UNIT I MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

INTRODUCTION: A business enterprise must keep a systematic record of what happens from daytot-day events so that it can know its position clearly. Most of the business enterprises are run by the corporate sector. These business houses are required by law to prepare periodical statements in proper form showing the state of financial affairs. The systematic record of the daily events of a business leading to presentation of a complete financial picture is known as accounting. Thus, Accounting is the language of business. A business enterprise speaks through accounting. It reveals the position, especially the financial position through the language called accounting. MEANING OF ACCOUNTING: Accounting is the process of recording, classifying, summarizing, analyzing and interpreting the financial transactions of the business for the benefit of management and those parties who are interested in business such as shareholders, creditors, bankers, customers, employees and government. Thus, it is concerned with financial reporting and decision making aspects of the business. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants Committee on Terminology proposed in 1941 that accounting may be defined as, The art of recording, classifying and summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which are, in part at least, of a financial character and interpreting the results thereof.

BRANCHES OF ACCOUNTING: Accounting can be classified into three categories: 1. Financial Accounting 2. Cost Accounting, and 3. Management Accounting FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING: The term Accounting unless otherwise specifically stated always refers to Financial Accounting. Financial Accounting is commonly carries on in the general offices of a business. It is concerned with revenues, expenses, assets and liabilities of a business house. Financial Accounting has two-fold objective, viz, 1. To ascertain the profitability of the business, and 2. To know the financial position of the concern. NATURE AND SCOPE OF FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING: Financial accounting is a useful tool to management and to external users such as shareholders, potential owners, creditors, customers, employees and government. It provides information regarding the results of its operations and the financial status of the business. The following are the functional areas of financial accounting:1. Dealing with financial transactions: Accounting as a process deals only with those transactions which are measurable in terms of money. Anything which cannot be expressed in monetary terms does not form part of financial accounting however significant it is.

2. Recording of information: Accounting is an art of recording financial transactions of a business concern. There is a limitation for human memory. It is not possible to remember all transactions of the business. Therefore, the information is recorded in a set of books called Journal and other subsidiary books and it is useful for management in its decision making process. 3. Classification of Data: The recorded data is arranged in a manner so as to group the transactions of similar nature at one place so that full information of these items may be collected under different heads. This is done in the book called Ledger. For example, we may have accounts called Salaries, Rent, Interest, Advertisement, etc. To verify the arithmetical accuracy of such accounts, trial balance is prepared. 4. Making Summaries: The classified information of the trial balance is used to prepare profit and loss account and balance sheet in a manner useful to the users of accounting information. The final accounts are prepared to find out operational efficiency and financial strength of the business. 5. Analyzing: It is the process of establishing the relationship between the items of the profit and loss account and the balance sheet. The purpose is to identify the financial strength and weakness of the business. It also provides a basis for interpretation. 6. Interpreting the financial information:It is concerned with explaining the meaning and significance of the relationship established by the analysis. It should be useful to the users, so as to enable them to take correct decisions.

7. Communicating the results: The profitability and financial position of the business as interpreted above are communicated to the interested parties at regular intervals so as to assist them to make their own conclusions. LIMITATIONS OF FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING: Financial accounting is concerned with the preparation of final accounts. The business has become so complex that mere final accounts are not sufficient in meeting financial needs. Financial accounting is like a post-mortem report. At the most it can reveal what has happened so far, but it can not exercise any control over the past happenings. The limitations of financial accounting are as follows:1. It records only quantitative information. 2. It records only the historical cost. The impact of future uncertainties has no place in financial accounting. 3. It does not take into account price level changes. 4. It provides information about the whole concern. Product-wise, processwise, department-wise or information of any other line of activity cannot be obtained separately from the financial accounting. 5. Cost figures are not known in advance. Therefore, it is not possible to fix the price in advance. It does not provide information to increase or reduce the selling price. 6. As there is no technique for comparing the actual performance with that of the budgeted targets, it is not possible to evaluate performance of the business.

7. It does not tell about the optimum or otherwise of the quantum of profit made and does not provide the ways and means to increase the profits. 8. In case of loss, whether loss can be reduced or converted into profit by means of cost control and cost reduction? Financial accounting does not answer this question. 9. It does not reveal which departments are performing well? Which ones are incurring losses and how much is the loss in each case? 10. It does not provide the cost of products manufactured 11. There is no means provided by financial accounting to reduce the wastage. 12. Can the expenses be reduced which results in the reduction of product cost and if so, to what extent and how? No answer to these questions. 13. It is not helpful to the management in taking strategic decisions like replacement of assets, introduction of new products, discontinuation of an existing line, expansion of capacity, etc. 14. It provides ample scope for manipulation like overvaluation or undervaluation. This possibility of manipulation reduces the reliability. 15. It is technical in nature. A person not conversant with accounting has little utility of the financial accounts. COST ACCOUNTING: An accounting system is to make available necessary and accurate information for all those who are interested in the welfare of the organization. The requirements of majority of them are satisfied by means of financial accounting. However, the management requires far more detailed information than what the

conventional financial accounting can offer. The focus of the management lies not in the past but on the future. For a businessman who manufactures goods or renders services, cost accounting is a useful tool. It was developed on account of limitations of financial accounting and is the extension of financial accounting. The advent of factory system gave an impetus to the development of cost accounting. It is a method of accounting for cost. The process of recording and accounting for all the elements of cost is called cost accounting. The Institute of Cost and Works Accountants, London defines costing as, the process of accounting for cost from the point at which expenditure is incurred or committed to the establishment of its ultimate relationship with cost centres and cost units. In its wider usage it embraces the preparation of statistical data, the application of cost control methods and the ascertainment of the profitability of activities carried out or planned. The Institute of Cost and Works Accountants, India defines cost accounting as, the technique and process of ascertainment of costs. Cost accounting is the process of accounting for costs, which begins with recording of expenses or the bases on which they are calculated and ends with preparation of statistical data. To put it simply, when the accounting process is applied for the elements of costs (i.e., Materials, Labour and Other expenses), it becomes Cost Accounting. OBJECTIVES OF COST ACCOUNTING: Cost accounting was born to fulfill the needs of manufacturing companies. It is a mechanism of accounting through which costs of goods or services are ascertained and controlled for different purposes. It helps to ascertain the true cost of every operation, through a close watch, say, cost analysis and allocation. The main objectives of cost accounting are as follows:-

1. Cost Ascertainment 2. Cost Control 3. Cost Reduction 4. Fixation of Selling Price 5. Providing information for framing business policy. 1. Cost Ascertainment: The main objective of cost accounting is to find out the cost of product, process, job, contract, service or any unit of production. It is done through various methods and techniques. 2. Cost Control: The very basic function of cost accounting is to control costs. Comparison of actual cost with standards reveals the discrepancies (Variances). The variances reveal whether cost is within control or not. Remedial actions are suggested to control the costs which are not within control. 3. Cost Reduction: Cost reduction refers to the real and permanent reduction in the unit cost of goods manufactured or services rendered without affecting the use intended. It can be done with the help of techniques called budgetary control, standard costing, material control, labour control and overheads control. 4. Fixation of Selling Price: The price of any product consists of total cost and the margin required. Cost data are useful in the determination of selling price or quotations. It provides detailed information regarding various components of cost. It also provides information

in terms of fixed cost and variable costs, so that the extent of price reduction can be decided. 5. Framing business policy: Cost accounting helps management in formulating business policy and decision making. Break even analysis, cost volume profit relationships, differential costing, etc are helpful in taking decisions regarding key areas of the business likea. Continuation or discontinuation of production b. Utilization of capacity c. The most profitable sales mix d. Key factor e. Export decision f. Make or buy g. Activity planning, etc. NATURE AND SCOPE OF COST ACCOUNTING: Cost accounting is concerned with ascertainment and control of costs. The information provided by cost accounting to the management is helpful for cost control and cost reduction through functions of planning, decision making and control. Initially, cost accounting confined itself to cost ascertainment and presentation of the same mainly to find out product cost. With the introduction of large scale production, the scope of cost accounting was widened and providing information for cost control and cost reduction has assumed equal significance along with finding out cost of production. To start with cost accounting was applied in manufacturing activities but now it is applied in service organizations, government organizations, local authorities, agricultural farms, extractive industries and so on.

Cost accounting guides for ascertainment of cost of production. Cost accounting discloses profitable and unprofitable activities. It helps management to eliminate the unprofitable activities. It provides information for estimate and tenders. It discloses the losses occurring in the form of idle time spoilage or scrap etc. It also provides a perpetual inventory system. It helps to make effective control over inventory and for preparation of interim financial statements. It helps in controlling the cost of production with the help of budgetary control and standard costing. Cost accounting provides data for future production policies. It discloses the relative efficiencies of different workers and for fixation of wages to workers. LIMITATIONS OF COST ACCOUNTING: i) It is based on estimation: as cost accounting relies heavily on predetermined data, it is not reliable. ii) No uniform procedure in cost accounting: as there is no uniform procedure, with the same information different results may be arrived by different cost accounts. iii) Large number of conventions and estimate: There are number of conventions and estimates in preparing cost records such as materials are issued on an average (or) standard price, overheads are charged on percentage basis, Therefore, the profits arrived from the cost records are not true. iv) Formalities are more: Many formalities are to be observed to obtain the benefit of cost accounting. Therefore, it is not applicable to small and medium firms. v) Expensive: Cost accounting is expensive and requires

reconciliation with financial records.

vi)

It is unnecessary: Cost accounting is of recent origin and an enterprise can survive even without cost accounting.

vii)

Secondary data: Cost accounting depends on financial statements for a lot of information. Any errors or short comings in that information creep into cost accounts also.

MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING Management accounting is not a specific system of accounting. It could be any form of accounting which enables a business to be conducted more effectively and efficiently. It is largely concerned with providing economic information to mangers for achieving organizational goals. It is an extension of the horizon of cost accounting towards newer areas of management. Much management accounting information is financial in nature but has been organized in a manner relating directly to the decision on hand. Management Accounting is comprised of two words Management and Accounting. It means the study of managerial aspect of accounting. The emphasis of management accounting is to redesign accounting in such a way that it is helpful to the management in formation of policy, control of execution and appreciation of effectiveness. Management accounting is of recent origin. This was first used in 1950 by a team of accountants visiting U. S. A under the auspices of Anglo-American Council on Productivity Definition: Anglo-American Council on Productivity defines Management Accounting as, the presentation of accounting information in such a way as to assist management to the creation of policy and the day to day operation of an undertaking

The American Accounting Association defines Management Accounting as the methods and concepts necessary for effective planning for choosing among alternative business actions and for control through the evaluation and interpretation of performances. The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India defines Management Accounting as follows: Such of its techniques and procedures by which accounting mainly seeks to aid the management collectively has come to be known as management accounting From these definitions, it is very clear that financial data is recorded, analyzed and presented to the management in such a way that it becomes useful and helpful in planning and running business operations more systematically. OBJECTIVES OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING: The fundamental objective of management accounting is to enable the management to maximize profits or minimize losses. The evolution of management accounting has given a new approach to the function of accounting. The main objectives of management accounting are as follows: 1. Planning and policy formulation: Planning involves forecasting on the basis of available information, setting goals; framing polices determining the alternative courses of action and deciding on the programme of activities. Management accounting can help greatly in this direction. It facilitates the preparation of statements in the light of past results and gives estimation for the future.

2. Interpretation process: Management accounting is to present financial information to the management. Financial information is technical in nature. Therefore, it must be presented in such a way that it is easily understood. It presents accounting information with the help of statistical devices like charts, diagrams, graphs, etc. 3. Assists in Decision-making process: With the help of various modern techniques management accounting makes decision-making process more scientific. Data relating to cost, price, profit and savings for each of the available alternatives are collected and analyzed and provides a base for taking sound decisions. 4. Controlling: Management accounting is a useful for managerial control. Management accounting tools like standard costing and budgetary control are helpful in controlling performance. Cost control is effected through the use of standard costing and departmental control is made possible through the use of budgets. Performance of each and every individual is controlled with the help of management accounting. 5. Reporting: Management accounting keeps the management fully informed about the latest position of the concern through reporting. It helps management to take proper and quick decisions. The performance of various departments is regularly reported to the top management. 6. Facilitates Organizing: Return on Capital Employed is one of the tools of management accounting. Since management accounting stresses more on Responsibility Centres with a

view to control costs and responsibilities, it also facilitates decentralization to a greater extent. Thus, it is helpful in setting up effective and efficiently

organization framework. 7. Facilitates Coordination of Operations: Management accounting provides tools for overall control and coordination of business operations. Budgets are important means of coordination. NATURE AND SCOPE OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING: Management accounting involves furnishing of accounting data to the management for basing its decisions. It helps in improving efficiency and achieving the organizational goals. The following paragraphs discuss about the nature of management accounting. 1. Provides accounting information: Management accounting is based on accounting information. Management accounting is a service function and it provides necessary information to different levels of management. Management accounting involves the presentation of information in a way it suits managerial needs. The accounting data collected by accounting department is used for reviewing various policy decisions. 2. Cause and effect analysis. The role of financial accounting is limited to find out the ultimate result, i.e., profit and loss; management accounting goes a step further. Management accounting discusses the cause and effect relationship. The reasons for the loss are probed and the factors directly influencing the profitability are also studied. Profits are compared to sales, different expenditures, current assets, interest payables, share capital, etc.

3. Use of special techniques and concepts. Management accounting uses special techniques and concepts according to necessity to make accounting data more useful. The techniques usually used include financial planning and analyses, standard costing, budgetary control, marginal costing, project appraisal, control accounting, etc. 4. Taking important decisions. It supplies necessary information to the management which may be useful for its decisions. The historical data is studied to see its possible impact on future decisions. The implications of various decisions are also taken into account. 5. Achieving of objectives. Management accounting uses the accounting information in such a way that it helps in formatting plans and setting up objectives. Comparing actual performance with targeted figures will give an idea to the management about the performance of various departments. When there are deviations, corrective measures can be taken at once with the help of budgetary control and standard costing. 6. No fixed norms. No specific rules are followed in management accounting as that of financial accounting. Though the tools are the same, their use differs from concern to concern. The deriving of conclusions also depends upon the intelligence of the management accountant. The presentation will be in the way which suits the concern most. 7. Increase in efficiency. The purpose of using accounting information is to increase efficiency of the concern. The performance appraisal will enable the management to pin-point

efficient and inefficient spots. Effort is made to take corrective measures so that efficiency is improved. The constant review will make the staff cost conscious. 8. Supplies information and not decision. Management accountant is only to guide and not to supply decisions. The data is to be used by the management for taking various decisions. How is the data to be utilized will depend upon the caliber and efficiency of the management. 9. Concerned with forecasting. The management accounting is concerned with the future. It helps the management in planning and forecasting. The historical information is used to plan future course of action. The information is supplied with the object to guide management for taking future decisions. LIMITATIONS OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING: Management Accounting is in the process of development. Hence, it suffers form all the limitations of a new discipline. Some of these limitations are: 1. Limitations of Accounting Records: Management accounting derives its information from financial accounting, cost accounting and other records. It is concerned with the rearrangement or modification of data. The correctness or otherwise of the management accounting depends upon the correctness of these basic records. The limitations of these records are also the limitations of management accounting. 2. It is only a Tool: Management accounting is not an alternate or substitute for management. It is a mere tool for management. Ultimate decisions are being taken by management and not by management accounting.

3. Heavy Cost of Installation: The installation of management accounting system needs a very elaborate organization. This results in heavy investment which can be afforded only by big concerns. 4. Personal Bias: The interpretation of financial information depends upon the capacity of interpreter as one has to make a personal judgment. Personal prejudices and bias affect the objectivity of decisions. 5. Psychological Resistance: The installation of management accounting involves basic change in organization set up. New rules and regulations are also required to be framed which affect a number of personnel and hence there is a possibility of resistance form some or the other. 6. Evolutionary stage: Management accounting is only in a developmental stage. Its concepts and conventions are not as exact and established as that of other branches of accounting. Therefore, its results depend to a very great extent upon the intelligent interpretation of the data of managerial use. 7. Provides only Data: Management accounting provides data and not decisions. It only informs, not prescribes. This limitation should also be kept in mind while using the techniques of management accounting. 8. Broad-based Scope: The scope of management accounting is wide and this creates many difficulties in the implementations process. Management requires information from both

accounting as well as non-accounting sources. subjectivity in the conclusion obtained through it. MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTANT

It leads to inexactness and

Management Accountant is an officer who is entrusted with Management Accounting function of an organization. He plays a significant role in the decision making process of an organization. The organizational position of Management Accountant varies form concern to concern depending upon the pattern of management system. He may be an executive in some concern, while a member of Board of Directors in case of some other concern. However, he occupies a key position in the organization. In large concerns, he is responsible for the installation, development and efficient functioning of the management accounting system. He designs the frame work of the financial and cost control reports that provide with the most useful data at the most appropriate time. The Management Accountant

sometimes described as Chief Intelligence Officer because apart form top management, no one in the organization perhaps knows more about various functions of the organization than him. Tandon has explained the position of Management Accountant as follows: The management accountant is exactly like the spokes in a wheel, connecting the rim of the wheel and the hub receiving the information. He processes the information and then returns the processed information back to where it came from. Role of Management Accountant Management Accountant, otherwise called Controller, is considered to be a part of the management team since he has the responsibility for collecting vital information, both from within and outside the company. The functions of the

controller have been laid down by the Controllers Institute of America. These functions are: 1. To establish, coordinate and administer, as an integral part of management, an adequate plan for the control of operations. Such a plan would provide, to the extent required in the business cost standards, expense budgets, sales forecasts, profit planning, and programme for capital investment and financing, together with necessary procedures to effectuate the plan. 2. To compare performance with operating plan and standards and to report and interpret the results of operation to all levels of management, and to the owners of the business. This function includes the formulation and administration of accounting policy and the compilations of statistical records and special reposts as required. 3. To consult withal segments of management responsible for policy or action conserving any phase of the operations of business as it relates to the attainment of objective, and the effectiveness of policies, organization strictures, procedures. 4. To administer tax policies and procedures. 5. To supervise and coordinate preparation of reports to Government agencies. 6. The assured fiscal protection for the assets of the business through adequate internal; control and proper insurance coverage. 7. To continuously appraise economic and social forces and government influences, and interpret their effect upon business.

Duties and Responsibilities of Management Accountant The primary duty of Management Accountant is to help management in taking correct policy-decisions and improving the efficiency of operations. He

performs a staff function and also has line authority over the accountants. If management accountant feels that a decision likely to be taken by the management based on the information tendered by him shall be detrimental to the interest of the concern, he should point out this fact to the concerned management, of course, with tact, patience, firmness and politeness. On the other hand, if the decision taken happens to be wrong one on account t of inaccuracy, biased and fabricated data furnished by the management accountant, he shall be held responsible for wrong decision taken by the management. Controllers Institute of America has defined the following duties of Management Accountant or controller: 1. The installation and interpretation of all accounting records of the corporative. 2. The preparation and interpretation of the financial statements and reports of the corporation. 3. Continuous audit of all accounts and records of the corporation wherever located. 4. The compilation of costs of distribution. 5. The compilation of production costs. 6. The taking and costing of all physical inventories. 7. The preparation and filing of tax returns and to the supervision of all matters relating to taxes.

8. The preparation and interpretation of all statistical records and reports of the corporation. 9. The preparation as budget director, in conjunction with other officers and department heads, of an annual budget covering all activities of the corporation of submission to the Board of Directors prior to the beginning of the fiscal year. The authority of the Controller, with respect to the veto of commitments of expenditures not authorized by the budget shall, from time to time, be fixed by the board of Directors. 10. The ascertainment currently that the properties of the corporation are properly and adequately insured. 11. The initiation, preparation and issuance of standard practices relating to all accounting, matters and procedures and the co-ordination of system throughout the corporation including clerical and office methods, records, reports and procedures. 12. The maintenance of adequate records of authorized appropriations and the determination that all sums expended pursuant there into are properly accounted for. 13. The ascertainment currently that financial transactions covered by minutes of the Board of Directors and/ or the Executive committee are properly executed and recorded. 14. The maintenance of adequate records of all contracts and leases. 15. The approval for payment(and / or countersigning ) of all cheques, promissory notes and other negotiable instruments of the corporation which have been signed by the treasurer or such other officers as shall have been authorized by the by=laws of the corporation or form time to time designated by the Board of Directors.

16. The examination of all warrants for the withdrawal of securities from the vaults of the corporation and the determination that such withdrawals are made in conformity with the by-laws and /or regulations established from time by the Board of Directors. 17. The preparation or approval of the regulations or standard practices, required to assure compliance with orders of regulations issued by duly constituted governmental agencies. RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING Responsibility Accounting collects and reports planned and actual accounting information about the inputs and outputs of responsibility centers. It is based on information pertaining to inputs and outputs. The resources utilized in an organization are physical in nature like quantities of materials consumed, hours of labour, etc., are called inputs. They are converted into a common denominator and expressed in monetary terms called costs, for the purpose of managerial control. In a similar way, outputs are based on cost and revenue data. Responsibility Accounting must be designed to suit the existing structure of the organization. Responsibility should be coupled with authority. An organization structure with clear assignment of authorities and

responsibilities should exist for the successful functioning of the responsibility accounting system. The performance of each manager is evaluated in terms of such factors. RESPONSIBILITY CENTRES The main focus of responsibility accounting lies on the responsibility centres. A responsibility centre is a sub unit of an organization under the control of a manager who is held responsible for the activities of that centre. responsibility centres are classified as follows:The

1) Cost Centres, 2) Profit Centres and 3) Investment centres. Cost Centres When the manager is held accountable only for costs incurred in a responsibility centre, it is called a cost centre. It is the inputs and not outputs that are

measured in terms of money. In a cost centre records only costs incurred by the centre/unit/division, but the revenues earned (output) are excluded form its purview. It means that a cost centre is a segment whose financial performance is measured in terms of cost without taking into consideration its attainments in terms of output. The costs are the planning and control data in cost canters. The performance of the managers is evaluated by comparing the costs incurred with the budgeted costs. The management focuses on the cost variances for ensuring proper control. A cost centre does not serve the purpose of measuring the performance of the responsibility centre, since it ignores the output (revenues) measured in terms of money. For example, common feature of production department is that there are usually multiple product units. There must be some common basis to aggregate the dissimilar products to arrive at the overall output of the responsibility centre. If this is not done, the efficiency and effectiveness of the responsibility centre cannot be measure. Profit Centres When the manager is held responsible for both Costs (inputs) and Revenues (output) it is called a profit centre. In a profit centre, both inputs and outputs are measured in terms of money. The difference between revenues and costs represents profit. The term revenue is used in a different sense altogether.

According to generally accepted principles of accounting, revenues are recognized only when sales are made to external customers. For evaluating the performance of a profit centre, the revenue represents a monetary measure of output arising from a profit centre during a given period, irrespective of whether the revenue is realized or not. The relevant profit to facilitate the evaluation of performance of a profit centre is the pretax profit. The profit of all the departments so calculated will not necessarily be equivalent to the profit of the entire organization. The variance will arise because costs which are not attributable to any single department are excluded from the computation of the departments profits and the same are adjusted while determining the profits of the whole organization. Profit provides more effective appraisal of the managers performance. The manager of the profit centre is highly motivated in his decision-making relating to inputs and outputs so that profits can be maximized. The profit centre

approach cannot be uniformly applied to all responsibility centres. The following are the criteria to be considered for making a responsibility centre into a profit centre. A profit centre must maintain additional record keeping to measure inputs and outputs in monetary terms. When a responsibility centre renders only services to other departments, e.g., internal audit, it cannot be made a profit centre. A profit centre will gain more meaning and significance only when the divisional managers of responsibility centres have empowered adequately in their decision making relating to quality and quantity of outputs and also their relation to costs. If the output of a division is fairly homogeneous (e.g., cement), a profit centre will not prove to be more beneficial than a cost centre. Due to intense competition prevailing among different profit centres, there will be continuous friction among the centres arresting the growth and expansion of

the whole organization. A profit centre will generate too much of interest in the short-run profit to the detriment of long-term results. Investment Centres When the manager is held responsible for costs and revenues as well as for the investment in assets, it is called an Investment Centre. In an investment centre, the performance is measured not by profits alone, but is related to investments effected. The manager of an investment centre is always interested to earn a satisfactory return. The return on investment is usually referred to as ROI, serves as a criterion for the performance evaluation of the manager of an investment centre. Investment centres may be considered as separate entities where the manager are entrusted with the overall responsibility of inputs, outputs and investment. TRANSFER PRICING When profit centres are to be used, transfer prices become necessary in order to determine the separate performances of both the buying profit centres. Generally, the measurement of profit in a profit centre is further complicated by the problem of transfer prices. The transfer price represents the value of

goods/services furnished by a profit centre to other responsibility centres within an organization. When internal exchanges of goods and services take place among the different divisions of an organization, they have to be expressed in monetary terms which are otherwise called the transfer price. Thus, transfer pricing is the process of determining the price at which goods are transferred from one profit centre to another profit centre within the same company. If transfer prices are set too high, the selling centre will be favored whereas if set too low the buying centre exercise which does not effect the overall profitability

of the firm. However, in certain circumstances, transfer pricing may have an indirect effect on overall company profitability by influencing the decisions made at divisional level. The fixation of appropriate transfer price is another problem faced by the profit centres. The transfer price forms revenue for the selling division and an element of cost of the buying division. Since the transfer price has a bearing on the revenues, costs and profits or responsibility canters, the need for determination of transfer prices becomes all the more important. But the transfer price determination involves choosing one among the various alternatives available for the purpose. These are three objectives that should be considered for setting-out a transfer price. (a) Autonomy of the Division. The prices should seek to maintain the

maximum divisional autonomy so that the benefits, of decentralization (motivation, better decision making, initiative etc.) are maintained. The profits of one division should not be dependent on the actions of other divisions, (b) Goal congruence: The prices should be set so that the divisional managements desire to maximize divisional earrings is consistent with the objectives of the company as a whole. The transfer prices should not encourage suboptimal decision-making. (c) Performance appraisal: The prices should enable reliable assessments to be made of divisional performance. There are two board approaches to the determination of the transfer price and they are: (1) cost-based and (2) market based. Based on the broad classification,

there are five different types of transfer prices they are (1) cost (2) cost plus a normal mark-up; (3) incremental cost; (4) market price and (5) negotiated price.. Transfer Pricing Methods (i) Market based transfer pricing: Where a market exists outside the firm for the intermediate product and where the market is competitive (i.e., the firm is a price taker) then the use of market price as the transfer price between divisions will generally lead to optimal decision-making. (ii) Cost based pricing: Cost based transfer pricing systems are commonly used because the conditions for setting ideal market prices frequently do not exist; for example, there may be no intermediate market which does exist may be imperfect. Providing that the required information is available, a rule which would lead to optimal decision for the firm as a whole would be to transfer at marginal cost up to the point of transfer, plus any opportunity cost to the firm as whole. The two main cost derived methods are those based on full cost and variable cost. (iii) Full cost transfer pricing: this method, and the variant which is full costs plus a profit mark-up, has the disadvantage that suboptimal decision-making may occur particularly when there is idle capacity within the firm. The full cost (or cost plus) is likely to be treated by the buying division as an input variable cost so that external selling price decisions, may not be set at levels which are optimal as far as the firm as a whole is concerned. (iv) Variable cost transfer pricing: Under this system transfers would be made at the variable costs up to the point of transfer. Assuming

that the variable cost is a good approximation of economic marginal cost then this system would enable decisions to be made which would be in the interests of the firm as a whole. However, variable cost based prices will result in a loss for the setting division so performance appraisal becomes meaningless and motivation will be reduced. (v) Negotiated transfer pricing: Transfer prices could be set by negotiation between the buying and selling divisions. This would be appropriate if it could be assumed that such negotiations would result in decisions which were in the interests of the firm as a whole and which were acceptable to the parties concerned. Relevant points (1) Transfer pricing is the pricing of internal transfers between profit centres. (2) Ideally the transfer prices should, promote goal congruence, enable effective performance appraisal and maintain divisional autonomy. (3) Economy theory suggests that the optimum transfer price would be the marginal cost equal for buying divisions marginal revenue product. Transfer prices should always be base on the marginal costs of the supplying division plus the opportunity costs to the organization as a whole. (4) Because of information deficiencies, transfers pricing in practice does not always follow theoretical guidelines. Typically prices are market based, cost based or negotiated. (5) Where an appropriate market price exists then this is an ideal transfer price. However, there may be no market for the intermediate product, the market may be imperfect, or the price considered unrepresentative. (6) Where cost based systems are used then it is preferable to use standard costs to avoid transferring inefficiencies. (7) Full cost transfer pricing for full cost plus a mark up) suffers from a number of limitations,; it may cause suboptimal decision-making, the price is only valid at one output level, it makes genuine performance appraisal difficult.

(8) Providing that variable cost equates with economic marginal cost then transfers at variable cost will avoid gross sub optimality but performance appraisal becomes meaningless. (9) Negotiated transfer prices will only be appropriate if there is equal bargaining power and if negotiations are not protracted.

CONCLUSION Transfer price policies represent the selection of suitable methods relating to the computation of transfer prices under various circumstances. More precisely, transfer pricing should be closely related to management performance assessment and decision optimization. But the problem of choosing an

appropriate transfer pricing for the two functions of management-performance measurement and decision optimization does not hold any simple solution. There is no single measure of transfer price that can be adopted under all circumstances. ACTIVITIES: 1. Bring out the differences between the Financial Accounting and Cost Accounting 2. Ascertain the differences between the Financial Accounting and Management Accounting 3. Find out the differences between the Cost Accounting and Management Accounting 4. Extract the differences between the Financial Accounting and Management Accounting.

QUESTIONS: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What do you understand by Management Accounting? State the objectives of Management Accounting. Discuss in detail the nature and scope of management accounting. How can financial accounting be made useful for the management accounting? What do you understand by Financial Controller (Management Accountant)? What are his functions? 6. State the limitations of financial accounting and point out how management accounting helps in overcoming them. 7. Accounting provides information various users. Discuss accounting as an information system. 8. What is Responsibility Accounting? Explain the significance of Responsibility Accounting. 9. What is Transfer Pricing? Discuss the importance of Transfer Pricing.

10. Write a note on the following: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Cost Centre Profit Centre Investment Centre Market based transfer pricing Cost based transfer pricing Full cost transfer pricing Negotiated transfer pricing Variable cost transfer pricing

UNIT - II 2.1 BUDGETS AND BUDGETORY CONTROL Introduction: To achieve the organizational objectives, an enterprise should be managed effectively and efficiently. It is facilitated by chalking out the course of action in advance. Planning, the primary function of management helps to chalk out the course of actions in advance. But planning is to be followed by continuous comparison of the actual performance with the planned performance, i. e., controlling. One systematic approach in effective follow up process is

budgeting. Different budgets are prepared by the enterprise for different purposes. Thus, budgeting is an integral part of management. Definition of Budget: A budget is a comprehensive and coordinated plan, expressed in financial terms, for the operations and resources of an enterprise for some specific period in the future. (Fremgen, James M Accounting for Managerial Analysis) A budget is a predetermined detailed plan of action developed and distributed as a guide to current operations and as a partial basis for the subsequent evaluation of performance. (Gordon and Shillinglaw) A budget is a financial and/or quantitative statement, prepared prior to a defined period of time, of the policy to be pursued during the period for the purpose of attaining a given objective. (The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants, London) Elements of Budget: The basic elements of a budget are as follows:1. It is a comprehensive and coordinated plan of action.

2. It is a plan for the firms operations and resources. 3. It is based on objectives to be attained. 4. It is related to specific future period. 5. It is expressed in financial and/or physical units. Budgeting: Budgeting is the process of preparing and using budgets to achieve management objectives. It is the systematic approach for accomplishing the planning, coordination, and control responsibilities of management by optimally utilizing the given resources. The entire process of preparing the budgets is known as Budgeting (J. Batty) Budgeting may be said to be the act of building budgets (Rowland & Harr) Elements of Budgeting: 1. A good budgeting should state clearly the firms expectations and facilitate their attainability. 2. A good budgeting system should utilize various persons at different levels while preparing the budgets. 3. The authority and responsibility should be properly fixed. 4. Realistic targets are to be fixed. 5. A good system of accounting is also essential. 6. Wholehearted support of the top management is necessary. 7. Budgeting education is to be imparted among the employees. 8. Proper reporting system should be introduced. 9. Availability of working capital is to be ensured.

Definition of Budgetary Control: CIMA, London defines budgetary control as, the establishment of the budgets relating to the responsibility of executives to the requirements of a policy and the continuous comparison of actual with budgeted result either to secure by individual action the objectives of that policy or to provide a firm basis for its revision Budgetary Control is a planning in advance of the various functions of a business so that the business as a whole is controlled. (Wheldon) Budgetary Control is a system of controlling costs which includes the preparation of budgets, coordinating the department and establishing responsibilities, comprising actual performance with the budgeted and acting upon results to achieve maximum profitability. (Brown and Howard) Elements of budgetary control: 1. Establishment of budgets for each function and division of the organization. 2. Regular comparison of the actual performance with the budget to know the variations from budget and placing the responsibility of executives to achieve the desire result as estimated in the budget. 3. Taking necessary remedial action to achieve the desired objectives, if there is a variation of the actual performance from the budgeted performance. 4. Revision of budgets when the circumstances change. 5. Elimination of wastes and increasing the profitability.

Budget, Budgeting and Budgetary Control: A budget is a blue print of a plan expressed in quantitative terms. Budgeting is a technique for formulating budgets. Budgetary Control refers to the principles, procedures and practices of achieving given objectives through budgets. According to Rowland and William, Budgets are the individual objectives of a department, whereas Budgeting may be the act of building budgets. Budgetary control embraces all and in addition includes the science of planning the budgets to effect an overall management tool for the business planning and control. Objectives of Budgetary Control Budgetary Control assists the management in the allocation of responsibilities and is a useful device to estimate and plan the future course of action. The general objectives of budgetary control are as follows: 1. Planning: (a) A budget is an action plan as it is prepared after a careful study and research. (b) A budget operates as a mechanism through which objectives and policies are carried out. (c) It is a communication channel among various levels of management. (d) It is helpful in selecting a most profitable alternative. (e) It is a complete formulation of the policy of the concern to be pursued for attaining given objectives. 2. Co-ordination: It coordinates various activities of the business to achieve its common objectives. It induces the executives to think and operate as a group.

3. Control: Control is necessary to judge that the performance of the organization confirms to the plans of business. It compares the actual performance with that of the budgeted performance, ascertains the deviations, if any, and takes corrective action at once. Installation of Budgetary Control: There are certain steps necessary to install a good budgetary control system in an organization. They are as follows: 1. Determination of the Objectives 2. Organization for Budgeting 3. Budget Centre 4. Budget Officer 5. Budget Manual 6. Budget Committee 7. Budget Period 8. Determination of Key Factor 1. Determination of Objectives: It is very clear that the installation of a budgetary control system presupposes the determination of objectives sought to be achieved by the organization in clear terms. 2. Organization for Budgeting: Having determined the objectives clearly, proper organization is essential for the successful preparation, maintenance and administration of budgets. The

responsibility of each executive must be clearly defined. There should be no uncertainty regarding the jurisdiction of executives. 3. Budget Centre: It is that part of the organization for which the budget is prepared. It may be a department or any other part of the department. It is essential for the appraisal of performance of different departments so as to make them responsible for their budgets. 4. Budget Officer: A Budget Officer is a convener of the budget committee. He coordinates the budgets of various departments. The managers of different departments are made responsible for their departments performance. 5. Budget Manual: It is a document which defines the objectives of budgetary control system. It spells out the duties and responsibilities of budget officers regarding the preparation and execution of budgets. It also specifies the relations among various functionaries. 6. Budget Committee: The heads of all important departments are made members of this committee. It is responsible for preparation and execution of budgets. The members of this committee may sometimes take collective decisions, if necessary. In small concerns, the accountant is made responsible for the same work. 7. Budget Period: It is the period for which a budget is prepared. It depends upon a number of factors. It may be different for different concerns/functions. The following are

the factors that may be taken into consideration while determining budget period: a. The type of budget, b. The nature of demand for the products, c. The availability of finance, d. The economic situation of the cycle and e. The length of trade cycle 8. Determination of Key Factor: Generally, the budgets are prepared for all functional areas of the business. They are inter related and inter dependent. Therefore, a proper coordination is necessary. There may be many factors that influence the preparation of a budget. For example, plant capacity, demand position, availability of raw materials, etc. Some factors may have an impact on other budgets also. A factor which influences all other budgets is known as Key factor. The key factor may not remain the same. Therefore, the organization must pay due attention on the key factor in the preparation and execution of budgets. Types of Budgeting: Budget can be classified into three categories from different points of view. They are: 1. According to Function 2. According to Flexibility 3. According to Time

I. According to Function: (a) Sales Budget: The budget which estimates total sales in terms of items, quantity, value, periods, areas, etc is called Sales Budget. (b) Production Budget: It estimates quantity of production in terms of items, periods, areas, etc. It is prepared on the basis of Sales Budget. (c) Cost of Production Budget: This budget forecasts the cost of production. Separate budgets may also be prepared for each element of costs such as direct materials budgets, direct labour budget, factory materials budgets, office overheads budget, selling and distribution overheads budget, etc. (d) Purchase Budget: This budget forecasts the quantity and value of purchase required for production. It gives quantity wise, money wise and period wise particulars about the materials to be purchased. (e) Personnel Budget: The budget that anticipates the quantity of personnel required during a period for production activity is known as Personnel Budget. (f) Research Budget: The budget relates to the research work to be done for improvement in quality of the products or research for new products.

