investigation;
step-by-step instructions for the practical investigation that follows;
a section headed So What? which aims both to challenge learners by questioning their
understanding of a topic and also provides a useful summary of what has been learned.
It can be used to develop ideas and as a trigger for class discussion.
a section headed For Your Records which provides important summary information that
students should retain for future reference.
This format encourages self-study, with students working at a rate that suits their ability. It is for
the tutor to monitor that students understanding is keeping pace with their progress through the
worksheets and to provide additional work that will challenge brighter learners. One way to do
this is to sign off each worksheet, as a student completes it, and in the process have a brief
chat with the learner to assess their grasp of the ideas involved in the exercises that it contains.
Finally, a set of multiple choice revision questions has been provided to conclude the work in
this unit. These questions are of mixed difficulty and are designed to help students identify
topics which might need more work. It is recommended that students should attempt these
questions under examination conditions and without the use of notes.
Time:
It will take most students between eleven and eighteen hours to complete the full set of
worksheets. It is expected that a similar length of time will be needed to support the learning in
a class, tutorial or in a self-study environment.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 58

Tutors notes
Worksheet
1

Further electronic
engineering
Notes for the Tutor

In the first worksheet, students investigate the series and parallel

connection of cells in order to produce batteries. Before this, students
should be introduced to the different types of cell and to the distinction
between primary and secondary types. It is also important for students to
know the basic characteristics of several of the most common types of cell,
including lead-acid, alkaline, nickel-cadmium and zinc-carbon types.

Timing
20 - 30
minutes

Series and parallel connection of batteries should be described together

with representative circuit diagrams. Students need to be aware that the
same load current flows through all cells in a series-connected battery but
is shared between the cells in the case of a parallel-connected battery.
Students are asked to construct three arrangements of series-connected
cells and three arrangements of parallel-connected cells. By comparing the
measured voltages, they confirm what they have previously learned about
series and parallel combination of individual cells.

This worksheet introduces students to the use of a multimeter to measure

the current flowing in a circuit. Where multimeters are not available, tutors
may wish to use discrete meters but these must be of comparable
sensitivity.
Multimeters are in widespread use because of their low cost and versatility.
Although they differ in terms of the functions they offer and the precise
details of their structure, the broad principles are the same. Here we look at
their use to measure current (ammeter function) and later voltage
(voltmeter function.)
We address the distinction between DC ranges and AC ranges, without
going into detail about DC and AC.
Beware! It is common to find that the ammeter settings are protected by an
internal fuse. This is frequently blown because students switch on the
multimeter, connected as a voltmeter, with the dial turned to a current
range. Teachers should check all fuses prior to this exercise, and be
prepared with a supply of replacement fuses!
The aim of the exercises is to spot the pattern for current flow - that the
total current leaving any junction in the circuit is equal to the total current
entering the junction. (Compare this with traffic at a road junction, where
crashes and parking can lead to a different result.)
The worksheet ends with an additional exercise and questions, requiring
students to apply the current rule that they discovered in the investigation.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

20 - 30
minutes

Page 59

Tutors notes
Worksheet
3

Further electronic
engineering
Notes for the Tutor

This worksheet mirrors the structure of the last one, but looks at measuring
voltage rather than current.

Timing
20 - 30
minutes

The point is made in the introduction, that it is relatively easy to visualise

an electric current - millions of electrons slowly squeezing their way along a
wire, like crowds of people in a shopping mall, but that it is more difficult to
visualise voltage. It is a topic we return to in a later workbook.
For the present, the exercise concentrates on measuring voltage, rather
than defining it. Students use a multimeter for this, by connecting it in
parallel with the section of the circuit under investigation.
The circuit diagram at the top of the second page of the worksheet shows
three voltmeters. The student does not need three, but can move one from
one voltmeter position to the next to take the three readings.
Again, students are asked to look for a pattern in their results. This is that
the total of the voltmeter readings in any loop of the circuit is equal to the
power supply, or battery, voltage.
The worksheet ends with an exercise and questions, requiring students to
apply the voltage rule.
4

