Table of Contents

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................3
2. Role of yeast in bread-making .................................................................................4
2.1. Carbon dioxide evolution in doughs .....................................................................5
2.2. Changes in dough structure and texture ................................................................5
2.3. Contribution to bread flavor ..................................................................................6
3. Raw materials ............................................................................................................6
3.1. Baker yeast ............................................................................................................6
3.2. Factors Affecting Yeast Growth .........................................................................10
3.2.1. Sugar feed (media composition): ..................................................................10
3.2.2. Aeration ........................................................................................................10
3.2.3. Temperature ..................................................................................................11
3.2.4. pH..................................................................................................................11
3.3. Medium ...............................................................................................................11
4. Manufacture of dried Baker's yeast .......................................................................14
4.1. Dried Bakers yeast production process..............................................................14
4.1.1. Medium preparation......................................................................................15
4.1.2. Inoculum prepagation ...................................................................................15
4.1.3. Main Fermentation Stages ............................................................................16
4.1.4. Centrifugation ...............................................................................................18
4.1.5. Filtration........................................................................................................19
4.1.6. Extrusion .......................................................................................................20
4.1.7. Drying ...........................................................................................................21
4.1.8. Packing..........................................................................................................22
4.2. Contaminations ...................................................................................................22
4.2.1. Wild yeasts and moulds ................................................................................23
4.2.2. Bacteria .........................................................................................................23
5. Standard of dried yeasts product ..........................................................................25
5.1. Metabolites activities ..........................................................................................25
5.2. Microbiological characteristics ...........................................................................25
5.3. Physico-chemical characteristics ........................................................................26
5.4. Others ..................................................................................................................27
References .....................................................................................................................28
1

Table of figures
Figure 1.1. Classification of yeast ...................................................................................6
Figure 1.2. life cycle of yeast ..........................................................................................7
Figure 3.1. Batch fermenter ...........................................................................................16
Figure 3.2. Fed-batch fermenter ....................................................................................17
Figure 3.3. Yeast centrifuge ..........................................................................................19
Figure 3.5. Rotary vacuum filter ...................................................................................20
Figure 3.6. Yeast extruder .............................................................................................20
Figure 3.7. Fluidized bed dryer .....................................................................................21
Figure 3.8. Automatic vertical packaging machine .......................................................22

1. Introduction
Quite when humans first harvest the seeds of grasses, learned to grind them into flour,
mix the flour with water and bake the resulting dough to give bread are events
understandably lost in antiquity. So also the discovery that, by allowing the dough to
stand and become infected with gas-and acid-producing microorganisms probably a
mixture of yeasts and lactic acid bacteria, the baked bread had a much more attractive
texture than flat unleavened bread. Tradition has it that this discovery was made in Egypt
several thousand years ago. Evidence comes from the exquisitely preserved model of a
bakery found in a 4000-year-old tomb discovered at Thebes, the ancient capital of Upper
Egypt. Moreover, the Book of Exodus, in its vivid account of the aspirations of the Jews
On their flight from Egypt, makes special note of the fact that they had to subsist on
unleavened bread, having fled without yeast barm.
To retain and perpetuate the dough fermentation, one surmises that a portion of each
leavened but unbaked dough was retained so that it could be mixed with the next dough
to be prepared. How long this practice continued is not, nor will ever be, known It would
appear, however, that it was later replaced by the use of yeast skimmed from brewery
and wine fermentations. No doubt, the physical similarity between dough being
leavened and cereal extracts and grape juice being fermented to give beer and wine
prompted this modest advance in baking technology. The Romans seem to have been
particularly adept at improving this technique in bread manufacture Witness that Pliny,
in his Naturalis Historiae states that "the bread is there lighter than elsewhere".
Presumably this was because the top skimming or barm from beer fermentation was
already being used to raise dough. However, brewer's yeast had many disadvantages
when used to leaven doughs. Its fermentative activity in dough was often low and
variable, added to which it was often sour by the time it became available for use.
Moreover, as a semi-liquid product, it was inconvenient to handle and transport.
Nevertheless, it would seem that spent brewer's yeast or barm was used to ferment bread
doughs for many centuries. It is not absolutely certain when yeast was first propagated
specifically to be used in bread-making. Kiby (1912),in his handbook on pressed-yeast
manufacture, states that the year 1781 was probably the first occasion on which baker's
yeast was propagated as a separate entity, and that this took place in Holland with the
result that the propagation came to be known as the Dutch process. Its efficiency was,
however, low and according to Jorgensen (1948), gave a yield of only 4-6% by weight
of pressed yeast based on the weight of grain raw material employed; approximately
25% (w/w) of ethanol was produced at the same time. The next major advance came
around 1860 with the introduction of the Vienna processor Wienerverfahren. In this
process, the yield of yeast biomass grown anaerobically in a grain mash was
considerably improved by passage of a gentle stream of air through the mash. Based on
the amount of grain supplied, the pressed yeast biomass yield was around 14% although
heat of ethanol was still in the region of 30%.
3