(g) Capital Expenditure Budget: The budget provides a guidance regarding the amount of capital that may be required for procurement of capital assets during the budget period. (h) Cash Budget: This budget is a forecast of the cash position by time period for a specific duration of time. It states the estimated amount of cash receipts and estimation of cash payments and the likely balance of cash in hand at the end of different periods. (i) Master Budget: It is a summary budget incorporating all functional budgets in a capsule form. It interprets different functional budgets and covers within its range the preparation of projected income statement and projected balance sheet. II. According to Flexibility: On the basis of flexibility, budgets can be divided into two categories. They are: 1. Fixed Budget 2. Flexible Budget 1. Fixed Budget: Fixed Budget is one which is prepared on the basis of a standard or a fixed level of activity. It does not change with the change in the level of activity. 2. Flexible Budget: A budget prepared to give the budgeted cost of any level of activity is termed as a flexible budget. According to CIMA, London, a Flexible Budget is, a budget designed to change in accordance with level of activity attained. It is prepared by taking into account the fixed and variable elements of cost.

III. According to Time: On the basis of time, the budget can be classified as follows: 1. Long term budget 2. Short term budget 3. Current budget 4. Rolling budget 1. Long-term Budget: A budget prepared for considerably long period of time, viz., 5 to 10 years is called Long-term Budget. It is concerned with the planning of operations of the firm. It is generally prepared in terms of physical quantities. 2. Short-term Budget: A budget prepared generally for a period not exceeding 5 years is called Shortterm Budget. It is generally prepared in terms of physical quantities and in monetary units. 3. Current Budget: It is a budget for a very short period, say, a month or a quarter. It is adjusted to current conditions. Therefore, it is called current budget. 4. Rolling Budget: It is also known as Progressive Budget. Under this method, a budget for a year in advance is prepared. A new budget is prepared after the end of each month/quarter for a full year ahead. The figures for the month/quarter which has rolled down are dropped and the figures for the next month/quarter are added. This practice continues whenever a month/quarter ends and a new month/quarter begins .

PREPARATION OF BUDGETS: I. SALES BUDGET: Sales budget is the basis for the preparation of other budgets. It is the forecast of sales to be achieved in a budget period. The sales manager is directly responsible for the preparation of this budget. The following factors taken into consideration: a. Past sales figures and trend b. Salesmens estimates c. Plant capacity d. General trade position e. Orders in hand f. Proposed expansion g. Seasonal fluctuations h. Market demand i. j. Availability of raw materials and other supplies Financial position

k. Nature of competition l. Cost of distribution

m. Government controls and regulations n. Political situation.

Example 1. The Royal Industries has prepared its annual sales forecast, expecting to achieve sales of Rs.30,00,000 next year. The Controller is uncertain about the pattern of sales to be expected by month and asks you to prepare a monthly

budget of sales. The following sales data pertained to the year, which is considered to be representative of a normal year: Month January February March April May June Sales (Rs.) 1,10,000 1,15,000 1,00,000 1,40,000 1,80,000 2,25,000 Month July August September October November December Sales (Rs.) 2,60,000 3,30,000 3,40,000 3,50,000 2,00,000 1,50,000

Prepare a monthly sales budget for the coming year on the basis of the above data. Answer: Sales Budget Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Total Sales (given) Sales estimation based on cash sales ratio given

1,10,000 (1,10,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 1,32,000 1,15,000 (1,15,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 1,38,000 1,00,000 (1,00,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 1,20,000 1,40,000 (1,40,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 1,68,000 1,80,000 (1,80,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 2,16,000 2,25,000 (2,25,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 2,70,000 2,60,000 (2,60,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 3,12,000 3,30,000 (3,30,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 3,96,000 3,40,000 (3,40,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 4,08,000 3,50,000 (3,50,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 4,20,000 2,00,000 (2,00,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 2,40,000 1,50,000 (1,50,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 1,80,000 25,00,000 30,00,000

Note: Sales budget is prepared based on last years month-wise sales ratio. Example: 2. M/s. Alpha Manufacturing Company produces two types of products, viz., Raja and Rani and sells them in Chennai and Mumbai markets. The following information is made available for the current year: Market Chennai ,, Mumbai Product Raja Rani Raja Rani Budgeted Sales 400 units @ Rs.9 each 300 units @ Rs.21 each 600 units @ Rs.9 each 500 units @ Rs.21 each Actual Sales 500 units @ Rs.9 each 200 units @ Rs.21 each 700 units @ Rs.9 each 400 units @ Rs.21 each

Market studies reveal that Raja is popular as it is under priced. It is observed that if its price is increased by Re.1 it will find a readymade market. On the other hand, Rani is over priced and market could absorb more sales if its price is reduced to Rs.20. The management has agreed to give effect to the above price changes. On the above basis, the following estimates have been prepared by Sales Manager: % increase in sales over current budget Product Raja Rani Chennai +10% + 20% Mumbai + 5% + 10%

With the help of an intensive advertisement campaign, the following additional sales above the estimated sales of sales manager are possible:

Product Raja Rani

Chennai 60 units 40 units

Mumbai 70 units 50 units

You are required to prepare a budget for sales incorporating the above estimates. Answer: Sales Budget Budget for Area Product current year Units Price Rs. Raja Chennai Rani Total Raja Mumbai Rani Total Raja Total Total Sales Rani 400 300 700 600 500 1100 1000 800 1800 9 21 9 21 9 21 Value Rs. 3600 6300 9900 5400 10500 15900 9000 16800 25800 500 200 700 700 400 1100 1200 600 1800 9 21 9 21 Units Price Rs. 9 21 Value Rs. 4500 4200 8700 6300 8400 14700 10800 12600 23400 500 400 900 700 600 1300 1200 1000 2200 10 20 10 20 Actual sales Budget for future period Units Price Value Rs. 10 20 Rs. 5000 8000 13000 7000 12000 19000 12000 20000 32000

Workings: 1. Budgeted sales for Chennai: Raja Units Budgeted Sales Add: Increase 400 (10%) 40 440 Increase due to advertisement Total 2. Budgeted sales for Mumbai: Raja Units Budgeted Sales Add: Increase 600 (5%) 30 630 Increase due to advertisement Total II. PRODUCTION BUDGET: Production = Sales + Closing Stock Opening Stock Example: 3. The sales of a concern for the next year is estimated at 50,000 units. Each unit of the product requires 2 units of Material A and 3 units of Material B. The estimated opening balances at the commencement of the next year are: Finished Product Raw Material A Raw Material B : : : 10,000 units 12,000 units 15,000 units 70 700 Rani Units 500 (10%) 50 550 50 600 60 500 Rani Units 300 (20%) 60 360 40 400

The desirable closing balances at the end of the next year are: Finished Product Raw Material A Raw Material B : : : 14,000 units 13,000 units 16,000 units

Prepare the materials purchase budget for the next year. Answer: Production Budget Estimated Sales Add: Estimated Closing Finished Goods 50,000 units 14,000 ,, 64,000 ,, Less: Estimated Opening Finished Goods Production Materials Purchase Budget Material A Material Consumption Add: Closing stock of materials 1,08,000 units 13,000 ,, 1,21,000 ,, Less: Opening stock of materials Materials to be purchased Workings: Materials consumption: Material required per unit of production For production of 54,000 units Material A 2 units 1,08,000 Material B 3 units 1,62,000 12,000 ,, 1,09,000 ,, Material B 1,62,000 units 16,000 ,, 1,78,000 ,, 15,000 ,, 1,63,000 ,, 10,000 ,, 54,000 ,,

III. CASH BUDGET: It is an estimate of cash receipts and disbursements during a future period of time. The Cash Budget is an analysis of flow of cash in a business over a future, short or long period of time. It is a forecast of expected cash intake and outlay (Soleman, Ezra Handbook of Business administration). Procedure for preparation of Cash Budget: 1. First take into account the opening cash balance, if any, for the beginning of the period for which the cash budget is to be prepared. 2. Then Cash receipts from various sources are estimated. It may be from cash sales, cash collections from debtors/bills receivables, dividends, interest on investments, sale of assets, etc. 3. The Cash payments for various disbursements are also estimated. It may be for cash purchases, payment to creditors/bills payables, payment to revenue and capital expenditure, creditors for expenses, etc. 4. The estimated cash receipts are added to the opening cash balance, if any. 5. The estimated cash payments are deducted from the above proceeds. 6. The balance, if any, is the closing cash balance of the month concerned. 7. The closing cash balance is taken as the opening cash balance of the following month. 8. Then the process is repeatedly performed.

9. If the closing balance of any month is negative i.e the estimated cash payments exceed estimated cash receipts, then overdraft facility may also be arranged suitably. Example: 4. From the following budgeted figures prepare a Cash Budget in respect of three months to June 30, 2006. Month Sales Rs. January February March April May June Additional information: 1. Expected Cash balance on 1st April, 2006 Rs. 20,000 2. Materials and overheads are to be paid during the month following the month of supply. 3. Wages are to be paid during the month in which they are incurred. 4. All sales are on credit basis. 5. The terms of credits are payment by the end of the month following the month of sales: Half of credit sales are paid when due the other half to be paid within the month following actual sales. 6. 5% sales commission is to be paid within in the month following sales 7. Preference Dividends for Rs. 30,000 is to be paid on 1 st May. 60,000 56,000 64,000 80,000 84,000 76,000 Materials Rs. 40,000 48,000 50,000 56,000 62,000 50,000 Wages Rs. 11,000 11,600 12,000 12,400 13,000 14,000 Overheads Rs. 6,200 6,600 6,800 7,200 8,600 8,000

8. Share call money of Rs. 25,000 is due on 1st April and 1st June. 9. Plant and machinery worth Rs. 10,000 is to be installed in the month of January and the payment is to be made in the month of June.

Answer: Cash Budget for three months from April to June, 2006 Particulars April Rs. Opening Cash Balance Add: Estimated Cash Receipts: Sales Collection from debtors Share call money 60,000 25,000 1,05,000 Less: Estimated Cash Payments: Materials Wages Overheads Sales Commission Preference Dividend Plant and Machinery 50,000 12,400 6,800 3,200 ----72,400 Closing Cash Balance 32,600 56,000 13,000 7,200 4,000 30,000 ----1,10,200 (-) 5,600 10,000 98,800 2,600 62,000 14,000 8,600 4,200 1,04,600 72,000 82,000 25,000 1,01,400 20,000 May Rs. 32,000 June Rs. (-) 5,600

Workings: 1. Sales Collection: Payment is due at the month following the sales. Half is paid on due and other half is paid during the next month. Therefore, February sales Rs. 50,000 is due at the end of March. Half is given at the end of March and other half is given in the next month i.e., in the month of April. Hence, the sales collection for the month of April will be as follows: For April Half of February Sales (56,000 x ) = 28,000 - Half of March Sales Total Collection for April (64,000 x ) = 32,000 = 60,000

Similarly, the sales collection for the months of May and June may be calculated. 2. Materials and overheads: These are paid in the following month. That is March is paid in April, April is paid in May and May is paid in June. 3. Sales Commission: It is paid in the following month. Therefore, For April 5% of March Sales (64,000 x 5 /100) = 3,200 For May 5% of March Sales (80,000 x 5 /100) = 4,000 For April 5% of March Sales (84,000 x 5 /100) = 4,200 IV. FLEXIBLE BUDGET: A flexible budget consists of a series of budgets for different level of activity. Therefore, it varies with the level of activity attained. According to CIMA,

London, A Flexible Budget is, a budget designed to change in accordance with level of activity attained. It is prepared by taking into account the fixed and variable elements of cost. This budget is more suitable when the forecasting of demand is uncertain. Points to be remembered while preparing a flexible budget: 1. Cost can be classified into fixed and variable cost. 2. Total fixed cost remains constant at any level of activity. 3. Total Variable cost varies in the same proportion at which the level of activity varies. 4. Fixed and variable portion of Semi-variable cost is to be segregated. Example: 5. The following information at 50% capacity is given. Prepare a flexible budget and forecast the profit or loss at 60%, 70% and 90% capacity. Fixed expenses: Salaries Rent and taxes Depreciation Administrative expenses Variable expenses: Materials Labour Others Semi-variable expenses: Repairs Indirect Labour Others 10,000 15,000 9,000 20,000 25,000 4,000 Expenses at 50% capacity (Rs.) 5,000 4,000 6,000 7,000

It is estimated that fixed expenses will remain constant at all capacities. Semivariable expenses will not change between 45% and 60% capacity, will rise by 10% between 60% and 75% capacity, a further increase of 5% when capacity crosses 75%. Estimated sales at various levels of capacity are: Capacity 60% 70% 90% Answer: FLEXIBLE BUDGET (Showing Profit & Loss at various capacities) Capacities Particulars 50% Rs. Fixed Expenses: Salaries Rent and taxes Depreciation Administrative expenses Variable expenses: Materials Labour Others Semi-variable expenses: Repairs 10,000 10,000 11,000 11,500 20,000 25,000 4,000 24,000 30,000 4,800 28,000 35,000 5,600 36,000 45,000 7,200 5,000 4,000 6,000 7,000 5,000 4,000 6,000 7,000 5,000 4,000 6,000 7,000 5,000 4,000 6,000 7,000 60% Rs. 70% Rs. 90% Rs. Sales (Rs.) 1,10,000 1,30,000 1,50,000

Indirect Labour Others Total Cost Profit (+) or Loss (-) Estimated Sales

15,000 9,000 1,05,000

15,000 9,000 1,14,800 (-) 4,800 1,10,000

16,500 9,900 1,28,000 (+) 2,000 1,30,000

17,250 10,350 1,49,300 (+) 700 1,50,000

Example: 6. The following information relates to a flexible budget at 60% capacity. Find out the overhead costs at 50% and 70% capacity and also determine the overhead rates: Particulars Variable overheads: Indirect Labour Indirect Materials Semi-variable overheads: Repair and Maintenance (70% fixed; 30% variable) Electricity (50% fixed; 50% variable) Fixed overheads: Office expenses including salaries Insurance Depreciation Estimated direct labour hours 70,000 4,000 20,000 1,20,000 hours 25,200 7,000 Expenses at 60% capacity Rs. 10,500 8,400

Answer: FLEXIBLE BUDGET 50 % Capacity Rs. Variable overheads: Indirect Labour Indirect Materials Semi-variable overheads: Repair and Maintenance Electricity Fixed overheads: Office expenses including salaries Insurance Depreciation Total overheads Estimated direct labour hours Overhead rate per hour (Rs.) Workings: 1. The amount of Repairs and maintenance at 60% Capacity is Rs. 7,000. Out of this, 70% (i.e Rs. 4,900) is fixed and remaining 30% (i.e Rs. 2,100) is variable. The fixed portion remains constant at all levels of capacities. Only the variable portion will change according to change in the level of activity. Therefore, the total amount of repairs and maintenance for 50% and 70% capacities are calculated as follows: 70,000 4,000 20,000 1,39,500 1,00,000 1.395 70,000 4,000 20,000 1,45,100 1,20,000 1.21 70,000 4,000 20,000 1,50,700 1,50,000 1.077 (1) (2) 6,650 23,100 7,000 25,200 8,750 7,000 10,500 8,400 12,250 60% Capacity Rs. 70% Capacity Rs.

Repairs and maintenance Fixed (70%) Variable (30%) Total

50% 4,900 1,750 6,650

60% 4,900 2,100 7,000

70% 4,900 2,450 7,350

2. Similarly, electricity expenses at different levels of capacity are calculated as follows: Electricity Fixed (50%) Variable (50%) Total 50% 12,600 10,500 23,100 60% 12,600 12,600 25,200 70% 12,600 14,700 27,300

ZERO BASE BUDGETING (ZBB) It is a management technique aimed at cost reduction. It was introduced by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in 1961. Peter A. Phyrr popularized it. In 1979, president Jimmy Carte issued a mandate asking for the use of ZBB by the Government. ZBB - Definition: It is a planning and budgeting process which requires each manager to justify his entire budget request in detail from scratch (Zero Base) and shifts the burden of proof to each manager to justify why he should spend money at all. The approach requires that all activities be analyzed in decision packages, which are evaluated by systematic analysis and ranked in the order of importance. Peter A. Phyrr.

It implies that Every budget starts with a zero base No previous figure is to be taken as a base for adjustments Every activity is to be carefully examined afresh Each budget allocation is to be justified on the basis of anticipated circumstances Alternatives are to be given due consideration Advantages of ZBB: 1. Effective cost control can be achieved 2. Facilitates careful planning 3. Management by Objectives becomes a reality 4. Identifies uneconomical activities 5. Controls inefficiencies 6. Scarce resources are used beneficially 7. Examines each activity thoroughly 8. Controls wasteful expenditure 9. Integrates the management functions of planning and control 10. Reviews activities before allowing funds for them. PERFORMANCE BUDGETING: It involves evaluation of the performance of the organization in the context of both specific as well as overall objectives of the organization. It provides a

definite direction to each employee and a control mechanism to top management. Definition: Performance Budgeting technique is the process of analyzing, identifying, simplifying and crystallizing specific performance objectives of a job to be achieved over a period of the job. The technique is characterized by its specific direction towards the business objectives of the organization. The National Institute of Bank Management. The responsibility for preparing the performance budget of each department lies on the respective departmental head. It requires preparation of performance reports. This report compares budget and actual data and shows any existing variances. To facilitate the preparation the departmental head is supplied with the copy of the master budget appropriate to his function. MASTER BUDGET: Master budget is a comprehensive plan which is prepared from and summarizes the functional budgets. The master budget embraces both operating decisions and financial decisions. When all budgets are ready, they can finally produce budgeted profit and loss account or income statement and budgeted balance sheet. Such results can be projected monthly, quarterly, half-yearly and at year end. When the budgeted profit falls short of target it may be reviewed and all budgets may be reworked to reach the target or to achieve a revised target approved by the budget committee.

Exercise: 1. From the following particulars, prepare production cost budget for June,2006. Particulars Opening Stock (1-6-2006) Finished Goods Raw Material A Raw Material B Raw Material required (per unit) 1200 units 5,000 kgs. 2,000 kgs. 4 kgs. @ Rs.8 per kg. Closing stock (30-6-2006) 1600 units 4,800 kgs. 3,100 kgs. 2 kgs. @ Rs.25 per kg.

Budgeted sales for the month 7,000 units. (Answer: Raw Material A Rs. 2,35,200; Raw Material B Rs. 3,97,500)

2. From the following figures prepare Raw Materials Purchase Budget. Materials (in Units) Particulars Estimated Opening Stock Estimated Closing Stock Estimated Consumption Standard Price per unit A 16,000 20,000 1,20,000 0.25 p B 6,000 8,000 44,000 0.05 p C 24,000 28,000 1,32,000 0.15 p D 2,000 4,000 36,000 0.10 p

(Answer: Material A Rs. 31,000; Material B Rs. 2,300; Material C Rs.20,400 and Material D Rs. 3,800) 3. Parker Ltd. manufactures two brands of pen Hero and Zero. The sales department of the company has three departments in different areas of the country. The sales budget for the year ending 31 st December 1999 were:

Hero Department I 3,00,000; Department II 5,62500; Department III 1,80,000 and Zero Department I 4,00,000; Department II 6,00,000; Department III 20,000. Sales prices are Rs. 3 and Rs.1.20 in all departments. It is estimated that by forced sales promotion the sale of Zero in department I will increase by 1,75,000. It is also expected that by increasing production and arranging extensive advertisement, Department III will be enabled to increase the sale of Zero by 50,000. It is recognized that the estimated sales by department II represent an unsatisfactory target. It is agreed to increase both estimates by 20%. Prepare a Sales Budget for the year 2000. (Answer: Hero Rs.34,65,000 and Zero Rs.16,38,000) 4. Bajaj Co. wishes to arrange overdraft facilities with its bankers during the period from April to June 2006 when it will be manufacturing mostly for stock. Prepare a Cash Budget for the above period from the following data, indicating the extent of the band overdraft facilities the company will require at the end of each month. (a) Month Sales Rs. February March April May June 90,000 96,000 54,000 87,000 63,000 Purchases Rs. 62,400 72,000 1,21,000 1,23,000 1,34,000 Wages Rs. 6,000 7,000 5,500 5,000 7,500

(b) 50% of Credit sales are realized in the month following the sales and the remaining 50% in the second month following. (c) Creditors are paid in the month following the month of purchase.

(d) Lag in payment of wages one month. (e) Cash at bank on 1st April, 2006 estimated at Rs. 12,500. Answer: Closing balance for April Rs. 26,500; May Rs. (25,500) and June Rs. (83,000) 5. Draw up a Cash Budget for January to March 2006 from the following information: (a). Cash and bank balance on 1st January, 2006 Rs. 2,00,000. (b). Actual and budgeted sales: Actual 2005 September October November December Rs. 6,00,000 6,50,000 7,00,000 7,50,000 Budgeted 2006 January February March Rs. 8,00,000 8,20,000 8,90,000

(c). Purchases actual and budgeted: Actual 2005 September October November December Rs. 3,60,000 4,00,000 4,80,000 4,50,000 Budgeted 2006 January February March Rs. 4,80,000 4,00,000 5,00,000

(d). Wages actual and budgeted: Month Actual 2005 November December January February March Wages (Rs.) 1,50,000 1,50,000 1,80,000 1,80,000 2,00,000 Expenses (Rs.) 50,000 60,000 60,000 80,000 80,000

Budgeted 2006

(e) Special items: (i) Advance Payment of tax in March 2006 Rs. 50,000 (ii) Plant to be acquired and paid in January 2006 Rs. 1,00,000 (f) Assume 10 % sales and purchases are on cash basis. (g) Lag in payment of wages month (h) Lag in payment of expenses month (i) Period of credit allowed to debtors 2 month (j) Period of credit allowed by creditors 1 month (Answer: January Rs.1,32,000; February Rs.1,62,000 and March Rs. 2,41,000) 6. From the following forecasts of income and expenditure, prepare a cash Budget for the month January to April, 2006. Sales (Credit) Rs. 2005 Nov. Dec. 2006 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. 30,000 35,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 Purchases (Credit) Rs. 15,000 20,000 15,000 20,000 22,500 25,000 Wages Manufacturing Administrative expenses expenses Rs. 1,150 1,225 990 1,050 1,100 1,200 Rs. 1,060 1,040 1,100 1,150 1,220 1,180 Selling expenses Rs. 500 550 600 620 570 710

Months

Rs. 3,000 3,200 2,500 3,000 2,400 2,600

Additional information is as follows: 1. The customers are allowed a credit period of 2 months. 2. A dividend of Rs. 10,000 is payable in April.

3. Capital expenditure to be incurred: Plant purchased on 15th of January for Rs.5,000; 4. A building has been purchased on 1st March and the payments are to be made in monthly instalments of Rs. 2,000 each. 5. The creditors are allowing a credit of 2 months. 6. Wages are paid on the 1st of the next month. 7. Lag in payment of other expenses is one month. 8. Balance of cash in hand on 1st January, 2006 is Rs. 15,000 (Answer: Closing balance for January Rs. 18,985; February Rs. 28,795; March Rs. 30,975 and April Rs. 23,685) 7. From the following budget date, forecast the cash position at the end of April, May and June 2006. Months February March April May June Sales (Rs.) 1,20,000 1,30,000 80,000 1,16,000 88,000 Purchases (Rs.) 84,000 1,00,000 1,04,000 1,06,000 80,000 Wages (Rs.) 10,000 12,000 8,000 10,000 8,000 Mis. Expenses (Rs.) 7,000 8,000 6,000 12,000 6,000

Additional information: 1. Sales: 20% realized in the month of sale; discount allowed 2%. Balance realized equally in two subsequent months. 2. Purchases: These are paid in the month following the month of supply. 3. Wages: 25% paid in arrears following month. 4. Miscellaneous expenses: Paid a month in arrears.

5. Rent: Rs.1,000 per month paid quarterly in advance due in April. 6. Income Tax : First instalment of advance tax Rs. 25,000 due on or before 15th June. 7. Income from investments: Rs. 5,000 received quarterly in April, July, etc. 8. Cash in hand: Rs. 5,000 on 1st April, 2006. (Answer: April Rs. 5,680; May Rs. (-) 7,084 and June Rs. (-) 62,936

8. The Expenses for the production of 5,000 units in a factory are given as follows: Particulars Materials Labour Variable Overheads Fixed Overheads (Rs. 50,000) Administrative Overheads (5% variable ) Selling expenses (20% fixed) Distribution expenses (10% fixed) Total cost of sales per unit Per unit (Rs.) 50 20 15 10 10 6 5 Rs. 110

You are required to prepare a budget for the production of 7,000 units. (Answer Total cost of sales Rs. 7,69,000; Total cost of sales per unit Rs. 109.94) 9. Draw up a flexible budget for the overhead expenses on the basis of the following data and determine the overhead rate at 70%, 80% and 90% plant capacity. Particulars At 70 % At 80% At 90%

capacity Variable overheads: Indirect Labour Stores including spares Semi-variable overheads: Power (30% fixed; 70% variable) Repairs (60% fixed; 40% variable) Fixed overheads: Depreciation Insurance Salaries Total Overheads Estimated direct labour hours -

capacity Rs. 12,000 4,000

capacity

20,000 2,000

11,000 3,000 10,000 62,000 124000 hrs

(Answer: Overhead rate at 70% - Rs. 0.536; at 80% - Rs. 0.50 and at 90% - Rs. 0.472) 10. The cost of an article at a capacity level of 5,000 units is given under A below. For a variation of 25% in capacity above or below this level, the individual expenses as indicated under B below: Cost per unit Rs. 12.55. Find out the cost per unit and total cost for production levels of 4,000 units and 6,000 units. Also show the total cost and unit cost for 5,000 units

Particulars

A Rs.

B Rs.

Material cost Labour cost Power Repairs and maintenance Stores Inspection Depreciation Administration overheads Selling overheads Total

25,000 (100% varying) 15,000 (100% varying ) 1,250 (80% varying) 2,000 (75% varying) 1,000 (100% varying) 500 (20% varying) 10,000 (100% varying) 5,000 (25% varying) 3,000 (25% varying) 62,750

.(Answer: Total Cost at 4,000 units Rs. 51,630; at 5,000 units Rs. 62,750 and at 6,000 units Rs. 73,870. Cost per unit is Rs.12.908; Rs.12.55 and Rs. 12.31 respectively.) 11. The expenses of budgeted production of 20,000 units in a factory are furnished below: Particulars Materials Labour Variable overheads Fixed overheads Variable expenses (direct) Selling expenses (10% fixed) Distribution expenses (20% fixed) Administrative expenses 140 50 40 20 10 26 14 10 Per unit (Rs.)

Prepare a Flexible Budget for the production of 16,000 units and 12,000 units. Indicate cost per unit at both the levels. (Answer: Cost per unit at 16,000 units Rs.318.85; at 12,000 units Rs.333.60) 2.2 STANDARD COSTING STANDARD: According to Prof. Erie L. Kolder, Standard is a desired attainable objective, a performance, a foal, a model. STANDARD COST: Standard cost is a predetermined estimate of cost to manufacture a single unit or a number of units during a future period. The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants, London, defines Standard Cost as, a pre-determined cost which is calculated from managements standards of efficient operation and the relevant necessary expenditure. It may be used as a basis for price fixing and for cost control through variance analysis. STANDARD COSTING: It is defined by I.C.M.A. Terminology as, The preparation and use of standard costs, their comparison with actual costs and the analysis of variances to their causes and points of incidence. According to the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants, London Standard Costing is the preparation and use of Standard Cost, their comparison with actual costs, and the analysis of variances to their causes and points of incidence. The study of standard cost comprises of: 1. 2. 3. Ascertainment and use of standard costs. Comparison of actual costs with standard costs and measuring the variances. Controlling costs by the variance analysis.

4.

Reporting to management for taking proper action to maximize the efficiency.

BUDGETARY CONTROL AND STANDARD COSTING Both standard costing and budgetary control aim at maximum efficiency and managerial control. Budgetary control and standard costing have the common objective of controlling business operations by establishing pre-determined targets, measuring the actual performance and comparing it with the targets, for the purposes of having better efficiency and of reducing costs. The two systems are said to be interrelated but they are not inter-dependent. The budgetary control system can function effectively even without the system of standard costing in operation but the vice-versa is not possible. STANDARD COSTING AS A CONTROLLING TECHNIQUE It is essential for management to have knowledge of costs so that decision can be effective. Management can control costs on information being provided to it. The technique of standard costing is used for building a proper budgeting and feedback system. The uses of standard costing to management areas follows. 1. Formulation of Price and Production Policies Standard Costing acts as a valuable guide to management in the fixation of price and formulation production polices. It also assists management in the field of inventory pricing, product, product pricing profit planning and also in reporting to higher levels. 2. Comparison and Analysis of Data Standard Costing provides a stable basis for comparison of actual with standard costs. It brings out the impact of external factors and internal causes on the cost and performance of the concern. Thus, it helps to take remedial action.

3. Cost Consciousness An atmosphere of cost consciousness is created among the staff. Standard costing also provides incentive to workers for efficient performance. 4. Better Capacity to anticipate An effective budget can be formulated for the future by once knowing the deviations of actual costs from standard costs. Data are available at an early stage and the capacity to anticipate about changing conditions is developed. 5. Better Economy, Efficiency and Productivity Men, machines and materials are more effectively utilized and thus benefits of economies can be reaped in business together with increased productivity. 6. Delegation of Authority and Responsibility The net profit is analyzed and responsibility can be placed on the person in charge for any variations from the standards. It discloses adverse variations and particular cost centre can be held accountable. Thus, delegation of authority can be made by management to control the affairs in different departments. 7. Management by Exception The principle of management by exception can be applied in the business. This helps the management in concentrating its attention on cases which are off standard, i.e., below or above the standard set. A pattern is provided for the elimination of undesirable factors causing damage to the business. SETTING THE STANDARD While setting standard cost for operations, process or products, the following preliminaries must be gone through:

1. Establish Standard Committee comprising Purchase Manager, Personnel Manager, and Production Manager. The Cost Accountant coordinates the functions. 2. Study the existing costing system, cost records and forms in use. 3. A technical survey of the existing methods of production should be undertaken. 4. Determine the type of standard to be used. 5. Fix standard for each element of cost. 6. Determine standard costs of r each product. 7. Fix the responsibility for setting standards. 8. Account variances properly. 9. Ascertain the deviations by comparing the actual with standards. 10. Take necessary action to ensure that adverse variances are not repeated. DETERMINATION OF STANDARD COSTS The following preliminary steps are considered before setting standards: (a) Establishment of cost centre (b) Classification and codification of accounts (c) Types of standards (d) Setting the standards. (a) Establishment of cost centre. For fixing responsibility and defining the lines of authority, cost centre is necessary. A cost centre is a location, person or item of equipment (or group of these) for which costs may be

ascertained and used of the purpose of cost control. With the help of cost centre, the standards are prepared and the variances are analyzed. (b) Classification and codification of accounts. Accounts are classified according to different items of expenses under suitable heading. Each heading may be given codes and symbols. Coding is useful for speedy collection and analysis. (c) Types of standards. The different types of standards are given below: (i) Basic standard. It is a fixed and unaltered for an indefinite period for forward planning. According to I.C.M.A London, it is an underlying standard from which a current standard can be developed. From this basic standard, changes in current standard and actual standard can be measured. (ii) Current standard. It is a short-term standard, as it is revised at regular intervals. I.C.M.A. London refers to it as a standard which is established for use over a short period of time and is related to current conditions. This standard is realistic and helpful to business. It is useful for cost control. (iii) Normal standard. It is an average standard, and is based on normal conditions which prevail over a long period of a trade cycle. I.C.M.A defines it as the average standard which, it is anticipated, can be attained over a future period of time, preferably long enough to cover one trade-cycle. It is used for planning and decision making during the period of trade cycle to which it is related. It is very difficult to apply in practice. (iv) Ideal standard. I.C.M.A. defines it as the standard which can be

attained under the most favorable condition possible. It is fixed and

needs a high degree of efficiency, best possible conditions of management and performance. Existing conditions and conditions capable of achievement should be taken into consideration. It is difficult to attain this ideal standard. (v) Expected standard. It is a practical standard. I.C.M.A defines it as, the standard which, it is anticipated, can be attained during a future specified budget period. For setting this standard, due weightage is given for all the expected conditions. It is more realistic than the ideal standard. (d) Setting the standards. After choosing the standard, the setting of The cost accountant

standard is the work of the standard committee.

has to supply the necessary cost figures and co-ordinate the activity committee. He must ensure that the setting standards are accurate. Standards cost is determined for each element of the following costs. (i) Direct Material cost. Standard material cost is equal to the standard quantity multiplied by the standard price. The setting of standard costs for direct materials involves (a) Standard Material Quantity. For each product or part or the process, mechanical calculation or mechanical analysis is made. The allowance for normal wastage or loss must be fixed very carefully. Similarly, where different kinds of materials are used as a mix for a process, a standard material mix is determined to produce the desire quality product. (b) Standard Material Price. Setting of material standard price is done by the cost accountant and the purchase manager. The current standard is the desirable and effective for fixing the price.

Normally one year is the period for fixation of standard price. If there are more fluctuations in prices, then revision of standard price is necessary. Before fixing the standard, the following points must be considered: Prices of materials in stock Price quoted by suppliers Trade and cash discounts received Future prices based upon statistical data Material price already contracted (ii) Setting standard for Direct Labour. The standard labour cost is equal to the standard time for each operation multiplied by the standard wage rate. Setting of standard cost of direct labour involves: (a) Fixation of standard time (b) Fixation of standard rate (a) Fixation of standard time: Standard time is fixed by time or motion study or past records or test runs or estimates. Labour time is fixed by the work study engineer. While fixing standard time, normal ideal time is allowed for fatigue, normal delays or other contingencies. (b) Fixation of standard rate. With the help of the personnel manager, the accountant determines the standard rate. Fixation of standard rate is influenced by (i) Unions policy (ii) Demand for labour (iii) Policy the be followed. (iv) Method of wage payment.

(iii)

Setting standard for Overhead. Overheads are divided into fixed, variable and semi-variable. Standard overhead rate is determined on the basis of past records and future trend of prices. It is calculated for a unit or for an hour.

Standard variable overhead rate= Standard variable overhead for the budge Period ---------------------------------------------------------------------Budgeted production units or budgeted hours for the budgeted period (or some other base)

Standard fixed overhead rate= Standard overheads for the budget period Budgeted production units or budgeted hours for the budgeted period (or some other base)

REVISION OF STANDARDS Standard cost may be established for an indefinite period. There are no definite rules for the selection for a particular period. If the standards are fixed for a short period, it is expensive and frequent revision of standards will impair the utility and purpose for which standard is set. At the same, if the standard is set for a longer period, it may not be useful particularly in the days of high inflation and large fluctuations of rates in case of materials and labour. Standards have to be revised from time to time taking into consideration changing circumstances. The circumstances may change on account of technical innovations, changed market conditions, increase or decrease in plant capacity,

developing new products or giving up unprofitable production lines. If variations from actual occur in practice, they may be due to controllable or uncontrollable causes. Standards should be revised only on account of those causes which are beyond the control of the management. Changes in product design, supply of labour and material, changes in market conditions for a long period, trade or cyclical variations would impel the management to revise the standards. The objective, while comparing the actual performance with the standard performance and revising standards, is to facilitate better control over costs and improve the overall working and profitability of the organization. Apart from the above, basic standards are revised in the course of time under the following circumstances, when: 1. There are permanent changes in the method of production designs and specifications. 2. Plant capacity is changed 3. There is a large variation between the standard and the actual. BUDGETARY CONTROL AND STANDARD COSTING The systems of budgetary control and standard costing have the common objective of controlling business operations by establishing pre-determined targets, measuring the actual performance and comparing it with the targets, for the purposes of having better efficiency and of reducing costs. The tow systems are said to be interrelated but they are not inter-dependent. The budgetary control system can function effectively even without the system of standard costing in operation but the vice-versa is not true. Usually, the two are used in conjunction with each other to have most fruitful results. The distinction between the two systems is mainly on account of the field or scope and technique of operation.