This worksheet focuses on Ohms Law. It also introduces the use of a

potentiometer as a simple variable voltage source. Students might need
help in setting up the circuit. A picture is provided to assist with this.
The instructions refer to use of an ammeter and a voltmeter. While it is
possible to use a single multimeter to do both jobs, it is easier if each
student has access to two multimeters. If using only one, once the current
is measured, a connecting link must replace the ammeter, while the
multimeter is acting as a voltmeter.
The voltage adjustment is delicate, and students should be encouraged to
have patience when setting it to the values given in the table.
In reality, Ohms Law applies only when a very specific set of
circumstances apply. In particular, the temperature of the conductor, (a
resistor in this case,) must not change. As the current through it increases,
the resistor gets hot! We attempt to limit this by specifying a maximum of
1.0V across the resistor. The students plot a graph of their results, and can
use it to obtain a value for the resistance of the resistor.
The next section introduces the resistor colour code. Tutors should spend
time giving further examples of its use.
A guide on using a multimeter to measure resistance follows,. The most
important aspect of this is that this cannot be done in-circuit. The
component must be removed from the circuit for the measurement.
The worksheet ends with questions on using Ohms Law formulae, and on
applying the resistor colour code (see Intermediate Electronics, LK9284,
for a colour chart for the four-band resistor colour code).

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

20 - 30
minutes

Page 60

Tutors notes
Worksheet
5

Further electronic
engineering
Notes for the Tutor

This investigation introduces students to series and parallel circuits.

As before, this involves similar multimeter skills, and pitfalls. Instructors
should again be aware of the internal fuse issue.

Timing
20 - 30
minutes

The treatment compares measured values with calculated ones. Instructors

might decide at this point to discuss component and instrument tolerance.
Inspection of the resistors beneath the carriers will show them to have
either 5% or 1% tolerance. Measuring instruments have a range of
accuracies, depending on what scale they are on. Where available,
students could be directed to manufacturers data.
The worksheet ends with a network for students to analyse. The outcome
of their calculations will indicate how well they have assimilated the
contents of the earlier worksheets.

Voltage dividers are a very important in electricity and electronics as they

form the basis for many sensing subsystems, such as light-sensing units.
They can also appear difficult to students. The aim here is to overcome
that aura of difficulty by reducing the treatment to two simple stages:

the sum of the voltages across the components equals the supply
voltage;
the bigger the resistance of a component, the bigger its share of the
supply voltage, - if one resistor has four times the resistance of the
other, it gets four times as much voltage.
This approach is tested with three different pairs of resistors, and using two
supply voltages.
The output voltage depends only the supply voltage and the relative size of
the resistors, (not their absolute resistance,) so that a voltage divider
made from a 2 and a 1 resistor behaves much like one made from a
2M and a 1M resistor.
However, the absolute values of resistance are important in two ways:

Using very low values of resistance increases the current flowing

through the voltage divider, and increases the power dissipation in the
resistors. This is usually undesirable.

When another subsystem, which draws an appreciable current, is

connected to the voltage divider output, this extra loading can change
the output voltage of the voltage divider. This extra current flows through
the upper resistor but not the lower resistor in the voltage divider. A
useful rule of thumb says that the current flowing through the
unconnected voltage divider should be at least ten times bigger than the
current that will be drawn from it when the next subsystem is connected
to its output.
It may be worth discussing these points with the students once they have
completed this exercise.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

20 - 30
minutes

Page 61

Tutors notes
Worksheet
7

Further electronic
engineering
Notes for the Tutor

This worksheet investigates current divider circuits, and compares and

contrasts their behaviour with that just studied for voltage dividers.

Timing
20 - 30
minutes

Current dividers do not have as many obvious applications as voltage

dividers, though they are used in current measurement. It is often useful to
measure only a fixed portion of the total current, and from that deduce the
total current flowing. For example, if a current divider sends 10% of the
total current through an ammeter, which then registers a current of 2.5A,
then the total current flowing was 25A.
In an approach parallel to that used for voltage dividers, the treatment
looks at two simple ideas:
the sum of the currents through the components equals the supply
current;
the bigger the resistance of a component, the smaller its share of the
current, so that if one resistor has four times the resistance of the other,
it passes a current four times smaller.
8

This worksheet looks at two very important, but straightforward, rules of

electricity, known as Kirchhoffs laws. In the light of modern knowledge
about electricity, these are less impressive than they would have appeared
in 1845 when they were first formulated. Nevertheless, they offer valuable
tools for analysing networks of components.
The current law states that the (vector) sum of the currents at any point in a
circuit is zero, or in other words, the total current flowing out of any
junction is equal to the total current flowing into the junction. It may need to
be stressed to students that it is vital to take into account the direction in
which a current is flowing, as well as its magnitude, when applying
Kirchhoffs rule. We can now say that it is a consequence of the
conservation of charge, or, in other words, that electrons are neither
created nor destroyed as they flow around a circuit.
The voltage law says that around any loop in a circuit (any possible path
that an electron may flow around,) the sum of the emfs (energy given to
the electrons,) is equal to the sum of the pds (energy taken from the
electrons). In other words, in a series circuit consisting of a 6V battery and
two resistors, (so that there is only one possible loop,) the sum of the
voltages across the resistors (which take energy from the electrons and
heat up in the process, - the pds) is equal to 6V ( the energy which the
battery gives to the electrons - the emf.) In reality, this rule is simply a
restatement of the conservation of energy.
The investigation looks at both these aspects, and takes measurements to
justify them.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

