Torque Sensors

Common Sensing Methods

Measuring strain in a sensing member between the drive element and the driven load, using a strain gage bridge Measuring displacement in a sensing member either directly, using a displacement sensor, or indirectly, by measuring a variable, such as magnetic inductance or capacitance, that varies with displacement Measuring reaction in support structure or housing (by measuring a force) and the associated lever arm length In electric motors, measuring the field or armature current that produces motor torque; in hydraulic or pneumatic actuators, measuring actuator pressure Measuring torque directly piezoelectric sensors Measuring the angular acceleration caused by the unknown torque in a known inertia element

Strain Gage Torque Sensors

Strain Gages Drive Unit (Motor) Torsion Member Driven Unit (Load)

Torque Reading

Bridge Circuit

For circular shaft the torque-strain relationship

r T 2 GJ

Also, the shear stress at a radius r of the shaft is given by

T = torque transmitted through the member = principal strain (45 to axis) at radius r of the member J = polar moment of area of cross-section of the member G = shear modulus of the material

Tr = J

J = r 2 dA
A

Using the general bridge equation

vo
vref

k = Ss 4

r = T 2 GJ

vo
vref

krTS s = 8GJ

8GJ vo T= krS s vref

Strain gages are mounted on the shaft along the principle stress directions (45o to the shaft axis)

Mounting Configurations
2 1 2 1 2 1

R1
+ v o

R2

2 1

2 3

1 4

R3 B

R4

T Bridge Constant (k): Axial Loads Compensated: Bending Loads Compensated: 2 Yes Yes (a) 2 Yes Yes (b) T 4 Yes Yes (c) T

(Constant Voltage)

vref

Strain Gage Bridge

Both axial and bending are compensated with the given configurations

Example 4.6
Consider a rigid load with inertia JL, and driven by a motor with a rigid rotor, which has inertia Jm. A torsion member of stiffness Ks is connected between the rotor and the load, as shown below, in order to measure the torque transmitted to the load. Determine the transfer function between the motor torque Tm and the twist angle of the torsion member. What is the torsional natural frequency n of the system? Discuss why the system bandwidth depends on n. Show that the bandwidth can be improved by increasing Ks, by decreasing Jm, or by decreasing JL. Mention some advantages and disadvantages of introducing a gearbox at the motor output.

Motor Stator Rotor Tm Jm m

Torsion Member Ks

Load

Motor Torque Tm m Jm

Ks(m - L)

Transmitted Torque

L JL

Ks(m - L) JL

For Motor:

&& + K ( ) Tm = J m m s m L

For Load:

&& K s ( m L ) = J L L

1 Tm 1 & & & & + m L = Ks + ( ) m L J J J L m m

Let

= m L
1 Tm 1 & & + Ks J +J = J L m m
1 Jm G (s) = 2 s + K s (1 J m + 1 J L ) G (s) =

(s)
Tm ( s )

1 1 n = K s J +J L m
BW can be increased by increasing Ks and by decreasing Jm and JL

When gears are added equivalent inertia increases and equivalent stiffness decreases resulting reduction in BW

Design Requirements
Strain capacity limit specified by the strain gage manufacturer is not exceeded

r Tmax < max 2GJ

r Tmax J> 2G max

A specified upper limit on nonlinearity for the strain gage is not exceeded for linear operation

max

N p S1 50 S 2

N p S1 r Tmax = max 2GJ 50 S 2

25S 2 r Tmax GS1 N P

Sensor sensitivity is acceptable in terms of the output signal level of the differential amplifier in the bridge circuit

v = K a v o

K a kSs rvref vo Tmax 8GJ

K a kS s rvref Tmax J 8G vo

The overall stiffness (bandwidth) of the system is acceptable Shear strain

r = L

Shear stress

Gr = L

Torsional K = T = GJ s L stiffness

L K G

Design criteria for a strain gage torque-sensing element

Criterion Specification Governing Formula for Polar Moment of Area (J)
> r Tmax 2G max

Strain capacity of strain gage element Strain gage nonlinearity Sensor sensitivity Sensor stiffness (system bandwidth and gain)

max and Tmax

Np and Tmax vo and Tmax K

>

25rS2 Tmax GS1 N p

K a kS s rvref Tmax 8G vo
L K G

Example 4.7
A joint of a direct-drive robotic arm is sketched below. Note that the rotor of the drive motor is an integral part of the driven link, without the use of gears or any other speed reducers. Also, the motor stator is an integral part of the drive link. A tachometer measures the joint speed, and a resolver measures the joint rotation. Gearing is used to improve the performance of the resolver. Neglecting mechanical loading from sensors and gearing, but including bearing friction, sketch the torque distribution along the joint axis. Suggest a location (or locations) for measuring the net torque transmitted to the driven link using a strain gage torque sensor.
Drive Link Motor Stator