Around this time, Pasteur (1858) made the important discovery that the amount of
yeast biomass obtained from a fixed quantity of sugar was very much greater if the
culture was vigorously aerated. However, applying this discovery in baker's yeast
propagation was a relatively slow process, probably because of the lack of availability
of efficient aeration devices. The first person to make use of the discovery, at least as
far as can be gleaned from published accounts, was the Dane Eusebius Brunnin 1881.In
the following years, the discovery was further exploited by several German chemists.
The last major technological advance in baker's yeast propagation came shortly after the
end of the First World War. During that war, because of a shortage of grain, beet and
cane molasses were used as substitutes in media supplemented with phosphate and
ammonia. Just after the end of the war, the classical batch process, in which all nutrients
were included in the starting medium, was replaced by the fed-batch processor
Zulaufverfahren. This involves adding the carbohydrate supply (molasses)
incrementally during the period of yeast growth. It was patented almost simultaneously
by Soren Sak in Denmark (Sak, 1919) and F.F.Hayduck in Germany (Hayduck,1919).
Anyone interested in the patent controversy which this discovery engendered should
refer to the pamphlet by Wagner (1936). Adoption of the Zulau F process (often known
simply as the Z-process) increased the yield of moist pressed-yeast biomass
considerably, initially to around 75% (w/w) based on the weight of molasses used and
subsequently, as refinements were introduced, up to virtually 100%. The commercial
processes used to day in the manufacture of baker's yeast are essentially based on the
Zulau F process. However, two further innovations have been examined. Continuous
production of yeast biomass using the chemist at principle (Pirt,1975), which one would
believe is ideally suited top reduction of baker's yeast, has been tried but abandoned
(Olsen,1960,1961;Sher,1961,1969).The degree of contamination, particularly with wild
yeasts, cannot be controlled because the doubling time of wild yeasts, such as
Candidakrusei, is considerably shorter than that of Saccharomyces cerevisiae under
commercial conditions (Burrows,1970). The second innovation is the production of
active-dried yeast (ADY), which is described later in this chapter.
Production of baker's yeast is now a very large and stable industry worldwide. All
developed countries in the world have one or more plants producing this commodity.
Production and use of baker's yeast have regularly come under the reviewer's scrutiny
in recent years. The biochemistry and microbiology of baker's yeast, along with
processes used in its manufacture, have been overviewed by, among others Burrows
(1970, 1979), Trivedi et al (1986), Rosen (1987), Beudeker et al (1989) and Evans
(1990). Oura et al (1982) concentrated more on the use of yeast in baking breads.

2. Role of yeast in bread-making

It is generally recognized that yeast has three major and one minor role in the making
of bread. The first major role is to increase the volume of the dough by evolving carbon
dioxide gas as a result of the alcoholic fermentation of sugars in the dough. The second
4

major function is to bring about a change in structure and texture in the dough as a result
of stretching caused by formation of carbon dioxide bubbles. Thirdly, the presence of
yeast in the dough during bread-making has a significant effect on the flavour of the
bread. Finally, it is sometimes stated that yeast makes a contribution to the nutritional
status of bread. Although yeast contains nutritionally valuable proteins and other
compounds, their contribution to the nutrient value of bread must be marginal, simply
because of the low proportions of yeast included in bread doughs. Each of the three
major roles is discussed in the following subsections.

2.1. Carbon dioxide evolution in doughs

Flours contain sugars that can be fermented by strains of Sacch.cerevisiae, through
the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas glycolytic pathway to produce ethanol and carbon
dioxide. The immediately available sugars are glucose, fructose, sucrose, maltose and
levosins (better known as gluco fructans), the least of these being a mixture of
polysaccharides containing residues of glucose and fructose and which might beat least
partially hydrolysed by invertase present in yeast. Dry flours contain about 2% (w/w) of
these utilizable sugars, glucose fructans accounting for the bulk of this value. Additional
maltose enters the dough as soon as the flouris wetted. This arises from the action of and -amylases on starch contained in damaged starch granules in the flour. This
additional maltose accounts for about 2.8% of the weight of the flour, and makes a major
contribution to the carbon dioxide-producing capacity of the yeast. The immediately
available sugars would support a typical dough fermentation for only a few minutes.
Some flours after milling do not contain sufficient - amylase. Under these conditions,
flours at the mill or doughs at the bakery may be supplemented with additional enzymes,
often in the form of commercially available fungal enzymes or barley malt. Particularly
in North America and in the Far East, doughs may be heavily supplemented with sucrose
or glucose to a concentration which can reach up to 25-30% of the weight of the dough
flour. High-fructose corn syrups are not often used in North America for this purpose.
This additional sugar makes a contribution to the substrate for evolution of carbon
dioxide in the dough, and also to the taste of the bread. When doughs are not
supplemented with sugars, they are frequently referred to as lean, particularly in North
America. The temperature at which the dough is processed clearly has an effect on
carbon dioxide evolution, so that a careful control over dough temperatures is essential.
Traditionally, doughs were processed at around 25C, thereby leading to long
fermentation times since this is well below the optimum temperature for carbon dioxide
production by Sacch. Cerevisiae. Modern dough-processing techniques use higher
temperatures,in the region of 35C. During the early stages of the baking process, some
fermentation by yeast continues, although strains of Sacch.cerevisiae are rapidly killed
at temperatures much above 50C.

2.2. Changes in dough structure and texture

5

Explanations for the role of yeast in changes that take place in the structure and
texture of dough during processing have been many and. During this processing, the
dough becomes more elastic and better equipped to retain the carbon dioxide evolved in
the form of small bubbles. It is now thought that yeast contributes to the rheological
changes by causing the protein (gluten) molecules to be stretched as a result of carbon
dioxide evolution. The glutathione and cysteine, which may under certain circumstances
be excreted by yeast, could affect protein- disulphide bonds in gluten. However, this
contribution by yeast is probably minimal in modern-day bread making.

2.3. Contribution to bread flavor

An important contribution to bread flavour is made by compounds derived from
yeast. The flavour components produced by the yeast in bread making include organic
acids, aldehydes, ethanol, higher alcohols, esters and ketones. Some of these, alcohols
for example, escape during baking. Others react with each other and with other
compounds found in the dough to form new and more complex flavor compounds. These
reactions occur primarily in the crust and the resultant flavor diffuses into the crumb of
the baked bread.