20 - 30
minutes

Page 62

Tutors notes
Worksheet
9

Further electronic
engineering
Notes for the Tutor

Students should appreciate the relationship between energy, power (as the
rate at which energy is used), voltage, current and time. The introduction
uses three key facts (definitions) to arrive at the relationship P = I V.

Timing
20 - 30
minutes

The investigation into three circuits is designed to give students experience

of electrical calculations in the context of actual circuits.
The questions will provide students with practice in applying the principles
of power and energy in relationship to practical power distribution systems.
10

The first worksheet on capacitors is optional. The materials for this are
NOT included in the Locktronics kit, as the essence of the investigation is
that it uses everyday materials.

20 - 30
minutes

The investigation, as described, uses aluminium plates, separated by

cardboard, but equally, it could use aluminium kitchen foil and kitchen food
wrapping such as ClingFilm . (Commercially produced capacitors are
mysterious packages that hide any details of inner structure.)
Students investigate the construction and operation of a simple parallel
plate capacitor, constructed from two square aluminium plates with area of
around 80cm2. The plates are separated by one or more squares of card,
each having a thickness of around 0.2mm. The arrangement must be kept
flat to ensure that the plates are truly parallel. They can be placed between
two glass plates, then placed flat on a table, with a non-metallic weight,
(such as a bag of sugar,) applied to the upper glass plate.
The capacitance of this arrangement (with one single sheet of card) will be
around 1nF and should be easily measurable using a digital multimeter
with a 2nF or 20nF capacitance range.
Care should be taken when assembling the apparatus to avoid short
circuits and any unwanted stray capacitance.
11

Here students investigate the charging and discharging of a capacitor.

They first investigate capacitor charging by connecting a 9V DC supply to a
capacitor via a series resistor. A push-to-make switch is used to discharge
it prior to making measurements. The capacitor will begin to charge as
soon as the switch is released. Students need a clock or stopwatch with a
sweep second hand or digital seconds display.
The measurements are repeated for three different sets of C-R values.
They then plot three different graphs from which to make inferences about
the effect of time constant (CR) on the rate of charging.
Students then investigate the discharge process. Now the push-to-make
switch is first closed in order to charge the capacitor fully, and then
released to start the discharge period,. Once again, measurements are
repeated for three different sets of C-R values, from which three different
graphs are drawn. The students make inferences about the role of time
constant (CR) on the rate at which the capacitor is discharged.
This worksheet provides the basis of a useful class discussion, on for
example, just how long it takes to charge or discharge a capacitor. More
able students will benefit from additional work based around a
mathematical analysis of charge and discharge.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

30 - 45
minutes

Page 63

Tutors notes
Worksheet
12

Further electronic
engineering
Notes for the Tutor

This practical exercise needs careful attention. The effects being studied
are small and easily missed. Students using digital multimeters, should be
aware that these instruments sample the input signal periodically, so that
short-duration pulses may be missed.

Timing
30 - 45
minutes

Traditionally, students are nervous about using multimeters - selecting the

right range, using the correct sockets, and so on. They may need a brief
revision session beforehand. A potential complication is that many
multimeters have an internal fuse to protect against overload on DC current
ranges. These blow very easily, but do so out of sight, leaving the student
puzzled as to the lack of activity on the meter. Instructors will need to
check meters regularly, and have a ready supply of new fuses.
Similarly with digital storage oscilloscopes, the input is sampled. Repeating
the action several times will help to convince the student what is going on,
and may produce a good trace on the storage oscilloscope eventually.
Flemings right-hand (dynamo) rule needs careful explanation, and a great
deal of practice, if students are to feel confident about its use. Some
confuse the use of the left-hand and right-hand rules.
An explanation is given in terms of the behaviour of electrons. The
instructor should judge how far to take this with a given class of students.