Budgeting

Standard costing

1. Budgetary control is concerned 1. Standard Costing is related with with the operation of the business the control of the expenses and as a whole and hence its more hence it is more intensive extensive 2. Budget is a projection of financial 2. Standard cost is the projection of accounts cost accounts 3. It does not necessarily involve 3. It requires standardization of products. products. standardization of

4. Budgetary control can be adopted 4. It is not possible to operate this in part also. system in parts 5. Budgeting can be operated without 5. Standard costing cannot exist with standard costing. out budgeting. 6. Budgets determine the ceilings of 6. Standards are minimum targets expenses above which actual which are to be attained by actual expenditure should not normally performance at specific efficiency rise. level. 2.3 VARIANCE ANALYSIS It involves the measurement of the deviation of actual performance form the intended performances. It is based on the principle of management by exception. The attention of management is drawn not only to the variation in monetary gain but also to the responsibility and causes for the same. Favourable and Unfavourable variances Variances may be favorable (positive or credit) or unfavorable (or negative or adverse or debit) depending upon whether the actual cost is less or more than the standard cost. Favorable variance: When the actual cost incurred is less than the standard cost, the deviation is known as favorable variance. The effect of the favorable

variance increases the profit. It is also known as positive or credit variance.

Unfavorable variance: When the actual cost incurred is more than the standard cost, the variance is known as unfavorable or adverse variance. It refers to deviation to the loss of the business. It is also known as negative or debit variance. Controllable and Uncontrollable variance: Variances may be controllable or uncontrollable, depending upon the controllability of the factors causing variances. Controllable variance: It refers to a deviation caused by such factors which could be influenced by the executive action. For example, excess usage of materials, excess time taken by a worker, etc. When compared to the standard cost it is controllable as the responsibility can be fixed on the in-charge. Uncontrollable variance: When variance is due to the factors beyond the control of the concerned person (or department), it is uncontrollable. For example, the wage rate increased on account of strike, government restrictions, change in market price etc. Only revision of standards is required to remove such in future. Uses The variance analysis are important tools of cost control and cost reduction and they generate and atmosphere of cost consciousness in the organization. 1. Comparison of actual with standard cost which reveals the efficiency or inefficiency of performance. The inefficiency or unfavorable

variance is analyzed and immediate actions are taken. 2. It is a tool of cost control and cost reduction 3. It helps to apply the principle of management by exception.

4. It helps the management to maximize the profits by analyzing the variances into controllable and uncontrollable; the controllable variances are further analyzed so as to bring a cost reduction, indirectly more profit. 5. Future planning and programmes are based on the variance analysis. 6. Within the organization, a cost consciousness is created along with the team spirit. Computation of variances The causes of variance are necessary to find remedial measures; and therefore a detailed study of variance analysis is essential. Variances can be found out with respect to all the elements of cost, i.e., direct material, direct labour and overheads. The following are the common variances, which are calculated by the management. Sub-divisions of variances really give detailed information to the management in order to control the cost. 1. Material variances 2. Labour variances 3. Overhead variances (a) variable (b) fixed Material variance: The following are the variances in the case of materials a) Material Cost Variance (MCV). It is the difference between the standard cost of direct materials specified for the output achieved and the actual cost of direct materials used. The standard cost of materials is computed by multiplying the standard price with the standard quantity for actual output; and the actual cost is computed by multiplying the actual price with the actual quantity. The formula is:

Material Cost Variance (or) MCV: (Standard cost of materials - Actual cost of materials used) (or) (Standard Quantity for actual output x Standard Price) - (Actual Quantity x Actual Rate) (or) (SO x SP) - (AQ x AP) b) Material Price Variance (MPV). Material price variance is that portion of the direct materials cost variance which is the difference between the standard price specified and the actual price paid for the direct materials used. The formula is: Material Price Variance: (Actual Quantity consumed x Standard Price) (Actual Quantity consumed x Actual Price) (or)

Actual Quantity consumed (Standard Price - Actual Price) (or) MPV= AQ (SP-AP) c). Material Usage (Quantity) Variance (MUV). It is the deviation caused by the standards due to the difference in quantity used. It is calculated by multiplying the difference between the standard quantity specified and the actual quantity used by the standard price. Thus material usage variance is that portion of the direct materials cost variance which is the difference between the standard quantity specified for the production achieved, whether completed or not, and the actual quantity used, both valued at standard prices.

Material Usage or Quantity Variance: Standard Rate (Standard Quantity - Actual Quantity) (or) MUV = SR (SQ-AQ) d) Material Mix Variance (MMV). When two or more materials are used in the manufacture of a product, the difference between the standard composition and the actual composition of material mix is the material mix variance. The variance arises due to the change in the ratio of material and the standard ratio. The formula is: Material Mix Variance = Standard Rate (Standard Mix Actual Mix) Standard is revised due to the shortage of a particular type of material. The formula is: MMV = Standard Rate (Revised Standard Quantity - Actual Quantity) Revised Standard Quantity (RSQ) = Total weight of actual mix ------------------------------------------------ x Standard Quantity Total weight of standard mix After finding out this revised standard mix it is multiplied by the revised standard cost of standard mix and then the standard cost of actual mix is subtracted form the result. Example:1 The standard cost of material for manufacturing a unit a particular product is estimated as 16kg of raw materials @ Re. 1 per kg.

On completion of the unit, it was found that 20kg. of raw material costing Rs. 1.50 per kg. has been consumed. Answer: MCV = (SQ x SP) - (AQ x AP) = (16 x Rs.1) - (20 x Rs.1.50) = Rs.16 - Rs.30 = Rs. 14 (Adverse) MPV = (SP AP) x AQ = (1 1.50) x 20 = Rs. 10 (Adverse) MUV = (SQ AQ) x SP = (16 20) x 1 = Rs. 4 (Adverse) Example:2 Calculate the materials mix variance from the following: Material A B Answer: Material Qty A B 90 60 150 Standard Rate 12 15 Amount 1080 900 1980 Qty 100 50 150 Actual Rate 12 16 Amount 1200 800 2000 Standard 90 units at rs12 each 60 units at rs.15 each Actual 100 units at rs. 12 each 50 units at rs. 16 each Compute Material Variances.

MMV = SR (SQ-AQ) Material A: MMV = Rs.12 (90-100) = Rs 12 x10 = Rs. 120(A) Material B: MMV = Rs. 15 (60-50) = Rs. 15 x 10 = Rs 150 (F) Total MMV = Rs. 120(A) + Rs. 150 (F) = Rs. 30 (F) (e) Material Yield Variance: It is that portion of the direct material usage variance which is due to the difference between the standard yield specified and the actual yield obtained. The variance arises due to abnormal contingencies like spoilage, chemical reaction etc. Since the variance is a measure of the waste or loss in the production, it known as material loss or waste variance. ICMA, LONDON, it is defined as the difference between the standard yield of the actual material input and the actual yield, both valued at the standard material cost of the produce. in case actual yield is more than the standard yield, the material yield variance is favourable and, if the actual yield is less than the standard yield, the variance is unfavourable or adverse. (i) When actual mix and standard mix are the same, the formula is: MYV = Standard Yield Rate (Standard Yield - Actual Yield) or = Standard Revised Rate (Actual Loss - Standard Loss)

Here Standard Yield Rate = Standard cost of standard mix --------------------------------------Net standard output Net standard output = Gross output Standard loss (ii) When the actual mix and the standard mix differ from each other, the formula is: Standard Rate = Standard cost of revised standard mix ----------------------------------------------------------------Net Standard Output Material Yield Variance= Standard Rate (Actual Standard Yield Revised Standard Yield)

Labour Variances Labour Variances arise because of (I) Difference in Actual Rates and Standard Rates of Labour and (Ii) The variation in Actual Time taken y workers and the Standard Time allotted to them for performing a job. These are computed on the same pattern as that of Material Variances. For Labour Variances by simply putting the word Time in place of Quantity in the formula meant for Material Variances. The various Labour Variances can be analysed as follows: (A) Labour Cost Variance (B) Labour Rate Variance (C) Labour Time Or Efficiency Variance (D) Labour Idle Time Variance (E) Labour Mix Variance Or Gang Composition Variance

a) Labour Cost Variance (LCV) This variance represents the difference between the Standard Labour Costs and the Actual Labour Costs for the production achieved. If the Standard Cost is higher, the variation is favourable and vice versa. It is calculated as follows: Labour Cost Variance: = (Standard Cost of Labour - Actual Cost of Labour) = (Standard Time x Standard Rate) - (Actual Time x Actual Rate) = (ST x SR) - (AT x AR) b) Labour Rate Variance (LRV) It is the difference between the Standard Rate of pay specified and the Actual Rate Paid. According to ICMA, London, the variance is the difference

between the standard and the actual direct Labour Rate per hour for the total hours worked. If the standard rate is higher, the variance is Favourable and vice versa. Labour Rate Variance = Actual Time (Standard Wage Rate x Actual Wage Rate) V =AT (SR-AR) C) Labour Time Or Labour Efficiency Variance (LEV) It is the difference between the Standard Hours for the actual production achieved and the hours actually worked, valued at the Standard Labour Rate. When the workers finish the specific job in less than the Standard Time, the variance is Favourable. If the workers take more time than the allotted time, the variance is Adverse. Labour Efficiency Variance (LEV): =Standard Rate (Standard Time - Actual Time)

=SR (ST-AT) d) Idle Time Variance: It arises because of the time during which the Labour remains idle due to abnormal reasons, i.e. power failure, strikes, machine breakdown, shortage of materials, etc. It is always an Adverse variance Labour Idle Time Variance = Actual Idle Time x Standard Hourly Rate e) Labour Mix Variance or Gang Compostion Variance (LMV): It is the difference between the standard composition of workers and the actual gang of workers. It is a part of labour efficiency variance. It corresponds to material mix variance. It enables the management to study the labour cost variance occurred because of the changes in the composition of labour force. The rates of pay of the different categories of workers-skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled are different. Hence, any change made in composition of the workers will naturally cause variance. How much is variance due to the change, is indicated by Labour Mix Variance. (i) When the total hours i.e. time of the standard composition and actual composition of workers does not differ the formula is: Labour Mix variance= (Standard Cost of Standard Mix) - (Standard cost of Actual Mix) (ii) When the total hours i.e. time of the standard composition and actual composition of workers differs, the formula is: Labour Mix variance Total Time of Actual mix . x Std cost of Std. mix) - (Std. cost of Actual Mix) Total Time of Standard mix

If, on account of short availability of some category of workers, the standard composition is itself revised, then Labour Mix Variance will be calculated by taking revised standard mix in place of standard mix. Labour Yield Variance (LYV) It is just like Material Yield Variance. It is the difference between the standard labour output and actual output of yield. It is calculated as below: Labour Yield Variance =Standard cost per unit {Standard production of Actual mix - Actual Production} OVERHEAD VARIANCE Overhead Cost Variance It is the difference between standard overheads for actual output i.e. Recovered Overheads and Actual Overheads. It is the total of both fixed and variable overhead variances. The variable overheads are those costs which tend to vary directly in proportion to changes in the volume of production. Fixed overheads consist of costs which are not subject to change with the change in the volume of production. The variances under overheads are analysed in two heads, viz Variable Overheads and Fixed Overheads: Overheads Cost Variance= Standard Total Overheads-Actual Total Overheads The term overhead includes indirect material, indirect labour and indirect expenses and the variances relate to factory, office or selling and distribution overheads. Overhead variances are divided into two broad categories: (i)

Variable overhead variances and (ii) Fixed overhead variances. To compute overhead variances, the following terms must be understood:

a) Standard overhead rate per unit Budgeted overheads = Budgeted output

b) Standard overheads rate per hour Budgeted overheads = Budgeted hours

c) Standard hours for actual output Budgeted hours . Budgeted output x Actual output

d) Standard output for actual time Budgeted output . x Actual hours Budgeted hours e) Recovered or Absorbed overheads = Standard rate per unit x Actual output f) Budgeted overheads = Standard rate per unit x budgeted output g) Standard overheads = Standard rate per unit x Standard output for actual time h) Actual overheads = Actual rate per unit x Actual output

VARIABLE OVERHEAD VARIANCE Variable cost varies in proportion to the level of output, while the cost is fixed per unit. As such the standard cost per unit of these overheads remains the same irrespective of the level of output attained. As the volume does not affect the variable cost per unit or per hour, the only factors leading to difference is price. It results due to the change in the expenditure incurred. (i) Variable Overhead Expenditure Variance:

It is the difference between actual variable overhead expenditure incurred and the standard variable overheads set in for a particular period. The formula is:{Actual Hours Worked x Standard Variable Overhead Rate per hour}-Actual Variable overheads (ii) Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance:

It shows the effect of change in labour efficiency on variable overheads recovery. The formula is:Quantity) Standard Overhead Rate= (Standard Time for Actual output- Actual Time) (iii) Variable Overhead Variance Standard Rate (Standard Quantity-Actual

It is divided into two: Overhead Expenditure Variance and Overhead Efficiency Variance. The formula is:Variable overhead Expenditure Variance + Variable overhead Efficiency variance FIXED OVERHEAD VARIANCE (FOV): Fixed overhead variance depends on (a) fixed expenses incurred and (b) the volume of production obtained. The volume of production depends upon (i)

efficiency (ii) the days for which the factory runs in a week (calendar variance) (iii) capacity of plant for production. FOV = Actual Output (Fixed Overhead Rate - Actual Fixed Overheads) (a) Fixed Overhead Expenditure Variance. (Budgeted or cost Variance).

It is that portion of the fixed overhead which is incurred during a particular period due to the difference between the budgeted fixed overheads and the actual fixed overheads. Fixed Overhead expenditure variance=Budgeted fixed overhead-Actual fixed overhead (b) Fixed Overhead Volume Variance. This variance is the difference

between the standard cost of overhead absorbed in actual output and the standard allowance for that output. This variance measures the over of under recovery of fixed overheads due to deviation of actual output form the budgeted output level. (i) On the basis of units of output:

Fixed Overhead Volume Variance = Standard Rate (Budgeted Output-Actual Output) OR =Budgeted Cost Standard Cost) OR = (Actual Output x Standard Rate)-Budgeted fixed overheads (ii) On the basis of standard hours:

Fixed Overhead Volume Variance =Standard Rate per hour (Budgeted Hours-Standard Hours) Standard Hour = Actual Output + Standard Output per hour

Example: 3 A manufacturing concern furnished the following information: Standard: Material for 70kg, finished products:100kg; Price of materials:Re.1 per kg Actual: Output: 2,10,000 kg; Material used: 2,80,000; cost of material: Rs.5,52,000. Calculate:(a) Material Usage Variance (b) Material Price Variance (c) Material Cost Variance Answer: 1. Standard quantity: For 70kg standard output Standard quantity of material = 100 kg 2,10,000 kg of finished products 2,10,000 x 100 = .. =3,00,000 kg 70 2. Actual Price per kg 2,52,000 = = Re. 0.90 2,80,000 (a) Material Usage or Quantity Variance =SP (SQ-AQ) =Re.1 (3,00,000-2,80,000) =Re.1 * 20,000 = Rs.20,000 (Favourable)

(b) Material Price Variance = AQ (SP - AP) =2, 80,000 (Re.1 Re.0.90) =2, 80,000 * 0.10 paise = Rs. 28,000 (Favourable) (C) Material Cost Variance (MCV): = (SQ x SP) - (AQ x AP) = (3, 00,000 x 1) (2,80,000 x 0.90) = Rs. 3, 00,000 Rs.2,52,000 = Rs. 48,000 (Favorable) Example: 4 Standard mix for production of X Material A: 60 tonnes @ Rs. 5 per tonne Material B: 40 tonnes @ Rs.10 per tonne Actual mixture being: Material A: 80 tonnes @ Rs.4 per tonne Material B: 70 tonnes @ Rs. 8 per tonne. Calculate (a) Material Price Variance (b) Material sub-usage Variance, and (c) Material Mix Variance

Answer: (a) Material Price Variance = AQ (SP - AP) Material A= 80 (5-4) = Rs.80 (Favourable) Material B= 70 (10-8) = Rs. 140 (Favourable) MPV = 80 +140 -= Rs 220 (Favourable)

(b) Revised standard quantity= Total weight of actual mix ------------------------------------------------ * standard quantity Total weight of standard mix RSQ for material A 150 = * 60 = 90 tonnes 100 RSQ for material B 150 = * 40 = 60 tonnes 100 Material sub usage (Revised usage) Variance = Standard Price (Standard. Quantity Revised Standard Quantity) RUV for material A= 5(60-90) = 150 (Adverse) RUV for material B = 10(40-90) = 200(Adverse) MRV = 150+200= Rs. 350 (Adverse) Material Mix Variance = Standard Rate x (Revised std. Quantity - Actual qty.)

MVV for material A= 5(90-80) =50 (Adverse) MVV for material B= 10(60-70) =100 (Adverse) MVV=50-100=-50=Rs.540 (Adverse) Example: 5 Vinak Ltd. produces an article by blending two basic raw materials. It operates a standard costing system and the following standards have been set for new materials. Material A B Standard Mix 40% 60% Standard price per kg Rs. 4.00 Rs. 3.00

The standard loss in processing is 15% During April 1994 the company produced 1700 kgs of finished output. The position of stocks and purchases for the month of April 1994 is as under: Material April 1994 Kgs A B 35 40 kgs 5 50 kgs 800 1200 kgs 3400 3000 Stock on 1-4-94 Stock on 30-4-94 Purchased during

Calculate: Material Price Variances, Material Usage Variances, Material yield variances, Material Mix Variances and Total Material Cost Variances.

Answer: Finished output 1,700 kgs. Standard Loss in processing 15%. Therefore, input is 100 1,700 x .. = 2000kgs 85 For an input of 2,000 kgs., the standard cost will be as follows A - 40% of 2000 = 800 kgs. at Rs. 4.00 = Rs. 3,200 B - 60% of 2,000 =1,200 kgs at Rs.3.00 = Rs. 3,600 . 2,000kgs Loss 15% 300kgs . Finished output 1,700 kgs .. Rs.6,800 .. Rs. 6,800

6,800 Standard Yield Rate == Rs. 4 per kg 1,700

Actual Costs: A - 35+800-5 = 830kgs. consumed 35 x 4 (assumed) = Rs. 140.00

795 x 4.25 (purchase price) = Rs. 3,378.75 . Rs. 3,518.75

B 40+ 1,200-50=1190kgs. consumed 40 x 3 (assumed)=

120.00

1150 =2,875.00 .. Total Less: Loss 2,020 320 Finished output 1,700

2.50(purchase

price)

. 6,513.75 _ .. 6,513.75

Material Price Variance = AQ (SP-AP) A = 830 x 4 = 3,320 - 3,518.75 = Rs.198.75 (A) B = 1,190 x 3=3,570 - 2,995 = Rs. 575.00 (F) .. Rs. 376.25 (F) Material Usage Variance = SP(SQ-AQ) A = 4 (800-830) B= 3 (1,200-1,190) =120(A) =30(F) . Rs. 90(A) Material Yield Variance = SYR* (AY-SY) =4(1,700-1,717)=68(A) If SY For 2,000 kgs. input SY=1,700 Then, For 2,020 kgs. input SY = ? 2,020 =. x 1,700=1,717 kgs } 2,000

Material Mix Variance = SP (RSQ-AQ) Revised standard quantity= Total weight of actual mix -----------------------------------------------Total weight of standard mix x Standard Quantity

2.020 For A = 800 x = 808 2,000

2,020 For B= 1,200 x ..=1,212 2,000 MMV - For A = 4 (808-803) For B = 3 (1,212-1,190)

= 88(A) = 66(F)

.. . Rs. 22(A) Material Cost Variance = (SC - AC) = (6,800 - 6,513.75) = Rs. 286.25(F) Labour Variance: Example: 6 With the help of following information calculate (a) Labour Cost Variance

(b) Labour Rate Variance (c) Labour Efficiency Variance Standard hours: 40@ Rs. 3 per hour Actual hours: Answer: (a) Labour Cost Variance = (Standard Time x Standard Rate) - (Actual Time x Actual Rate) = (40 x Rs.3) (50 x Rs.4) = (Rs.120 - 200) = Rs.80 = Rs.80 (Adverse) (b) Labour Rate Variance = Actual Time (Standard Rate x Actual Rate) = 50 (Rs.3 - Rs.4) = Rs. 50 = Rs. 50 (Adverse) (c) Labour Efficiency Variance = Standard Rate (Standard Time-Actual Time) = Rs.3 (40-50) = Rs.30 = Rs.30 (Adverse) Example; 7 The Labour budget of a company for a week is as follows: 20 skilled men @ 50 paise per hour for 40 hours 40 skilled men @ 30 paise per hour for 40 hours =400 =480 .. 880 .. The actual labour force was used as follows: 30 skilled men @ 50 paise per hour for 40 hours` 30 skilled men @ 35 paise per hour for 40 hours =600 =420 . 1,020 50@ Rs. 4 per hour

Analyses labour variances. Answer: 1. Labour Rate Variance (a) Skilled men (b) Unskilled men 2. Labour Mix variance (a) Skilled men (b) Unskilled men = AT (SR - AR) = 1,200 (Rs.50 - Rs.50) = 0 = 1,200 (Rs.30 - Rs.35) = Rs.60 (A) = SR (ST - AT) = Rs.0.50 (800 -1200) = Rs.200 (A) = Rs.0.30 (1600 -1200) = Rs.120 (F)

Total Labour Cost Variance = Standard labour cost - Actual cost = 880-1020 = 140 (A) Example; 8 Standard labour hours and rate for production of Article A are given below: Hrs. Skilled worker Unskilled worker Semi-skilled worker 5 8 4 Rate (Rs.) 1.50 per hour 0.50 per hour 0.75 per hour Total 7.50 4.00 3.00

Actual data Articles produced 1,000 units Skilled worker 4,500 hrs

Rate per hour

Total

2.00 0.45 0.75

9,000 4,500 3,150

Unskilled worker 10,000 hrs Semi skilled worker 4,200 hrs

Calculate: Labour Cost Variance, Labour Rate Variance, Labour Efficiency Variance and Labour Mix Variance

Answer: (a) Labour Cost Variance = (Standard Time x Standard Rate) - (Actual Time x Actual Rate) Standard Time for Actual Production =Actual Units x ST. Skilled Worker = 1,000 x 5 = 5000 Hrs. Unskilled worker = 1,000 x 8 = 8,000 Hrs. Semi-skilled worker= 1,000 x 4 = 4,000 Hrs.

Labour Cost Variance Skilled worker = (5000 x Rs.1.50) (4,500 x 2) = Rs.7,500 Rs.9,000 = Rs.1,500 (A) Unskilled worker = Rs. (8,000 x Rs.0.50) (10,000 x 0.45) = 4,000 - 4,500 = Rs.500 (A) Semi skilled worker = (4,000 x Rs.0.75) (4,200 x Rs.0.75) = 3,000-3,150) = Rs.150 (A) Total Labour Cost Variance = Rs.2150 (A)

(b) Labour Rate Variance = Actual Time (Standard Rate x Actual Rate) Skilled worker Unskilled worker = 4500 (1.50 - 2) = Rs.2250 (A) = Rs.4,200 (0.75 0.75) = Nil

Semi skilled worker = 1,000 (0.50 - 0.45) = Rs.500 (F) Total Labour Rate Variance = Rs.1,750 (A) (c) Labour mix variance: = SR (Revised std. Mix of Actual hours worked) Actual Mix Revised std. Mix of Actual hours worked Std Mix = x Total Actual Hrs.

Total Std. Hours

5,000 Skilled worker = x 18,700 = 5,500 Hrs 17,000

8,000 Unskilled worker = x 18,700 = 8,800 Hrs. 17,000

4,000 Semi skilled worker = x 18,700 = 4,400 Hrs 17,000

Labour Mix Variance:

Skilled worker Unskilled worker

= 1.50 (5,500 - 4,500) = Rs.1,500 (F) = 0.50 (8,800-10,000) = Rs.600 (A)

Semi skilled worker = 0.75 (4,400 - 4,200) = Rs.150 (F) Total Labour Mix Variance = Rs.1050 (F)

(d) Labour Efficiency Variance = SR (ST for Actual output Revised Std. Hrs) Skilled worker Unskilled worker = 1.50 (5,000 - 5,500) = Rs.750 (A) = 0.50 (8,000 - 8,800) = Rs.400 (A)

Semi skilled worker = 0.75 (4,000 - 4,400) = Rs.300 (A) Total Labour Efficiency Variance = Rs. ,450 (A)

Overhead Variance: Example: 9 S.V. Ltd has furnished you the following data: Budget No. of working days Production in units Fixed overheads 25 20,000 Rs.30,000 Actual July 1994 27 22,000 Rs.31,000

Budgeted fixed overhead rate is Re. 1 per hour. In July 1994, the actual hours worked were 31,500. Calculate the following variance: (i) Efficiency Variance (ii) Capacity variance (iii) Volume variance (iv) Expenditure variance and (v) Total overhead variance. Answer: Budgeted overhead Recovered overhead = x Actual output Budgeted output 30,000 =.. x 22,000 20,000

= 33,000 (i) Efficiency Variance = Standard Rate per hour (Standard hours for actual production Actual hours) = Re. 1 x (33,000 31,500) = Rs.1,500 (F)

(ii) Capacity Variance = Standard Rate per hour x (Actual hours - Budgeted hours) = Standard overheads - Budgeted overheads = Re. 1 x (31,500 30,000) = Rs.1500 (F) (iii) Volume variance = Recovered overhead Budgeted overheads = Rs. 33,000 Rs. 30,000 = Rs. 3,000 (F) (iv) Expenditure variance = Budgeted overheads Actual overheads \ = Rs.30,000 Rs.31,000 = Rs.1,000 (A) (v) Total overhead variance = Recovered overhead Actual overheads = Rs.33,000 Rs.31,000 = Rs.2,000 (F)

Example: 10 Vinak Ltd.has furnished you the following for the month of August 1994. Budget Output (Units) Hours Fixed hours Variable overhead Working days Calculate the variances. 30,000 30,000 Rs. 45,000 Rs. 60,000 25 Actual 32,500 33,000 50,000 68,000 26

Answer: Standard Overhead Rate per Unit Budgeted Overheads = Budgeted Output

30,000 = 1 hours 30,000 Total standard overhead rate per hour Budgeted overheads =.. Budgeted hours

1,05,000 = . = Rs.3.50 per hour 30,000

Standard fixed overhead rate per hour Budgeted fixed overheads = .. Budgeted hours

45,000 = . = Rs.1.50 30,000

Standard variable overhead rate per hour Budgeted variable overheads =. Budgeted hours

60,000 = .. = Rs.2 30,000 Overhead cost variance = Recovered overheads Actual overheads Recovered overhead = Actual output x Standard Rate per unit = 32,500 x Rs.3.50 = Rs.1,13,750 Overhead cost variance = 1,13,750 1,18,000 = Rs.4,250 (A) Variable overhead cost variance = Recovered overheads Actual overheads = 32,500 hrs x Rs.2 Rs.68,000 = Rs.3,000 (A) Fixed overhead cost variance = Recovered overheads Actual overheads = 32,500 hrs x Rs.1.50 Rs.50,000 = 48,750 50,000 =Rs.1,250 (A) Expenditure variance = Budgeted overheads Actual overheads = Rs.45,000 Rs.50,000 = Rs.5000 (A)

Volume variance

= Recovered overheads- Budgeted overheads = 32500 hrs x Rs.1.50 45,000 = 48,750 45,000 = Rs.3,750 (F)

Efficiency variance = Recovered overheads- standard overheads OR Standard rate (Standard hours for actual output Actual hours) = 1.50 (32,500 33,000) = Rs.750 (A) Capacity variance = standard overheads Budgeted overheads Or = Standard Rate (Actual hours - Budgeted hours) = Rs.1.50 (33,000 30,000) = Rs.4,500 (F) Calendar variance = Extra / Deficit hours worked x Standard Rate. One extra day has been worked. .. The Total number of extra hours worked 30,000 = .. = 1,200 25

=1,200 x 1.50 = Rs.1,800 (F)

Note: 1. (F) Favourable; (A) Adverse (or) Unfavaourable 2. When Standard is more than the Actual, it is favourable variance 3. When Actual is more than the Standard, it is unfavourable or adverse variance 4. In place of Time, the term Hours may also be used. Disposal of Variances: Cost variances are disposed of in one of the following ways: 1. Transfer to profit and loss account, keeping work-in-progress, finished goods and cost of sales at standard cost. 2. Transfer to cost of sales, thus practically converting the standard cost of sales into actual cost of sales. 3. Prorating to cost of sales and inventories, either on the basis of units or value, so that both the inventories and cost of goods sold will be shown at actual costs. Exercises: 1. Following is the data of a manufacturing concern. Calculate:-

Material Cost Variance, Material Price Variance and Material usage variance. The standard quantity of materials required for producing one ton of output is 40 units. The standard price per unit of materials is Rs. 3. During a particular period 90 tons of output was undertaken. The materials required for actual production were 4,000 units. An amount of Rs. 14,000 units. An amount of Rs.14, 000 was spent on purchasing the materials.

(MCV:Rs.3,200(A), MPV: Rs.2,000 (A), MUV Rs.1,200 (A) 2 The standard materials required for producing 100 units is 120 kgs. A

standard price of 0.50 paise per kg is fixed 2,40,000 units were produced during the period. Actual materials purchased were 3,00,000 kgs. at a cost of Rs. 1,65,000. Calculate Materials Variance. 3 ( MCV - 21,000)

From the data given below, calculate: Material Cost Variance, Material

Price Variance and Material Usage Variance Products A B C Standard Quantity (units) 1,050 1,500 2,100 Standard Price Rs. 2.00 3.25 3.50 Actual Quantity (units) 1,100 1,400 2,000 Actual Price 2.25 3.50 3.75

(MCV (-) Rs.550 (A), MPV: (-) Rs.1,125 (A), MUV(-) Rs.575 (A) 4 From the following information, calculate material mix variance: Standard Materials Quantity (units) 40 60 Price per unit Rs. 10 5 50 50 Quantity (units) Actual Price per unit Rs. 12 8

A B

(Materials Mix Variance: Rs.50 (A)

Calculate material mix variance form the data given as such: Standard Actual Price per unit Quantity Rs. (units) 2.00 1.20 60 90 Price per unit Rs. 2.25 1.75

Materials

Quantity (units) 50 100

A B

Due to the shortage of material A, the use of material A was reduced by 10% and that of B increased by 5% Ans: (Material Mix Variance = -12 (A) 6. From the following data calculate various material variances: Standard Materials Quantity (units) A B 80 70 8.00 3.00 Actual Price per unit Rs. 90 80 Quantity (units) Price per unit Rs. 7.50 4.00

(MCV; Rs.145 (A), MPV: Rs.35 (A), MUV: Rs.110 (A), MMV: Rs.3.3 (F) 7. From the following information, Calculate material yield variance: Standard Materials Quantity (units) 80 70 150 Actual Price per unit Quantity Rs. (units) 5 9 60 90 .. 150 Price per unit Rs. 4.50 8.00

A B

There is a standard loss of 10%. Actual yield is 125 units. (MYV: Rs.76.3 (A) 8. The standard Mix of a product is as under:

A B C

60 units at 15p per unit 80 units at 20 P. per unit 100 units at 25P per unit . 240

Rs.9 Rs.16 Rs. 25 .. Rs. 50

Ten units of finished product should be obtained from the above mentioned mix. During the month of January, 1978, ten mixes were completed and the consumption was as follows: A B C 640 units at 15p per unit 960 units at 20 P. per unit 840 units at 25P per unit . 2,440 . Rs.128 Rs.144 Rs. 252 .. Rs.524

The actual output was 90 units. Calculate various material variances. (MCV: Rs.74 (A), MPV: Rs.26 (A), MUV: Rs.48 (A), MMV: Rs.0.35 (F) 9. Vinak Ltd. produces an articles by blending two basic raw materials. It

operates a standard costing system and the following standards have been set for raw materials. Material A B Standard Mix 40% 60% Standard price per kg. Rs.4.00 Rs. 3.00

The standard loss in processing is 15%. During April, 1980, the company produced 1,700 kg of finished output. The position of stock and purchase for the month of April, 1980 are as under: Material Stock on 1-4-80 during Stock on 30-4-80 Purchased April, 1980 kg Rs. A B 35 40 kg 5 50 kg 800 Cost 3,400

1,200 3,000

Calculate the following variances: Material Cost Variance, Material Price Variance, Material Usage Variance, Material Yield Variance and Material Mix Variance. (MCV: Rs.286 (F), Material Price Variance: Rs. 376.75 Favourable, Material Usage Variance. Rs.90 unfavoruable, Material Mix Variance: Rs. 22 Adverse) 10. In a manufacturing concern, the standard time fixed for a month is 8,000

hours. A standard wage rate of Rs. 2.25 P. per hour has been fixed. During one month, 50 workers were employed and average working days in a month are 25. A worker works for 7 hours in a day. Total wage bill of the factory for the month amounts to Rs. 21,875. There was a stoppage of work due to power failure (idle time) for 100 hours. Calculate various labour variances. (LCV: Rs.3875 (A), Rate of pay variance: Rs. 2187.50 (A), LEV: Rs.1462.50 (A) Idle Time Variance: Rs.225 Adverse.) 11. The information regarding the composition and the weekly wage rates of

labour force engaged on a job scheduled to be completed in 30 weeks are as follows:

Standard Category of wokers No. of workers Weekly wage rate per worker Rs. Skilled Semi skilled Unskilled 75 45 60 60 40 20 70 30 80 No. of workers

Actual Weekly wage rate per worker Rs. 70 50 20

The work was completed in 32 weeks. Calculate various labour variances. 12. The following data is taken out from the books of a manufacturing concern. Budgeted labour composition for producing 100 articles 20 Men @ Rs. 1.25 hour for 25 hours 30 women @ 1.10 per hour for 30 hours Actual labour composition for Producing 100 articles 25 Men @ Rs. 1.50 per hour for 24 hours 25 women @ Re. 1.20 per hour for 25 hours

Calculate: (i) Labour Cost Variance, (ii) Labour Rate Variance, (iii) Labour Efficency Variance, (iv) Labour Mix Variance. Ans:(Labour Cost Variance: Rs. 35 Adverse, Labour Rate Variacne Rs. 212.50 Adverse, LEV:Rs.177.50 Favourable and LMV: Rs.24.38 unfavourable)

13.

Calculate labour variances from the following data: Standard Actual 2,500 60 22 330

Out put in units Number of workers employed Number of working days in a month Average wage per man per month (Rs.)

2,000 50 20 280

Ans: LCV Rs.2300 (A), LRV Rs. 1320 (A), LEV Rs 980 (A) 14. From the following information compute; (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Fixed Overhead Variance Expenditure Variance Volume Variance Capacity Variance Efficiency Variance Budget Actual

Fixed overheads for November Units of production in November Standard time for 1 unit Actual Hours Worked

Rs. 20,000 10,000 = 2 hours =20,100 hours

20,400 10,400

Ans: Fixed Overhead Variance: Rs. 300 (A), Expenditure Variance: Rs. 400 (A), Volume Variance: Rs. 100 (F), Capacity Variance: Rs. 800 (F), Efficiency Variance: Rs. 700 (A)

15.