3. Raw materials
3.1. Baker yeast
Scientific name: Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Common name: Brewers yeast/ Bakers yeast
Habitat: Saccharomyces when translated means sugar fungus. That is what this
yeast uses for food. They are found in the wild growing on the skins of grapes and other
fruits
Scientific classification:
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Ascomycota
Subphylum: Ascomycotina
Class: Saccharomycetes
Order: Saccharomycetales
Family: Saccharomycetaceae
Genus: Saccharomyces
Species: S. cerevisiae

Figure 1.1. Classification of yeast

 Adaptations: Saccharomyces cerevisiae has adapted in several important ways.

One is the fact that they are able break down their food through both aerobic respiration
and anaerobic fermentation. They can survive in an oxygen deficient environment for a
period. Another adaptation they have is their ability to have both sexual and asexual
reproduction. Very few other Ascomycota can do both processes. And very few
organisms can do all four of these processes. This allows this species to live in many
different environments
Life Cycle: Saccharomyces cerevisiae has both asexual and sexual eproduction.
In asexual reproduction the haploid of the yeast under goes mitosis and forms more
haploid yeasts. There is an a and strain of these haploids. Then these haploid yeasts,
one from each strain, can fuse together and become on cell. Then the nuclei of both cell
fuses together and this cell is now the zygote. These diploid cells can go through mitosis,
which they call budding, and four more zygotes or they can under go meiosis and from

Figure 1.2. life cycle of yeast

an ascus which will split into four ascospores. These haploids can then under go
germination and become haploid yeast again.
Virtually all yeasts used to leaven bread doughs are strains of Sacch. cerevisiae. No
serious attempt has been made to consider replacing strains of this yeast with other yeast
species in bread-making. Therefore, it is worth pondering awhile on the reasons for the
supremacy of Sacch. cerevisiae as a baker's yeast. Bread is a staple item in the human
diet, and it follows that any commodity used in bread-making must be toxicologically
acceptable.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae has proved its complete acceptability as a dietary item
since, in the form of beers and wines, it has been consumed albeit in small amounts for
several thousands of years with, we have every reason to believe, absolutely no adverse
effects. Moreover, this yeast has proved time and time again that it is a very sturdy
organism. There is no better testimony to its toughness than the realization that it has
survived, apparently for thousands of years, for making beers by being transferred, as a
skimming or barm, from one fermentation to the next, initially in extremely hot MiddleEast climates that were hardly conducive to retention of viability in any micro-organism.
7

The capacity of Sacch. cerevisiae to survive starvation conditions can be expressed

quantitatively in the form of the adenylate charge. This value is a measure of the extent
to which cellular AMP is charged with additional high-energy phosphate bonds in the
form of ADP and ATP. On a scale of 0.0-1.0, vigorously growing micro-organisms have
an adenylate charge of 0.7-0.8. When starved of nutrients, almost all micro-organisms
rapidly die as their adenylate charge drops to a value of 0.4 or thereabouts. Not so Sacch.
cerevisiae, the adenylate charge of which has been observed to decline to a value of 0.15
while the yeast cells remain.
There are many other examples which could be quoted to testify the rugged nature of
Sacch. cerevisiae. We give just one, and that is acid washing. For many years, brewers,
knowing that their pitching yeast has become contaminated with bacteria to a level that
they consider unaccept-able, have resorted to washing it with acid. The procedure
involves washing pitching yeast with 10% (v/v) phosphoric or sulphuric acid, a
procedure which kills bacteria and, we venture to suggest, most other micro-organisms,
but leaves Sacch. cerevisiae viable. If the supremacy of Sacch. cerevisiae as an ideal
baker's yeast can be justified in terms already described, the situation is nicely
compounded by know-ledge that the biochemistry and genetics of this yeast are well
understood in modern-day terms, a situation which places the baker's yeast technologist
in a position from which the use of this yeast in bread-making can enetically and
phenotypically be optimized.
If strains of Sacch. cerevisiae are ideally suited to leavening bread doughs, the
demands which are placed on this yeast are by no means uniform. The doughs which
are used world-wide, as well as the types of bread demanded, are multifarious. So too
are the additives which are included in doughs as well as the temperatures at which they
are made and baked. This means that a variety of baker's yeasts, each with properties
uniquely suited to a particular baking regime, is required. There is, as Evans (1990) aptly
noted, no Holy Grail when it comes to strains of baker's yeast. This section describes
the various properties which are looked for in strains used to make breads in various
parts of the world.
Morphology and size
Yeast cells have been intensively investigated because of their practical importance.
Microscopic investigations revealed the morphological characteristics of the cell, and
later the fine structure of cell was studied by electron microscopy. Biochemists are now
able to relate my metabolic functions to the ultrastructure of the cell. The shape of yeast
cells varies from spherical to ovoid, lemon-shaped, pear-shape, cylindrical or even
elongated. Parts of the structure which can be seen are the cell walls, cytoplasm,
vacuoles of water or fat and granules. Electron micrographs show the membrane
structures, the nucleus and structure of organelles.

figure 1.3. structure of Sacch. cerevisiae

The size of baker yeast about 5-14 micrometers.
Physiology
Yeast differ considerably in their physiology.
The plenty supply of available moisture is one of the most important conditions of
growth of yeasts. In comparison to the other two groups of micro-organisms important
in food microbiology, it may be started that many yeasts grow better in presence of
greater concentrations of solutes, like sugars and salts, than do most bacteria. This means
that yeasts require less moisture than bacteria, but most yeasts need more moisture than
moulds. The requirements are often expressed in values of water activity (aw). Lower
limits of water activity for ordinary yeasts tested thus far range from 0.88 to 0.94. It
should also be kept in mind that the water activity values, mentioned above, may vary
with the nutritive properties of the substrate, pH, temperature, availability of oxygen,
and presence of inhibitory substances. The optimum range of temperature for growth of
most yeasts is around 25 to 30oC and the optimal range of activity is pH 4 to 5.5.
Although yeasts are classified by some specialists as plants, they lack chlorophyll and
are unable to manufacture by photosynthesis, from inorganic substrates, the organic
compounds required for energy supply and growth, so they need organic carbon sources.
In general, sugars are the best nutrients for yeasts. All fermentative yeasts are able to
ferment glucose to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. This fermentation process is use
in practice for producing beer, wine, industrial alcohol, and carbon dioxide produced by
bakers yeasts accomplishes the leavening of bread. Some yeasts, e.g. film yeasts, can
metabolize other organic carbon sources such as organic acids.
Yeasts can utilize both simple inorganic and organic compounds as a nitrogen source,
but also amino acids, peptides, and polypeptides. In addition to sugars, the yeasts need
several minor, biologically important compounds commonly known as growth factors.
9