13

This worksheet is designed to introduce students to the concept of

inductance.
It involves first the generation of a steady magnetic field in the core of an
inductor and then observing the emf generated when the current is
interrupted, causing the magnetic field to collapse. Due to the transient
nature of this back emf, it is necessary to use a triggered oscilloscope or
equivalent virtual instrument to display it.
Some initial experimentation may be required to optimise the oscilloscope
settings but those given in the worksheet make a good starting point.
Note that the inductance used for this investigation is obtained from the
primary winding of the Locktronics transformer component. This has
optimum characteristics for this investigation (smaller components may
produce much shorter transients which may be accompanied by a
significant amount of damped oscillation resulting from the presence of
shunt capacitance in the oscilloscope leads).
Where students use a storage oscilloscope, they should be encouraged to
save their screen displays and subsequently print these out.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

30 - 45
minutes

Page 64

Tutors notes
Worksheet
14

Further electronic
engineering

Notes for the Tutor

In the worksheet, students are introduced to alternating current (AC)
measurements.

Timing
30 - 45
minutes

They are provided with an introduction to the quantities and terminology

used in AC measurements. Students should understand the relationship
between root-mean-square (rms), peak and peak-peak values and should
be able to relate these to sinusoidal waveforms displayed on an
oscilloscope.
They should also understand the relationship between frequency and
periodic time and be able to manipulate this relationship in order to
calculate one from the other.
Waveforms can be displayed using a conventional oscilloscope or a
storage oscilloscope. Recommended oscilloscope settings are given in the
worksheet.
15

This worksheet introduces students to the effects of inductive reactance.

As students may be unfamiliar with using a signal generator, the instructor
should check that it is set to the correct frequency and amplitude.
For those returning to electrical studies after a break, this is another
opportunity to revisit the use of multimeters to measure current and
voltage. In particular, students should be reminded that voltage
measurements can be made without interrupting the circuit, with the
multimeter connected in parallel with the resistor under investigation. On
the other hand, to measure current, the circuit must be broken at the point
of interest, with the multimeter inserted there to complete the circuit.
Instructors need to be aware that the low current range on most
multimeters is protected by internal fuse. If a student is having difficulty in
getting readings from a circuit, it may be that this fuse has blown. It is worth
having spare multimeters available, and the means to change the fuses, to
streamline the lesson.
The instructions specify the signal generator output frequency, but not
amplitude. This is because it is irrelevant, providing it gives measurable
results. Typically, a value of 5V p-p will be sufficient.
A comparison is made between resistors, which oppose current, and
inductors, which oppose changing current. The instructor might wish to
elaborate on this, and expand on what is meant by rate of change of
current.
Students may find it confusing that reactance is measured in ohms. The
point should be made that this comes from the definition of inductive
reactance, and a formula that looks like, but has nothing to do with, Ohms
law. The opposition caused by resistors is the resistance. However, the
opposition caused by inductors is not called inductance, but inductive
reactance.
They need plenty of practice in calculating this from the formula:
XL = 2 f L
as they confuse the terms f and L, and find it difficult to convert multipliers
such as milli often used with inductance.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

30 - 45
minutes

Page 65

Tutors notes
Worksheet
16

Further electronic
engineering

Notes for the Tutor

This is the introductory worksheet for capacitive reactance, equivalent to
the earlier one on inductive reactance.

Timing
30 - 45
minutes

It is important that students appreciate that inductors and capacitors are

really mirror-images of each other:

The former sets up a magnetic field, the latter an electric field.

The former has a slowly increasing current, once a voltage is applied to
it. The latter has a slowly increasing voltage across it, as a current flows
in the circuit.

Inductors oppose a changing current, capacitors a changing voltage.

This opposition increases with frequency in inductors, but decreases
with frequency in capacitors.
Again, the instructions specify only the signal generator output frequency,
and not amplitude. Any measurable signal can be used, providing it gives
measurable results. A typical value is 5V p-p.
The treatment given in the worksheet makes no mention of phasor
diagrams, but the instructor may wish to introduce these to support the
students understanding.
They will need plenty of practice in calculating reactance from the formula:
XC = 1 / 2 f C
Students find it difficult to convert multipliers such as micro and nano.
17