From the following information, calculate various overhead variances: Budget` Output in units Number of working days Fixed Overheads Variable Overheads There was an increase of 5% in Capacity. 12,000 20 36,000 24,000 Actual 14,000 22 49,000 35,000

(Total Overhead cost Variance: Rs.14,000 (A), Variable Overhead Variance: Rs. 7,000 (A), Fixed Overhead Variance: Rs.7000 (A),Expenditure Variance: Rs. 13,000 (A), Volume Variance: Rs.6000 (F), Capacity Variance: Rs.1,800 (F), Calendar Variance: Rs.32,780 (F), Efficiency Variance: Rs.420 (F) Unit III Lesson I Marginal Costing Basic Concepts Structure of the Lesson: The lesson is structured as follows: Introduction Definition Features of Marginal Costing Assumptions in Marginal Costing Characteristics of Marginal Costing Advantages of Marginal Costing

Limitations of Marginal Costing Marginal Costing and Absorption Costing Distinction between Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing Differential Costing Marginal Cost Features of Marginal Cost Marginal Cost Statement Marginal Cost Equation Contribution: Profit / Volume Ratio Angle of incidence: Profit goal: Operating leverage

Objectives of the Lesson: On completion of this lesson, you should be able to define and explain the following concepts: Marginal Costing Absorption Costing or Full Cost Costing Differential Costing Marginal Cost

 Introduction

Fixed Cost Variable Cost Contribution P / V ratio Margin of Safety Angle of Incidence

By analyzing the behaviour of costs in relation to changes in volume of output it becomes evident that there are some items of costs which tend to vary directly with the volume of output, whereas there are others which tend to vary with volume of output, are called variable cost and those remain unaffected by change in volume of output are fixed cost or period costs. Marginal costing is a study where the effect on profit of changes in the volume and type of output is analysed. It is not a method of cost ascertainment like job costing or contract costing. It is a technique of costing oriented towards managerial decision making and control. Marginal costing, being a technique can be used in combination with other technique such as budgeting and standard costing. It is helpful in determining the profitability of products, departments, processes, and cost centres. While analyzing the profitability, marginal costing interprets the cost on the basis of nature of cost. The emphasis is on behaviour of costs and their impact on profitability.

Definition Marginal costing is defined by the ICWA, India as the ascertainment of marginal costs and of the effect on profit of changes in volume or type of output by differentiating between fixed costs, and variable costs Batty defined Marginal Costing as, a technique of cost accounting which pays special attention to the behaviour of costs with changes in the volume of output Kohlers Dictionary for Accounting defines Marginal Costing as the ascertainment of marginal or variable costs to an activity department or products as compared with absorption costing or direct costing The method of charging all the costs to production is called absorption costing. Kohlers dictionary for Accountants defines it as the process of allocating all or a portion of fixed and variable production costs to work in process, cost of sales and inventory. The net profits ascertained under this system will be different from that under marginal costing because of Difference in stock valuation Over and under absorbed overheads

Direct costing is defined as the process of assigning costs as they are incurred to products and services Features of Marginal Costing The following are the special features of Marginal Costing: Marginal costing is a technique of working of costing which is used in

conjunction with other methods of costing (Process or job) Fixed and variable costs are kept separate at every stage. Semi

Variable costs are also separated into fixed and variable.

As fixed costs are period costs, they are excluded from product cost or cost of production or cost of sales. Only variable costs are considered as the cost of the product.

As fixed cost is period cost, they are charged to profit and loss account during the period in which they incurred. They are not carried forward to the next years income.

Marginal income or marginal contribution is known as the income or profit.

The difference between the contribution and fixed costs is the net profit or loss.

Fixed costs remains constant irrespective of the level of activity. Sales price and variable cost per unit remains the same. Cost volume profit relationship is fully employed to reveal the state of profitability at various levels of activity. Assumptions in Marginal Costing

The technique of marginal costing is based on the following assumptions: 1. 2. 3. All elements of costs can be divided into fixed and variable. The selling price per unit remains unchanged at all levels of activity. Variable cost per unit remains constant irrespective of level of output and fluctuates directly in proportion to changes in the volume of output. 4. Fixed costs remain unchanged or constant for the entire volume of production. 5. Volume of product is the only factor which influences the costs.

Characteristics of Marginal Costing The essential characteristics and mechanism of marginal costing technique may be summed up as follows: 1. Segregation of cost into fixed and variable elements: In marginal costing, all costs are segregated into fixed and variable elements. 2. Marginal cost as product cost: Only marginal (variable) costs are charged to products. 3. Fixed costs are period costs: Fixed cost are treated as period costs and are charged to costing profit and loss account of the period in which they are incurred. 4. Valuation of inventory: The work in progress and finished stocks are valued at marginal cost only. 5. Contribution is the difference between sales and marginal cost: The relative profitability of the products or departments is based on a study of contribution made by each of the products or departments.

Advantages of Marginal Costing Marginal costing is an important technique of managerial decision making. It is a tool for cost control and profit planning. The following are the advantages of marginal costing technique: 1. Simplicity

The statement propounded under marginal costing can be easily followed as it breaks up the cost as variable and fixed.

2.

Stock Valuation

Stock valuation cab be easily done and understood as it includes only the variable cost. 3. Meaningful Reporting

Marginal costing serves as a good basis for reporting to management. The profits are analyzed from the point of view of sales rather than production. 4. Effect on Fixed Cost

The fixed costs are treated as period costs and are charged to Profit and Loss Account directly. Thus, they have practically no effect on decision making. 5. Profit Planning The Cost Volume Profit relationship is perfectly analysed to reveal efficiency of products, processes, and departments. Break even Point and Margin of Safety are the two important concepts helpful in profit planning.

6. Cost Control and Cost Reduction Marginal costing technique is helpful in preparation of flexible budgets as the costs are classified into fixed and variable. The emphasis is laid on variable cost for control. The constant focus is on cost and volume and their effect on profit pave the way for cost reduction. 7. Pricing Policy Marginal costing is immensely helpful in determination of selling prices under different situations like recession, depression, introduction of new product, etc. Correct pricing can be developed under the marginal costs technique with the help of the cost information revealed therein.

8. Helpful to Management Marginal costing is helpful to the management in exercising decisions regarding make or buy, exporting, key factor and numerous other aspects of business operations. Limitations of Marginal Costing Following are the limitations of marginal costing: Classification of Cost

Break up of cost into fixed and variable portion is a difficult problem. More over clear cost division of semi variable or semi fixed cost is complicated and cannot be accurate. Not Suitable for External Reporting

Since fixed cost is not included in total cost, full cost is not available to outsiders to judge the efficiency. Lack of Long term Perspective

Marginal costing is most suitable for decision making in a short term. It assumes that costs are classified into fixed and variable. In the long term all the cost are variable. Therefore it ignores time element and is not suitable for long term decisions. Under Valuation of Stock

Under marginal costing only variable costs are considered and the output as well as stock are undervalued and profit is distorted. When there is loss of stock the insurance cover will not meet the total cost.

Automation

In these days of automation and technical advancement, huge investments are made in heavy machinery which results in heavy amount of fixed costs. Ignoring fixed cost in this context for decision making is irrational. Production Aspect is Ignored

Marginal costing lays too much emphasis on selling function and as such production aspect has been considered to be less significant. But from the business point of view, both the functions are equally important. Not Applicable in all Types of Business

In contract type and job order type of businesses, full cost of the job or the contract is to be charged. Therefore it is difficult to apply marginal costing in all these types of businesses. Misleading Picture

Each product is shown at variable cost alone, thus giving a misleading picture about its cost. Less Scope for Long term Policy Decision

Since cost, volume, and profits are interlinked in price determination, which can be changed constantly, development of long term pricing policy is not possible. Marginal Costing and Absorption Costing Absorption costing charges all the costs i.e., both the fixed and variable fixed to the products, jobs, processes, and operations. Marginal costing technique charges variable cost. Absorption is not any specific method of costing. It is common name for all the methods where the total cost is charged to the output.

Absorption Costing is defined by I.C.M.A, England as the practice of charging all costs, both fixed and variable to operations, processes, or products From this definition it is inferred that absorption costing is full costing. The full cost includes prime cost, factory overheads, administration overheads, selling and distribution overheads.

Distinction between Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing Absorption Costing 1. Total cost technique is the practice of charging all cost, both variable and fixed to operations, process or products. 2. It values stock at the cost which includes fixed cost also. 3. It is guided by profit which is the excess of sales over the total costs in solving managerial problems 4. In total cost technique, there is a problem of apportionment of fixed costs which may result in under or over recovery of expenses. Marginal Costing 1. Marginal costing charges only variable cost to products, process, or operations and excludes fixed cost entirely. 2. It values stock at total variable cost only. This results in higher value of stock under absorption costing than in marginal costing. 3. It focuses its attention on Contribution which is excess of sales over variable cost. 4. It excludes fixed cost. Therefore, there is no question of arbitrary apportionment.

The difference between marginal costing and absorption costing is shown with the help of the following examples.

Illustration No: 1

Cost of Production (10000 units) Per Unit (Rs. P) Total (Rs) 15000 2500 --------Total cost 17500 ---------

Variable cost Fixed Cost

1.50 0.25

Sales 5000 units at Rs. 2.50 per unit Closing stock 5000 units at Rs. 1.75 Solution:

Rs. 125000 Rs. 8750

Under absorption costing, the profit will be calculated as follows: Rs. Sales Closing stock 12500 8750 ----------21250 Less: Total cost 17500 ----------Profit 3750 ----------

Under marginal costing method, the profit will be calculated as follows: Rs. Sales Less: Marginal Cost of 5000 units (5000 X 1.50) 7500 ----------5000 Less: Fixed cost 2500 ----------Profit 2500 ---------Closing stock will be valued at Rs.7500 only at marginal cost. Illustration No: 2 The monthly cost figures for production in a manufacturing company are as under: Rs. Variable cost Fixed cost 120000 35000 ------------Total cost 155000 ------------Normal monthly sales is Rs. 200000/-. Actual sales figures for the three separate months are: Ist Month Rs. 200000 IInd Month Rs. 165000 IIIrd Month Rs. 235000 12500

If marginal cost is not used, stocks would be valued as follows: Ist Month Opening Stock Closing Stock Rs. 108500 Rs. 108500 IInd Month Rs. 108500 Rs. 135625 IIIrd Month Rs. 135625 Rs. 108500

Prepare two tabulations side by side to summarize these results for each of the three months basing one tabulation on marginal costing theory and the other tabulation along side on absorption cost theory. Solution: Marginal Costing Ist Month Month Opening Stock ( Rs) Variable Cost ( Rs) Fixed Cost ( Rs) Total ( Rs) Less: Closing Stock (Rs.) Cost of Sales (A) 120000 99000 141000 155000 127875 182125 84000 105000 84000 108500 135625 108500 204000 204000 225000 35000 263500 35000 263500 35000 290625 120000 120000 120000 120000 120000 120000 84000 84000 105000 108500 108500 135625 IInd IIIrd Month Ist Month Absorption Costing IInd Month IIIrd Month

Sales (B)

200000

165000

235000

200000

165000

235000

Contribution (B A) Less: Fixed Cost (Rs) Profit ( Rs) 35000 45000 35000 31000 35000 59000 45000 37125 52875 80000 66000 94000 45000 37125 52875

Note: Stocks at marginal cost is based on variable portion of the monthly total cost given as follows: 120000 Marginal cost in Rs.108500 = 108500 X ------------155000 = Rs. 84000

120000 Marginal costs in Rs. 135625 = 135625 X ----------155000 = Rs. 105000

Differential Costing The concept of differential cost is a relevant cost concept in those decision situations which involve alternative choices. It is the difference in the total costs of two alternatives. This helps in decision making. It can be determined by subtracting the cost of one alternative from the cost of another alternative. Differential costing is the change in the total cost which results from the adoption of an alternative course of action. The alternative may arise on account of sales, volume, price change in sales mix, etc decisions. Differential cost analysis leads to more correct decisions than more marginal costing analysis. In

this technique the total costs are considered and not the cost per unit. Differential costs do not form part of the accounting system while marginal costing can be adapted to the routine accounting itself. However, when decisions involve huge amount of money differential cost analysis proves to be useful. In the illustration given below, differential cost at levels of activity has been shown: Alternative I Activity level Sales (Rs) 80% 80000 Alternative II 100% 100000 20000 Differential cost

----------------------------------------------------Direct materials Direct labour Variable overheads Fixed overheads 40000 16000 4000 3000 50000 20000 5000 3000 10000 4000 1000 -

-----------------------------------------------------Cost of sales 63000 78000 15000

-----------------------------------------------------Differential cost is generally confused with marginal cost. Of course, these two techniques are similar in some aspects but these also differ in certain other respects.

Similarities (i) Both the differential cost analysis and marginal cost analysis are based on the classification of cost into fixed and variable. When fixed costs do not change, both differential and marginal costs are same. (ii) Both are the techniques of cost analysis and presentation and are used by the management in formulating policies and decision making. Dissimilarities (i) Marginal cost may be incorporated in the accounting system where as differential cost are worked out for reporting to the management for taking certain decisions. (ii) Entire fixed cost are excluded from costing where as some of the relevant fixed costs may be included in the differential cost analysis. (iii)In marginal costing, contribution and p/v ratio are the main yardstick for evaluating performance and decision making. In differential cost analysis emphasis is made between differential cost and incremental or decremental revenue for making policy decisions. (iv) Differential cost analysis may be used in absorption costing and marginal costing. Marginal Cost Marginal cost is the cost of producing one additional unit of output. It is the amount by which total cost increases when one extra unit is produced or the amount of cost which can be avoided by producing one unit less. The ICMA, England defines marginal cost as, the amount of any given volume of output by which the aggregate cost are charged if the volume of output is increased or decreased by one unit.

In practice, this is measured by the total cost attributable to one unit. In this context, a unit may be single article, a batch of articles, an order, a stage of production, a process etc., often managerial costs, variable costs are used to mean the same. Features of Marginal Cost It is usually expressed in terms of one unit. It is charged to operation, processes, or products. It is the total of prime cost plus variable overheads of one unit.

Marginal Cost Statement In marginal costing, a statement of marginal cost and contribution is prepared to ascertain contribution and profit. In this statement, contribution is separately calculated for each of the product or department. These contributions are totaled up to arrive at the total contribution. Fixed cost is deducted from the total contribution to arrive at the profit figure. No attempt is made to apportion fixed cost to various products or departments. Marginal Cost Equation For convenience the element of cost statement can be written in the form of an equation as given below: Sales Variable Cost = Fixed Cost plus or minus Profit or Loss. Or Sales Variable Cost = Fixed Cost plus or minus Profit or Loss In order to make profit, contribution must be more than fixed cost and to avoid loss, contribution should be equal to fixed cost. The above equation can be illustrated in the form of a statement.

Marginal Cost Statement Rs. Sales Less: Variable Cost xxxxx (xxxx) -----------Contribution Less: Fixed Cost xxxxx (xxxx) ------------Profit / Loss xxxx -----------Illustration No.3: A company is manufacturing three products X, Y and Z. It supplies you the following information: Products -------------------------------------------X (Rs) Direct Materials Direct Labour Variable Overheads Sales 2500 3000 2000 10000 Y (Rs) 10000 3000 5000 20000 Z (Rs) 1000 500 2500 5000

Total fixed overheads Rs. 3000/-

Prepare a marginal cost statement and determine profit and loss.

Solution: Marginal Cost Statement Products ---------------------------------------------------------X (Rs) Sales (A) 10000 Y (Rs) 20000 Z (Rs) 5000 Total (Rs) 35000

-----------------------------------------------------------Direct materials Direct Labour Variable Overheads 2500 3000 2000 10000 3000 5000 1000 500 2500 13500 6500 9500

-----------------------------------------------------------Marginal Cost (B) 7500 18000 4000 29500

-----------------------------------------------------------Marginal Contribution (A B) Less:FixedCost 2500 2000 1000 5500 3000 -------NetProfit 2500 -------Contribution: Contribution is the difference between selling price and variable cost of one unit. The greater contribution from the selling unit indicates that the variable cost is less compared to selling price. Total contribution is the number of units

multiplied by contribution per unit. Contribution will be equal to the total fixed costs at break even point where profit is zero. Illustration No.4: Calculate contribution and profit from the following details: Sales Rs. 12000

Variable Cost Rs. 7000 Fixed Cost Solution: Contribution = Sales Variable cost Contribution = Rs. 12000 Rs. 7000 = Rs. 5000 Profit = Contribution Fixed Cost Profit = Rs. 5000 Rs. 4000 = Rs. 1000 Profit / Volume Ratio This is the ratio of contribution to sales. It is an important ratio analysing the relationship between sales and contribution. A high p/v ratio indicates high profitability and low p/v ratio indicates low profitability. This ratio helps in comparison of profitability of various products. Since high p/v ratio indicates high profits, the objective of every organisation should be to improve or increase the p/v ratio. Rs. 4000

P / V Ratio = Contribution / Sales x 100 or C / S x 100 (Or) Fixed Cost + Profit ----------------------Sales (Or) Sales Variable Cost ------------------------Sales

When profits and sales for two consecutive periods are given, the following formula can be applied: Change in Profit -------------------Change in Sales

P / V ratio is also used in making the following type of calculations: a) Calculation of Break even point. b) Calculation of profit at a given level of sales. c) Calculation of the volume of sales required to earn a given profit. d) Calculation of profit when margin of safety (discussed below) is given. e) Calculation of the volume of sales required to maintain the present level of profit if selling price is reduced. Margin of safety: The excess of actual or budgeted sales over the break-even sales is known as the margin of safety. Margin of safety = actual sales - break-even sales

So this shows the sales volume which gives profit. Larger the margin of safety greater is the profit. Budget sales - break-even sales Margin of safety ratio = ---------------------------Budget sales

(Or)

Profit ---------P/V Ratio

When margin of safety is not satisfactory, the following steps may be taken into account: a) b) c) d) e) P/V ratio. Increase the volume of sales. Increase the selling price. Reduce fixed cost. Reduce variable cost. Improve sales mix by increasing the sale of products with

The effect of a price reduction will always reduce the P / V ratio, raise the break even point shorten the margin of safety. Angle of incidence: This is obtained from the graphical representation of sales and cost. When sales and output in units are plotted against cost and revenue the angle formed between the total sales line and the total cost line at the break-even point is called the angle of incidence.

Large angle indicates a high rate of profit while a narrow angle would show a relatively low rate of profit. Profit goal: To earn a desired amount of profit i.e., a profit goal can be reached by the formula given below

Fixed cost + Desired profitability Sales volume to reach profit goal = -------------------------------Contribution ratio

If the profit goal is stated in terms of profit after taxes

Fixed cost + {(desired profit)/1-tax rate} Sales volume to reach profit goal =

after-tax

-------------------------------Contribution ratio

Operating leverage: An important concept in context of the CVP analysis is the operating leverage. This refers to the use of the fixed costs in the operation of a firm, and it accentuates fluctuations in the firm's operating profit due to change in sales. Thus the degree of operating leverage may be defined as the percentage change in operating profit (earning before interest and tax) on account of a change in sales.

% Change in operating profit Degree of Leverage DOL= -------------------------------------% Change in sales (Or)

Change in EBIT ------------EBIT Degree of Leverage DOL= -------------------------------------Change in sales -----------Sales Test Yourself: 1. What is marginal costing? What are its main features? 2. Define marginal cost? 3. What is absorption costing? 4. State the differences between absorption costing and marginal costing. 5. State the limitations of marginal costing. 6. What is contribution? What are the uses of contribution to management? 7. What is margin of safety? How is it calculated? 8. What is angle of incidence? What does it indicate? 9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of marginal costing?

Problems 1. The selling price of a particular product is Rs.100 and the marginal cost is Rs.65. During the month of April, 800 units produced of which 500 were sold. There was no opening at the commencement of the month. Fixed costs amounted to Rs. 18000. Provide a statement using a) Marginal costing and b) Absorption costing, showing the closing stock valuation and the profit earned under each principle. 2. From the following information, calculate the amount of contribution and profit. Rs. Sales Variable cost Fixed cost 1000000 600000 150000

3. Determine the amount of fixed cost from the following. Rs. Sales Variable cost Profit 300000 200000 50000

4. Determine the amount of variable cost from the following. Rs. Sales Fixed cost Profit 500000 100000 100000

References 1. Dr .S. Ganeson and Tmt. S. R. Kalavathi, Management Accounting, Thirumalai Publications, Nagercoil. 2. T.S. Reddy and Y. Hari Prasad Reddy Management Accounting, Margam Publications, Chennai. 3. Anthony, Robert: Management Accounting, Tarapore-wala, Mumbai. Lesson II Marginal Costing and CVP Analysis Structure of the Lesson: The lesson is structured as follows: Introduction Break Even Chart Profit Volume Graph Cost-volume-profit relationship with the help of an example Basic Assumptions of Cost Volume Profit Analysis Uses and limitations of Break even analysis

Objectives of the Lesson: On completion of this lesson, you should be able; Explain CVP Analysis Know the construction of BEP chart Define BEP

 Introduction

Explain CVP Analysis with example List out the uses and limitations of BEP

Break-even analysis is the form of CVP analysis. It indicates the level of sales at which revenues equal costs. This equilibrium point is called the break even point. It is the level of activity where total revenue equals total cost. It is alternatively called as CVP analysis also. But it is said that the study up to the state of equilibrium is called as break even analysis and beyond that point we term it as CVP analysis. Cost Volume Profit analysis helps the management in profit planning. Profits are affected by several internal and external factors which influence sales revenues and costs. The objectives of cost-volume profit analysis are: i) ii) iii) iv) v) To forecast profits accurately. To help to set up flexible budgets. To help in performance evaluation for purposes of control. To formulate proper pricing policy. To know the overheads to be charged to production at various levels.

Volume or activity can be expressed in any one of the following ways: 1. 2. 3. 4. Sales capacity expressed as a percentage of maximum sales. Sales value in terms of money. Units sold. Production capacity expressed in percentages.

5. 6. 7. 8.

Value of cost of production. Direct labour hours. Direct labour value. Machine hours.

The factors which are usually involved in this analysis are: a) b) c) d) e) Selling price Sales volume Sales mix Variable cost per unit Total fixed cost

Break Even Chart These depict the interplay of three elements viz., cost, volume, and profits. The charts are graphs which at a glance provide information of fixed costs, variable costs, production / sales achieved profits etc., and also the trends in each one of them. The conventional graph is as follows: This is a simple break even chart. The procedure for drawing the chart is as follows:

1) Depict the X - axis as the volume of sales or capacity or production. 2) Depict the Y axis as the costs or revenue. 3) Having known the 0 level of activity the same fixed cost is incurred, the fixed cost line is depicted as being parallel to the X axis. 4) At 0 level of activity, the total cost is equal to fixed cost. Therefore the total cost line starts from the point where the fixed cost line meets the Y axis. 5) Next plot the sales line starting from 0 . 6) The meeting point of the sales and the total cost line is the Break Even Point. It is also called Break Even Point because at that point there is no profit and loss either. The costs are just recovery by sales. If a perpendicular line is drawn to the Xaxis from the BEP, the meeting point of the perpendicular and X- axis will show the break even volume in units. If a perpendicular line is drawn to meet the Yaxis from the BEP, the meeting point shows the break even volume in money terms. Other details shown in the break even charts are: Angle of Incidence This is the angle of intersection between the sales line and the total cost line. The larger the angle the greater is the profit or loss, as the case may be.

Margin of Safety This is the difference between the actual sales level and the break even sales. It represents the cushion for the company. The larger the distance between the break even sales volume and the actual sales volume, the company can afford to allow the fall in sales without the danger of incurring losses. If the margin of safety is low i.e., if the distance between the actual sales line and the break even sales line is too short, even a small fall in the sales volume will drive the company into the loss area. The position of break even point should be ideally closer to the y axis. This will mean that even a small increase in sales will immediately make the company break even. I t should be noted that beyond the break even point all contribution (Sales Marginal Cost) will directly increase the profits. Profit Volume Graph Profit volume graph is a pictorial representation of the profit volume relationship. It shows profit and loss account at different volumes of sales. It is simplified form of break even chart as it clearly represents the relationship of profit to volume of sales. It is possible to construct a profit volume graph for any data relating to a business firm where a break even chart can be drawn. A profit volume graph may be preferred to a break even chart as profit or losses can be directly read at different levels of activity. The construction of profit volume graph involves the following steps: 1. Scale of sale is selected on horizontal axis and that for profit or loss are selected on vertical axis. The area below the horizontal axis is the loss area and that above it is the profit area. 2. Points of profits of corresponding sales are plotted and joined. The resultant line is profit / loss line

Illustration No. 1 Draw up a profit volume of the following: Sales Variable cost Fixed cost Profit Rs. 4 Lakhs Rs. 2 Lakhs Rs. 1 Lakhs Rs. 1 Lakhs

Solution

The calculation of BEP is based on some assumptions. They are as follows: 1.The costs are classified as fixed and variable costs. 2.The variable costs vary with volume and the fixed costs remain constant. 3.The selling price remains constant in spite of the change in volume. 4.The productivity per employee also remains unchanged. Break-even point can be calculated in terms of units or in terms of rupees.

Fixed Costs Break-Even Point (in Rupees) = ------------P/V Ratio (OR) Fixed Costs Break-Even Point (in Rupees) = ------------- ----------

Marginal cost per unit/1- Selling price per unit Fixed Costs Break-Even Point (in units) = -----------------------Contribution per unit Where contribution is sales - variable cost and P/V Ratio is Contribution divided by sales. Cost-volume-profit relationship with the help of an example The relationship between cost volume and profit are well defined in CVP analysis. With the given example we can elaborately see the relationship AB Company is a single product manufacturer whose selling price is Rs. 20 per unit and the variable cost is Rs. 12 per unit. The annual fixed cost is Rs. 160000. The number of units produced and sold is 20000. Now if we analyse the CVP relationship The contribution per unit is = Selling price -variable cost = 20 - 12 = Rs.8/The total contribution for 20000 units is = 8 x 20000 = 160000 Since the profit = total contribution - fixed cost, we get nil profit. 160000160000=0

This is the break even point where the total cost is equal to the total revenue and the company has no profit and no loss. Let us see a few alternatives If the fixed cost is Rs. 120000, then the company may earn a profit of Rs. (160000-120000) = 40000. If the fixed cost is Rs.200000, then it may end in a loss of Rs (200000-160000) = 40000 If the variable cost per unit is increased, say to Rs. 15 in the existing condition, then the contribution will come to Rs (20000 x (20-15) = 100000 and that will result in a loss of Rs. 160000-100000 =40000. If the variable cost per unit is decreased say to Rs.10 then the contribution will come to Rs.20000x (20-10) = 200000. Then the profit will be 200000-160000=40000 The above proves that the variation in the costs varies the profitability of the firm. If the cost decreases, profit increases and vice versa. Now we can see how the change in volume alters the profitability. If the sales volume is 10000 instead of 20000 as above and the all the other conditions being the same, the result will be (10000x8) - 160000 = 80000 loss. Likewise if the volume is increased to 30000 it will result in a profit of Rs 30000x8 -

160000 = 80000. This shows that the profit increases with the increase in volume when other conditions are unchanged. Basic Assumptions of Cost Volume Profit Analysis Cost volume profit (C-V-P) analysis, popularly referred to as breakeven analysis, helps in answering questions like: How do costs behave in relation to volume? At what sales volume would the firm breakeven? How sensitive is profit to variations in output? What would be the effect of a projected sales

volume on profit? How much should the firm produce and sell in order to reach a target profit level? A simple tool for profit planning and analysis, cost-volume-profit analysis is based on several assumptions. Effective use of this analysis calls for an understanding of the significance of these assumptions which are discussed below: The behaviour of costs is predictable. The conventional cost-volume-profit model is based on the assumption that the cost of the firm is divisible into two components; fixed costs vary variable costs. Fixed costs remain unchanged for all ranges of output; variable costs vary proportionately to volume. Hence the behaviour of costs is predictable. For practical purposes, however, it is not necessary for these assumptions to be valid over the entire range of volume. If they are valid over the range of output within which the firm is most likely to operate referred to as the relevant range cost volume profit analysis is a useful tool. The unit selling price is constant. This implies that the total revenue of the firm is a linear function of output. For firms which have a strong market for their products, this assumption is quite valid. For other firms, however, it may not be so. Price reduction might be necessary to achieve a higher level of sales. On the whole, however, this is a reasonable assumption and not unrealistic enough to impair the validity of the cost-volume- profit model, particularly in the relevant range of output. The firm manufactures a stable product mix. In the case of a multi-product firm, the cost volume profit model assumes that the product mix of the firm remains stable. Without this premise it is not possible to define the average variable profit ratio when different products have different variable profit ratios. While it is necessary to make this assumption, it must be borne in mind that the

actual mix of products may differ from the planned one. Where this discrepancy is likely to be significant, cost-volume-profit model has limited applicability. Inventory changes are nil. A final assumption underlying the conventional costvolume-profit model is that the volume of sales is equal to the volume of production during an accounting period. Put differently, inventory changes are assumed to be nil. This is required because in cost-volume-profit analysis we match total costs and total revenues for a particular period. Uses and limitations of Break even analysis Uses of BE analysis are as follows: 1.It is a simple device and easy to understand. 2.It is of utmost use in profit planning. 3.It provides the basic information for further profit improvement studies. 4.It is useful in decision making and it helps in considering the risk implications of alternative actions. 5.It helps in finding out the effect of changes in the price, volume, or cost. 6.It helps in make or buy decisions also and helpful in the critical circumstances to find out the minimum profitability the firm can maintain. The limitations of BE analysis is: 1.The basis assumptions are at times base less. For example, we can say that the fixed costs cannot remain unchanged all the time. And the constant selling price and unit variable cost concept are also not acceptable. 2.It is difficult to segregate the cost components as fixed and variable costs. 3.It is difficult to apply for multinational companies.

4.It is a short-run concept and has a limited use in long range planning. 5.It is a static tool since it gives the relationship between cost, volume and profit at a given point of time and 6.It fails to predict future revenues and costs. Despite the limitation it is remains an important tool in profit planning due to the simplicity in calculation. Illustration No. 2 From the following data calculate: (a) P/V Ratio (b) Variable Cost and (c) Profit Rs. Sales Fixed expenses Break even point Solution: Calculation of P/V Ratio Break even point =Fixed Cost / P/V Ratio 50000 = 15000 / P/V Ratio = 15,000 / 50,000 = 3/10 or 30% Calculation of variable cost Contribution = Sales x P/V = 80,000 x 30 / 100 = Rs.24000 Variable cost = Sales Contribution Rs.80000 Rs.24000 = Rs.56000 Calculation of Profit 80000 15000 50000

Profit = Contribution Fixed cost = Rs.24000 Rs.15000 = Rs.9000 Illustration No. 3 From the following data, calculate the break-even point of sales in rupees: Selling price Rs.20 Variable cost per unit: Manufacturing Rs.10 Selling Rs.5 Overhead (fixed): Factory overheads Rs.500000 Selling overheads Rs.200000 Solution: Selling price per unit: Rs. 20 Variable Cost per unit: Manufacturing: Selling: Rs. 10 Rs.5 Rs.15 -------Contribution per unit Rs. 5

Contribution ratio = Rs.5 / Rs.20 =25% Fixed overheads Factory- Rs.500000 Selling- Rs.200000

-------------Rs.700000 Break even sales in rupees = Fixed overheads /Contribution ratio = Rs.700000/25% = Rs.2800000 Break even sales in units = FC/Contribution per unit = Rs. 700000/Rs.5 = 140000 units Illustration No. 4 The following data have been obtained from the records of a company I Year Rs. Sales Profit 80000 10000 II Year Rs. 90000 14000

Calculate the break-even point. Solution: Changes in profit P/V Ratio = ------------------------------- x 100 Changes in sales = 14000 10000 --------------------90000- 80000 X 100 = 40%

Contribution

= Sales x P/V Ratio

= 90000 x 40% = Rs.36000

To find the break-even point, we should first find out the fixed cost because B.E.P = Fixed cost / P/V Ratio Fixed cost = Contribution Profit = 36000- 14000 = 22000 {This can be cross checked by using the first years figures (80000 x 40%) 10000} Therefore B.E.P. = Fixed cost / P/V Ratio = 22000/40% = Rs. 55000 Illustration No. 5 A.G. Ltd., furnished you the following related to the year 1996. First half of the year (Rs.) Sales Total Cost 45,000 40,000 Second half of the year (Rs.) 50,000 43,000

Assuming that there is no change in prices and variable cost and that the fixed expenses are incurred equally in the 2 half year periods, calculate for the year 1996: (a) The profit volume ratio (b) Fixed expenses (c) Break even sales and (d) % of margin of safety.

Solution: First (Rs.) Sales Less Cost Profit 45,000 40,000 5000 half Second half (Rs.) 50,000 43,000 7000 Change in sales and profit (Rs.) 5,000 3,000 2000

a) P/V ratio=Change in profit / Change in sales x 100 =2000 / 5000 x 100 = 40%. Contribution during the first half=Sales x P/V Ratio =Rs.45000 x 40% = Rs.18000 b)Fixed cost = Contribution ProfitFor1sthalfyear=18,000 5,000 = Rs.13,000 Fixed cost for the full year =13,000 x 2 = Rs.26000 c) Break even sales=Fixed cost / P/V Ratio for the year1996=26000 / 40% = Rs.65000 d)Margin of safety=Sales Break even sales for the year1996(MOS)=95000 65000 = Rs.30000 Percent of margin of safety=Margin of safety / Sales for the year x 100 =30000 / 95000 x 100 Note: (1) Since fixed expenses are incurred equally in the 2 half years, Rs.13000 is multiplied with 2 to get fixed cost of the full year. (2)Sales of both 1st and 2nd half years are added and are taken as actual sales i.e., Rs.95000 to calculated margin of safety.

Illustration No.6 From the following information relating to Palani Bros. Ltd., you are required to find out: P/V Ratio (b) Break even point (c) Profit (d) Margin of safety (e) Volume of sales to earn profit of Rs.6000. Rs. Total Fixed Cost Total variable cost Total Sales 15000 Solution: Marginal Cost and Contribution Statement Amount (Rs.) Sales Less:Variablecost 15000 7500 -------Contribution Less: Fixed cost 7500 4500 -------Profit (a)P/V ratio =Contribution / Sales x 100 = 7500 / 15000 x 100 = 50% 3000 4500 7500

(b)Break even sales = Fixed expenses / P/V Ratio = 4500+ 6000 / 50% = Rs.21000 Illustration No. 7 The sales turnover and profit during two years were as follows: Year 1991 1992 Calculate: (a) P/V Ratio Rs.40000 (d) Fixed expenses and (e) Profit when sales are Rs.120000 Solution: When sales and profit or sales and cost of two periods are given, the P/V ratio is obtained by using the Change formula Fixed cost can be found by ascertaining the contribution of one of the periods given by multiplying sales with P/V Ratio. Then, contribution Profit can reveal the fixed cost. Ascertaining P/V ratio using the change formula and finding cost are the essential requirements in these types of problems. a) P/V ratio = Change in profit / Change in sales x 100 Change in profit=20000 15000 = Rs. 5000 (b) Break-even point (c) Sales required to earn a profit of Sales (Rs.) 140000 160000 Profit (Rs.) 15000 20000

Change in sales = 160000 140000 = Rs.20000 P/V Ratio = 5000 / 20000 x 100 = 25% b) Break-even point = Fixed expenses / P/V ratio Fixed expenses = contribution profit Contribution = Sales x P/V Ratio Using1991sales, contribution=140000 x 25 / 100 = Rs.35000 Fixed Expenses=35,000 15,000 = Rs.20000 Note: The same fixed cost can be obtained using 1992 sales also. Break-even point=20,000 / 25%= Rs.80000 c) Sales required to earn a profit of Rs.40000. Required sales = Required profit + Fixed cost / P/V Ratio =40,000 + 20,000 / 25% = Rs.240000 d) Fixed expenses=Rs.20000 (as already calculated) e) Profit when sales are Rs.120000 Contribution=Sales x P/V Ratio =120000 x 25/100=Rs.30000 Profit=Contribution Fixed Cost =30,000 20,000= Rs.10000. Illustration No. 8 From the following information, calculate

a. Break-even point b. Number of units that must be sold to earn a profit of Rs.60000 per year. c. Number of units that must be sold to earn a net income of 10% on sales Sales Price-Rs.20 per unit Variable cost-Rs.14 per unit Fixed cost-Rs.79200 Solution: Contribution per unit = Sales price per unit Variable cost per unit =20 14 = 6. P/V Ratio = Contribution / Sales x 100 = 6 / 20 x 100 = 30% (a)Break even point in units = Fixed expenses/contribution per unit = 79200 / 6 = 13,200 units. Break even point (in rupees) =Fixed expenses / P/V Ratio = 79200 / 30% = Rs.264000 (b) Number of units to be sold to make a profit of Rs.60,000 per year : Required sales = Fixed expenses + Required Profit / P/V Ratio = 79200 + 60000 / 30% = Rs.464000 Units = 464000 / Selling Price = 464000 / 20 = 23200 units.