The requirement of yeasts for an exogeneous source of vitamins varies widely. Some
yeasts can synthesize all of their required vitamins, whereas other yeasts have multiple
requirements. In some case the requirement is not absolute, the yeasts can growth
without supplementation of medium with a given vitamin, but its growth is low. Biotin
is the most commonly required vitamin to be supplemented in the medium whereas
riboflavin and folic acid apparently synthesized in sufficient quantities by all yeasts.
Addition of high levels of vitamins can enrich yeasts by taking advantage of their ability
to concentrate vitamins, particularly vitamins of the B-group, from the medium into the
yeast cell.
Eventual supplementation of medium with minerals depends on the type of medium.
Generally phosphorus and sulfur is added.

3.2. Factors Affecting Yeast Growth

3.2.1. Sugar feed (media composition):
The main carbon and energy source for most yeast is glucose which is converted via
the glycolytic pathway to pyruvate and by the Krebs cycle to anabolytes and energy in
the form of ATP.Yeasts are further classifiedaccording to their modes of further energy
production from pyruvate: respiration and fermentation. These processes are regulated
by environmental factors, mainly glucose and oxygen concentrations.
In respiration, pyruvate is decarboxylated inthe mitochondrion to acetyl- CoA which
is completely oxidized in the citric acid cycle to CO2, energy and intermediates to
promote yeast growth.
In anaerobic conditions, glucose is slowly utilized to produce the energy required just
to keep the yeast cells alive. This process is called fermentation, in which the sugars are
not completely oxidized yielding CO2and ethanol as final product.
When the yeast cell is exposed to high glucose concentration, catabolite repression
occurs, during which gene expression and synthesis of respiratory enzymes are
repressed, and fermentation prevails over respiration.
In industrial practice, catabolite repression (repression of gluconeogenesis, the
glyoxylate cycle, respiration and the uptake of less preferred carbohydrates) by glucose
and sucrose, also known as Crabtree effect, may lead to several problems, such as
incomplete fermentation, development of off flavors and undesirable by products as well
as decreased biomass and yeast vitality. Industrial production of Saccharomyces
cerevisiaeis therefore, performed in aerobic, sugar limited fed-batch cultures .
3.2.2. Aeration
Highly aerobic culture conditions are usedin the production of yeast specifically
bakers yeast to maximize cell growth. The modern technique of bakers yeast
production is based on applying the principle of the Pasteur reaction at the limit value
10

of its aeration. Pasteur defined fermentation as life without air. Its biochemistry
involvesthe breakdown of carbohydrates only to the stage of ethanol.
Under aerobic conditions, however, maximum growth occurs and the efficiency of
utilization of carbohydrate increases asrespiration and the breakdown of the
carbohydrate to carbon dioxide and water becomes complete.
Generally oxygen has the following basic functions.
o
o
o
o
o

Inhibits fermentation
Increases respiration
Agitation of the medium
Removal of toxic end products
Stimulation of vegetative growth

Oxygen is used in the synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids and sterols which form the
cell membrane. These molecules are important for both growth and fermentation and
serve as a means for storing oxygen withinthe cell. They are also necessary for
increasing cell mass (growth) involving the over all uptake of nutrients and determining
alcohol tolerance. Oxygen stimulates the synthesis of molecules necessary for yeast to
metabolize and take up maltose and other sugars.
3.2.3. Temperature
The temperature most favorable to the growth of bakers yeast varies from strain to
strain. Optimum temperature is usually between 250C-350C. The maximum survival
temperature is 370C. Propagation at low temperature, the rate of growth is slower and
gives a decreased yield of yeast. Yeast grown in low temperature is less stable when
stored and transported as a pressed cake and the dry matter of a yeast cake of standard
consistency becomes progressively less at low temperature, i.e., it affects the
relationship between intracellular and extra cellular water content.
3.2.4. pH
Yeasts grow well at acidic pH (acidophilic organisms). For industrial propagation
low pH is helpful in restricting the development of many bacterial contaminations;
however, the color of the yeast may be affected at low pH. The pH of the media is
commonly adjusted by the addition of H2SO4, NH3, Na2CO3 or NaHCO3 to the
substrate.

3.3. Medium
Molasses
Molasses is a by product of the sugar industry. It is residue after the crystallization of
the main fraction. When no more sugar can be crystallized out of solution, the resulting

11

liquid (molasses), containing about 50% sucrose is eliminated. For every 100 Kg of
plant, some 3.5 to 4.5 Kg of molasses may be obtained.
Based on its origin, it can be called cane molasses or beet molasses and is the cheapest
source of carbohydrate. It contains 45-55% fermentable sugars including sucrose,
glucose, fructose, raffinose, melibiose and galactose. The fact that molasses may be
extracted from at least two sources of plant adapted to tropical and temperate climates
permits the obtainment of molasses in a wide range of geographical locations. The use
of molasses for the production of yeast biomass has simplified the manufacturing
process in many ways. Its cost is reduced as compared with the use of grain and other
raw materials.
The molasses is used as a source of carbon, energy and other essential nutrients.
Molasses could not supply all the essential nutrients for yeast growth. Therefore, the
addition of supplements such as (NH4)2SO4, urea, yeast extract or Peptone as nitrogen
source, KH2PO4, H3PO4 as phosphorus source, other macro elements such as calcium
in form of calcium salts, magnesium in the form of magnesium salts, microelements
such as iron, zinc, copper, manganese are necessary for maximizing biomass yield of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae or any other types of yeasts. Vitamins are also required for
yeast growth (biotin, inositol, panthotenic acid and thiamine).
The composition molasses may vary quite widely depending on the location, soil
type, the climatic conditions and the production process of each individual sugar factory
Table1. Percentage composition of cane and beet molasses