Gearing Tachometer

D Ball Bearings Resolver

Motor Rotor

Driven Link

Bearing Tf1 D

Driven Link TL C

Bearing Tf2 B A TI

Motor

Tm Torque
Tm Tm TI Tm TI Tf2 TL Tf1 = Tm TI Tf2 TL

Axial Location

For accurate results two strain gages at locations B and C should be installed A single sensor at B is also a good approximation since the bearing friction is small Motor torque Tm is also approximately equal to transmitted torque when inertia and friction are small

Example 4.8
Consider the design of a tubular torsion element. The following design specifications are given: max = 3, 000 ; N p = 5%; vo = 10 V; and for a system bandwidth of 50 Hz, K = 2.5x103 N.m/rad. A bridge with four active strain gages is used to measure torque in the torsion element. The following parameter values are provided: 1. For strain gages: Ss = S1 = 115, S2 = 3500 2. For the torsion element: Outer radius r = 2 cm, Shear modulus G = 3x1010 N/m2 Length L = 2 cm 3. For the bridge circuitry: vref = 20 V and Ka = 100 The maximum torque that is expected is Tmax = 10 N.m. Using these values, design a torsion element for the sensor. Compute the operating parameter limits for the designed sensor.

1. For max = 3,000:

J=
2. For Np = 5

0.02 10 m 4 = 1.11 109 m 4 10 3 2 3 10 3 10

25 0.02 3500 10 4 9 4 J= m = 1.01 10 m 3 1010 115 5

100 4 115 0.02 20 10 4 8 4 J= m = 7.67 10 m 8 3 1010 10

3. For vo = 10V

3 4. For K = 2.5 10 N.m/rad:

0.02 2.5 103 4 9 4 J= m = 1.67 10 m 3 1010

J 1.11 10 9 and 1.01 10-9 and 1.67 10-9 and J 7.67 10 8 m 4
Pick this

Bending Element for Torque Sensing

It is difficult to mount semiconductor strain gages on cylindrical/tubular element Tubular elements are not optimal with rigidity (stiffness) for both bending and tensile loads The element shown below can overcome these disadvantages and has high insensitivity to cross-loading

Strain Gage

Connected to Drive Member

A

Connected to Driven Member

A = Torque Sensing Elements

Direct Deflection Torque Sensor

Direct measurement of the twist angle can be used to measure the torque Proximity probes produce pulse sequences as the shaft rotates The phase shift of the two signals determines the angular deflection which is a measure of the transmitted torque Both the magnitude and the direction of the torque can be measured

Ferromagnetic Toothed Wheel Torque T

T
Variable-Inductance Probes

Phase Shift Processor

Output

Variable Reluctance Torque Sensor

This sensor operates like a differential transformer Torque sensing element is a ferromagnetic tube with two slits placed in the direction of principle stresses When a torque is applied one slit opens and other closes causing a change in reluctance Output voltage is a measure of the transmitted torque
Output vo Ferromagnetic Tube Torque T

Slits
T

AC Reference Supply Secondary Coils Primary Coil

Reaction Torque Sensors

A torque sensing element modifies the original system. It reduces the system stiffness It decreases the system bandwidth and adds extra loading to the system Reaction torque sensors eliminate these problems. The housing of the rotating machine is cradled and the effort necessary to keep the structure stationary is measured.

TR = FR L
FR = reaction force measured using load cell L = lever arm length.
Motor Housing (Stator)
L F

Frictionless Bearing

Lever Arm
FR

Force Sensor (Load Cell)

 A drawback of reaction torque sensors is under acceleration and deceleration conditions the measured torque is not accurate Apply Newtons second law to the entire system

&& = T T J R L

TL = TR J&&
This can be compensated by measuring shaft acceleration
Reaction Torque TR Frictional Torque Tf1
Tf1

Motor Torque Tm

Frictional Torque Tf2

Tf2

To Load

Motor Current Torque Sensors

For a DC Motor with armature windings on the rotor and field windings on the stator

Tm = ki f ia
i f = field current ia = armature current k = torque constant.

Motor torque can be determined by measuring if or ia Magnetic torque is only an approximation of the transmitted torque. It includes the inertial torque and the frictional torque

 Torque of an AC motor can also be determined by measuring motor current For an AC synchronous motor

2 4 Tm = ki f i sin + i sin i sin + 3 1 2 3 3

i1 = ia sin t

2 i2 = ia sin t 3
Tm = 1.5ki f ia cos( t )
i1
Stator Phase 1

4 i3 = ia sin t 3

Stator Phase 2 Rotor

i2

i3

Stator Phase 3

Tactile Sensing
Typical Specifications for an Industrial Tactile Sensor Spatial resolution of about 2 mm Force resolution (sensitivity) of about 2 gm Force capacity (maximum touch force) of about 1 kg Response time of 5 ms or less Low hysteresis (low energy dissipation) Durability under harsh working conditions Robustness and insensitivity to change in environmental conditions (temperature, dust, humidity, vibration, etc.) Capability to detect and even predict slip

Construction and Operation of Tactile Sensors

Position 1 of Reflecting Surface Position 2 of Reflecting Surface

x
Tactile Forces Light (or Laser) Receiver Light (or Laser) Source Reflecting Surface Fixed Array of Optical Fiber Intensity at Receiver Beam Splitter 0 Position x Solid-State Camera Elastomeric Touch Pad Transparent Elastomeric Layer Light (or Laser) Source