(c) Number of units to be sold to make a net income of 10% on sales If `x is number of units: 20x = Fixed Cost + Variable Cost + Profit 20x = 79200 + 14x + 2x 20x 16x = 79200 x=79200 / 4 = 19800 units Proof: Sales = 19800 x 20 = less: Variable cost 19800 x 14 = 396000 277200 ---------Contribution = Less: Fixed Cost = 118000 79200 ---------Profit = 39600 ---------Profit as a % of sales = 39600 / 396000 x 100 = 10% Illustration No. 9 You are given the following data for the year 1986 for a factory. Output: 40000 units Fixed expenses: Rs.200000 Variable cost per unit: Rs.10 Selling price per unit: Rs.20

How many units must be produced and sold in the year 1987, if it is anticipated that selling price would be reduced by 10%, variable cost would be Rs.12 per unit, and fixed cost will increase by 10%? The factory would like to make a profit in 1987 equal to that of the profit in 1986. Solution:

Margin Cost and contribution statement for the year 1986 Particulars Rs. 8,00,000 Less : 4,00,000 4,00,000 Less : 2,00,000 2,00,000 Sales

Variable

Contribu

Fixed Co Profit

Calculation of units to be produced and sold in 1987 to make the same profit as in 1986: New Selling Price=20 (20 x 10%) = 20 2 = Rs.18 New variable cost = Rs.12 (given New fixed cost=200000 + (200000 x 10%) =200000 + 20000 = 220000 New P/V Ratio=Sales Variable Cost / Sales x 100 =18 12 / 18 x 100 = 33 1/3 % Required sales=Required profit + Fixed expenses / P/V Ratio =200000 + 220000 / 33 1/3 % =Rs.1260000 Units to be sold=Required Sales / New Selling Price =1260000 / 18 = 70,000 units.

Illustration No. 10 The P/V Ratio of a firm dealing in precision instruments is 50% and margin of safety is 40%. You are required to work-out break even point and the net profit if the sales volume is Rs.5000000. If 25% of variable cost is labour cost, what will be the effect on BEP and profit when labour efficiency decreases by 5%. Solution: Calculation of Break-even point Margin of safety is 40% of sales = 5000000 x 40 / 100 = Rs.2000000 Break-even sales = = Calculation of fixed cost Break-even Sales = Break-even sales x p/v ratio = 3000000 x 50 / 100 = Rs.1500000 (2)Calculation of profit Contribution = Sales x P/V Ratio = 5000000 x 50 / 100 = Rs.2500000 Net Profit =Contribution Fixed Cost = 2500000 1500000 = Rs.1000000 (3) Effects of decrease in labour efficiency by 5% Variable cost = Sales Contribution = 5000000 2500000 = Rs.2500000 Labour cost =2500000 x 25 / 100 = Rs.625000 New labour cost when labour efficiency decreases by 5% = 625000 x 100 / 95 = Rs.657895 = Sales Margin of safety 5000,000 2000000 Rs.3000000

= 657895 625000 = Rs.32895 Net Variable Cost =2500000 + 32,895=Rs.2532895 Contribution = 5000000 2532895 = Rs.2467105 Profit = Contribution Fixed cost = 2467105 1500000=Rs.967105 New P/V=2467105 / 5000000 x 100=49.3421 % New BEP= Fixed Cost / P/V = 1500000 / 49.3421 = Rs.3040000 Note: If for 100 units labour cost is Rs.100, 5% decrease in efficiency makes the labour to produce only 95 units in the same time. Cost of 95 units = Rs.100 Cost of 100 units=100 x 100 / 95= 1052635 Original labour cost has to be multiplied with 100 / 95 to get new labour cost.

Illustration No. 11 From the following find out the break even point P Selling price Rs Variable cost Rs. Weightage Fixed cost Rs 1480000 100 50 20% Q 80 40 30% R 50 20 50%

Solution: P 1. Selling price Rs 2. Variable cost Rs. 3. Weightage 4. Contribution (1-2) 5. P/V Ratio (4/1) 6. Fixed cost (14.8lacx3) 7. BEP (6/5) Combined p/v ratio x50% 10% 30% = 55% + 15% + = 100 50 20% 50 50% 2.96 5.92 lac 50% x20% + Q 80 40 30% 40 50% 4.44 8.88 lac 50% x30% R 50 20 50% 30 60% 7.4 12.33 lac + 60%

Combined BEP will be = Fixed cost / 55% = 1480000 /55% = Rs. 2690909 Illustration No. 12 Raviraj Ltd. Manufactures and sells four types of products under the brand names of A, B, C and D. The sales mix in value comprises 33 1/3%, 41 2/3%, 16 2/3% and 8 1/3% of products A, B, C and D respectively. The total budgeted sales (100%) are Rs. 60,000 per month. Operating costs are

Variable cost: Product A 60% of selling price B 68% of selling price C 80% of selling price D 40% of selling price Fixed cost: Rs. 14,700 per month Calculate the break even point for the products on an overall basis and also the B.E. Sales of individual products. Show the proof for your answer. Solution: P/V Ratio for individual products = 100-% of variable cost to sales A = 40 %( 100-60) B = 32 %( 100-68) C = 20 %( 100-80) D = 60 %( 100-40)

Calculation of Composite P/V Ratio (1) Products (2) Sales (3) % to total sales (4) P/v Ratio (Col 3 x Col 4) Composite P/V Ratio A B C D 20000 25000 10000 5000 60000 33 1/3% 41 2/3% 16 2/3% 8 1/3% 40% 32% 20% 60% (After adjusting fractions) 13.33% 13.33% 3.33% 5.00% 35%

Total Fixed cost Composite BEP in Rs. = ----------------Composite P / V Ratio

Rs. 14,700 = --------35% Proof of validity of composite B.E.P Break even sales of: A Rs. 42000 x 33 1/3% = Rs. 14000 14000 x 40% = 5600 = Rs. 42,000

B Rs 42000 x 41 2/3% = Rs. 17500 17500 x 32% = 5600 C Rs. 42000 x 16 2/3 % = Rs. 7000 D Rs. 42000 x 8 1/3% = Rs. 3500 Total contribution Total fixed cost Profit/Loss Test yourself 1.What is break even point? How do you calculate it? 2. What do you understand by cost volume profit analysis? What is its significance? 3.What is composite break even point? 4. What is a break even chart? How isit useful? 5.Mention the assumptions underlying a break even chart? Problems 1. Calculate BEP in units and value for the following: Total cost Rs. 50000 14700 14700 Nil 7000 x 20% = 1400 3500 x 60% = 2100

Total variable cost Rs. 30000 Sales (5000 units) Rs. 50000 2. A Ltd. has two factories X and Y producing same article whose selling price is Rs. 150 per unit. Other details are: X Capacity in units 10000 Y 15000

Variable cost per unit (Rs) Fixed expenses (Rs)

100 300000

120 210000

Determine the BEP for the two factories assuming constant sales mix also composite BEP. 3.From the following data calculate a. b. Break even point (Units) If sales are 10% and 15% above the break even sales volume

determine the net profit. Selling price per unit - Rs.10

Direct material per unit - Rs. 3 Fixed overheads - Rs. 10000

Variable overheads per unit Rs.2 Direct labour cost per unit - Rs. 2 References 1.Dr .S. Ganeson and Tmt. S. R. Kalavathi, Management Accounting, Thirumalai Publications, Nagercoil. 2.T.S. Reddy and Y. Hari Prasad Reddy Management Accounting, Margam Publications, Chennai. 3. N. Vinayakam and I.B. Sinha, Management Accounting Tools and Techniques, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai.

Lesson III Marginal Costing and Decision-making Structure of the Lesson: The following lesson is structured as follows: Introduction Fixation of selling price. Make or buy decision Selection of a suitable product mix. Alternative methods of production. Profit planning Suspending activities i.e., closing down

Objectives of the Lesson:

On completion of this lesson, you should be able; Know the role of marginal costing in decision making Explain managerial decisions which are taken with the help of marginal costing decisions in different situations.

Introduction During normal circumstances, Price is based on full cost, a certain desired margin, or profit. But in certain special circumstances, products are to be sold at a price below total cost based on absorption costing. In such circumstances, the price should be fixed on the basis of marginal cost so as to cover the marginal cost and contribute something towards fixed cost. Sometimes it becomes necessary to reduce the selling price to the level of marginal cost. The most useful contribution of marginal costing is that it helps management in vital decision making. Decision making essentially involves a choice between various alternatives and marginal costing assists in choosing the best alternative by furnishing all possible facts. The information supplied by marginal costing technique is of special importance where information obtained from total absorption costing method is incomplete. The following are some of the managerial decisions which are taken with the help of marginal costing decisions: Fixation of selling price. Make or buy decision Selection of a suitable product mix or sales mix. Key factor: Alternative methods of production. Profit planning Suspending activities i.e., closing down

Fixation of selling price One of the main purposes of cost accounting is the ascertainment of cost for fixation of selling price. Price fixation is one of the fundamental problems which the management has to face. Although prices are determined by market conditions and other factors, marginal costing technique assists the management in the fixation of selling prices under various circumstances which is as follows. a) Pricing under normal conditions. b) Pricing during stiff competition. c) Pricing during trade depression. d) Accepting special bulk orders. e) Accepting additional orders to utilize idle capacity. f) Accepting orders and exporting new materials. Decision to Make or Buy It is a common type of business decision for a company to determine whether to make to buy materials or component parts. Manufacturing or making often requires a capital investment so that a decision to make must always be made whenever the expected cost savings provide a higher return on the required capital investment that can be obtained by employing these funds in an alternative investment bearing the same risk. In practice, difficulties are encountered in identifying and estimating relevant costs and in calculating noncost considerations. In case a firm decides to get a product manufactured from outside, besides savings in cost, it must also take into account the following factors: (a) Whether the outside supplier would be in a position to maintain the quality of the product?

(b) Whether the supplier would be regular in his supplies? (c) Whether the supplier is reliable? In other words is the financially and technically sound? Selection of a Suitable Product Mix or Sales Mix When a concern manufactures a number of products a problem often raises as to which product mix or sales mix will give the maximum profit. In other words, what should be the best combination of varying quantities of the different products/? Which would be selected from amongst the various alternative combinations available? Such a problem can be solved with the help of marginal contribution cost analysis: the product mix which gives the best optimum mix. Eg, let us consider the following analysis made in respect of three products manufactured in a company: Product I (Rs) Per unit sales price Materials Labour Variable Overheads Marginal cost Marginal contribution 25 6 5 4 15 10 Product II (Rs) 30 8 4 3 15 15 Product III (Rs) 18 2 6 5 13 5

Out of the three products, product II gives the highest contribution per unit. Therefore, if no other factors no others factors intervene, the production capacity will be utilized to the maximum possible extent for the manufacture of that product. Product I ranks second and so, after meeting the requirement of Product II, the capacity will be utilized for product I. What ever capacity is available thereafter may be utilized for Product III.

Key Factor Firms would try to produce commodities which fetch a higher contribution or the highest contribution. This assumption is based on the possibility of selling out the product at the maximum. Sometimes it may happen that the firm may not be able to push out all products manufactured. And, sometimes the firm may not be able to sell all the products it manufactured but production may be limited due to shortage of materials, labour, plant, capacity, capital, demand, etc. A key factor is also called as a limiting factor or principal budget factor or scarce factor. It is factor of production which is scarce and because of want of which the production may stop. Generally sales volume, plant capacity, material, labour etc may be limiting factors. When there is a key factor profit is calculated by using the formula

When there is no limiting factor, the production can be on the basis of the highest P / V ratio. When two or more limiting factors are in operation, they will be seriously considered to determine the profitability. Contribution Profitability = ------------------------Key factor (Materials, Labour, or Capital)

Alternative Methods of Production Sometimes management has to choose from among alternative methods of production, i.e., mechanical or manual. In such circumstances, the technique of marginal costing can be applied and the method which gives the highest contribution can be adopted.

Profit Planning Profit planning is the planning of the future operations to attain maximum profit or to maintain level of profit. Whenever there is a change in sale price, variable costs and product mix, the required volume of sales for maintaining or attaining a desired amount of profit may be ascertained with the help of P / V ratio. Fixed Cost + Profit Expected Sales = ------------------------P / V Ratio Suspending Activities i.e., closing down When a firm is operating for loss sometime, the management has to decide upon its shut down. a) Complete shut down: The firm may be permanently closed any intention to revive it. Such a decision is warranted. i) When the selling price does not even cover the variable cost: or ii) The demand for the output is very low and the future prospects are bleak. Complete shut down saves the management from the fixed of running the factory or division or firm. b) Partial or temporary shut down: Here the intention is to close down for sometime and reopen the firm when circumstances favour it. Some fixed cost will continue in the form of irreducible minimum, like Skelton staff to maintain the factory, some managerial remuneration, salaries, irreplaceable technical experts, etc. The saving from the partial shut down should be compared with the position if the firm continues. If there is substantial savings, shut down may be preferable. Minor savings in expenditure does not warrant shut down because reviving a firm is a cumbersome process.

Decision to Make or Buy Illustration No. 1 An automobile manufacturing company finds that the cost of making Part No. 208 in its own workshop is Rs.6. The same part is available in the market at Rs.5.60 with an assurance of continuous supply. The cost data to make the part are: Material Direct labour Other variable cost Fixed cost allocated Rs.2.00 Rs.2.50 Rs.0.50 Rs.1.00 ---------Rs.6.00 ---------Should be part be made or brought? Will your answer be different if the market price is Rs.4.60? Show your calculations clearly. Solution: To take a decision on whether to make or buy the part, fixed cost being irrelevant is to be ignored. The additional costs being variable costs are to be considered. Materials Direct labour Other variable cost Rs.2.00 Rs.2.50 Rs.0.50 --------Total variable cost Rs.5.00 ----------

The company should continue to Make the part if its market price is Rs.5.60 Making results in saving of Rs.0.60 (5.60 5.00) per unit. (b)The company should Buy the part from the market and stop its production facilities which become Idle if the production of the part is discontinued cannot be used to derive some income.

Note: The above conclusion is on the assumption that the production facilities which become Idle if the production of the part is discontinued cannot be used to derive some income. However, if the Idle facilities can be leased out or can be used to produce some other product or part which can result in some amount of contribution, that should also be considered while taking the Make or buy decision. Key Factor Illustration No. 2 Two businesses S.V.P. Ltd., and T.R.R. Ltd., sell the same type of product in the same type of market. Their budgeted Profit and Loss Accounts for the coming year are as follows: S.V.P. Ltd. Rs. Sales Less: Variable cost Fixed cost 150000 120000 15000 -----------Budgeted Net Profit 15000 -----------T.R.R. Ltd. Rs. 150000 100000 35000 -----------15000 ------------

You are required to: Calculate break-even point of each business Calculate the sales volume at which each business will earn Rs.5000/- profit. State which business is likely to earn greater profit in conditions of: Heavy demand for the product Low demand for the product Briefly give your reasons. Solution: Marginal Cost and Contribution Statement Particulars Sales Less : Contribution Less : Profit (a) Calculation of break-even point P/V Ratio = Contribution / Sales x 100 30000 / 150000 x 100 = 20% 50000 / 150000 x 100 = 33 1/3 % SVP Ltd. Rs. 150000 120000 30000 15000 15000 TRR Ltd. Rs. 150000 100000 50000 35000 15000 Fixed Cost Variable Cost

Break even point = Fixed cost / PV Ratio

15000 / 20 x 100 = Rs.75,000

35000 / 33 1/3 x 100 = Rs.1,05,000

(b) Sales required to earn profit of Rs.5,000

Required Sales = Required Profit + Fixed cost / P/V Ratio 5000 + 15000 / 20 x 100 = Rs.1,00,000 5000 + 35000 / 33 1/3 x 100 = Rs.1,20,000

(c) (1)In condition of heavy demand, a concern with higher P/V Ratio can earn greater profits because of higher contribution. Thus TRR Ltd., is likely to earn greater profit. (2) In conditions of low demand, a concern with lower break even point is likely to earn more profits because it will start making profits at lower level of sales. Therefore in case of low demand SVP Ltd., will make profits when its sales reach Rs.75000, whereas TRR Ltd., will start making profits only when its sales reach the level of Rs.105000. Illustration No. 3 The following particulars are extracted from the records of a company. Product A Sales (per unit) Consumption of material Material cost Direct wages cost Direct expenses Machine hours used Overhead expenses : Fixed Variable 5 15 10 20 Variable Rs.100 2 Kg. Rs.10 15 5 3 Product B Rs.120 3 Kg. Rs.15 10 6 2

Direct wages per hour is Rs.5. Comment on the profitability of each product (both use the same raw materials) when: (i) Total sales potential in units is limited. (ii) Production capacity (in terms of machine hours) is the limiting factor. (iii)Material is in short supply. Sales potential in value is limited. Solution: Statement showing key-factor contribution Particulars Selling Price Less : Variable cost 10 15 5 15 Contribution per unit Contribution per machine hour Combination material P/V Ratio per kg. of 55 / 3 55 / 2 55/100 x 100 = 55% 69 / 2 69 23 / 3 = 15 10 6 20 Materials Direct Wages Direct Expenses Product A Per unit Rs. 100 Product B per unit Rs. 120

Variable overhead

69/120 x 100 57.5%

Comments on the profitability of products A and B on the basis of different key-factors When total sales potential in units is limited, product B will be more profitable compared to A as its Contribution per unit is more by Rs.14 (69 55). When production capacity in terms of machine hours is the limiting factor, product B is more profitable as its contribution per hour is more by Rs.16.17 (34.5 18.33) When raw material is in short supply product A is more profitable as its contribution per kg is higher by Rs.4.5 (27.5 23) When sales potential in value is the limiting factor product B is better as its P/V Ratio is higher than that of product A. Note: Contribution per unit can be divided with any given Key Factor or Limiting factor to obtain Key-factor contribution (K.F.C.). The Product which gives higher contribution in terms of key-factor is decided to be better and more profitable Illustration No. 4 S & Co. Ltd., has three divisions, each of which makes a different product. The budgeted data for the next year is as follows: Divisions Sales A (Rs.) 1,12,000 B (Rs.) 56,000 C (Rs.) 84,000

Costs : Direct Material Direct Labour 14,000 5,600 7,000 7,000 14,000 22,400

Variable overhead

14,000

7,000

28,000

Fixed Costs Total Costs

28,000 61,600

14,000 35,000

28,000 92,400

The management is considering closing down Division C. There is no possibility of reducing variables costs. Advise whether or not division C should be closed down.

Solution: Divisions Sales A (Rs.) 112000 B (Rs.) 56000 C (Rs.) 84000

Less : Variable Costs : Direct Material Direct Labour Variable overhead 14000 5600 14000 33600 78400 Less : Fixed Costs 28000 7000 7000 7000 21000 35000 14000 14000 22400 28000 64000 20000 28000

Loss

50400

21000

8000

Since Division C is giving a positive contribution of Rs.20000/- it should not be discharged.

Test Yourself: Discuss the role of marginal costing in taking managerial decisions. What is key factor? What is it importance? Explain the different factors to be considered while taking a make or buy decision. When is selling below cost is permissible or necessary? How do you decide upon the optimal sales mix?

Problems Present the following information to management: The managerial product cost and the contribution per unit and ii. The total contribution and profits resulting from each of the sales mixes: Product per unit Rs. Direct materials Direct materials Direct wages Direct wages Fixed expenses - Rs. 800 A B A B 10 9 3 2

(Variable expenses are allotted to products 100% of direct wages) Sales Price Sales Price Sales mix: 100 units of product A and 200 of B 150 units of product B and 150 of B 200 unit of product A and 100 of B Recommend which of the sales mixes should be adopted. Pondicherry Trading Corporation is running its plant at 50% capacity. The - A Rs. 20 B Rs. 15

management has supplied you the following details: Cost of Production Per Unit (Rs) Direct materials Direct labour Variable overheads Fixed overheads (Fully absorbed) -----16 Production per month 40000 units Total cost of production 40000 X Rs. 16 Sales price 40000 X Rs. 14 --------------Rs. 80000 ---------------An exporter offers to purchase 10000 units per month at Rs. 13 per unit and the company is hesitating in accepting the offer due to the fear that it will increase its already large operating losses. Advise whether the company should accept or decline this offer. References 640000 560000 6 4 4 2

1. Dr .S. Ganeson and Tmt. S. R. Kalavathi, Management Accounting, Thirumalai Publications, Nagercoil.

2. T.S. Reddy and Y. Hari Prasad Reddy Management Accounting, Margam Publications, Chennai.

3. Barfield, Jessie, Celly A. Raiborn and Michael R. Kenney: Cost Accouting; Traditions and Innovations, South - Western College Publishing, Cincinnati, Ohio. UNIT IV SECTION A ANALYSING FINANCIAL STATEMENTS Objectives: In this section, we will introduce you to the meaning and types of financial statements; analysis and interpretation of financial statements; types of financial statements; steps involves in financial statements analysis; techniques of financial analysis; limitations of financial analysis; ratio analysis and cash flow analysis. This section is theory cum practical problems of financial statements analysis. After you workout this section, you should be able to: develop the ability to analyze the financial statements of any organization. obtain a better understanding of firms position and performance.

MEANING AND TYPES OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS A financial statement is an organized collection of data according to logical and consistent accounting procedures. Its purpose is to convey an understanding of some financial aspects of a business firm. It may show a position at a moment of time as in the case of a balance sheet, or may reveal a series of activities over a given period of time, as in the case of an Income Statement. Thus, the term 'financial statements' generally refers to two basic statements: (i) the Income Statement and (ii) the Balance Sheet. A business may also prepare (iii) a Statement of Retained Earnings, and (iv) a Statement of Changes in

Financial Position in addition to the above two statements. The meaning and significance of each of these statements is being explained below: 1. Income Statement

The Income statement (also termed as Profit and Loss Account) is generally considered to be the most useful of all financial statements. It explains what has Financial Statements

Statement of Statement of Changes Retained in Financial Position Earning EEEEEEarni ngs happened to a business as a result of operations between two balance sheet dates. For this purpose it matches the revenues and costs incurred in the process of earning revenues and shows the net profit earned or less suffered during a particular period. The nature of the 'Income' which is the focus of the Income Statement can be well understood if a business is taken as an organization that uses 'inputs' to 'produce' output. The outputs are the goods and services that the business provides to its customers. The values of these outputs are the amounts paid by the customers for them. These amounts are called 'revenues' in accounting. The inputs are the economic resources used by the business in providing these goods and services. These are termed as 'expenses' in accounting.

Income Statement

Balance Sheet

2. Balance Sheet It is a statement of financial position of a business at a specified moment of time. It represents all assets owned by the business at a particular moment of time and the claims of the owners at outsiders against those assets at that time. It is in a way a snapshot of the financial condition of the business at that time. The important distinction between an income statement and a Balance Sheet is that the Income Statement is for a period while Balance Sheet is on a particular date. Income Statement is, therefore, a flow report, as contrasted with the Balance Sheet which is a static report. However both are complementary to each other. 3. Statement of Retained Earnings The term retained earnings means the accumulated excess of earnings over losses and dividends. The balance shown by the Income Statement is transferred to the Balance Sheet through this statement, after making necessary appropriations. It is thus a connecting link between the Balance Sheet and the Income Statement. It is fundamentally a display of things that have caused the beginning of the period retained earnings balance to be changed into the one shown in the end- of the period balance sheet. The statement is also termed as Profit and Loss Appropriation Account in case of companies. 4. Statement of Changes in Financial Position (SCFP) The Balance Sheet shows the financial condition of the business at a particular moment of time while the Income Statement discloses the results of operations of business over a period of time. However, for a better understanding of the affairs of the business, it is essential to identify the movement of working capital or cash in and out of the business. This information is available in the statement of changes in financial position of the business. The statement may emphasize

any of the following aspects relating to change in financial position of the business: i. Change in working capital position. In such a case the statement is termed as SCFP (Working Capital basis) or popularly Funds Flow Statement. ii. Change in cash position. In such a case the statement is termed as SCFP (Cash basis) or popularly Cash Flow Statement. iii. Change in overall financial position. In such a case the statement is termed simply as Statement of Changes in Financial Position (SCFP). ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS Financial Statements are indicators of the two significant factors: i. ii. Profitability, and Financial soundness

Analysis and interpretation of financial statements, therefore, refers to such a treatment of the information contained in the Income Statement and the Balance Sheet so as to afford full diagnosis of the profitability and financial soundness of the business. .

A distinction here can be made between the two terms - 'Analysis' and interpretation. The term' Analysis' means methodical classification of the data given in the financial statements. The figures given in the financial statements will not help one unless they are put in a simplified form. For example, all items relating to 'Current It Assets' are put at one place while all items relating to 'Current Liabilities' are put at another place. The term 'Interpretation' means explaining the meaning and significance of the data so simplified. However, both' Analysis' and 'Interpretation' are complementary to each other.

Interpretation requires Analysis, while Analysis is useless without Interpretation. Most of the authors have used the term' Analysis' only to cover the meanings of both analysis and interpretation, since analysis involves interpretation. According to Myres, "Financial statement analysis is largely a study of the relationship among the various financial factors in a business as disclosed by a single set of statements and a study of the trend of these factors as shown in a series of statements." For the sake of convenience, we have also used the term 'Financial Statement Analysis' throughout the chapter to cover both analysis and interpretation. ' TYPES OF FINANCIAL ANALYSIS Financial Analysis can be classified into different categories depending upon (i) the material used, and (ii) the modus operandi of analysis. 1. On the Basis of Material Used

According to this basis, financial analysis can be of two types: (i) External Analysis. This analysis is done by those who are outsiders for the business. The term outsiders include investors, credit agencies, government agencies and other creditors who have no access to the internal records of the company. These persons mainly depend upon the published financial statements. Their analysis serves only a limited purpose. The position of, these analysts has improved in recent times on account of increased governmental control over companies and governmental regulations requiring more detailed disclosure of information by the companies in their financial statements. (ii) Internal Analysis. This analysis is done by persons who have access to the books of account and other information related to the business. Such an analysis can, therefore, be done by executives and employees of the organization or by officers appointed for this purpose by the Government or the Court under

powers vested in them. The analysis is done depending upon the objective to be achieved through this analysis. 2. On the basis of modus operandi

According to this, financial analysis can also be of two types: (i) Horizontal Analysis. In case of this type of analysis, financial statements for a number of years are reviewed and analyzed. The current year's figures are compared with the standard or base year. The analysis statement usually contains figures for two or more years and the changes are shown regarding each item from the base year usually in the fom1 of percentage. Such an analysis gives the management considerable insight into levels and areas of strength and weakness. Since this type of analysis is based on the data from year to year rather than on one date, it is also tern as 'Dynamic Analysis'. (iii) Vertical Analysis. In case of this type of analysis a study is made of the quantitative relationship of the various items in the financial Statements on a particular date. For example, the ratios of different items of costs for a particular period may be calculated with the sales for that period. Such an analysis is useful in comparing the performance of several companies in the same group', or divisions or department in the same company. Since this analysis depends on the data for one period, this is not very conducive to a proper analysis of the company's financial position. It is also called 'Static Analysis' as it is frequently used for referring to ratios developed on one date or for one accounting period. It is to be noted that both analyses-vertical and horizontal-can be done simultaneously also. For example, the Income Statement of a company for several years may be given. Horizontally it may show the change in different elements of cost and sales over a number of years. On the other hand, vertically it may show the percentage of each element of cost to sales.

STEPS INVOLVED IN FINANCIAL STATEMENTS ANALYSIS The analysis of the financial statements requires: (i) (ii) Methodical classification of the data given in the financial statements. Comparison of the various inter-connected figures with each other by different 'Tools of Financial Analysis'. .

Each of the above steps has been explained in the following pages. Methodical Classification In order to have a meaningful analysis it is necessary that figures should be arranged properly. Usually instead the two-column (T form) statements, as ordinarily prepared the statements are prepared in single (vertical) column form "which should throw up significant figures by adding or subtracting". This also facilitates showing the figure of a number of firms or number of years side by side for comparison purposes. TECHNIQUES OF FINANCIAL ANALYSIS A financial analyst can adopt one or more of the following techniques/tools of financial analysis: 1. Comparative Financial Statements

Comparative financial statements are those statements which have been designed in a way so as to provide time perspective to the consideration of various elements of financial position embodied in such statements. In these statements figures for two or more periods are placed side by side to facilitate comparison. Both the Income Statement and Balance Sheet can be prepared in the form of Comparative Financial Statements.

(i) Comparative Income Statement. The Income Statement discloses Net Profit or Net Loss on account of operations. A Comparative Income Statement will show the absolute figures for two or more periods, the absolute change from one period to another and, if desired, the change in terms of percentages. Since the figures for two or more periods are shown side by side, the reader can quickly ascertain whether sales have increased or decreased, whether cost of sales has increased or decreased, etc. Thus, only a reading of data included in Comparative Income Statements will be helpful in deriving meaningful conclusions. (ii) Comparative Balance Sheet. Comparative Balance Sheet as on two or more different dates can be used for comparing assets and liabilities and finding out any increase or decrease in those items. Thus; while in a single Balance Sheet the emphasis is on present position, it is on change in the comparative Balance Sheet. Such a Balance Sheet is very useful in studying the trends in an enterprise. The preparation of comparative financial statements can be well understood with the help of the following example: Example (i): From the following Profit and Loss Account and the Balance Sheet of Swadeshi Polytex Ltd. for the year ended 31st December, 1997 and 1998, you are required to prepare a Comparative Income Statement and a Comparative Balance Sheet.

Profit and Loss Account Particulars To Cost of Goods sold To Operating Expenses: Administration Expenses Selling expenses To Net Profit 20 30 150 800 20 40 1997 600

(In LAkhs of Rs.) 1998 750 Particulars By Net Sales 1997 800 1998 1,000

190 1,000 800 1,000

BALANCE SHEET As on 31 sf December Liabilities Bills Payable Sundry Creditors Tax Payable 6% Debentures 6% Preference Capital Equity Capital Reserves 1997 50 150 100 100 300 400 200 1,300 Solution: Swadeshi Polytex Limited (In Lakhs of Rs) 1998 Assets 1997 100 200 200 100 300 300 100 1,300 1998 140 300 300 100 270 270 140 1,520

75 Cash 200 Debtors 150 Stock 150 Land 300 Building 400 Plant 245 Furniture 1,520

COMPARATIVE INCOME STATEMENT for the years ended 31st december 1997 and 1998 (In Lakhs of Rs.) Absolute increase or Particulars decrease in 1997 Net Sales Cost of Goods Sold Gross Profit Operating Expenses: Administration Expenses Selling Expenses Total Operating Expenses Operating Profit Swadeshi Polytex Limited 800 .600 200 20 30 50 150 1998 1,000 750 250 20 40 60 190 1998 +200 -150 +50 +10 10 +40 +33.33 +20 +26.67 Percentage increase or decrease in 1998 +25 +25 +25

COMPARATIVE BALANCE SHEET As on 31st december 1997, 1998 (Figures in lakhs of rupees) Absolute increase or Assets 1997 1998 decrease during 1998 Current Assets: Cash Debtors Stock Total Current Assets Fixed Assets: Land Building Plant Furniture Total Fixed Assets Total Assets Liabilities & Capital: Current Liabilities Bills Payable Sundry Creditors Tax Payable Total Current Liabilities Long term Liabilities 50 150 100 300 75 200 150 425 +25 +50 +50 +125 +50 +33.33 +50 41.66 100 300 300 100 800 1,300 100 270 270 140 780 1,520 -30 -30 +40 -20 220 -10 -10 +40 -2.5 +17 100 200 200 500 140 300 300 740 40 100 100 240 +40 +50 +50 +50 Percentage increase(+) or decrease (-) during 1998

6% Debentures Total Liabilities Capital & Reserves 6% Pref. Capital Equity Capital Reserves Total Shareholders' Funds

100 400

150 575

+50 +175

+50 +43.75

300 400 200 900

300 400 245 945 1,520

45 45 220

22.5 5 17

Total Liabilities and Capital 1,300

Comparative Financial Statements can be prepared for more than two periods or more than two dates. However, it becomes very cumbersome to study the trend with more than two periods data. Trend percentages are more useful in such cases. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants has explained the utility of repairing the Comparative Financial Statements as follows: The presentation of comparative financial statements is annual and other reports enhances the usefulness of such reports and brings out more clearly the nature and trend of rent changes affecting the enterprise. Such presentation emphasizes the fact that statement for a series of periods is far more significant than those of a single period and that the accounts of one period are but an installment of what is essentially a continuous history. In anyone year, it is ordinarily desired that the Balance Sheet, the Income Statement and the Surplus Statement be given for one or more preceding years as well as for the current year." The utility of preparing the Comparative Financial Statements has also been realized in our country. The Companies Act, 1956, provides that companies should give figures for different items for the previous period, together with

current period figures in their Profit and loss Account and Balance Sheet. 2. Common-size Financial Statements

Common-size Financial Statements are those in which figures reported are converted into percentages to some common base. In the Income Statement the sale figure is assumed to be 100 and all figures are expressed as a percentage of this total. Example (ii): On the basis of data given in example (i), prepare a Common-size Income statement and Common Size Balance Sheet of Swadeshi Polytex Ltd., for the years ended 31st March, 1997 and 1998. Swadeshi Polytex Limited COMPARATIVE BALANCE SHEET (As on 31st december 1997, 1998) Particulars Net Sales Cost of Goods Sold Gross Profit Opening Expenses: Administration Expenses Selling Expenses Total Opening Expenses Operating Profit 2.50 3.75 6.25 18.75 2 4 6 19 (Figures in lakhs of rupees) 1997 100 75 25 1998 100 75 25

Interpretation: The above statement shows that though in absolute terms, the cost of goods sold has gone up, the percentage of its cost to sales remains constant at 75%. This is the reason why the Gross Profit continues at 25% of the sales. Similarly, in absolute terms the amount 01 administration expenses remains the same but as a percentage to sales it has come down by 5%. Selling expenses have increased by 0.25%. This all leads to net increase in net profit of 0.25% (i.e. from 18.75% to 19%). Swadeshi Polytex Limited COMPARATIVE BALANCE SHEET As on 31st december 1997, 1998 Particulars (Figures in lakhs of rupees) 1997 % Assets Current Assets: Cash Debtors Stock Total Current Assets Fixed Assets: Building Plant Furniture Land Total Fixed Assets Total Assets 23.07 23.07 7.70 7.70 61.54 100 17.76 17.76 9.21 6.68 51.41 100 7.70 15.38 15.38 38.46 9.21 19.74 19.74 48.69 100 1998 % 100

Current Liabilities Bills Payable Sundry Creditors Taxes Payable Total Current Liabilities Long Term Liabilities 6% Debentures Capital & Reserves: 6% Preference Share Capital Equity Share Capital Reserves Total Shareholders Funds Total Liabilities and Capital 23.10 30.76 15.38 69.24 100 19.72 26.32 16.15 62.19 100 7.69 9.86 3.84 11.54 7.69 23.07 4.93 13.16 9.96 27.95

Interpretation: The percentage of current assets to total assets was 38.46 in 1997. It has gone up to 48.69 in 1998. Similarly the percentage of current liabilities to total liabilities (including capital) has also gone up from 23.07 in 1997 to 27.95 in 1998. Thus, the proportion of current assets has increased by a higher percentage (about 10) as compared to increase in the proportion of current liabilities (about 5). This has improved the working capital position of the Company. There has been a slight deterioration in the debt-equity ratio though it continues toil very sound. The proportion of shareholder's funds in the total liabilities has come down from 69.24% to 62.19% while that of the debenture-holders has gone up from 7.69% to 9.86%. Comparative Utility of Common-size Financial Statements: The

comparative common size financial statements show the percentage of each item to the total in each period but not variations in respective items from period to

period. In other words common-size financial statements when read horizontally do not give information about the trend of individual items but the trend of their relationship to total. Observation of these trends is not very useful because there are no definite norms for the proportion of each item to total. For example, if it is established that inventory should be 30% of total assets, the computation of various ratios to total assets would be very useful. But since there are no such established standard proportions, calculation of percentages of different items of assets or liabilities to total assets or total liabilities is not of much use. On account of this reason common size financial statements are not much useful for financial analysis. However, common-size financial statements are useful for studying the comparative financial position of two or more businesses. However, to make such comparison really meaningful, it is necessary that the financial Instatements of all such companies should be prepared on the same pattern, e.g., all the companies should be more or less of the same age, they should be following the same accounting practices, the method of depreciation on fixed assets should be the same. 3. Trend Percentages

Trend percentages are immensely helpful in making a comparative study of the financial statements for several years. The method of calculating trend percentages involves the calculation of percentage relationship that each item bears to the same item in the base year. Any year may be taken as the base year. It is usually the earliest year. Any intervening year may also be taken as the base year. Each item of base year taken as 100 and on that basis the percentages for each of the items of each of the fears is calculated. These percentages can also be taken as Index Numbers showing relative changes in the financial data resulting with the passage of time. The method of trend percentages is a useful analytical device for the

management since by substituting percentages for large amounts; the brevity and readability are achieved. However, trend percentages are not calculated for all of the items in the financial statements. They are usually calculated only for major items since the purpose is to highlight important changes. While calculating trend percentages, care should be taken regarding the following matters: 1. The accounting principles and practices followed should be constant throughout the period for which analysis is made. In the absence of such consistency, the comparability will be adversely affected. 2. The base year should be carefully selected. It should be a normal year and be representative of the items shown in the statement. 3. Trend percentages should be calculated only for items having logical relationship with one another. 4. Trend percentages should be studied after considering the absolute figures on which they are based; otherwise, they may give misleading results. For example, one expense .may increase from Rs. 100 to Rs. 200 while the other expense may increase from Rs. 10,000 to Rs. 15,000. In the first case trend percentage will show 100% increase while in the second case it will show 50% increase. This is misleading because in the first case the change though 100% is not at all significant in real terms as compared to the other. Similarly, unnecessary doubts may be created when the trend percentages show 100% increase in debt while only 50% increase in equity. This doubt can be removed if absolute figures are seen, e.g., the amount of debt may increase from Rs. 20,000 to Rs. 40,000 while that of equity from Rs. 1,00,000 to Rs. 1,50,000. . 5. The figures for the current year should also be adjusted in the light of price level changes as compared to the base year, before calculating the trend percentages.