Molasses replaced malted grain for yeast production during the First World War. It
is then became common practice to develop yeast on beet and/or cane molasses and
ammonium salts (such as sulphate, phosphate or chloride), with aqua ammonia as an
additional source of nitrogen and as an aid in controlling the pH of the medium
12

 Sunphat amon (NH4)2SO4

A source of nitrogen for yeast cells, containing at least 21% nitrogen, moisture does
not exceed 1.5%. Because ammonium sulphate is usually produced from sulfuric acid
may be mixed FeS and Fe2(SO4)3 is toxic to yeast cells. Can handle with ammonium
sulphate by letting in air to dry, 4 hours prior to fermentation system it must be dissolved
into solution.
Ammonia: used to adjust the pH and protein source for yeasts, contains 25%
nitrogen
Phosphoric acid: phosphorus sources, concentrations not less than 70%, with
DAP can replace
DAP: contains more than 50.5% P2O5
MgSO4: types of engineering, freely soluble in water and MgO <16.3%, arcenic
no more than 0.0003%.
Chemical resistant infection, calcium chloride, formalin, NaOH: from 0.5-1% to
prevent contamination of equipment and piping
Water: hardness 4-8 and turn from 8-12 (hard 1 corresponding to 10 mg CaO/
l), clean water, clear, colorless, odorless, content the salt is not more than mg/l: Cl- =
0.5, SO42- = 80, As = 0.05, Pb = 0.1, 5 = Zn, Cu = 3, FeO = 3, the concentration of
microorganisms less than 20 E.coli/l.
Antifoam: have the effect of reducing the surface tension of solution, the pressure
of carbon dioxide (CO2) broke foam out. Can be used oleic acid or peanut oil, rice bran
oil, castor oil, a concentration of 0.005 -0.01% over the need to break the foam solution.
Air: volume air used in manufacturing establishments yeast may contain a
number of microorganisms significantly (up to several thousand/1m). This air must be
filtered before use to produce.

13

4. Manufacture of dried Baker's yeast

4.1. Dried Bakers yeast production process

Culture
prezervation

Laboratory stage

Synthentic
medium

Pure Culture stage

Nutrients, O2

Main fermentation

Nutrients, O2

Cane
molasess

treatment

water

centrifugation

Waste

water

filtration

Waste

emulsifier

extrusion

drying

bags

packing

products

14

Waste

waste

Skema propagation for a batch:

Lab step: 10mL
100mL
1L
3
Industrial step: 100mL
1m
3
800m

10L
10m3

80m3

4.1.1. Medium preparation.

Cane molasses is the primary raw material for baker yeast production. It supplies all
the sugar that yeast needs for growth and energy along with part of the needed nitrogen.
Before it is fed to the yeast, concentrated molasses is diluted with water, clarified, and
heat sterilized, diluted cane molasses: 3% w/w carbohydrate
Other constituents: ammonium sulphate 0.1-0.3%, urea 0.1-0.15%, DAP 0.2%,
magnesium sulphate 0.05%, vitamin.
Water: before use, removal of suspended solids, colloids and microorganism is
usually required, hard water is 4-8o, Cl-<0.5, SO42-<80, As<0.05, Zn<5, Cu<3, FeO<3.
Air: removal of dust, solid particles, microorganism.
Antifoam: acid oleic 0,01% .
4.1.2. Inoculum prepagation

Laboratory stages.
The first fermentation stage takes place in the laboratory when a portion of the pure
yeast culture is mixed with the molasses malt in a sterilized Erlenmeyer or Pasteur flask.
Objective: yeast propagation
Transformations:
- Physical: temperature increase during fermentation.
- Biological: metabolism of yeast cells, the yeast increase in number.
- Biochemical and chemical: the reactions in the yeast cells (hydrolysis, the
Crebs, electron transport chain ).
- Physical-chemical: pH increase, viscosity, turbidity increase. the solubility of
O2, CO2 in the culture.

Technological factors:
Medium: contain 12g KH2PO4, 120 g (NH4)2SO4, 6 g MgSO4.7H2O, 12g yeast
extract were dissolved in 10L distilled water,
pH=5
Temperature: 30oC
Volume of O2: 1.5m3 O2 per 1m3 broth in one hour.
Fermentation time: the yeast is allowed to grow in the flask for 3 days.
15

 Pure Culture Stage

Objective: yeast propagation

Transformations: similar to laboratory stage
Technological factors:
The capacities of the fermentation vessels used in this stage range 100 L.
The pure culture fermentations are batch fermentations where the yeast is
allowed to grow for 15 hours.
pH= 5
Temperature: 30oC
Volume of O2: 9m3 O2 per 1m3 broth in one hour.
Speed of stirring vanes are 30-35 rpm
Equipment :

Fermenters have jacket to remove the heat produced from the production process
and to cool the fermenter. In the horizontal, perforated pipe system, air is blown
through a large number of horizontal pipes that are placed near the bottom of the
fermenter.
The culture was agitated by stirring vanes.
Working principle is batch fermentation.