Image Processor

Deflection or Force Profile

Optical Tactile Sensor with Localized Light Sources and Photosensors

Elastomeric Touch Pad

Pin

LED (Light Source)

Photodiode (Light Receiver)

Piezoresistive tactile sensors use an array of semiconductor strain gages mounted under the touch pad to measure forces Ultrasound tactile sensors are based on pulse echo ranging tactile surface is two membranes separated by an air gap

Strain Gage Tactile Sensor

Useful in parts-mating applications

P = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
Px = R2 a + R3a

Py = R4 a + R3a
y= a R3 + R4 P

x=
Contact Force p

a ( R2 + R3 ) P

)
p
4 3

a y
Sensing Plate 1

R4

R3
2

a
Strain Gage Load Cells

R1

R2

Gyroscopic Sensors

Output Frictionless Bearings

H2

Spinning Disk

Gimbal

H1

Torque Motor

Spin Axis

Angular Momentum H = J

Gimbal Axis

Applications: Angular orientation and speed of aircraft, ships, vehicles, and various mechanical devices

Optical Sensors

Laser, LCD, etc. Power Source Light Source Photodiode, Phototransistor, etc. Signal Processor Photodetector Receiving Fibers Transmitting Fibers

Target Object

Position Measurement

x (Measurand)

Optical fiber diameter ~m 0.01mm

Laser Interferometer

Signal Processor

Light Sensor

Beam Splitter (A) Optical Fiber Bundle

Target Object

Reflector Light Source Beam Splitter (B)

Part of the beam is reflected back to the sensor from Beam splitter A The other part travels an extra distance of 2x The phase shift between the two components

2x

Laser Doppler Interferometer

Reflector Speed v Target Object Laser Beam Splitter

Photosensor

Signal Processor

Speed, Position Readings

Ultrasound Sensors
Ultrasound Generator Transmitter/ Receiver Target Object

Signal Processor

Distance Reading

Ultrasound waves are pressure waves like sound waves but their frequency is higher than (40kHz, 75kHz, ~ 10MHz) audible waves Ultrasound waves can be generated by piezoelectric or magnetostrictive devices (ferromagnetic material deform when subject to a magnetic field).

vt x= 2

Pressure Sensors
pref

h p p

p pref = gh

px

Measure deflection/displacement using a displacement sensor (LVDT or capacitive)

Piezoresistors (Semiconductor Strain Gages)

Frictionless

p A F p

p=

F A

p
Measure angular displacement using an RVDT, resolver, or potentiometer

Flow Sensors
Qm = Q
Q = Av
h v
Motor

1 2 p + v = constant 2
r
Tube Bundle

Qm

Q = cd A

2 p

v = 2 gh
v
Float Motion Sensor

= r 2Qm
Displacement Sensor

v
Coriolis Torque Restrained by spring

Conic Cylinder

h Q

Qh

Coriolis Acceleration = 2v

Temperature Sensors
Thermocouple
Cold Junction (Reference) Metal A Metal B Conductor C Metal B Conductor C Hot Junction (Measured Temperature T)

Voltage Acquisition Circuit

Electron configuration due to heat transfer produces a voltage Seebeck Effect Two metals Fe and Constantan, Cu and Constantan, Chrome and Alumel Sensitivity 10mV/oC

Resistance Temperature Detector

Metal element in a ceramic tube resistance changes with the temperature Metals used Platinum, Nickel, Cu

R = R0 (1 + T )

Rating Parameters of Sensors and Transducers

Transducer Measurand Measurand Frequency Max Min
10 Hz/ DC 2,500 Hz/ DC 500 Hz/ DC (limited by excitation freq.) 500 Hz/ 100 kHz/ DC DC

Output Impedance
Low Moderate Low

Typical Resolution
0.1 mm 0.001 mm or less 2 min.

Accuracy

Sensitivity

Potentiometer LVDT Resolver Tachometer Eddy current proximity sensor Piezoelectric accelerometer Semiconductor strain gage Loadcell Laser Optical encoder

Displacement Displacement Angular displacement Velocity Displacement

0.1% 0.1% 0.2%

200 mV/mm 50 mV/mm 10 mV/deg

Moderate (50) Moderate

0.2 mm/s 0.001 mm 0.05% full scale 1 mm/s2 1-10 (1=10-6 unity strain) 0.01 N 1.0 m 10 bit

0.5% 0.5%

5 mV/mm/s 75 mV/rad/s 5 V/mm

Acceleration (and velocity, etc.) Strain (displacement, acceleration, etc.) Force (10 - 1000 N) Displacement/ Shape Motion

25 kHz/

1Hz

High 200

0.1% 0.1%

0.5 mV/m/s2 1 V/ max 2000 1 mV/N 1 V/mm 104 Pulses/rev.

1 kHz/ DC (limited by fatigue) 500 Hz/ 1 kHz/ DC DC

Moderate 100 500

0.05% 0.5%
bit

100 kHz/ DC