In case this is not done, the trend percentages may make the whole comparison meaningless. For example, if prices in the year 1998 have increased by 100% as compared to 1997, the increase in sales in 1998 by 60% as compared to 1997 will give misleading results. Figures of 1998 must be adjusted on account of rise in prices before calculating the trend percentages. Example (iii): From the following data relating to the assets side of the Balance Sheet of Kamdhenu Ltd., for the period 31st Dec., 1995 to 31st December, 1998, you are required to calculate the trend percentage taking 1995 as the base year. (Rupees in thousands)

Assets Cash Debtors Stock-in-trade Other Current Assets Land Building Plant

1995 100 200 300 50 400 800 1,000 2,850 Solution

1996 120 250 400 75 500 1,000 1,000 3,345

1997 80 325 350 125 500 1,200 1,200 3,780

1998 140 400 500 150 500 1,500 1,500 4,690

COMPARATIVE BALANCE SHEET As on december 31, 1995-96 Assets December 31 (Rs. in thousands) 1995 Current Assets: Cash Debtors Stock-in-trade Other Current Assets Total Current Assets 100 200 300 50 650 120 250 400 75 845 80 325 350 125 140 400 500 150 100 100 100 100 100 120 125 133 150 129 80 163 117 250 135 140 200 167 300 183 1996 1997 1998 Trend Percentage Base year 1995 1995 1996 1997 1998

880 1,190

Fixed Assets Land Building Plant 400 500 500 500 100 125 125 100 114 125 150 120 132 125 175 150 159

800 1,000 1,200 1,500 100 1,000 1,000 1,200 1,500 100

Total Fixed 2,200 2,500 2,900 3,500 100 Assets 4. Funds Flow Analysis

Funds flow analysis has become an important tool in the analytical kit of financial analysts, credit granting institutions and financial managers. This is because the Balance Sheet of a business reveals its financial status at a particular point of time. It does not sharply focus those major financial transactions which have been behind the Balance Sheet changes. For example, if a loan of Rs.2, 00,000 was raised and pail during the accounting year, the balance sheet will not depict this transaction However, a financial analyst must know the purpose for

which the loan was utilized and the source from which it was obtained. This will help him in making a better estimate about the company's financial position and policies. Funds flow analysis reveals the changes in working capital position. It tells about the sources from which the working capital was obtained and the purposes for which is used. It brings out in open the changes which have taken place behind the Ice Sheet. Working capital being the life-blood of the business, such an analysis is extremely useful. The technique and the procedure involved in funds flow analysis has been discussed in detail later in the book. 5. Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis

Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis is an important tool of profit planning. It studies the relationship between cost, volume of production, sales and profit. Of course, it is not strictly a technique used for analysis of financial statements. However, it is an important tool for the management for decision-making since the data is provided by both cost and financial records. It tells the volume of sales at which firm will break-even, the effect on profit on 'account of variation in output, selling price and cost, and finally, the quantity to be produced and sold to reach the, target profit level. 6. Ratio Analysis

This is the most important tool available to financial analysts for their work. An accounting ratio shows the relationship in mathematical terms between two interrelated accounting figures. The figures have to be interrelated (e.g., Gross Profit and Sales, Current Assets and Current Liabilities), because no useful purpose will be served if ratios are calculated between two figures which are not at all related to each other, e.g., sales and discount on issue of debentures. A financial analyst may calculate different accounting ratios for different

purposes. LIMITATIONS OF FINANCIAL ANALYSIS Financial analysis is a powerful mechanism which helps in ascertaining the strengths and nesses in the operations and financial position of an enterprise. However, this analysis is subject to certain limitations. Most of these limitations are because of the limitations of the financial statements themselves. These limitations are as follows: 1. Financial Analysis is only a Means

Financial analysis is a means to an end and not the end itself. The analysis should be used as a starting point and the conclusion should be drawn not in isolation, but keeping view the overall picture and the prevailing economic and political situation. 2. Ignores Price Level Changes

Financial statements are normally prepared on the concept of historical costs. They do not reflect values in terms of current costs. Thus, the financial analysis based on such financial statements or accounting figures would not portray the effects of price level changes over the period. 3. Financial Statements are Essentially Interim Reports

The profit shown by Profit and Loss Account and the financial position as depicted by the Balance Sheet is not exact. The exact position can be known only when the business is closed down. Again, the existence of contingent liabilities and deferred revenue expenditure make them more imprecise. 4. Accounting Concepts and Conventions

Financial statements are prepared on the basis of certain accounting concept and conventions. On account of this reason the financial position as disclosed by

statements may not be realistic. For' example, fixed assets in the balance sheet, shown on the basis of going concern concept. This means that value placed on& assets may not be the same which may be realized on their sale. On account convention of conservatism the income statement may not disclose true income of the business since probable losses are considered while probable incomes are ignored. 5. Influence of Personal Judgment

Many items are left to the personal judgment of the accountant. For example, the method of depreciation, mode of amortization of fixed assets, treatment of deferred revenue expenditure - all depend on the personal judgment of the accountant. The soundness of such judgment will necessarily depend upon his competence and integrity. However convention of consistency acts as a controlling factor on making indiscreet personal judgments. 6. Disclose only Monetary Facts

Financial statements do not depict those facts which cannot be expressed in terms of money. For example, development of a team of loyal and efficient workers, enlightened management, the reputation and prestige of management with the public are matters which are of considerable importance for the business, but they are nowhere depicted by financial statements. RATIO ANALYSIS Ratio Analysis is a very important tool of financial analysis. It is the process of establishing a significant relationship between the items of financial statements to provide a meaningful understanding of the performance and financial position of a firm. Meaning of Ratio Since, we are using the term 'ratio' in relation to financial statement analysis; it

may properly mean 'An Accounting Ratio' or 'Financial Ratio'. It may be defined as the mathematical expression of the relationship between two accounting figures. But these figures must be related to each other (i.e., these figures must have a mutual cause and effect relationship) to produce a meaningful and useful ratio. For example, the figure of turnover cannot be said to be significantly related to the figure of share premium. It indicates a quantitative relationship which the analyst may use to make a qualitative judgment about the various aspects of the financial position and performance of a concern. It may be expressed as a percentage or as a rate (i.e., in 'x' number of times) or as a pure ratio, e.g., if gross profit on sales of Rs. 1,00,000 is Rs. 20,000, the ratio of gross profit to sales is 20%. ie.
Rs.20 ,000 100 Rs.1,00 ,000

In another example of Capital Turnover Ratio, if Sales with a Capital Employed of Rs. 20,000 is Rs. 1, 00,000, the Capital Turnover Ratio may be expressed as 5 times i.e., Rs. 1, 00,000 / Rs. 20,000. In the case of a Current Ratio, if current assets are Rs. 1,00,000 and current liabilities are Rs. 50,000, Current Ratio may be expressed as 2 : 1 i.e., Rs. 1,00,000 : Rs. 50,000. In view of the requirements of various users (e.g., Short-term Creditors, Longterm Creditors, Management, Investors) of the ratios, one may classify the ratios into the following four groups: Liquidity Ratios, Solvency Ratios, Activity Ratios and Profitability Ratios Liquidity Ratios These ratios measure the concern's ability to meet short-term obligations as and when they become due. These ratios show the short-term financial solvency of the concern. Usually the following two ratios are calculated for this purpose: 1. Current Ratio and 2. Quick Ratio

1. Current Ratio (a) Meaning: This ratio establishes a relationship between current assets and current liabilities. (b) Objective: The objective of computing this ratio is to measure the ability of the firm to meet its short-term obligations and to reflect the short-term financial strength / solvency of a firm. In other words, the objective is to measure the safety margin available for short-term creditors. (c) Components: There are two components of this ratio which are a under: (i) Current Assets which mean the assets which are held for their conversion into cash within a year and include the following: Cash Balance Marketable Securities Bills Receivable (less Provisions) Prepaid Expenses Incomes accrued but not due Advance Payment of tax Tax reduced at source (Debit Balance) Bank Balances Debtors (less Provision) Stock of all types, viz., RawMaterials Work-in-progress, Finished Goods Short-term Loans and Advances (Debit Balances) Incomes due but not received

(ii) Current Liabilities which mean the liabilities which are expected to be matured within a year and include the following: Creditors for Goods Bills Payable Short-term Loans and Advances Provision for Tax Creditors for Expenses Bank Overdraft Income received-in-advance Unclaimed dividend

(d) Computation: This ratio is computed by dividing the current assets by the current liabilities. This ratio is usually expressed as a pure ratio e.g. 2 : I. In the form of a formula, this ratio may be expressed as under: . Current Ratio = Current Liabilities (e) Interpretation: It indicates rupees of current assets available for each rupee of current liability, Higher the ratio, greater the margin of safety for short-term creditors and vice-versa. However, too high / too low ratio calls for further investigation since the too high ratio may indicate the presence of idle funds with the firm or the absence of investment opportunities with the firm and too low ratio may indicate the over trading/under capitalization if the capital turnover ratio is high. Traditionally, a current ratio of 2: 1 is considered to be a satisfactory ratio. On the basis of this traditional rule, if the current ratio is 2 or more, it means the firm is adequately liquid and has the ability to meet its current obligations but if the current ratio is less than 2, it means the firm has difficulty in meeting its current obligations. The logic behind this rule is that even if the value of current assets becomes half, the firm can still meet its short-term obligations. However, the traditional standard of 2: I should not be used blindly since there may be firms having current ratio of less than 2, which are working efficiently and meeting their short-term obligations as and when they become due while the other firms having current ratio of more than 2, may not be able to meet their current obligations in time. This is so because the current ratio measures the quantity of current assets and not their quality. Current assets may consist of doubtful and slow paying debtors and slow moving and obsolete stock of goods. That is why, it can be said that current ratio is no doubt a quick measurement of a firm's liquidity but it is crude as well. Current Assets

(f) Precaution: While computing and using the current ratio, it must be ensured (a) that the quality of both receivables (debtors and bills receivable) and inventory has been carefully assessed and (b) that all current assets and current liabilities have been properly valued. Example (iv): The Balance Sheet of Tulsian Ltd. as at 31 st March 19X1 is as under: Liabilities Equity Share Capital Rs. 1,00,000 Assets Land & Building Plant & Machinery Furniture & Fixtures Rs. 6,00,000 5,00,000 . 1.00,000 12,00,000 Less: Depreciation 2 00 000 10,00,000 Trade Investments (long-term) Stock Debtors Less: Provision Marketable Securities Cash Bills receivables Prepaid Expenses Preliminary Expenses Underwriting Commission 16,40,000 3,40,000 30,000 3,10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 5,000 60,000 40,000 16,40,000 1,00,000 95,000

18% Pref. Share capital 1,00,000 Reserves Profit & Loss A/c 15% Debentures Trade Creditors Bills Payable 60,000 2,40,000 8,00,000 40,000 30,000

Outstanding Expenses 20,000 Bank overdraft Provision for Tax 10,000 2,40,000

Net Sales for the year 19XI-19X2 amounted to Rs. 20.00.000. Calculate Current Ratio. Solution:

Current Assets =Stock + Debtors - Provision on Debtors +Marketable Securities + Cash + B/R + Prepaid Expenses = Rs. 95,000 + Rs. 3,40,000 - Rs. 30,000 + Rs. 10,000 + 10,000 + Rs. 5,000 = Rs. 4,40,000 Current Liabilities= Trade Creditors + B/P + O/s Exp + Bank O/D + Provision for Tax = Rs. 40,000 + Rs. 30,000 + Rs. 20,000 + Rs. 10,000 + Rs. 2,40,000 = Rs. 3,40,000 Current Assets Current Ratio = Current Liabilities 2. Quick Ratio (a) Meaning: This ratio establishes a: relationship between quick assets and current liabilities. (b) Objective: The objective of computing this ratio is to measure the ability of the firm to meet its short-term obligations as and when due without relying upon the realization of stock. (c) Components There are two components of this ratio which are as under: (i) Quick assets: which mean those current assets which can be converted into cash immediately or at a short notice without a loss of value and include the following: Cash Balances Marketable Securities Bills Receivable Bank Balances Debtors Short-term Loans and Advances = Rs.3,40, 000 Rs. 4,40,000 = 22:17 Rs. 10,000 + Rs.

(ii) Current liabilities: (as explained earlier in Current Ratio)

(d) Computation This ratio is computed by dividing the quick assets by the current liabilities. This ratio is usually expressed as a pure ratio e.g., 1: 1. In the form of a formula, this ratio may be expressed as under: Quick Assts Quick Ratio = Current Liabilities (e) Interpretation: It indicates rupees of quick assets available for each rupee of current liability. Traditionally, a quick ratio of 1:1 is considered to be a satisfactory ratio. However, this traditional rule should not be used blindly since a firm having a quick ratio of more than 1, may not be meeting its short-term obligations in time if its current assets consist of doubtful and slow paying debtors while a firm having a quick ratio of less than 1, may be meeting its short-term obligations in time because of its very efficient inventory management. (f) Precaution: While computing and using the quick ratio, it must be ensured, (a) that the quality of the receivables (debtors and bills receivable) has been carefully assessed and (b) that all quick assets and current liabilities have been properly valued. Example (v): Current Assets Rs.2,00,000, Inventory Rs.40,000, Working Capital Rs.1, 20 000. Calculate the Quick Ratio. Solution: Current Liabilities = Current Assets - Working Capital = Rs. 2,00,000 - Rs. 1,20,000 = Rs. 80,000 Quick Assets = Current Assets - Inventory = Rs. 2,00,000 - Rs. 40,000 = Rs. 1,60,000 Quick Assets Quick Ratio = Current Liabilities Rs. 80000 RS.l,60,000 = 2:1

SOLVENCY RATIOS These ratios show the long-term financial solvency and measure the enterprise's ability to pay the interest regularly and to repay the principal (i.e. capital amount) on maturity or in pre-determined installments at due dates. Usually, the following ratios are calculated to judge the long-term financial solvency of the concern. Debt-Equity Ratio (a) Meaning: This ratio establishes a relationship between long-term debts and share-holders' funds. (b) Objective: The objective of computing this ratio is to measure the relative proportion of debt and equity in financing the assets of a firm. (c) Components: There are two components of this ratio, which are as under: (i) Long-term Debts, which mean long-term loans (whether secured or unsecured (e.g., Debentures, bonds, loans from financial institutions). (ii) Shareholders' Funds which mean equity share capital plus preference share capital plus reserves and surplus minus fictitious assets (e.g., preliminary expenses). (d) Computation: This ratio is computed by dividing the long-term debts by the shareholders' funds. This ratio is usually expressed as a pure ratio e.g., 2: 1. In the form of a formula, this ratio may be expressed as under: . . Long - term Debts

Debt-Equity Ratio = Shareholders 'Funds (e) Interpretation: It indicates the margin of safety to long-term creditors. A

low debt equities ratio implies the use of more equity than debt which means a larger safety margin for creditors since owner's equity is treated as a margin of safety by creditors and vice versa. Example (vi): Capital Employed Rs. 24,00,000, Long-term Debt Rs. 16,00,000 Calculate the Debt-Equity Ratio. Solution: Shareholders' 'Funds = Capital Employed - Long-ter = Rs. 24,00,000 - Rs. 16,00,000 = Rs. 8,00,000 Long-term Debts Debt-Equity Ratio = Shareholders ' Funds = Rs 8,00,00 Rs. 16,00,000 = 2 :1

Example (vii): Capital Employed Rs. 8,00,000, Shareholders' Funds Rs. 2,00,000 Calculate the Debt Equity Ratio. Solution: Long-term Debt = Capital Employed - Shareholders' Funds

= Rs. 8,00,000 - Rs. 2,00,000 = Rs. 6,00,000 Long-term Debts Debt equity Ratio = Shareholders Funds Debt Total Funds Ratio This ratio is a variation of the debt-equity ratio and gives the similar indications as the debt-equity ratio. In this ratio, the outside long-term liabilities are related to the total capitalization of the firm and not merely to the shareholders' funds. This ratio is computed by dividing the long-term debt by the capital employed. In the form of a formula, this ratio may be expressed as under: = Rs. 2,00,000 - Rs. 6,00,000 = 3:1

Long-term Debt Debt-Total Funds Ratio = Capital Employed Where, the Capital Employed comprises the long-term debt and the shareholders' funds. Interest Coverage Ratio (or Time-interest Earned Ratio or Debt-Service Ratio) (a) Meaning: This ratio establishes a relationship between net profits before interest and taxes and interest on long-term debt. (b) Objective: The objective of computing this ratio is to measure the debtservicing capacity of a firm so far as fixed interest on long-term debt is concerned. (c) Components: There are two components of this ratio which are as under: (i) (ii) Net profits before interest and taxes; Interest on long-term debts.

(d) Computation: This ratio is computed by dividing the net profits before interest and taxes by interest on long-term debt. This ratio is usually expressed as 'x' number of times. In the form of a formula, this ratio may be expressed as under: Net Profit before interest and taxes Interest Coverage Ratio = Interest on Long-term debt (e) Interpretation: Interest coverage ratio shows the number of times the

interest charges are covered by the profits out of which they will be paid. It indicates the limit beyond which the ability of the firm to service its debt would be adversely affected. For instance, an interest coverage of five times would imply that even if the firm's net profits before interest and tax were to decline to 20% of the present level, the firm will still be able to pay interest out of profits. Higher the ratio, greater the firm's ability to pay interest but very high ratio may imply lesser use of debt and/or very efficient operations. Example (viii): Net Profit before Interest and Tax Rs. 3,20,000, Interest on long term debt Rs. 40,000. Calculate Interest Coverage Ratio. Solution: Net Profit before Interest and Taxes Interest Coverage Ratio = Interest on Long-term Debt Rs.3,20,000 = Rs.40,000 8 Times ACTIVITY RATIOS These ratios measure the effectiveness with which a firm uses its available resources. These ratios are also called 'Turnover Ratios' since they indicate the speed with which the resources are being turned (or converted) into sales. Usually the following turnover ratios are calculated: I. Capital Turnover Ratio II. Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio, IV. Stock Turnover Ratio VI. Creditors Turnover Ratio. = 8 Times

III. Net Working Capital Turnover Ratio V. Debtors Turnover Ratio.

Capital Turnover Ratio (a) Meaning: This ratio establishes a relationship between net sales and capital employed. (b) Objective: The objective of computing this ratio is to determine the efficiency with which the capital employed is utilized. (c) Components: There are two components of this ratio which are as under: (i) (ii) Net Sales which mean gross sales minus sales returns; and Capital Employed which means Long-term Debt plus Shareholders' Funds. (d) Computation: This ratio is computed by dividing the net sales by the capital employed. This ratio is usually expressed as 'x' number of times. In the form of a formula this ratio may be expressed as under: Net Sales Capital Turnover Ratio = Capital Employed (e) Interpretation: It indicates the firm's ability to generate sales per rupee of capital employed. In general, the higher the ratio the more efficient the management and utilization of capital employed. A too high ratio may indicate the situation of an over-trading (or under. capitalization) if current ratio is lower than that required reasonably and vice versa. Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio (a) Meaning: This ratio establishes a relationship between net sales and fixed assets. (b) Objective: The objective of computing this ratio is to determine the

efficiency with which the fixed assets are utilized. (c) Components: There are two components of this ratio which are as under: (i) Net Sales which means gross sales minus sales returns; (ii) Net Fixed (operating) Assets which mean gross fixed assets minus depreciation thereon. (d) Computation This ratio is computed by dividing the net sales by the net fixed assets. This ratio is usually expressed as 'x' number of times. In the form of a formula, this ratio may be expressed as under:

Net Sales Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio = Net Fixed Assets (e) Interpretation: It indicates the firm's ability to generate sales per rupee of investment in fixed assets. In general, higher the ratio, the more efficient the management and utilization of fixed assets, and vice versa. It may be noted that there is no direct relationship between sales and fixed assets since the sales are influenced by other factors as well (e.g., quality of product, delivery terms, credit terms, after sales service, advertisement and publicities.) Example (ix): Fixed Assets (at cost) Rs. 7,00,000, Accumulated Depreciation till date Rs. 1,00,000, Credit Sales Rs. 17,00,000, Cash Sales Rs., 1,50,000, Sales Returns Rs. 50,000. Calculate Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio. Solution: Net Sales = Cash Sales + Credit Sales - Sales Returns

= Rs. 1,50,000 + Rs. 17,00,000 - Rs. 50,000 = Rs. 18,00,000 Net Fixed Assets = Fixed Assets (at cost) - Depreciation

= Rs. 7,00,000 - Rs. 1,00,000 = Rs. 6,00,000 Net Sales Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio = Net Fixed Assets Rs. 18,00,000 . = Rs. 600000 = 3 Times

Example (x): Capital Employed Rs. 2,00,000, Working Capital Rs. 40,000, Cost of goods sold Rs. 6,40,000, Gross Profit Rs. 1,60,000. Calculate Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio. Solution: Net Sales = Cost of Goods Sold + Gross Profit = Rs. 6,40,000 + Rs. 1,60,000 = Rs. 8,00,000 Net fixed Assets = Capital Employed - Working Capital = Rs. 2,00,000 - Rs. 40,000 = Rs. 1,60,000 Net Sales Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio = = Net fixed Asset Working Capital Turnover Ratio (a) Meaning: This ratio establishes a relationship between net sales and working capital. (b) Objective: The objective of computing this ratio is to determine the efficiency with which the working capital is utilized. (c) Components: There are two components of this ratio which are as under: (i) Net Sales which mean gross sales minus sales returns; and (ii) Working Capital which means current assets minus current liabilities. Rs. 1,60,000 Rs. 8,00,000 . = 5 Times

(d) Computation: This ratio is computed by dividing the net sales by the working i capital. This ratio is usually expressed as 'x' number of times. In the form of a formula, this ratio may be expressed as under: Net Sales Working Capital Turnover Ratio = Working Capital (e) Interpretation: It indicates the firm's ability to generate sales per rupee of working capital. In general, higher the ratio, the more efficient the management and utilization of, working capital and vice versa. Example (xi): Current Assets Rs. 6,00,000, Current Liabilities Rs. 1,20,000, Credit Sales Rs. 12,00,000, Cash Sales Rs. 2,60,000, Sales Returns Rs. 20,000. Calculate Working Capital Turnover Ratio. Solution: Net Sales = Cash Sales + Credit Sales - Sales Returns = Rs. 2,60,000 + Rs. 12,00,000 - Rs. 20,000 = Rs. 14,40,000 Working Capital = Current Assets - Current Liabilities

= Rs. 6,00,000 - Rs. 1,20,000 = Rs, 4,80,000 Net Sales Working Capital Turnover Ratio = = Working Capital Rs. 4,80,000 Stock Turnover Ratio (a) Meaning: This ratio establishes a relationship between costs of goods sold and aver age inventory. Rs. 14,40,000 =3 Times

(b) Objective: The objective of computing this ratio is to determine the efficiency with which the inventory is utilized. (c) Components: There are two components of this ratio which are as under: (i) Cost of Goods Sold, this is calculated as under. Cost of Goods Sold = Opening Inventory + Net Purchases + Direct Expenses - Closing Inventory = Net Sales - Gross Profit (ii) Average Inventory which is calculated as under: Average Inventory = (Opening Inventory plus Closing Inventory)/2 (d) Computation: This ratio is computed by dividing the cost of goods sold by the average inventory. This ratio is usually expressed as 'x' number of times. In the form of a formula, this ratio may be expressed as under: Cost of Goods Sold Stock Turnover Ratio = Average Inventory (e) Interpretation: It indicates the speed with which the inventory is converted into sales. In general, a high ratio indicates efficient performance since an improvement in the ratio shows that either the same volume of sales has been maintained with a lower investment in stocks, or the volume of sales has increased without any increase in the amount of stocks. However, too high ratio and too low ratio calls for further investigation. A too high ratio may be the result of a very low inventory levels which may result in frequent stock-outs and thus the firm may incur high stock-out costs. On the other hand, a too low ratio may be the result of excessive inventory levels, slow-moving or obsolete inventory and thus, the firm may incur high carrying costs. Thus, a firm should have neither a very high nor a very low stock turnover ratio, it should have a

satisfactory level. To judge whether the ratio is satisfactory or not, it should be compared with its own past ratios or with the ratio of similar firms in the same industry or with industry average. (f) Stock Velocity- This velocity indicates the period for which sales can be generated with the help of an average stock maintained and is usually expressed in days. This velocity may be calculated as follows: Average stock Stock Velocity= __________________________________ Average Daily cost of Goods Sold

12 months /52 weeks /365 days Or __________________________________ Stock Turnover Ratio CASH FLOW ANALYSIS Cash flow analysis is another important technique of financial analysis. It involves preparation of Cash Flow Statement for identifying sources and applications of cash; Cash flow statement may be prepared on the basis of actual or estimated data. In the latter case, it is termed as 'Projected Cash Flow Statement', which is synonymous with the term 'Cash Budget'. In the following pages we shall explain in detail in preparation of cash flow statement, utility and limitations of cash flow analysis etc. MEANING OF CASH FLOW STATEMENT A Cash Flow Statement is a statement depicting change in cash position from one period to another. For example, if the cash balance of a business is shown

by its Balance Sheet on 31st December, 1998 at Rs. 20,000 while the cash balance as per its Balance Sheet on 31st December, 1999 is Rs. 30,000, there has been an inflow of cash of Rs. 10,000 in the year 1999 as compared to the year 1998. The cash flow statement explains the reasons for such inflows or outflows of cash, as the case may be. It also helps management in making plans for the immediate future. A Projected Cash Flow Statement or a Cash Budget will help the management in ascertaining how much cash will be available to meet obligations to trade creditors, to pay bank loans and to pay dividend to the shareholders. A proper planning of the cash resources will enable the management to have cash available whenever needed and put it to some profitable or productive use in case there is surplus cash available. The term "Cash" here stands for cash and bank balances. In a narrower sense, funds are also used to denote cash. In such a case, the term "Funds" will exclude from its purview all other current assets and current liabilities and the terms "Funds Flow Statement" and "Cash Flow Statement" will have synonymous meanings. However, for the purpose of this study we are calling this part of study Cash Flow Analysis and not Funds Flow analysis. PREPARATION OF CASH FLOW STATEMENT Cash Flow Statement can be prepared on the same pattern on which a Funds Flow Statement is prepared. The change in the cash position from one period to another is computed by taking into account "Sources" and" Applications" of cash. Sources of Cash Sources of cash can be both internal as well as external: Internal Sources- Cash from operations is the main internal source. The Net Profit shown by the Profit and Loss Account will have to be adjusted for non-

cash items for finding out cash from operations. Some of these items are as follows: i) Depreciation. Depreciation does not result in outflow of cash and, therefore, net profit will have to be increased by the amount of depreciation or development rebate charged, in order to find out the real cash generated from operations. (ii) Amortization of Intangible Assets. Goodwill, preliminary expenses, etc., when written off against profits, reduce the net profits without affecting the cash balance. The amounts written off should, therefore, be added back to profits to find out the cash from operations. iii) Loss on Sale of Fixed Assets. It does not result in outflow of cash and, therefore, should be added back to profits. iv) Gains from Sale of Fixed Assets. Since sale of fixed assets is taken as a separate source of cash, it should be deducted from net profits. v) Creation of Reserves. If profit for the year has been arrived at after charging transfers to reserves, such transfers should be added back to profits. In case operations show a net loss, such net loss after making adjustments for non-cash items will be shown as an application of cash. Thus, cash from operations is computed on the pattern of computation of 'Funds' from operations, as explained in an earlier chapter. However, to find out real cash from operations, adjustments will have to be made for 'changes' in current assets and current liabilities arising on account of operations, viz., trade debtors, trade creditors, bills receivable, bills payable, etc. For the sake of convenience computation of cash from operations can be studied by taking two different situations: (1) When all transactions are cash transactions, and

(2) When all transactions are not cash transactions. When all Transactions are Cash Transactions: The computation of cash from operations will be very simple in this case. The net profit as shown by the Profit and Loss Account will be taken as the amount of cash from operations as shown in the following example: Example (xii): PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT (for the year ended 31st Dec.1998) Dr. Rs. To Purchases To Wages To Rent To Stationery To Net Profit 15,000 10,000 500 2,500 22,000 50,000 50,000 By Sales Rs. 50,000 Cr.

In the example given above, if all transactions are cash transactions, i.e., all purchases' and expenses have been paid for in cash and all sales have been realized in cash, the cash from operations will be Rs. 22,000. i.e., the net profit shown in the Profit and Loss Account. Thus, in case of all transactions being cash transactions, the equation for computing cash from operations can be made out as follows:

Cash for Operations = Net Profit

In the example given above, we have computed cash from operations on the basis that all transactions are cash transactions. It does not really happen in actual practice. The business sells goods on credit. It purchases goods on credit. Certain expenses are always outstanding and some of the incomes are not immediately realized. Under such circumstances, the net profit made by a firm cannot generate equivalent amount of cash. The computation of cash from operations in such a situation can be done conveniently if it is done in two stages: (i) (ii) Computation of funds (i.e., working capital) from operations. Adjustments in the funds so calculated for changes in the current assets (excluding cash) and current liabilities. We are giving below an illustration for computing 'Funds' from operations. However, since there are no credit transactions, hence the amount of 'Funds' from operations is as a matter of cash from operations as shown below: TRADING AND PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT for the year ending 31st March, 1998 Dr. Rs. To Purchases To Wages To Gross Profit c/d 20,000 5,000 5,000 30,000 To Salaries 1,000 By Gross 30,000 5,000 By Sales Rs. Rs. 30,000 Cr.

Profit/b/d To Rent 1,000 By Profit on sale out building To Depreciation on Plant 1,000 Book Value To Loss on sale of 500 Sold for 15,000 5,000 10,000

furniture To Goodwill written off To Net Profit 1,000 5,500 10,000 10,000

Calculate the cash from operations. Solution: CASH FROM OPERATIONS Rs. Net Profit as per P & L Account Non-cash items (items which do not result in Add outflow of cash): Depreciation Loss on sale of furniture Goodwill written off 1,000 500 1,000 2,500 Rs. 5,500

Non-cash items (items which do not result In Inflow of cash): Profit on sale of building Less: (Rs. 15,000 will be taken as a separate source of cash) Cash from operations

8,000

5,000

3,000

Adjustments for Changes in Current Assets and Current Liabilities In the illustration given above, the cash from operations has been computed on the same pattern on which funds from operations are computed. As a matter of fact, the fund from operations is equivalent to cash from operations in. this case. This is because of the presumption that all are cash transactions and all goods have been sold. However, there may be credit purchases, credit sales, outstanding and prepaid expenses, etc. In such a case, adjustments will have to be made for each of these items in order to find out cash from operations. This has been explained in the following pages: (i) Effect of Credit Sales. In business, there are both cash sales and credit sales. In case, the total sales are Rs. 30,000 out of which the credit sales are Rs. 10,000, it means sales have contributed only to the extent of Rs. 20,000 in providing cash from operations. Thus, while computing cash from operations, it will be necessary that suitable adjustments for outstanding debtors are also made. (ii) Effect of Credit Purchases. Whatever has been stated regarding credit sales is also applicable to credit purchases. The only difference will be that decrease in creditors from one period to another will

result in decrease of cash from operations because it means more cash payments have been made to the creditors which will result in outflow of cash. On the other hand, increase in creditors from one period to another will result in increase of cash from operations because less payment has been made to the creditors for goods supplied which will result in increase of cash balance at the disposal of the business. (iii) Effect of Opening and Closing Stocks. The amount of opening stock is charged to the debit side of the Profit & Loss Account. It thus reduces the net profit without reducing the cash from operations. Similarly, the amount of closing stock is put on the credit side of the Profit and Loss Account. It thus increases the amount of net profit without increasing the cash from operations. (iv) Effect of Outstanding Expenses, Incomes received in Advance, etc. The effect of these items on cash from operations is similar to the effect of creditors. This means any increase in these items will result in increase in cash from operations while any decrease means decrease in cash from operations. This is because net profit from operations is computed after charging to it all expenses whether paid or outstanding. In case certain expenses have not been paid, this will result in decrease of net profit without a corresponding decrease in cash from operations. Similarly, income received in advance is not taken into account while calculating profit from operations, since it relates to the next year. It, therefore, means cash from operations will be higher than the actual net profit as shown by the Profit and Loss Account. Consider the following example:

Example (xiii): Net Profit for the year 1998 Expenses outstanding as on 1.1.1998 Expenses outstanding as on 31.12.1998 Interest received in advance 1.1.1998 Interest received in advance 31.12.1998 The Cash from Operations will be computed as follows: Net Profit for the year Add: Expenses outstanding on 31.12.1998 Income received in advance on 31.12.1998 15,000 Less: Expenses outstanding on 1.1.1998 Interest received in advance on 1.1.1998 Cash from Operations Alternatively, Cash from Operations can be computed as follows: Net profit for the year Add: Increase in Outstanding Expenses 10,000 1,000 1,000 12,000 2,000 1,000 3,000 12,000 10,000 3,000 2,000 10,000 2,000 3,000 1,000 2,000

Add: Increase in Interest received in Advance Cash from Operations

Thus, the effect of income received in advance and outstanding expenses on cash from operations can be shown as follows:

Cash from Operations = Net Profit

+ Increase in outstanding expenses + Increase in income received in advance - Decrease in outstanding expenses - Decrease in income received in advance

(v) Effect of Prepaid Expenses and Outstanding Incomes. The effect' of prepaid expenses and outstanding income on cash from operations is similar to the effect of debtors. While computing net profit from operations, the expenses only for the accounting year are charged to the Profit and Loss Account. Expenses paid in advance are not charged to the Profit and Loss Account. Thus, pre-payment of expenses does not decrease net profit for the year but it decreases cash from operations. Similarly, income earned during a year is credited to the Profit arid Loss Account whether it has been received or not. Thus, income, which has not been received, but which has become due, increases the net profit for the year without increasing cash from operations. This will be clear with the help of the following example: Example (xiv): Rs. Gross Profit Expenses paid Interest received 30,000 10,000 2,000

The expenses paid include Rs. 1,000 paid for the next year. While interest of Rs. 500 has become due during the year, but it has not been received so far. The net profit for the year will be computed as follows:

PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT Rs. To Expenses paid 10,00 0 Less: expenses To Net Profit 23,500 By Interest received 2,000 Add: accrued 32,500 Now, the cash from operations will be computed as follows: Rs. Net Profit for the year Less: Prepaid Expenses Outstanding Interest Cash from operations External Sources The external sources of cash are: (i) Issue of New Shares. In case shares have been issued for cash, the net cash received (i.e., after deducting expenses on issue of shares or discount on issue of shares) will be taken as a source of cash. (ii) Raising Long-term Loans. Long-term loans such as issue of debentures, loans from Industrial Finance Corporation, State Financial Corporations, 1,000 500 1,500 22,000 23,500 32,500 Interest 500 2,500 Prepaid 1,000 9,000 Rs. By Gross Profit Rs. Rs. 30,000

I.D.B.I., etc., are sources of cash. They should be shown separately. (iii)Purchase of Plant and Machinery on Deferred Payments. In case plant and machinery has been purchased on a deferred payment system, it should be shown as a separate source of cash to the extent of deferred credit. However, the cost of machinery purchased will be shown as an application of cash. (iv) Short-term Borrowings-Cash Credit from Banks. Short-term borrowings, etc., from banks increase cash available and they have to be shown separately under this head. (v) Sale of Fixed Assets, Investment, etc. It results in generation of cash and therefore, is a source of cash. Decrease in various current assets and increase in various current liabilities

may be taken as external sources of cash, if they are not adjusted while computing cash from operations. Applications of Cash Applications of cash may take any of the following forms: (i) Purchase of Fixed Assets. Cash may be utilized for additional fixed assets or renewals or replacement of existing fixed assets. (ii) Payment of Long-term Loans. The payment of long-term loans such as loans from financial institutions or debentures results in decrease in cash. It is, therefore, an application of cash. (iii) Decrease in Deferred Payment Liabilities. Payments for plant and machinery purchased on deferred payment basis have to be made as per the agreement. It is, therefore, an application of cash. (iv) Loss on Account of Operations. Loss suffered on account of business

operations will result in outflow of cash. (v) Payment of Tax. Payment of tax will result in decrease of cash and hence it is an application of cash. (vi) Payment of Dividend. This decreases the cash available for business and hence it is an application of cash. (vii) Decrease in Unsecured Loans, Deposits, etc. The decrease in these liabilities denotes that they have been paid off to that extent. It results, therefore outflow of cash.