Figure 3.1. Batch fermenter

4.1.3. Main Fermentation Stages

Objective: yeast propagation
Transformations:
Physical: temperature increase during fermentation.
16

Biological: metabolism of yeast cells, the yeast increase in number, metabolites

activities were decreased
Biochemical and chemical: the reactions in the yeast cells (hydrolysis, the Crebs,
electron transport chain), yeast synthesize trehalose.
Physical-chemical: pH, viscosity, turbidity increase. the solubility of O2, CO2 in
the culture.
Technological factors:
Seed fermenter I: The capacities of the fermentation vessels used in this stage
range 10000 L
Seed fermenters II: there are 2 equipment, each of them have the capacities of the
fermentation vessels used in this stage range 40,000 L
Main fermenters: 2 equipments, each of them have the capacities of the
fermentation vessels used in this stage range 400,000 L
Time fermentation: about 15 hours for each stage.
pH= 5
Temperature: 30oC
Volume of O2: 90m3 O2 per 1m3 broth in one hour.
Speed of stirring vanes are 30-35 rpm
Dont provide the carbohydrate about 2.5 hours at the end of main fermentation
stages so that yeast can synthesize trehalose.
Yeast broth from the fermenter at about 5 percent solids.
Equipment:

Figure 3.2. Fed-batch fermenter

Working principle: fed-batch fermentation.

The fermenters are usually constructed of stainless steel and are equipped with an
incremental feed system. This incremental feed system may be a pipe that distribute the
molasses over the entire surface of the fermenter liquid. The rate at which the molasses
is fed is critical and may be controlled by a speed controller connected to a pump or by
17

a valve on a rotameter, which delivers a certain volume of molasses at regulated time

intervals.
Fermenters have jacket to remove the heat produced from the production process and
to cool the fermenter. In the horizontal, perforated pipe system, air is blown through a
large number of horizontal pipes that are placed near the bottom of the fermenter.
The culture was agitated by stirring vanes.
4.1.4. Centrifugation
Objective: dewatering and eliminate some other compounds
Isolate baker yeast from fermentation broth, concentration density of yeast.

Transformations:
Physical: volume reduction.
Biological: nothing
Biochemical and chemical: nothing
Physical-chemical: viscosity, turbidity increase, increase dry matter contents.
Technological factors:
Using 2 machines, production yield 500-700kg/h per one, both machines are
connected in parallel.
The centrifuge bowl speed operated at 10,000 rpm.
Add water to wash the broth (temperature of water is 20oC )
Yeast cream with a solids concentration of approximately 22%.
Equipment:

Working principle: continuity

The feed generally enters at the top as well the clarified effluent. The solids that have
accumulated against the wall are removed by a nozzle discharge system whereby the
solids leave, with some of the fluid, in a concentrated solids phase. The nozzles should
be angled tangentially backward to take advantage of the kinetic energy and reduce
power consumption.

18

Figure 3.3. Yeast centrifuge

1. Product feed, 2. Centripetal pump, 3. Distributor, 4. Disk stack, 5. Solids holding

space,6. Sliding piston, 7. Closing chamber, 8. Spindle, drive, 9. Solids ejection
port, 10.Discharge, clarified phase.

4.1.5. Filtration
Objective: dewatering and concentrate yeast scream
Transformations:
Physical: volume decrease because loss water and some others compounds.
Biological: nothing
Biochemical and chemical: nothing
Physical-chemical: viscosity increase.
Technological factors:
Rotate 15 to 22 revolutions rpm.
Concentration of dry matter is 35 percent after filtration.
Equipment:

Using rotary vacuum filters

Working principle: continuous feed of yeast cream
Generally, the filter drum is coated with yeast by rotating the drum in a trough of
yeast cream or by spraying the yeast cream directly onto the drum. The filter surface is
coated with potato starch containing some added salt to aid in drying the yeast product.
While the drum rotates, blades at the bottom of the drum remove the yeast. After a filter
cake of yeast is formed and while the drum continues to rotate, excess salt is removed
by spraying a small amount of water onto the filter cake.

19

Figure 3.5. Rotary vacuum filter

4.1.6. Extrusion
Objective: prepare for the drying stage.
The process of production of dried yeast involves mixing yeast with a number of
additives, extruding the mixture to form very thin noodles, and then drying the noodles.
Transformations:
- Physical: volume decrease because loss water and some others compounds,
temperature increase.
- Biological: nothing
- Biochemical and chemical: nothing
- Physical-chemical: viscosity decrease.
Technological factors:
- Rotate 30 rpm.
- Diameter of noodles are 3 mm.
- Concentration of dry matter is 38 percent after extrusion.
Equipment:

Figure 3.6. Yeast extruder

20

Working principle:
Material is fed into the housing at one end and forced forward by the rotating hammer
until it comes in contact with the stationary anvil. The action of the anvil prevents the
material from rotating with the shaft. Thus, the effect of the unit is to give a continuous
kneading and mixing action on materials. The special designed shaft assembly is giving
positive displacement to the product which is conveyed in direction of the outlet. A
perforated orifice plate of various shapes and sizes can be used to extrude material into
various sizes and shapes.

4.1.7. Drying
Objective: dewatering and extend product shelf life.
Transformations:
Physical: volume decrease because loss water and some others compounds,
increased dry matter content, temperature.
Biological: metabolic activities of yeast decrease.
Biochemical: metabolic activities of yeasts enzymes decrease.
Physical-chemical: Evaporation of water and some others compounds.
Chemical: nothing.
Technological factors:
Air temperature: first is 37.9oC and then is 30oC
Humidity: 2 gH2O/kg air.
Air quality: filtered F9.
Concentration of dry matter is 95 percent after drying.
Time is about 50 minutes per batch (include: charge, discharge and transport to
silos).
Particle size: 0.4 - 1.5 mm.
Equipment:

Figure 3.7. Fluidized bed dryer

21

Working principle:
Drying phase (main drying step)
The humid wet yeast gets pre-dried at relatively high air temperatures (37.9oC) with
a high air flow. The spaghetti break into particles of approx. 0.4 to 1.5 mm length.
Drying phase (final drying step)
The pre-dried yeast particles are further dried by a moderate temperature (30C) with
adsorption dehumidifier process air and are subsequently cooled.
4.1.8. Packing
Objective: improvement the product
Transformations: no significant change except for possible infection by
microorganisms.
Technological factors:
- Three bags size: 600g/bag, 5kg/bag, 20kg/bag
Equipment:

Figure 3.8. Automatic vertical packaging

machine
Working principle: The machine operate continuously and automatically.