Whereas series combinations of inductors, resistors and capacitors make

frequency-dependent voltage dividers, parallel combinations form
frequency-dependent current dividers. This worksheet introduces the first of
these, the series L-R circuit.
The treatment deliberately avoids the issue of impedance in parallel
circuits, because the relevant formula is quite complicated. Instead, it looks
at the currents in various parts of the circuit, and how they are related.
Again, the instructions specify only the signal generator output frequency,
and not amplitude. Any measurable signal can be used, providing it gives
measurable results. A typical value is 5V p-p.
There are phase shift issues again, and the formula given to calculate total
current comes directly, but without explanation, from the phasor diagram
for this circuit.
In this case, the voltage across the components is the same. The current
through the resistor is in phase with it, but the current in the inductor lags
behind by 900. The instructor must judge how much of this needs to be
explained to the class.
As before, students use their measured value of the supply voltage to
calculate the currents flowing through the inductor and resistor, and then
combine these to calculate a value for the total current flowing.
The investigation is repeated for a second, higher, frequency to show that
the distribution of current is frequency dependent.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

30 - 45
minutes

Page 66

Tutors notes
Worksheet
18

Further electronic
engineering
Notes for the Tutor

This investigation is parallel to the previous one, but for C-R (capacitorresistor) networks. The same ideas apply. The reactance of the capacitor
and the resistance of the resistor cannot simply be added together in
order to determine the impedance because of the phase shift involved.
Again, tutors may wish to go into this in more detail with a more able class.

Timing
30 - 45
minutes

The approach is identical, except that the second frequency chosen is ten
times smaller, i.e. 100Hz. Students should be encouraged to notice the
similarities and differences between the two situations. Here, once again,
the reactance is ten times bigger at the second frequency, and so the
capacitor dominates the voltage divider at this second frequency.
Amplitude is again irrelevant, but 5V p-p should give reasonable results.
In other words, low frequencies set up large voltages across the capacitor,
whereas high frequencies do so across the resistor.
19

Having studied inductors and capacitors separately, this worksheet now

combines them, and introduces the concept of resonance.
Instructors should emphasise that resonance is a widespread effect in any
oscillating system. In some, such as musical instruments, it is beneficial,
and students could research how the resonant frequency and so note
produced, can be changed in, say, wind and string instruments. In others,
particularly in civil and mechanical engineering, it can cause problems annoying rattles in cars at particular speeds, vibrations in aircraft wings
and bridges that threaten complete mechanical failure etc.
Electrical resonance has a number of applications. The obvious one is in
radio receivers, where the weak signal picked up by the aerial stimulate
the tuned circuit to oscillate at its resonant frequency. Other uses include a
surgical implant that kills nearby cancerous cells, when heated by
stimulation at its resonant frequency through high frequency radio waves, ,
and the widespread techniques of RFID (radio frequency identification,)
where passive devices can pick up enough energy, through stimulation at
their resonant frequency, to transmit information to a nearby device.
The approach here looks at the effect on circuit impedance of changing
the applied frequency. In other words, the circuit offers less hindrance to
some frequencies than to others. Although there is no added series
resistor, students should be made aware that the windings of the inductor
coil have resistance. Amplitude is again irrelevant, but 5V p-p should give
reasonable results.
At resonance, the voltage across the capacitor is equal and opposite to
that across the inductor, and so the two cancel each other out. The only
hindrance to the flow of current is then the resistance of the various
elements in the circuit, particularly the inductor. Equally, because the
voltages across the capacitor and inductor cancel each other out, there is
no reason why these cannot be very large voltages. Again, this voltage
amplification effect is explored later.
These large-scale effects occur in other examples of resonance too - the
much-publicised shattering of a wine glass by an opera singer or the
collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge due to the effect of the wind - see
videos available on YouTube).

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30 - 45
minutes

Page 67

Tutors notes
Worksheet
20

Further electronic
engineering
Notes for the Tutor

Transformers can appear mysterious. Here, the aim is to introduce them

as extensions of what has gone before. If students accept that electricity is
generated when a magnet is plunged into a coil, then they should have no
difficulty with the transformer. The magnet is replaced by an electromagnet, and motion with the moving magnetic field generated by an
alternating current.

Timing
30 - 45
minutes

However, lack of familiarity with oscilloscope and signal generator may

blur the sequence of events. Instructors may wish to give a short briefing
about them to reduce these difficulties.
It may not be obvious to some that switching a DC electromagnet on and
off causes a moving magnetic field, and hence induces current in the
secondary coil. Instructors may wish to develop their understanding on this
through questioning them.
21

The main part of the development here is to distinguish between step-up

and step-down transformers. Some students find it easy to accept stepdown but see step-up as defying the laws of nature. It looks like
something for nothing. That is why the investigation explores the effect on
current, and on the overall power issues.