Increase in various current assets or decrease in various current liabilities may be shown as applications of cash, if changes in these items have not been adjusted while finding out cash from operations. Format of a Cash Flow Statement A cash flow statement can be prepared in the following form. CASH FLOW STATEMENT Balance as on 1.1.19.. Cash Balance Balance Add: Sources of Cash: Issue of Shares Raising of Long-term Loans Sale of Fixed Assets . ..... ___ for the year ending on..

Short-term Borrowings Cash from operations: Profit as per Profit and Loss Account Add/Less: Adjustment for Non-cash Items Add: Increase in Current Liabilities Decrease in Current Assets Less: Increase in Current Assets Decrease in Current Liabilities Total Cash available (1) Less: Applications of Cash: Redemption of Redeemable Preference Shares Redemption of Long-term Loans Purchase of Fixed Assets Decrease in Deferred Payment Liabilities Cash Outflow on account of Operations Tax paid Dividend paid Decrease in Unsecured loans, Deposits, etc., Total Applications (2) Closing Balances* Cash balance . . - --

. .

- -.. . .. . .. .

Bank balance * These totals should tally with the balance as shown by (1) - (2).

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CASH FLOW ANALYSIS AND FLOW ANALYSIS

FUNDS

Following are the points of difference between a Cash Flow Analysis and a Funds Flow Analysis: (1) A Cash Flow Statement is concerned only with the change in cash position while a Funds Flow Analysis is concerned with change in working capital position between two balance sheet dates. Cash is only one of the constituents of working capital besides several other constituents such, as inventories, accounts receivable, prepaid expenses. (2) A Cash Flow Statement is merely a record of cash receipts, and 'disbursements. Of course, it is valuable in its own way but it fails to bring to light many important changes involving the disposition of resources. While studying the short-term solvency of a business one is interested not only in cash balance but also in the assets which are easily convertible into cash. (3) Cash flow analysis is more useful to the management as a tool of financial analysis in short period as compared to funds flow analysis. It has rightly been said that shorter the period covered by the analysis, greater is the importance of cash flow analysis. For example, if it is to be found out whether the business can meet its obligations maturing after 10 years from now, a good estimate can be made about firm's capacity to meet its long-term obligations if changes in working capital position on account of operations are observed. However, if the firm's capacity to

meet a liability maturing after one month is to be seen, the realistic approach would be to consider the projected change in the cash position rather than an expected change in the working capital position. (4) Cash is part of working capital and, therefore, an improvement in cash position results in improvement in the funds position but the reverse is not true. In other words, "inflow of cash" results in "inflow of funds" but "inflow of funds" may not necessarily result in "inflow of cash". Thus sound funds position does not necessarily mean a sound cash position but a sound cash position generally means a sound funds position. (5) Another distinction between a cash flow analysis and a funds flow analysis can be made on the basis of the techniques of their preparation. An increase in a current liability or decrease in a current asset results in decrease in working capital and vice versa. While an increase in a current liability or decrease in current asset (other than cash) will result in increase in cash and vice versa,

Some people, as stated earlier, use term 'Funds' in a very narrow sense of cash only. In such an event the two terms 'Funds' and 'Cash' will have synonymous in meanings. UTILITY OF CASH FLOW ANALYSIS A Cash Flow Statement is useful for short-term planning. A business enterprise needs sufficient cash to meet its various obligations in the near future such as payment for purchase of fixed assets, payment of debts maturing in the near future, expenses of the business, etc. A historical analysis of the different sources and applications of cash will enable the management to make reliable cash flow projections for the immediate future. It may then plan out for

investment of surplus or meeting the deficit, if any. Thus, a cash flow analysis is an important financial tool for the management. Its chief advantages are as follows: 1. Helps in Efficient Cash Management Cash flow analysis helps in evaluating financial policies and cash position. Cash is the basis for all operations and hence a projected cash flow statement will enable ill management to plan and co-ordinate the financial operations properly. The management can know how much cash is needed, from which source it will be derived, how much can be generated internally and how much could be obtained from outside. 2. Helps in Internal Financial Management Cash flow analysis provides information about funds which will be available from operations. This will help the management in determining policies regarding internal financial management, e.g., possibility of repayment of longterm debt, dividend policies, planning replacement of plant and machinery, etc. 3. Discloses the Movements of Cash Cash flow statement discloses the complete story of cash movement. The increase in or decrease of, cash and the reason therefore can be known. It discloses the reasons for low cash balance in spite of heavy operating profits or for heavy cash balance in spite of low profits. However, comparison of original forecast with the actual results highlights the trends of movement of cash which may otherwise go undetected. 4. Discloses Success or Failure of Cash Planning The extent of success or failure of cash planning can be known by comparing the projected cash flow statement with the actual cash flow statement and necessary remedial measures can be taken.

LIMITATIONS OF CASH FLOW ANALYSIS Cash flow analysis is a useful tool of financial analysis. However, it has its own limitations. These limitations are as under: (1) Cash flow statement cannot be equated with the Income Statement. An Income Statement takes into account both cash as well as non-cash items and, therefore, net cash flow does not necessarily mean net income of the business.

(2) The cash balance as disclosed by the cash flow statement may not represent the real liquid position of the business since it can be easily influenced by postponing purchases and other payments.

(3)

Cash flow statement cannot replace the Income Statement or the Funds Flow Statement. Each of them has a separate function to perform.

In spite of these limitations, it can be said that cash flow statement is a useful supplementary instrument. It discloses the volume as well as the speed at which the cash flows in the different segments of the business. This helps the management in knowing the amount of capital tied up in a particular segment of the business. The technique of cash flow analysis, when used in conjunction with ratio analysis, serves as a barometer in measuring the profitability and financial position of the business. The concept and technique of preparing a Cash Flow Statement will be clear with the help of the following illustration. Cash from Operations From the following balances, you are required to calculate cash from operations:

December 31 1997 Rs. Debtors Bills Receivable Creditors Bills Payable Outstanding Expenses Prepaid Expenses Accrued Income Income received in Advance Profit made during the year 50,000 10,000 20,000 8,000 1,000 800 600 300 1998 Rs. 47,000 12,500 25,000 6,000 1,200 700 750 250 1,30,000

Solutions:

CASH FROM OPERATIONS

December 31st 1997 Rs. Profit made during the year 1998 Rs. 1,30,000

Add: Decrease in Debtors Increase in Creditors Increase in Outstanding Expenses Decreases in prepaid expenses 3,000 5,000 200 100 8,300 1,38,300 Less: Increase in Bills Receivable Decrease in Bills payable Increases in Accrued Income Decrease in Income received in advance Cash from Operations 2,500 2,000 150 50 4,700 1,33,600

SECTION B Contemporary Issues in Management Accounting: Value Chain Analysis; Activity-Based Costing; Quality costing; Target and Life-Cycle Costing. In this section, we will introduce you to Value chain analysis; Activity based costing; Quality costing; the concept, phases and benefits of Target costing; Life-cycle costing (Production and Project). After you workout this section, you should be able to: develop the power of understanding the important issues in the area of Management Accounting.

decide the use of costing in Management Accounting.

VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS Value chain is the linked set of value-creating activities from the basic raw material sources for suppliers to the ultimate end-use product delivered into the final customers' hands. No individual firm is likely to span the entire value chain. Each firm must be understood in the context of the overall value chain of value-creating activities. Note that the value chain requires an external focus, unlike conventional management accounting in which the focus is internal to the firm. According to Michael Porter, a business unit can develop a sustainable competitive advantage based on cost or on differentiation or on both, as shown in the following diagram. Developing Competitive Advantage: Differentiation Differentiation Advantage Superior with Cost Advantage

Relative Differentiation Position Stuck-in-the Middle Low Cost Advantage

Inferior Relative Cost Position

The primary focus of the low-cost strategy is to achieve low cost relative to competitors. Cost leadership can be achieved through, for example, economies of scale of production, learning curve effects, tight cost control, cost minimization in R&D, service sales force, or administration. Examples of companies following the low-cost strategy are Nirma in detergents, Shiva in computers, and Times in wrist watches. The differentiation strategy consists in differentiating the product by creating something perceived as unique. Product differentiation can be achieved through brand loyalty, superior customer service, dealer network, and product design and features. Examples of companies following the differentiation route are Hindustan Lever in detergents, WIPRO in computers and Titan in wrist watches. Whether or not a firm can develop and sustain differentiation or cost advantage or differentiation with cost advantage depends on how well the firm manages its value chain relative to the value chain of its competitors. Value chain analysis is essential to determine exactly where in the chain customer value can be enhanced or costs lowered. Note that no single firm spans the entire value chain in which it operates. Typically, a firm is only apart of the larger set of activities in the value delivery system. The value chain concept highlights four profit improvement areas: l. 2. 3. 4. Linkages with suppliers Linkages with customers Process linkages within the value chain of a business unit Linkages across business unit value chain within.

ACTIVITY-BASED COSTING

Applying overhead costs to each product or service based on the extent to which that product or service causes overhead cost to be incurred is the primary objective of accounting for overhead costs. In many production processes, when overhead is applied to products using a single pre-determined overhead rate based on a single activity measure. With Activity-Based Costing (ABC), multiple activities are identified in the production process that is associated with costs. The events within these activities that cause work (costs) are called cost drivers. Examples of overhead cost drivers are machine setups, materialhandling operations, and the number of steps in a manufacturing process. Examples of costs drivers in non-manufacturing organizations are hospital beds occupied, the number of take-offs and lending for an airline, and the number of rooms occupied in a hotel. The cost drivers are used to apply overhead to products and services when using ABC. The following five steps are used to apply costs to products under an ABC system: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Choose appropriate activities Trace costs to activities Determine cost drivers for each activity Estimate the application rate for each cost driver Apply costs to products.

These steps are discussed in more detail above. Choose Appropriate Activities Involve producing a product or providing a service. The various activities within an organization. The first step of ABC is to choose the activities that will be the

intermediate cost objectives of overhead costs. These activities do not necessarily coincide with existing departments but rather represent a group of transactions that support the production process. Typical activities used in ABC are designing, ordering, scheduling, moving materials, controlling inventory, and controlling quality. Each of these activities is composed 'of transactions that result in costs. More than one cost pool can be established for each activity. A cost pool is an account to record the costs of an activity with a specific cost driver. Trace Costs to Activities Once the activities have been chosen, costs must be traced to the cost pools for different activities. To facilitate this tracing, cost drivers are chosen to act as vehicles for distributing costs. These cost drivers are often called resource drivers. A pre-determined rate is estimated for each resource driver. Consumption of the resource driver in combination with the pre-determined rate determines the distribution of the resource costs to the activities. Determine Cost Drivers for Activities Cost drivers for activities are sometimes called activity drivers. Activity drivers represent the event that causes costs within an activity. For example, activity drivers for the purchasing activity include negotiations with vendors, ordering materials, scheduling' their arrival, and perhaps inspection. Each of these activity drivers represents costly procedures that are performed in the purchasing activity. An activity driver is chosen for each cost pool. If two cost pools use the same cost driver, then the cost pools could be combined for product-costing purposes. Cooper has developed several criteria for choosing activity drivers. First, the data on the cost driver must be easy to obtain. Second, the consumption of the

activity implied by the activity driver should be highly correlated with the actual consumption of the activity. The third criterion to consider is the behavioral effects induced by the choice of the activity driver. Activity drivers determine the application of costs, which in turn can affect individual performance measures. The judicious use of more activity drivers increases the accuracy of product costs. Ostrenga concludes that there is a preferred sequence for accurate product costs. Direct costs are the most accurate in applying costs to products. The application of overhead costs through cost drivers is the next most accurate process. Any remaining overhead costs must be allocated in a somewhat arbitrary manner, which is less accurate. Estimate Application Rates for each Activity Driver An application rate must be estimated for each activity driver. A pre-determined rate is estimated by dividing the cost pool by the estimated level of activity of the activity driver. Alternatively, an actual rate is determined by dividing the actual costs of the cost pool by the actual level of activity of the activity driver. Standard costs, could also be used to calculate a pre-determined rate. Applying Costs to Products The application of costs to products is calculated by multiplying the application rate times the usage of the activity driver in manufacturing a product or providing a service. Examples of Activity-Based Costing Modison Motors Inc. produces electric motors. The company makes a standard electric-starter motor for a major auto manufacturer and also produces electric motors that are specially ordered. The company has four essential activities: design, ordering, machinery, and marketing. Modison Motors incurs the

following costs during the month of, January: Standard Motors Direct Labor Direct materials Overhead: Indirect labour Depreciation of building Depreciation of equipment Rs. 35,00,00 Rs. 2,00,000 Rs. 10,00,000 Maintenance Utilities Rs. 3,00,000 Rs. 10,00,000 Rs. 60,00,000 Traditional cost accounting would apply the overhead costs based on a single measure of activity. If direct labor dollars were used, then the overhead rate would be Rs.60, 00,000 / (Rs.10, 00,000 + Rs.2, 00,000), or Rs.5, per directlabor dollar. Hence: Overhead to standard motors = (Rs.5/Direct-labor dollar)(Rs. 10,00,000 of direct labor) = Rs. 50,00,000 Overhead to special-order motors = (Rs.5/Direct-labor dollar)(Rs.2,00,000 of direct labor) = Rs. 10,00,000 Rs. 10,00,000 Rs. 30,00,000 Special Order Motors Rs. 2,00,000 Rs. 10,00,000

With ABC, activities are chosen and the overhead costs are distributed to cost pools within these activities through resource drivers. The costs of activities are then applied to products through activity drivers. Suppose that Modison Motors uses the following activities: designing, ordering, machining, and marketing. Each activity has one cost pool. The overhead costs are distributed to the cost pools of the activities using the following resource drivers: Overhead Account Indirect labor Depreciation of building Depreciation of equipment Maintenance Utilities Resource Driver Labor dollars Square feet of building Machine time Square feet of building Amps used

The usages of the resource drivers by activity are: Designin Orderin g Labor Dollars Sq.ft building Machine time Amps of 10,00,00 0 50,000 0 g 20,000 Machining Marketing Totals

1,00,000

1,30,000

3,50,000

30,000 0

1,00,000 10,00,000

20,000 0 1,00,000

2,00,000 10,00,000 20,00,000

2,00,000 1,00,000 16,00,000

The resource driver application rates are calculated by dividing overhead costs by total resource driver usage:

Overhead Account

Resource Driver

Cost of Overhead

Total Driver Usage

Application Rate Rs,10/ Labor dollar Rs.1/sq.ft.

Indirect labor Labor dollars Rs.35,00,000 Rs.3,50,000 Depreciation Square feet of of building Depreciation of machinery Maintenance building 2,00,000 2,00,000 Sqft 50.000 hrs. 2,00,000 sqft. 20,00,000 amps

Machine time 10,00,000 Sq. ft. of

Rs.20/hr.

building Amps used

3,00,000

Rs.1.50/sq.ft.

Utilities

10.00.000

0.50/amp

By multiplying the application rate times the resource usage of each activity, overhead costs can be allocated to the different activities. For example, the cost of the indirect labor allocated to the designing activity is Rs. 10/labor dollar times Rs. 10,000 in labor, or Rs. 100,000. Designing Rs. Ordering Rs. Machining Rs. 10,00,000 1,00.000 Marketing Rs. 13,00,000 20,000 Totals Rs. 35,00,000 2,00,000

Indirect labor 10,00,000 2,00,000 Depreciation of building Depreciation of equipment Maintenance 75,000 45,000 50,000 30,000

10,00,000 1,50,000 30.000

10,00,000 3,00,000

Utilities Totals

1,00,000

50,000

8,00,000 30,50,000

50,000 14,00,000

10,00,000 60,00,000

12,25.000 3,25,000

Once the overhead costs have been distributed to the activity cost pools, activity drivers must be chosen to apply the costs to the .products. Suppose the following activity drivers are chosen: Activity Designing Ordering Matching Marketing Activity Driver Design changes Number of orders Machine time Number of contract with customer

Modison Motors uses actual costs and activity levels to determine the application rates shown below: Activity Driver Design changes Number 0f orders Machine time Costs 0f Activity Total Driver Usage Application Rate Rs. 1 00 /change RS.50 /order RS.2000 / hour Rs.200 /contract

RS.12,25,000 12,250 changes 3.25,000 30,50.000 6,500 orders 152.5 hours 7,000 contracts

Number of contracts14.00,000

The application rates are then multiplied by the cost driver usage for each product to determine the costs applied to each product. Product Activity Application Rate Driver Usage Cost

Standard

Designing Ordering Machining Marketing

Rs. 100/change Rs.50/order Rs.2000/hour Rs.200/contract

225 changes 150 orders 100 hours 200 contracts

Rs.22,500 7,500 200,000 40,000 Rs.270,000 Rs.100,000

Total overhead costs applied to the standard electric motors Specialordered Ordering Rs.50/order 500 orders 52.5 hours 500 contract Designing Rs.100/change 1000 changes

25,000 105,000 100,000 Rs.330,000

Machining RS.2000 / hour Marketing Rs.200 /contract

Total overhead costs applied to the special-order motors

The ABC method applied a much higher amount of the overhead cost to the special-order electric motors than when all overhead was applied by direct-labor dollar (Rs.330, 000 versus Rs.100, 000). The reason for the greater overhead application to the special-order electric motors is the greater usage of the activities that enhance the manufacturing of the electric motors during their production. Use of direct-labor dollars to allocate overhead does not recognize the extra overhead requirements of the special-order electric motors. Misapplication of overhead could lead to inappropriate product line decisions. The greater the diversity of requirements of products on overhead-related services and other overhead costs, the greater the need for an ABC system. Other Benefits of Activity-Based Costing ABC is valuable for planning, because the establishment of an ABC system

requires a careful study of the total manufacturing or service process of an organization. ABC highlights the causes of costs. An analysis of these causes can identify activities that do not add to the value of the product. These activities include moving materials and accounting for transactions. Although these activities cannot be completely eliminated, they may be reduced. Recognition of how various activities affect costs can lead to modifications in the planning of factory layouts and increased efforts in the design process stage to reduce future manufacturing costs. An analysis of activities can also lead to better performance measurement. Workers on the line often understand activities better than costs and can be evaluated accordingly. At higher management levels, the activities can be aggregated to coincide with responsibility centers. Managers would be responsible for the costs of the activities associated with their responsibility centers. Weaknesses of Activity-Based Costing First, ABC is based on historical costs. For planning decisions, future costs are generally the relevant costs. Second, ABC does not partition variable and fixed costs. For many short run decisions, it is important to identify variable costs. Third, ABC is only as accurate as the quality of the cost drivers. The distribution and application of costs becomes an arbitrary allocation process when the cost drivers are not associated with the factors that are causing costs. And finally, ABC tends to be more costly than the more traditional methods of applying costs to products. QUALITY COSTING The benefits from increased product quality come in lower costs for reworking discovered defective units and from more satisfied customers who find fewer defective units. The cost of lowering the tolerance for defective units results

from the increased costs of using a better production technology. These costs could be due to using more highly skilled and experienced workers, from using a better grade of materials, or from acquiring updated production equipment. A quality-costing system monitors and accumulates the costs incurred by a firm in maintaining or improving product quality. Measuring Quality Costs The quality costs discussed here deal with costs associated with quality of conformance as opposed to costs associated with quality of design. Quality of design refers to variations in products that have the same functional use. Quality of Conformance refers to the degree with which the final product meets its specifications. In other words, quality of conformance refers to the product's fitness for use. If products are sold and they do not meet the consumers' expectations, the company will incur costs because the consumer is unhappy with the product's performance. These costs are one kind of quality costs that will be reduced if higher-quality products are produced. Thus higher quality may mean lower total costs when quality of conformance is considered. The costs associated with quality of conformance generally can be classified into four types: prevention costs, appraisal costs, internal failure costs, and external failure costs. The prevention and appraisal costs occur because a lack of quality of conformance can exist. The internal and external failure costs occur because a lack of quality of conformance does exist. Prevention Costs are the costs incurred to reduce the number of defective units produced or the incidence of poor-quality service. Prevention costs begin with the designing and engineering of the product or service. Designers and engineers should work together to develop a product that is easy to assemble with a minimal number of mistakes.

Appraisal Costs are the costs incurred to ensure that materials, products, and services meet quality standards. Appraisal costs begin with the inspection of raw materials and part from vendors. Further inspection costs are incurred throughout the production process. Quality audits and reliability tests are performed on products and services to determine if they meet quality standards. Appraisal costs also occur through field inspections at the customer site before the final release of the product. Internal Failure Costs are the costs associated with materials and products that fail to meet quality standards and result in manufacturing losses. These defects are identified before they are shipped to customers. Scrap and the costs of spoiled units that cannot be salvaged are internal failure costs. The cost of analyzing, investigating and reworking defects is also internal failure costs. Defects create additional costs because they lead to down time in the production process. External Failure Costs are the costs incurred when inferior-quality products or services are sold to customers. These costs begin with customer complaints and usually lead to warranty repairs, replacement, or product recall. The problem management faces is choosing the desired level of product quality. If all the costs can be measured accurately, then the desired level of product quality occurs when the sum of prevention, appraisal, and failure costs is minimized. Quality costs are minimized at a specific percentage of planned defects. The magnitude of quality costs has prompted many companies to install qualitycosting systems to monitor and help reduce the costs of achieving high-quality production. Several examples follow. Quality at Bavarian Motor Works (BMW)

Quality Costs in Banking Reducing Quality Costs at TRW Cost of a faulty electrical component at Hewlett-Packard

Although the concepts of quality costing are easy to understand, the cost measurement of many quality efforts is difficult. Many of the costs are not isolated in a traditional cost accounting system, and some costs are opportunity costs that are not part of a historical cost accounting system. Quality cost reports provide management with only a partial picture of the costs of quality. Management would also like to know the potential trade-off among the different types of quality costs relating to new technologies. Cost trade-offs are not part of a historical cost accounting system, and estimates of these cost trade-offs must be made. Typical Quality Cost Report Current months cost Prevention costs: Quality training Reliability engineering Pilot studies Systems development Total prevention Appraisal costs: Materials inspection Supplies inspection Rs. 6,000 3,000 .3.9% 2.0 Rs.2,000 10.000 5,000 8,000 RS.25,000 1.3% 6.5 3.3 5.2 16.3% Percentage of Total

Reliability testing Laboratory Total appraisal Internal failure costs: Scrap Repair Rework Down time Total internal failure External failure costs: Warranty costs Out-of-warranty and replacement Customer complaints Product liability Transportation losses Total external failure Total quality costs Total Quality Control repairs

5,000 25,000 Rs. 39,000

3.3 16.3 25.5%

Rs.15,000 18,000 12,000 6.000 Rs. 51.000

9.8% 11.8 7.8 3.9 33.3%

Rs. 14.000 6.000 3.000 10.000 5,000 Rs. 38.000 Rs.153,000

9.2% 3.9 2.0 6.5 3.3 24.9% 100.0%

Total quality control (TQC) is a management process based on the belief that quality costs are minimized with zero defects. The phrase quality is free is commonly advocated by proponents of TQC, who argue that the reduction of

failure costs due to improved quality outweigh additional prevention and appraisal costs. It is not surprising, then, that U.S. Auto Manufacturers have recently become leaders in advocating TQC. TQC begins with the design and engineering of the product. Designing a product to be resistant to workmanship defects may not be incrementally more costly than the present design process, but the reduction in other quality costs can be substantial. TQC is often associated with just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing. Under JIT each worker is trained to be a quality inspector. Therefore teams specializing in quality inspection become unnecessary. With suppliers delivering high-quality parts and materials, a company can substantially reduce if not eliminate appraisal costs. Total quality control is sometimes referred to as total quality management (TQM) because a completely new orientation must be taken by management to make TQC successful. New performance measures that reinforce quality improvements must be initiated. Standard cost variance such as the materials price variance and labor efficiency variance tend to emphasize price and quantity rather than quality and should not be used to reward employees. The productivity measures described in the next section are more useful in motivating workers to achieve both quality and productivity. TARGET COSTING Introduction Target costing has recently received considerable attention. Computer Aided Manufacturing-International defines target cost as "a market-based cost that is calculated using a sales price necessary to capture a predetermined market

share." In competitive industries a unit sales price would be established independent of the initial product cost. If the target cost is below the initial forecast of product cost, the company drives the unit cost down over a designed period to compete. Target cost = Sales price (for the target market share) - Desired profit Japanese cost management is known to be guided by the concept of target cost. Management decides, before the product is designed, what a product should cost, based on marketing (rather than manufacturing) factors. The following write-up on target costing for the Sony Walkman describes the target costing approach. The Walkman: Setting the price before the Cost Sony's Walkman was a classic example of how a company uses the "PROFITS = SALES - COSTS" equation to full advantage: First set the price at which the customer will buy, then bring down your costs so you can make profits. "I dictated the selling price (of the Walkman) to suit a young person's pocketbook, even before we made the first machine," wrote Sony Corp. Chairman Akio Morita in his book Made In Japan. "I said I wanted the first models ... to retail for no more than Yen 30,000. The accountants protested but I persisted. I told them I was confident we would be making our new product in very large numbers and our cost would come down as volume climbed." The target costing philosophy leads to a market-driven approach to accounting. Target costs are conceptually different from standard costs. Standard costs are predetermined costs built up from an internal analysis by industrial engineers. Target costs are based on external analysis of markets and competitors. Several Japanese firms are known to compute two separate variances, one comparing actual costs with target costs and other comparing actual costs with standard costs.

While introducing a new product, a company might test the market to determine the price it can charge in order to be competitive with products already on the market of similar function and quality. A target cost is the maximum manufactured cost for a product. It is arrived at by subtracting its expected market price from the required margin on sales. Target costing is a market-driven design methodology. It estimates the cost for a product and then designs the product to meet that cost. It is used to encourage the various departments involved in design and production to find less expensive ways of achieving similar or better product features and quality. It is a cost management tool which reduces a product's costs over its entire life cycle. Target costing includes actions management must take to: establish reasonable target costs, develop methods for achieving those targets, and develop means by which to test the cost effectiveness of different cost-cutting scenarios. There are several phases to the methodology. Conception (Planning) Phase Based upon its strategic business plans, a company must first establish what type of product it wishes to manufacture. Traditionally (before target costing), once the type of product was determined, its development was assigned to the product design department. Then the produced product was sent to the costing department, which assessed the cost of the design and frequently found it more expensive to produce than the market would tolerate. The design was then returned to the design department with instructions to reduce its costs, usually by promising its quality. The product design was sent back and forth between the two departments until consensus was reached. The

product was then sent to the manufacturing department, which often concluded that it was impossible to manufacture it in its proposed e. It was then sent back to the design department, so on. Much time, money and effort were spent [ore the product reached the production stage. As a result, profit suffered. Under target costing, a product's design begins at the opposite end. It first establishes a price at which the product can be competitive and then assigns a team to develop cost scenarios and search for ways to design d manufacture the product to meet those cost constraints. Several steps must be taken in order to establish a reasonable target cost. i) Market research should be done to determine several factors. First, the products of competitors' should be analyzed with regard to price, quality, service and support, delivery, and technology. After a preliminary test of competitor's product, it is necessary to establish the features consumers value in this type of product, and the important features that are lacking. ii) After preliminary testing, a company should be able to pinpoint a market niche it believes is undersupplied, and in which it believes it might have some competitive advantage. Only then can a company set a target cost close to competitors' products of similar functions and value. The target cost is bound to change in the development and design stages. However, the new target costs should only be allowed to decrease, unless the company can provide added features that add value to the product. Development Phase The company must find ways to attain the target cost. is involves a number of steps.

1.

First, an in-depth study of the most competitive product on the market must be conducted. This study will show what materials were used and what features are provided, and it will give an indication of the manufacturing process needed to complete the product. Once a better understanding of the design has been achieved, the organization can target the costs against this "best" design. But its competition will probably be engaged in similar analysis and will further improve its product toward this "best" design. It is necessary when performing comparative cost analysis, and trying to establish the competitor's cost structure, that adequate attention be paid to the competitive advantages of the competitor, such as technology, location, and vertical integration.

2.

After trying to identify the cost structure of the competitor, the company should develop estimates for the internal cost structure of its own products. This is most effectively done by analyzing internal costs' of similar products already being produced by the company and should take into account the different needs of the new product in assessing these costs.

3.

After preliminary analysis of the cost structures of both the competition and itself, the company should further define these cost structures in terms of cost drivers. Focusing on cost drivers can help reduce waste, improve quality, minimize non-value-added activities, and identify ineffective product design. The use of multiple drivers leads both to a better understanding of the inputs and resources required to produce products, and a better cost analysis through more detailed cost information.

When enough cost information is available, the product development team is

able to generate cost estimates under different scenarios. After this, the designers, manufacturers, marketers, and engineers on the team should conduct a session of brainstorming to generate ideas on how to substantially reduce costs (by smoothing the process, using different materials, and so on) or add a number of different features to the product without increasing target costs. In these brainstorming sessions, no idea is rejected, and the best ideas are integrated into the development of the product. Production Phase In these stages, target costing becomes a tool for reducing costs of existing products. It is highly unlikely that the design, manufacturing, and engineering groups will develop the optimal, cost-efficient process at the beginning of production. The search for better, less expensive products should continue in the framework of continuous improvement. 1. The ABC technique can be useful as a tool for target costing of existing products. ABC assists in identifying non value-added activities and can be used to develop scenarios on how to minimize them. Target costing at the activity level makes opportunities for cost reduction highly visible. 2. Target costing is also strongly linked to consumer requirement, and tries to identify the features such as performance specifications, services, warranties, and delivery consumers want products to provide. These consumers may also be questioned about which features they prefer in products, and how much they are worth to them. The surveys on preferable features and value of these features help management do cost-benefit analysis on different features of a product, and then try to reduce costs on features that are not ranked highly. 3. Target costing also provides incentives to move toward less expensive means of production, as well as production techniques that provide a more even flow of goods. JIT provides an environment where there is

better monitoring of costs and product quality as well as access to ideas for continues improvement and better production strategies. BENEFITS OF TARGET COSTING 1. The process of target costing provides detailed information on the costs involved in producing a new product, as well as a better way of testing different cost scenarios through the use of ABC. 2. Target costing reduces the development cycle of a product. Costs can be targeted at the same time the product is being designed, bringing in the resources of the manufacturing and finance departments to ensure that all avenues of cost reduction are being explored and that the product is designed for manufacturability at an early stage of development. 3. The internal costing model, using ABC, can provide an excellent understanding of the dynamics of production costs and can detail ways to eliminate waste, reduce non-value-added activities, improve quality, simplify the process, and attack the root causes of costs (cost drivers). It can also be used for measuring different cost scenarios to ensure that the best ideas available are incorporated from the outset into the production design. 4. The profitability of new products is increased by target costing through promoting reduction in costs while maintaining or improving quality. It also helps in promoting the requirements of consumers, which leads to products that better reflect consumer needs and find better acceptance than existing products. 5. Target costing is also used to forecast future costs and to provide motivation to meet future cost goals. 6. Target costing is very attractive because it is used to control costs before

the company even incurs any production costs, which save a great deal of time and money. 7. There is one major drawback to target costing. It is difficult to use with complex products that require many subassemblies, such as automobiles. This is because tracking costs becomes too complicated and tedious, and cost analysis must be performed at so many levels. LIFE CYCLE COSTING CAM-l defines life-cycle costing as "the accumulation of costs for activities that occur over the entire life cycle of a product, from inception to abandonment by the manufacturer and the customer," Life-cycle analysis provides a framework for managing the cost and performance of a product over the duration of its life. The life-cycle commences with the initial identification of a consumer need and extends through planning, research, design, development, production, and evaluation, and use, logistics support in operation, retirement, and disposal. Life-cycle is important to cost control because of the interdependencies of activities in different time periods. For example, the output of the design activity has a significant impact on the cost and performance of subsequent activities. Cost systems have focused primarily on the cost of physical production, without accumulating costs over the entire design, manufacture, market, and support cycle of a product. Resources committed to the development of products and the manufacturing process represents a sizeable investment of capital. The benefits accrue over many years, and under conventional accounting, are not directly identified with the product being developed. They are treated instead as a period expense and allocated to all products. Even companies which use life-cycle models for planning and budgeting new products do not integrate these models into cost systems. It is important to provide feedback on planning effectiveness and the impact of design decisions on operational and support costs. Period

reporting hinders management's understanding of product-line profitability and the potential cost impact of long-term decisions such as engineering design changes. Life-cycle costing and reporting provide management with a better picture of product profitability and help managers to gauge their planning activities. Product Life Cycle Costing: The cycle begins with the identification of new consumer need and the invention of a new product and is often followed by patent protection and further development to make it saleable. This is usually followed by a rapid expansion in its sales as the product gains market acceptance. Then competitors enter the field with imitation and rival products and the distinctiveness of the new product starts diminishing. The speed of degeneration differs from product to product. The innovation of a new product and its degeneration into a common product is termed as the 'life cycle of a product'. Characteristics The major characteristics of product life-cycle concept are as follows: The products have finite lives and pass through the cycle of development, introduction, growth, maturity, decline and deletion at varying speeds. Product cost, revenue and profit patterns tend to follow predictable courses through the product life cycle. Profits first appear during the growth phase and after stabilizing during the maturity phase, decline thereafter to the point of deletion. Profit per unit varies as products move through their life cycles. Each phase of the product life-cycle poses different threats and

opportunities that give rise to different strategic actions. Products require different functional emphasis in each phase - such as an R&D emphasis in the development phase-arid a cost control emphasis in the decline. Activities in product life cycle Typically the life cycle of a manufactured product will consist of the following activities: 1. Market research 2. Specification 3. Design 4. Prototype manufacture 5. Development of the product Tooling 7. Manufacturing 8. Selling 9. Distribution 10. Product support through after sales service 10. Decommissioning or Replacement. Phases in Product Life-Cycle There are five distinct phases in the life cycle of a product as shown. Introduction phase: The Research and engineering skills lead to product development and when the product is put on the market and its awareness and acceptance are minimal. Promotional costs will be high, sales, revenue low and profits probably negative. The skill that is exhibited in testing and launching the product' will rank high in this phase as critical factor in securing success and initial market acceptance. Sales of new products usually rise slowly at first. Despite little competition profits are negative or low. This owns to high unit costs resulting from low output rates, and heavy promotional investments incurred to stimulate growth. The introductory stage may last from a few months to a year for consumer goods and generally longer for industrial products. Growth phase: In the growth phase product penetration into the market and

sales will increase because of the cumulative effects of introductory promotion, distribution. Since costs will be lower than in the earlier phase, the product will start to make a profit contribution. Following the consumer acceptance in the launch phase it now becomes vital to secure wholesaler/retailer support. But to sustain growth, consumer satisfaction must be ensured at this stage. If the product is successful, growth usually accelerates at some point, often catching the innovator by surprise. Profit margins peak during this stage as 'experience curve' affects lower unit costs and promotion costs are spread over a larger volume. Maturity phase: This stage begins after sales cease to rise exponentially. The causes of the declining percentage growth rate the market saturation eventually most potential customers have tried the product and sales settle at a rate governed by population growth and the replacement rate of satisfied buyers. In addition there are no new distribution channels to fill. This is usually the longest stage in the cycle, and most existing products are in this stage. The period over which sales are maintained depends upon the firm's ability to stretch, the cycle by means of market segmentation and finding new uses for it. Profits decline in this stage because for the following reasons. The increasing number of competitive products. The innovators find market leadership under growing pressure. Potential cost economies are used up. Prices begin to soften as smaller competitors struggle to obtain market share in an increasingly saturated market. Sales growth continues but at a diminishing rate because of the diminishing number of potential customers who remain last of the unsuccessful competing

brands will probably withdraw from the market. For this reason sales are likely to continue to rise while the customers for the withdrawn brands are mopped up by the survivors. In this phase there will be stable prices and profits and the emergence of competitors. There is no improvement in the product but changes in selling effort are common, profit margin slip despite rising sales. Saturation phase: As the market becomes saturated, pressure is exerted for a new product and sales among with profit begin to fall. Intensified marketing effort may prolong the period of maturity, but only by increasing costs disproportionately. Decline phase: Eventually most products and brands enter a period of declining sales. This may be caused by the following factors: Technical advances leading to product substitution. Fashion and changing tastes. The average length of the product life cycle is tending to shorten as a result of economic, technological and social change. Turning point indices in product life cycle The following checklist indicates some of the detailed information necessary to identify turning points in the product life cycle: Market saturation Is the growth rate of sales volume declining? What is the current level of ownership compared to potential? Are first time buyers a declining proportion of total sales? Nature of competition How many competitors have entered or plan to enter?