4.2. Contaminations
The quality of commercial yeast depends not only on viability and fermentation
activity, but also on the absence of gross contamination with other microorganisms.
Commercial yeast production is not a completely aseptic process, often resulting in yeast
product containing lactic acid bacteria (LAB), wild yeasts and moulds.

22

4.2.1. Wild yeasts and moulds

Yeasts and molds can be found in a wide variety of environments due to their capacity
to utilize a variety of substrates and their tolerance of low pH values, low aw values, and
low temperatures. The term wild yeast refers to any other yeast that occurs in
fermentation and processing of yeast product other than the culture strain used at the
start of fermentation. Wild yeasts may enter the commercial yeast factory with the air,
the water, and other raw materials, or they may be carried in by insects. The conditions
under which S.cerevisiaeis propagated are also favourable for the growth of wild yeasts,
which even at low levels can adversely affect the gassing power, stability and shelf-life
of commercially manufactured yeast. Baker's yeast production is concerned with
spoilage-causing wild yeast contamination, particularly with species such as Candida,
Torulopsis, Geotrichum and Hansenula.
Air-borne contamination, especially with mould spores, becomes an increasing
problem after the liquid yeast is passed through the separators. Many moulds (e.g.
Penicillium and Fusarium) will grow readily on the surface of the yeast cake if not stored
at low temperatures. However, moulds grow slowly in comparison to wild yeasts and
bacteria, and therefore usually do not present problems in commercial yeast production,
unless the product is stored for excessively long periods of time or at elevated
temperatures.
4.2.2. Bacteria
Bacterial counts obtained from finished compressed yeast product generally fall
between 104 and 108 bacteria per gram, which predominantly belong to the hetero
fermentative lactic-acid producing genus Leuconostocor to the homo fermentative
bacteria of the genus Lactobacillus. Other bacterial contaminants isolated from
compressed yeast that belong to the LAB group include Pediococcus, Lactococcus and
Enterococcus. In general, LAB can grow over a wide temperature and pH range ,
surviving both the processing and storage of commercial yeast. The types of LAB found
as contaminants in the compressed yeast industry are most active up to ca. 50C.
LAB may have negative effects on both the production and quality of commercial
yeast by producing slime or gum which adversely affects the gassing power of the yeast.
However, contamination of yeast with LAB may reduce the pH of the yeast product,
making conditions less favorable for the growth of Enterobacteriaceae and potential
foodborne pathogens. The metabolic activity of LAB during bread making has also
contributes positively to leavening and flavour of bread.
Enterococci also belong to the group of LAB and are facultatively anaerobic, catalase
negative, Gram-positive cocci arranged in pairs or short chains. Enterococcus spp. are
resilient organisms and are characterized by their ability to survive and multiply in the
presence of 6.5% NaCl, 40% bile salt, at 10C or 45C, and at pH 9.6 (Morrison et al.,
1997; Bascomb and Manafi, 1998). Although the majority of Enterococcus spp. inhabit
23

the intestines of humans and other animals, some have been found free-living in soil,
water,on plants or in dairy products. In food microbiology Ent. faecalis and Ent. faecium
are the most commonly encountered. In general, Ent. faecalisis regarded as indicator of
contamination from human sources, whereas Ent. faeciumand other species indicate
contamination from non-human sources. Enterococcus spp. are among the most
thermotolerant of non-sporulating bacteria, which results in their contamination of many
fermented food products. Due to their ability to survive under adverse environmental
conditions, they serve as a good index of hygiene and processing conditions. There is a
need to determine the source of enterococci in commercially manufactured yeast as they
may indicate the presence of other spoilage or pathogenic contaminants.
Enterococcus spp. are also relatively resistant to chilling, and can be expected to
survive the storage of commercial yeast products at low temperatures. In addition to
their spoilage potential of food and beverage products, Ent.faecalis and Ent.faeciumhave
been suspected as the causative agents of food borne illnesses, and have been classified
as potential emerging food pathogens, receiving increased attention due to their potential
role in serious human infections, such as endocarditis and bacteremia. Another concern
and a contributing factor to the pathogenesis of enterococci is their emerging intrinsic
resistance to a wide variety of antibiotics including penicillins, sulphonamides,
carbapenems and other -lactams; resulting in community-acquired and in hospitalacquired (nosocomial) infections.
Indicator microorganisms, such as coliforms, have been found to be suitable
indicators of hygiene in fermented products such as sweetened yoghurt (pH 4 5), as
long as the counts are determined in the first days after production. Similar to yoghurt,
commercial yeast has a pH of 4 5 and contains high numbers of LAB, thus coliform
organisms and Escherichia (E.) coli which have occasionally been found in commercial
yeast can also be used as indicators of hygiene.
Coliforms are defined as facultatively anaerobic, Gram-negative, rod-shaped
bacteria. Some coliforms are found in the intestinal tract of man and are indicators of
fecal contamination, but most are found throughout the environment and have little
sanitary significance. The coliform group includes species of the genera Escherichia,
Klebsiella, Enterobacter and Citrobacter. Their presence in ready to eat foods is highly
undesirable as they may indicate poor manufacturing practices and low hygiene
standards (Jay, 1998). Screening food products for coliforms is not intended to detect
fecal pollution but rather to measure the quality ofthe practices used to ensure proper
processing and to minimize bacterial contamination on processed products.
E. coliis an oxidase negative, glucose fermenting bacterium belonging tothe coliform
group. E.coliis commonly associated with soil, water, plants and the gastrointestinal
tracts of humans and animals, and is used as anindicator of food safety. The presence of
E. coliin processed products may indicate the presence of enteric pathogens such as
24