30 - 45
minutes

The transformer used in the investigation is much more efficient than the
primitive device used earlier but is still far from ideal. An ideal transformer
wastes no energy and so obeys both the transformer relation and the
current ratio vs turns ratio relation . The sight of cooling fins in substation
transformers shows that ideal transformers are difficult to design.
The difficulties probably centre again on the instrumentation - the use of
signal generators and multimeters. The treatment of the results introduces
the transformer relation, which works well. However, the issue of stepping
up and stepping down current can be more problematic.
Students should be asked to compare the use of a transformer to reduce
AC voltage, with the use of a series resistor to drop some of the voltage.
The transformer wins every time!
22

The practical exercise involves varying the size and direction of voltage
applied to two types of diode and measuring the resulting current flow.
Students record their measurements and then use them to plot the forward
and reverse characteristics of each device. The silicon diode will not
conduct measurable reverse current, and so different scales are used for
the forward and reverse directions. Students should have access to
sample characteristics for a variety of common devices (e.g. 1N4001 and
OA91) to compare with their own graphs.
They can be asked to suggest approximate forward conduction voltages
for each diode. Generally, these are 0.6V - 0.7V for silicon diodes and
around 0.1V to 0.3V for germanium devices.
They could also be asked for applications for each type of device, or to
group them as either power or signal devices.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

45 - 75
minutes

Page 68

Tutors notes
Worksheet
23

Further electronic
engineering

Notes for the Tutor

In this worksheet students investigate one of the most important
applications for a diode, converting alternating current (AC) to direct
current (DC). They construct and test a simple half-wave rectifier . Initially
they explore the operation of the circuit without a reservoir capacitor
before going on to test it with four different values of capacitor. They
obtain waveforms for each circuit, and should sketch them for their
records.

Timing
45 - 75
minutes

The input to the circuit is obtained from the nominal 13.5V 50 or 60Hz AC
power supply (not from a signal generator as this will not usually have a
low enough output impedance). Note that the 470 resistor is used to
place a load on the rectifier circuit. Also note that 10 probes should be
used to connect the oscilloscope or equivalent virtual instrument.
Typical waveforms for this investigation are shown below for:
no reservoir capacitor;
a 47 F reservoir capacitor.

p68a

p68b

Students should be asked to explain the shape of the rectified waveforms

and the effect of increasing the value of the reservoir capacitance on the
ripple produced by the circuit.
More able students could be asked to measure the amount of ripple
superimposed on the DC output and relate this to the time constant of the
reservoir capacitor and load resistance.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 69

Tutors notes
Worksheet
24

Further electronic
engineering
Notes for the Tutor

In this worksheet students construct and test a full-wave rectifier

arrangement. Once again, they initially explore the operation of the circuit
without a reservoir capacitor before going on to test the circuit with four
different values of reservoir capacitor. They obtain waveforms for each
circuit, and should sketch them for their records.

Timing
45 - 75
minutes

The input to the circuit is again derived from the nominal 13.5V 50 / 60Hz
AC power supply and not from a signal generator. Note that the 470
resistor is used again to place a load on the rectifier circuit, and that x10
probes should be used to connect the oscilloscope or equivalent virtual
instrument.
Important: Students should NOT attempt to make any connection to the
AC input of the bridge rectifier as this will place a short-circuit across one
of the diodes of the bridge! For this reason, students are asked only to
investigate the output voltage from the bridge rectifier arrangement.
Typical waveforms for this investigation are shown below. The first is
where no reservoir capacitor is used whilst the second is for a 47 F
component.

p69a

p69b

It is important for students to compare these results with those obtained

for the half-wave rectifier circuit used in the previous worksheet. They
should, in particular, note that the full-wave rectifier functions on both
positive and negative cycles of the input waveform and that the ripple
frequency is twice that of the half-wave arrangement.
As before, students should be asked to explain the shape of the rectified
waveform and the effect of increasing the value of the reservoir
capacitance on the amount of ripple produced by the circuit.
Once again, more able students could be asked to measure the amount of
ripple superimposed on the DC output and relate this to the time constant
of the reservoir capacitor and load resistance.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited

Page 70

Further electronic
engineering

Answers

Answers to worksheet questions

Worksheet 1
1.
20
2.
90A
3.
12V
4.
27A
5.
Different batteries may have different terminal voltages and may be in
different states of charge/discharge.

Worksheet 5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Worksheet 9
1.
2.

4k
1.5mA
6V
1mA
0.5mA
4V.

10.3A, 345.6kJ
Just over 11 hours.

Copyright 2012 Matrix Multimedia Limited