 Is long-term over capacity emerging? Are prices and profit margins being cut? Are advertising and promotional elasticity declining and price elasticity increasing? Alternative products and technologies Are new products being created in this industry or others which may meet consumer needs more effectively? Is significant technical progress taking place which threatens existing products? Project Life Cycle Costing: The term 'project life cycle cost' has been defined as follows: 'It includes the costs associated with acquiring, using, caring for and disposing of physical assets, including the feasibility studies, research, design, development, production, maintenance, replacement and disposal, as well as support, training an operating costs generated by the acquisition, use, maintenance and replacement of permanent physical assets'. Project life cycle costs Product life cycle costs are incurred for products and services from their design stage through development to market launch, production and sales, and their eventual withdrawal from the market. In contract project life cycle costs are incurred for fixed assets, i.e. for capital equipment and so on. The component elements of a project's cost over its life cycle could include the following: Acquisition cost, i.e. costs of research, design, testing, production, construction, or purchase of capital equipment.

Transportation and handling costs of capital equipment Maintenance costs of capital equipment Operations costs, i.e. the costs incurred in operations, such as energy costs, and various facility and other utility costs.

Training costs i.e. operator and maintenance training. Inventory costs i.e. cost of holding spare parts, warehousing etc. Technical data costs, i.e. costs of purchasing any technical data. Retirement and disposal costs at the end of life or the capital equipment life.

Management Accountants' Role in Project Life Cycle Costing Project life-cycle costing is a new concept which places new demands upon the Management Accountant. The development of realistic project life cycle costing models will require the accountant to develop an effective working relationship with the operational researcher and the systems analyst, as well as with those involved in the terrotechnological system, particularly engineers. Engineers require a greater contribution from accountants in terms of effort and interest throughout the life of a physical asset. A key question for many accountants will be whether the costs of developing realistic life cycle costs will outweigh the benefits to be derived from their availability. Lifecycle costing in the management of Physical Assets, much value can be obtained by thinking in lifecycle costing concepts whenever a decision affecting the design and operation of a physical asset is to be made. The concept project life cycle costing has become more widely accepted in recent years. The philosophy of it is quite simple. It involved accounting for all costs over the life of the decision which is influenced directly by the decision.

Terrotechnology is concerned with pursuit of economic life cycle costs. This is quite simply means trying to ensure that the assets produce the highest possible benefit for least cost. To do this, it is necessary to record the cost of designing, buying, installing, operating, and maintaining the asset, together with a record of the benefits produced. Most organizations keep a record of the initial capital costs, if only for asset accounting purposes. Uses of project life cycle costing The project life cycle costing is especially useful in the following: Projects operate in capital intensive industries Projects have a sizable, on-going constructing program Projects dependent on expensive or numerous items of plant with consequent substantial replacement programs Projects considering major expansion Projects contemplating the purchase/design/ development of expensive new technology Projects sensitive to disruption due to down-time.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs) 1. What are Common-size Financial Statements? 2. Example the salient features of the various methods of Financial Statements. 3. What tools are used to analyze the financial statements? 4. What significant inferences are brought out by the statement of cash flow?

5. What are the limitations of cash flow statements? 6. What are the categories under which the various ratios are grouped? 7. What does Debt-equity Ratio indicate? 8. What is an activity cost pool? 9. Describe the benefits of Target Costing. 10. Describe the major characteristics of product life cycle concept. Reference: 1. Garrison, Ray H. and Eric W. Noreen: Management Accounting. 2. N. Vinayakam and I. B. Sinha: Management Accounting Tools and Techniques. 3. Hansen, Don R. and Maryanne M. Moreen: Management Accounting. 4. P. C. Tulsian: Financial Accounting. 5. IGNOU Course Material. 6. Journal of Management Accounting (Various Issies). 7. CA Study Material.

Unit V Reporting to Management Objectives of the study: The objectives of this unit are to help one understand, in general The general format of report and Reporting Importance of Reporting in the Finance field.

Contents Design:

5.1. Introduction. 5.2. Objectives of Reporting. 5.3. Principles of Reporting. 5.4. Importance of Reporting. 5.5. Qualities of a good Report. 5.6. Types of Reports. 5.7. Forms of Report. 5.8. Reports submitted to various levels of Management. 5.9. Management reporting requirements. 5.10. General format of reports. 5.11. Summary. 5.12. References.

5.1. INTRODUCTION 5.1. The term 'reporting' conveys different meanings on different circumstances. In a narrow sense it means: supplying facts and figures. On the other hand, when a committee is appointed to study a problem, a report is taken to mean : review of certain matter with its pros and cons and offering suggestions. In case of dealing with routine matters, a report refers to supplying the information at regular intervals in standardized forms. A report is a means of communication which is in written form and is meant for use of management for the purpose of planning decision-making and controlling. Simply stated it is a communication of result by a subordinate to superior. It serves as a feedback to the management. The contents of report, the details of the data reported and the method of presentation depend upon the size and type of the business enterprise, extent of power delegated to subordinates and the existence of various levels of management for whom information is meant. 5.2. OBJECTIVES OF REPORTING; Traditionally, reporting was aimed at showing compliance with the budget. While this function is met in countries with a parliamentary tradition and adequate audit capacity, in other countries, improving compliance remains the priority challenge. Nevertheless, transparency and accountability call for wider scope of reporting. A budget reporting system should provide a means of assessing how well the government is doing. Ideally, therefore it should answer following questions. Budgetary integrity. Have resources been used in conformity with legal authorizations and mandatory requirements? What is the status of resources and expenditures (uncommitted balances and undisbursed commitments)?

2.Operating performance. How much do programs cost? How were they financed? What was achieved? What are the liabilities arising from their execution? How has the government managed its assets? Stewardship. Did the governments financial condition improve or deteriorate? What provision has been made for the future?

Systems and control. Are there systems to ensure effective compliance, proper management of assets and adequate performance?

Reports are an important instrument for planning and policy formulation. For this purpose, they should provide information on ongoing programs and the main objectives of government departments. Reports can also be used for public relations and be a source of facts and figures. They give an organization the opportunity to present a statement of its achievements, and to provide information for a wide variety of purposes. Reporting must take into account the needs of different groups of users including: (i) the Cabinet, core ministries, line ministries, agencies, and program

managers; (ii) the legislature; and (iii) outside the government, individual citizens, the media, corporations,

Universities, interest groups, investors, and creditors. According to surveys carried out in several developed countries,2 all users need comprehensive and timely information on the budget. The executive branch of government needs periodic information about the status of budgetary resources to ensure efficient budget implementation and to assess the comparative the costs of different programs. Citizens and the legislature need information on costs and performance of programs that affect them or concern their constituency. Financial markets need cash based information, etc. 5.3. PRINCIPLES OF REPORTING

Reports prepared by the government for internal and external use are governed by the following principles:

1. Completeness. The measures, in the aggregate, should cover all aspects of the reporting entity's mission.

Legitimacy. Reports should be appropriate for the intended users and consistent in form and content with accepted standards. User friendliness. Reports should be understandable to reasonably informed and interested users, and should permit information to be captured quickly and communicated easily. They should include explanations and interpretations for legislators and citizens who are not familiar with budgetary jargon and methodological issues. Financial statements can be difficult for non accountants; where possible, charts and illustrations should be used to improve readability. Of course, reports should not exclude essential information merely because it is difficult to understand or because some report users choose not to use it.

Reliability. The information presented in the reports should be verifiable and free of bias and faithfully represent what it purports to represent. Reliability does not imply precision or certainty. For certain items, a properly explained estimate provides more meaningful information than no estimate at all (for example, tax expenditures, contingencies, or superannuation liabilities). Relevance. Information is provided in response to an explicitly recognized need. The traditional function of year-end reports is to allow the legislature to verify budget execution. The broader objectives of financial reporting require that reports take into account the different needs of various users. A frequent criticism of government financial reports is that they are at the same time overloaded and useless.

6. Consistency. Consistency is required not only internally, but also over time, that is, once an accounting or reporting method is adopted, it should be used for all similar transactions unless there is good cause to change it. If methods or the coverage of reports have changed or if the financial reporting entity has changed, the effect of the change should be shown in the reports.

7.Timeliness. The passage of time usually diminishes the usefulness of information. A timely estimate may then be more useful than precise information that takes longer to produce. However, the value of timeliness should not preclude compilation and data checking even after the preliminary reports have been published.

8.

Comparability. Financial reporting should help report users make relevant

comparisons among similar reporting units, such as comparisons of the costs of specific functions or activities.

Usefulness. Agency reports, to be useful both inside and outside the agency, reports should contribute to an understanding of the current and future activities of the agency, its sources and uses of funds, and the diligence shown in the use of funds.

5.4 IMPORTANCE In cost accounting, there are three important divisions, viz., cost ascertainment, cost presentation, and cost control. Cost presentation serves as a link between cost ascertainment and cost control. The management of every organisation is interested in maximisation of profit through minimisation of wastages, losses, and ultimately cost. So management will have to be furnished with frequent reports on all functional areas of business to achieve these objectives. One of the important functions of cost accounting is to provide the required information to all levels of management at the appropriate time. The various aspects of reporting such as: nature of reports to be prepared, the details of information to be included and mode of presentation, are all decided at the time of installation of cost accounting system. In fact, cost ascertainment. and cost control are designed in such a way that they suit the scheme of information to be presented so that they serve all levels of management but not the other way round. Efficient reporting is critical to an enterprise for many reasons, including:

1.Performance Measurement. Reporting enables company performance to be evaluated on many levels, including: 2.Enterprise Performance. Consolidated executive reporting enables

executives to determine the success of their corporate vision and resulting initiatives. 3.Divisional Performance. Management reporting provides managers with a team performance report that can be used to manage and evaluate the results against forecasts.

4.Asset Performance. Detailed reporting provides individual personnel and their managers with either an individual or asset performance report to manage and evaluate the results against forecasts. 5.Capital Utilization Optimization. Reporting enables management to compare and prioritize assets to optimize capital utilization. 6.Informed Decision Making. Reporting provides a basis for forecast development, goal setting, result evaluation and management, and informed decision-making. These decisions can range from corporate-wide initiatives and divisional budgeting considerations to the hiring and firing of individual personnel. 7. Through reporting, management can steer the enterprise towards optimal profitability. In order for profitability to be optimal, it is critical that enterprise reporting is informative, timely, accurate and available with simplified access to the required detail. This allows management to take an active role to ensure continuous fiscal improvement and cost efficacy.

5.5.QUALITIES OF A GOOD REPORT. The draft of the report should be reviewed for an appropriate number of times so that the errors are completely avoided. While reviewing the draft, certain guidelines are to be followed, as indicated below: 1. 2. 3. The text of the report should be free from ambiguity. The text should convey the intended message. Because the readers are with different profiles, the style and presentation of the text of the report should suit the profile of the targeted group of readers; otherwise, the purpose of the report will be lost. 4. The content of the report should fully reveal the scope of the research in logical sequence without omitting any item and at the same time it should be crisp and clear. 5. The report should be organized in hierarchical form with chapters, main sections, subsections within main sections, etc., 6. There should be continuity between chapters and also between sections as well subsections. 7. The abstract at the beginning should reveal the essence of the entire report which gives the overview of the report. 8. The chapter on conclusions and suggestion is again enlarged version of the abstract with more detailed elaboration on the inferences and suggestions. 9. A reading of abstract and conclusion of a report should give the clear picture of the report content to the readers. 10. Avoid using lengthy sentences unless warranted.

11.

Each and every table as well as figure should be numbered and it must be referred in the main text.

12.

The presentation of the text should be lucid so that every reader is able to understand and comprehend the report content without any difficulty.

13.

The report should have appropriate length. The research report can be from 300 to 400 pages, but the technical reports should be restricted to 50 to 75 pages.

A good report should satisfy the following requisites in order to enable the receiver of report to understand and get interested in the report. (a) Title: This contains the subject-matter of the report. It should be brief but not vague. Where a lengthy report is to be prepared the subject-matter is to be presented in various , paragraphs under different sub-titles. (b) Period: It should mention the duration covered by the report. (c) Units of measurement: In case of quantitative information is to be reported the units in which quantities are expressed should be clear. For example, production in tonnes. sales in lakh rupees, idle time in hours. (d) Date: The date on which the report is presented is to be mentioned. This helps receiver of the report to know what changes must have occurred during the time lag of period covered under the report and date of presentation of report. (e) Name: The report must contain the name of the person by whom a report is prepared, the name of person to whom it is meant and the names of those for whom copies are sent.

(f) Standard: The reports prepared must meet the standard expected by its receiver. Use of highly technical words may not be readily understood by lower level management. (g) Use of diagrams: Wherever possible the reports must be illustrated by diagrams and charts in addition to description of the report. This facilitates ready understanding. (h) Recommendations: Recommendations are to be offered to facilitate the reader as to what course of action is to be taken to set right the defects. (i) Promptness: The reports should be prepared periodically and submitted to all levels of management promptly. It is said that report delayed is report denied. If the time lag between the period of preparation and period of submission is more it may give rise to wrong decisions. (j) Accuracy: The information furnished in the report must be accurate. It is important to avoid furnishing unnecessary details in the report. (k) Comparison: A comparative study must be incorporated in the report so as to facilitate the receiver of the report to know the progress and prospects of the performance. Comparison can be based on past performance or predetermined performance. (I) Economy: The expenses incurred in maintaining reporting system must be less than the benefits derived there from or loss sustained by not reporting. (m) Simplicity: The report should be brief, clear and simple to understand. The form of report should be designed to suit different levels of management. Where it is inevitable to prepare a lengthy report, a brief synopsis should precede the report.

(n) Controllability: Where variances are incorporated it is essential to stress on controllable aspects and to drop out uncontrollable element. But this depends upon the circumstance under which the report is prepared. (o) Source of information: The source of information must be included in the report. 5.6.TYPES OF REPORTS Reports are classified into different types according to different bases. This is shown in the following chart: TYPES OF REPORT

On the basis of purpose function

On the basis of period of submission

On the basis of

External Report Report

Internal Routine Report Report

Special

Operating Report

Financial Report

I. On the Basis of Purpose On the basis of purpose, reports can be classified into two types, viz., (a) External report, and (b) Internal report.

(a) External report: External report is prepared for meeting the requirements of persons outside the business, such as shareholders, creditors, bankers, government, stock exchange and so on. An example of external report is the published accounts, viz., profit and loss account and balance sheet. External report is brief in size as compared to internal report and they are prepared as per the statutory requirements. (b) Internal report: Internal report is meant for different levels of management. This can again be classified into three types: (a) Report meant for top level management, (b) Report meant for middle level management, and (c) Report meant for lower level management. Report to top level management should be in summary form giving an overall view of the performance of the business. Whereas external reports are prepared annually, internal reports are prepared frequently to serve the needs of management. Internal report need not conform to any standard form as it is not statutorily required to be prepared. II. On the Basis of Period of Submission According to this basis. reports can be classified into two types, viz., (I) Routine reports, and (2) Special reports. (a) Routine reports: They are prepared periodically to cover normal activities of the business. They are submitted to different levels of management according to a time schedule fixed. While some reports are prepared and submitted at a very short intervals, some are prepared and submitted at a long interval of time. Some examples of routine reports relate to monthly profit and loss account, monthly balance sheets, monthly production. purchases, sales, etc. (b) Special reports: Special reports are prepared to cover specific or special matters concerning the business. Most of the special reports are prepared after investigation or survey. There is no standard form used for submitting this report. Some of the matters which are covered by special reports are: causes for

production delays, labour disputes, effects of machine breakdown, problems involved in capital expenditure, make or buy problems, purchase or hire of fixed assets, price fixation problems, closing down or continuation of certain departments, cost reduction schemes, etc. III. On the Basis of Function According to the purpose served by the reports, it can be classified into two types, viz., -(a) operating report, and (b) financial report. (a) Operating report: These reports are prepared to reveal the various functional results. These reports can again be classified into three types, viz., (a) Control reports, which are prepared to exercise control over various operation of the business, (b) Information report, which are prepared for facilitating planning and policy formulation in a business, (c) Venture measurement report which is prepared to show the result of a specific venture undertaken as for example a new product line introduced. (b) Financial report: Such reports provide information about financial position of the undertaking. These reports may be prepared annually to show the financial position for the year as in the case of balance sheet or periodically to show the cash position for a given period as in the case of fund flow analysis and cash flow analysis. The following list briefly defines several other types of reports. 1.Physical Description Report Physical description reports describe the physical characteristics of a machine, a device, or some other type of object. They also explain the relationship of one part of the object to other parts so that the reader can visualize the object as a unit. Physical description reports are many times combined with process, analysis, or investigation reports.

2.Process Report Process reports explain how products are produced, tests are completed, or devices operate by describing the details of procedures used to perform a series of operations. Process reports may be general or detailed. General process reports are addressed to persons not directly involved in performing the process. Detailed process reports are designed to give the readers all the necessary information needed to complete the process. 3.Analytical Report Analytical reports critically examine one or more items, activities, or options. They are structured around an analysis of component parts or other common basis for comparison between options. This type of report usually results in conclusions and recommendations. 4.Examination Report Examination reports are used to report or record data obtained from an examination of an item or conditions. Examination reports differ from one another in subject matter and length. Some are similar to analytical reports but are less complicated because the information is obtained from personal observations. Examination reports are logically organized records investigating topics such as accidents or disasters. They are usually prepared for people knowledgeable about the subject and not for the general reader. 5.Laboratory Report Laboratory reports record and communicate the procedures and results of laboratory activities. Equipment, procedures, findings, and conclusions are clearly presented at a level appropriate for readers with some expertise in the subject. They are sometimes presented in laboratory notebooks using neatly handwritten text and charts.

6. Literature Review Literature reviews are logically organized summaries of the literature on a given subject. It is important that they are correctly documented and accurately represent the scope and balance of the available literature. Conclusions drawn reflect the collection as a whole and should appropriately reflect various points of view. Overuse of direct quotations should be avoided. 7. Design Portfolio Design portfolios are organized presentations of preliminary and final designs of items such as mechanisms, products, and works of art. When part of an educational activity, they may also include an analysis of the problem, review of related designs, evaluation, and other information. The presentation may be in the form of notes, sketches, and presentation illustrations. 8. Detail Report Detail Report: Prints a text report outlining each audit question as well as the scoring criteria and responses entered for each question. Compliance level is calculated as a percentage at the end of the report. 9. Graphical Report (points): Compares your possible score (in compliance points) to your actual score in a bar graph format. Then calculates your compliance score as a percentage and sorted by audit section number. 10. Graphical Report (%): Compares your possible score (percentage) to your actual score in a bar graph format. 11. Non-Compliance Report: Prints a listing of the audit questions on which you failed to reach compliance. Includes the audit section number for each question and the actual score vs. possible score.

12. Non-Compliance Graphical Report: Prints a bar graph report of those audit questions on which you failed to reach compliance. 13. Summary Report A report allowing users to summarize responses based on the selection from four fields. 14. Trend Report A report allowing users to view trends over a defined time frame. Management Reporting

A research report can be classified into decision-oriented (technical) report and research - oriented report. Further, the research-oriented report can be classified into survey-based research report and algorithmic research report. 1 Decision-oriented (Technical) Report The steps of preparing decision-oriented report are presented below: i. Identification of the problem ii. Establishment objectives iii. Generation of decision alternatives iv. Evaluation of decision alternatives v. Selection of the best decision alternative vi. Development of action plan vii. Provision for correction plan after implementation of the decision.

2. Survey-based Research Report The main body of the report for the survey-based research contains the following: i. Problem definition n. Objectives of the research ill. Research methodology iv. Data analysis v. Interpretation of results and suggestion vi. Conclusions. 3. Algorithmic Research Report There are problems, viz., production scheduling, JIT, supply chain management, line balancing, layout design, portfolio management, etc., exist in reality. The solution for each of the above problems can be obtained through algorithms. So, the researchers should come out with newer algorithms or improved algorithms for such problems. For a combinatorial problem, the researcher should attempt to develop an efficient heuristic. The algorithmic research report can be classified into the following categories: 1. 2. .Algorithmic research report for combinatorial problem .Exact algorithmic research report for polynomial problem.

Algorithmic research report with modeling for combinatorial problem The main body of this type of research report will contain the following: i. Problem identification ii. Literature review

iii. Objectives of the research iv. Development of mathematical model v. Design of algorithm (heuristic) vi. Experimentation and comparison of the algorithm with the model in terms of solution accuracy vii. Experimentation and comparison of the algorithm with the best existing algorithm (heuristic) in terms of solution accuracy viii. Case study ix. Conclusions. In this type of research, the results of the algorithm will be compared with the optimal results of the mathematical model as well as with the results of the best existing algorithm to check its solution accuracy through a carefully designed experiment Note: In a research related to combinatorial problems in new and complex area, development of a mathematical model to obtain the optimal solution may not be easy. Under such situation, the results of the algorithm (heuristic) should be compared with that of the best w existing heuristic alone for checking its solution accuracy through a carefully designed experiment Exact algorithmic research report for polynomial problem The main body of this type of research report will contain the following: i. ii. iii. Problem identification Literature review Objectives of the research

iv. v.

Design of exact algorithm Experimentation arid comparison of the exact algorithm with the best existing exact algorithm in terms of computational time

vi.

Case study

vii. Conclusions. In a research related to polynomial problem, the researcher will have to develop an efficient exact algorithm in terms of computational time and compare it with the best existing exact algorithm for that problem through a carefully designed experiment. The comparison in terms of solution accuracy does not apply here because all exact algorithms will give optimal solution. 5.7 FORMS OF REPORT Reporting of information management takes different forms. They are explained below: 1. Oral Report An oral report is not very popular as it does not serve any evidence and cannot be referred to in future. Oral report may take the form of a meeting with individuals or a conference. 2. Descriptive Reports These are written in narrative style. They are frequently supported by tables and charts to illustrate certain points covered in the report. One important point that must be considered in drafting this form of report is the language. The language used must be simple, easy to understand and lucid. Where the report is very long, it must be suitably divided into paragraphs with headings. They must cover all the principles of .good report discussed earlier.

3. Comparative Statement This form of report is used for preparing the routine report. Under this method the particulars of information are shown in a comparative form, i.e., the actual results an compared with planned results and the deviations between the two arc indicated. The various tools used to prepare this form of report arc comparative financial statements, ratio analysis, fund flow analysis and so on. 4. Diagrammatic and Graphic representation This is more popular form of preparing reports. They occupy lesser space and gives at a glance the whole picture about a particular aspect of study. They also facilitate in comparative study and shows the trend over a period of time. This form of report can b used where a report contains presentation of statistical numbers and other facts and figures It overcomes the language barrier and is very easily understood by everyone. Of course when large numbers are involved, it is to be reduced by selecting a convenient scale Diagrammatic representation involves the following forms: (a) Bar diagram: They make use of horizontal and vertical axes to show the magnitude of values, quantity and period. Bar diagrams are of the following types. (i) Simple bar diagram: These are most popularly used in preparing reports. The consider only length but not the width to indicate the change. In formation relating to volume of production, cost of production sales, etc. for different years can be shown under this form. (ii) Multiple bar diagram: This type of diagram is used to report related matters such as production and sales, sales and profit, advertisement and sales and so on.

(iii) Sub-divided bar diagram: This form of diagram is used to report matters which involved different component parts as for example, the cmponents of total cost of production such as prime cost, factory cost, office cost, cost ,of sales. (iv) Percentage bar diagrams: These diagrams depict the information on a percentage basis. (b) Pre-diagram: They take the form of circles instead of bars. They facilitate comparison besides depicting the actual information under review. 5. Break-even Chart This type of chart is prepared to show the relationship between variable and fixed cost and sales. It shows the point of no-profit and no-loss or where total cost equals total revenue received. 6. Gantt Chart This chart was first introduced by Heny L. Gantn. It is a special type of bar diagram under which bars are drawn horizontally. This chart shows the bars of planned schedule and attained performance. They are largely used to denote utilisation of machine capacity. 5.8.REPORTS MANAGEMENT 1. Top Level Management The top level management comprises of board of directors, managing director, and other executives who are concerned with determination of objectives and formulation of policies. Top management is to be furnished with reports at regular intervals in order to enable them to exercise control over the activities of SUBMITTED TO VARIOUS LEVELS O

the business. The following are some of the matters to be reported to board of directors. a) Master budget which covers all functional budgets for taking remedial actions where there are significant deviations from budgeted figures. b) Various functional budgets prepared by various departmental managers for holding departmental managers for any shortfall in their performance. c) Capital expenditure budget and cash budget to know the extent of variances for taking remedial measures. d) Reports relating to production and sales, which shows the trend of the performance of business. e) Report covering important ratios such as stock turnover ratio, fixed assets turnover ratio, liquidity ratio, solvency ratio, profitability ratios, etc. to know the improvement in business. f) Appraisal of various projects undertaken by the organisation. 2. Middle Level Management It comprises of different departmental managers such as production manager, purchase manager, sales manager, chief accountant, etc. These managers require reports to improve the efficiency of their respective departments. The following are some of the matters reported to production manager: (a) Report relating to actual capacity utilised as compared to budgeted capacity. (b) Report relating to actual output as against standard output. (c) Labour and machine capacity utilised. (d) Idel time lost. (e) Report on scraps, wastages and losses in production.

(/) Report relating to stock of raw materials, work-in-progress and finished goods. (g) Report relating to cost of production, operation of different departments. The following are some of the matters reported to sales manager: (a) Report relating to number of orders executed, orders received and orders on hand. (b) Reports relating to actual sales and budgeted sales and actual selling and distribution expenses and budgeted selling and distribution expenses. (c) Summary of selling expenses incurred in different territories and their corresponding sales. (d) Gross profit earned on different products and in different areas. (e) Market survey reports. (/) Report relating to present and potential demand. The following are some of the matters reported to financial manager: (a) Report relating to cash position. (b) Summary of receipts and payments. (c) Report relating to outstanding debts on credit sales. (d) Report on debts due on credit purchases. (e) Monthly profit and loss account. (/) Quarterly report on capital expenditure.

3. Lower Level Management The lower level management include supervisors, foremen and inspectors who are concerned with the operations of the factory. They are interested in increasing the efficiency of the production departments. The reports that are to be sent to them are variances relating to planned and actual performance. The report must also emphasise cost control aspects. 5.9.MANAGEMENT REPORTING REQUIREMENTS (a) General. This document prescribes management reports required if the offer requests progress payments and a progress payments clause is included in the subcontract. They are in addition to technical reports required under the subcontract, but must be consistent with data furnished under those requirements. Preferred formats for the Billing Plan/Management Report and the Milestone Schedule and Status Report are attached. (b) Description of Reports. (1) BILLING PLAN/MANAGEMENT REPORT, FORM This report shows the planned rate of progress payment billings and billings for accepted supplies under each major task for the remainder of the subcontract performance period. For each task, the planned billings are to be projected in monthly increments for each of the twelve months of the current or succeeding fiscal year, and in fiscal year increments thereafter for the remainder of the subcontract. (Projected billings should be directly related to the activities scheduled to be performed during each billing period, as reflected on the Milestone Schedule and Status Report.) or schedule. Each time it is necessary to alter the plan, a new plan and narrative explanation for the change will be provided to the Company.

(B) As a monthly report, this document provides a comparison of the planned billings with the actual billings for work performed as of the cut-off period for the report. Variances from the plan are computed, and explanations for variances exceeding + 10% will be provided by the Seller in the Narrative Highlights Report. In addition, upon the occurrence of a variance exceeding + 10%, the Seller must reevaluate the estimated billings for the balance of the current fiscal year and to the completion of the subcontract. Narrative explanations must be provided for significant changes to these estimated billings. (2) MILESTONE SCHEDULE AND STATUS REPORT This is used as both a baseline plan and status report. As a baseline plan, it establishes the Seller's schedule for accomplishing the planned events and milestones of each reporting category identified in the subcontract. As a status report, it measures status or progress against the baseline plan. It will reflect planned and accomplished events, milestones, slippages, and changes in schedule. (3) NARRATIVE HIGHLIGHTS REPORT . The Narrative Highlights Report permits management presentation of the technical aspects of subcontract performance along with an overview of significant project highlights, accomplishments, and problems. The report will continue discussions of items identified in the previous report through completion of an activity or resolution of a problem. Typical reporting elements to be covered by brief statements are: (A) Major accomplishments and significant highlights. (B) Major subcontract awards, including award date, subcontract amount, and

scheduled completion date. (C) Developments affecting estimates and schedules. This will specifically include explanations of deviations from the Billing Plan which exceed + 10% and deviations from Milestone Schedule Plan which exceed 30 days. (D) Revised estimates or schedules. (E) Technical problems encountered and resolution actions proposed. (F) Planned major accomplishments during the next 60 days. 5.10.General Format of a Report: The mechanical format of a report consists of three parts: the preliminaries, the text, and the reference materials. The length of any of these three parts is conditional on the extent of the study. 1. The Preliminaries (a) Title page (b) Preface, including acknowledgments (if desired or necessary) (c) Table of contents (d) List of tables (e) List of Figures or illustrations 2. The Text (a) Introduction (introductory chapter or chapters) (b) Main body of the report (usually divided into chapters! and sections) (c) Conclusion

3. The Reference Material (a) Bibliography (b) Appendix (or Appendixes) (c) Index (if any) THE PRELIMINARIES 1. TITLE PAGE Most universities and colleges prescribe their own form of title page for theses, dissertations and research papers and these should be complied with in all matters of content and spacing. Generally, the following information is required: Written Report (a) Title of the report (b) Name/s of the writer/s 2. PREFACE The preface (often used synonymously with foreword) may included: the The order of these may be reversed.

writer's purpose in conducting the study, a brief resume of the background, scope, purpose, general nature of the research upon which the report is being based and acknowledgments. 3. TABLE OF CONTENTS The table of contents includes the major divisions of the report: the introduction, the chapters with their subsections, and the bibliography and appendix. Page numbers for each of these. divisions are given. Care should be exercised that titles of chapters and captions of subdivisions within chapters correspond exactly with those included in the body of the report. In some cases, subheadings within chapters are not included in the table of contents. It is optional

whether the title page, acknowledgments, list of tables and list of Figures are entered in the table of contents. The purpose of a table of contents is to provide an analytical overview of the material included in the study or report together with the sequence of presentation. To this end, the relationship between major divisions and minor subdivisions needs to be shown by an appropriate use of capitalisation and indentation or by the use of a numeric system. A table of contents is necessary only in those papers where the text has been divided into chapters or several subheadings. Most short written assignments do not require a table of contents. The basic criterion for the inclusion of

subheadings under major chapter division is whether the procedure facilitates the reading of a report and especially the location of specific sections within a report. 4. LIST OF TABLES After the table of contents, the writer needs to prepare a list of tables. The heading LIST OF TABLES, should be centered on a separate page by itself. 5. LIST OF FIGURES (OR ILLUSTRATIONS) The list of Figures appears in the same form as the list of tables. The page is headed LIST OF FIGURES, without terminal punctuation, and the numbers of the Figures are listed at the left of the page under the heading Figure. 6. INTRODUCTION An introduction should be written with considerable care: with two major aims in view: introducing the problem in a suitable context, and arousing and stimulating the reader's interest. If introductions are dull, aimless, confused, rambling, and lacking in precision, direction and specificity; there is little incentive for the reader to continue reading. The reader begins to expect an

overall dullness and aimlessness in the whole paper. The length of an introduction varies according to the nature of the research project. 7. MAIN BODY OF THE REPORT There are certain general principles which should be followed: (a) Organise the presentation of the argument or findings in a logical and orderly way, developing the aims stated or implied in the introduction. (b) Substantiate arguments or findings. (c) Be accurate in documentation. 8.CONCLUSION The conclusion serves 'the important function of tying together the whole thesis or assignment. In summary form, the developments of the previous chapters should be succinctly restated, important findings discussed and conclusions drawn from the whole study. In addition, the writer may list unanswered questions that have occurred in the course of the study and which require further research beyond the limits of the project being reported. The conclusion should leave the reader with the impression of completeness and of positive gain. 9. BIBLIOGRAPHY The bibliography follows the main body of the text and is a separate but integral part of a thesis, preceded by a division sheet or introduced by a centered capitalized heading BIBLOGRAPHY. Pagination is continuous and follows the page numbers in the text. In a written assignment, the word bibliography may be a little pretentious and the heading REFERENCES may be an adequate alternative.

10. APPENDIX It is usual to include in an appendix such matters as original data, tables that present supporting evidence, tests that have been constructed by the research student, parts of documents or any supportive evidence that would detract from the major line of argument and would make the body of the text unduly large and poorly structured. Each appendix should be clearly separated from the next and listed in the table of contents. 11. INDEX If an index is included, it follows the bibliography and the appendix. An index is not required for a written assignment or for an unpublished thesis. If a thesis is subsequently published as a book, monograph or bulletin, an index is necessary for any or of complexity. 12. THE ABSTRACT An abstract consists of the following parts: 1. 2. data. 3. A short statement of the problem. A brief description of the methods and procedures used in collecting the A condensed summary of the findings of the study.

The length of the abstract may be specified, for example, 200 words. Usually an abstract is short. 13.THE FINAL PRODUCT From the outset, the aim is, at the production of a piece of work of high quality. The text should be free of errors and untidy corrections. Paper of standard size (usually quarto) and good quality should be used.

5.11.SELF ASSESMENT QUESTIONS 1. What are the different types of report? Explain them in brief. 2. Discuss the guidelines for reviewing the draft of a report. 3. What are the qualities of a research report? Explain them in brief. 4. Give a sample cover page of a research report. 5. Discuss the items of the introductory pages in detail. 6. Give a sample table of-contents of a survey based research report. 7. Give a sample table of contents of an algorithmic research report. 8. What are the items under the text of a research report? Explain them in brief. 9. Discuss the guidelines for preparing bibliography. 10. Give a brief account of typing/printing instructions while preparing a research report. 11. Discuss the guidelines for oral presentation of a research report. 12. Assume a research topic of your choice and give the complete format of its research report. 13. What do you understand by the term reporting to management ?. Discuss briefly the matters that you would deal with while reporting to the board of directors. 14. Discuss the general principles to be observed while preparing reports. 15. Describe the various forms of reporting to management. 16. Distinguish between routine and special reports. State the various matters which are sent to management under routine and special reports.

17. Explain different types of reports submitted to the management of an organisation. 18. Explain the information submitted to different levels of management. 5.12. REFERENCES: 1. Anthony, Robert: Management Accounting, Tarapore-wala, Mumbai. 2. Barfield, Jessie, Celly A. Raiborn and Michael R. Kenney: Cost Accouting; Traditions and Innovations, South - Western College Publishing, Cincinnati, Ohio. 3. N. Vinayakam and I.B. Sinha, Management Accounting Tools and Techniques, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai. 4. Decoster, Don T. and Elden L. Schater: Management Accounting: A Decision Emphasis, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York. 5. Garrison, Ray H. and Eric W. Noreen: Management Accounting, Richard D. Irwin, Chicago. 6. Hansen, Don R. and Maryanne M. Moreen: Management Accounting, Southwestern College Publishing, Cincinnati, Ohio.