Salmonella and Shigella. However, some have argued that the role of E. colias an
indicator organism should be subjugated to its role as a pathogen. E. coliis easily
destroyed by heat (greater than 45C) and is usually inactivated during freezing and
cold-storage. Temperature is the main measure used to retard the growth of E. coliin
Bakers yeast products by cold storage inactivation at 1 5C.
Several studies have provided evidence that Bakers yeast can contain Bacillus spores
and thus could serve as a vehicle for entry of Bacillus spores into baking environments.
Bacillus strains are the causative agents of rope-spoilage of bread which is characterized
by a sticky crumb and an odour like rotting pineapples. Spores of Bacillus spp. are heat
resistant and survive the baking process 200 - 300C, and after cooling of the bread, the
spores germinate and grow as vegetative cells producing enzymes, which destroy the
structure of bread. Rope-spoilage caused by Bacillus species, occurs mostly in wheat
breads containing high concentrations of sugar, fat and/ or fruits. Although the addition
of preservatives, such as calcium propionate in bread can be effective against mould as
well as Bacillus species that cause rope, the presence of rope causing spores in Bakers
yeast as an ingredient in commercial bread production is undesirable and should be
minimized.

5. Standard of dried yeasts product

5.1. Metabolites activities
-

The leavening ability of bakers yeast on dough 45 minutes.

The stability of activity 72 hours.

Zymase 45 minutes.

Maltase 70 minutes.

5.2. Microbiological characteristics

-

Coliforms: The content is below 1000 CFU/g following the NF ISO / 4832
standard or an internal protocol compatible with this standard.

E.coli: The content is less than 10 CFU/g following the SDP 07/1 - 07/93
standard or an internal compatible protocol.

Salmonella: Absence of Salmonella in a sample of 25g, following the NF ISO /

FDIS 6579 standard or an internal protocol compatible with this standard.

Listeria monocytogenes: The content is less than 100 CFU/g following the
NF V08-55 standard or an internal protocol compatible with this standard.

Staphyloccus aureus: The content is below 10 CFU/g following the NF

ISO / 6888 standard or an internal protocol compatible with this standard.
25

5.3. Physico-chemical characteristics

-

Fats / dry matter (%): The typical fat content on dry matter is 6% +/-2%, and
is determined with an extraction method with appropriate solvents. In the case
of instant dry yeast a food grade emulsifier (e.g. E491, E 472c,) is used to
protect the yeast during the drying process in order to maintain a good activity.

Carbohydrates / dry matter (%):The typical carbohydrate content on dry

matter is 20% +/- 9%. Carbohydrates in the sense of regulation 1169/2011
means any carbohydrate which is metabolised by humans, and includes
polyols.

Fibre / dry matter (%): the typical fibre content on dry matter is 28% +/-5%.

Proteins / dry matter (%):The typical Kjeldahl protein content on dry matter
is: 46% +/- 10%, as determined with the Kjeldahl method.

See also the remarks made on the nitrogen content of yeast.

Minerals / dry matter (%): The amount of minerals in yeast is highly dependent
on the raw materials used in the preparation of the yeast. The variability in the
levels of minerals in molasses thus explains the variability of minerals in yeast.
Minerals are normally measured using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS).
Component
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Iron

Typical content
0.6% - 2.5%
< 0.5%
0.02% - 0.15%
0.03% - 0.25%
0.001% - 0.1%

Vitamins / dry matter (%): Vitamins are determined by third party laboratories
according to standard methods, often biological assays. Typical values for yeast
are indicated in the table below.

Vitamin
B1 Thiamin
B2 Riboflavin
B6 Pyridoxin
B8 Biotin
B9 Folic acid
PP Nicotinic acid

Typical content
2 15
28
0,5 6
0.05 0.25
B9 Folic acid
10 60
26

Units
mg/100 g
mg/100 g
mg/100 g
mg/100 g
mg/100 g
mg/100 g

In the case of Instant Dry Yeast, ascorbic acid is sometimes added as an anti-oxidising
agent for dough conditioning at a level of 0.1 0.5 %.

5.4. Others
-

Heavy metals:
Lead : < 0.2 ppm
Arsenic : < 3 ppm
Cadmium : < 0.1 ppm
Mercury : < 0.1 ppm
Micronutrients:
Copper : < 20 ppm
Zinc : < 200 ppm
Selenium : < 1 ppm

27

References
1. A.H. Rose and J.S.Harrison, The yeasts, second edition, volume 5.
2. General characteristics of dry bakers yeast, FCC Fifth Edition (2012).
3. Jeff Yankellow (2003), yeast: facts every baker should know, San Francisco Baking
Institute Newsletter.
4. K.Inparuban, S.Vansantharuba, S. Balakumar and V. arasaratnam, Optimization of
culture condition for bakers yeast cell mass production-a preliminary study, published
by Eastern University, Sri Lanka.
5. Mott MacDonald, Project Profile on Bakers Yeast.
6. Quality Manager of S.I. Lesaffre (2003), Dry instant yeast for baking.
7. Tamene Tilkessa Jiru (2009), evaluation of yeast biomass production using molasses
and supplements.
8. Susannah Sara OBrien (2004), Bacterial contamination of commercial yeast.
9. Yeast Production (volume 1 / number 9), Bakers Yeast Production and
Characteristics, Lallemand Inc.
10. http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2007/nelson_andr/
11. http://www.classofoods.com/page2_2.html
12. www.vogelbusch-biocommodities.com/en/technologies/yeast.php

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