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Definitions ,Basic concept, person, Assessment year; previous year, assesee, Residential status; Incidence of
tax, ,income exempt from tax.,
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Chargeability; computation of income under this head and employer responsibility in case of computation of tax
of their employee under this head:
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Chargeability; computation of income from house property; deductions from income from house property;
computation of taxable income from house property in case of house property owned by company
3URILWVDQGJDLQVRIEXVLQHVVRUSURIHVVLRQ
Chargeable incomes; expenses expressly allowed as deduction; general deductions; expenses specifically
disallowed;compulsory maintaneance of accounts,compulsory audit,assessment in special cases,(retail, transport,
exploration of mineral oil) Computation of taxable income as profit and gain from business or profession.
Capital gains: meaning of capital asset; transfer, cases not considered to be transfer, chargeability; computation of
capital gain: short term and long term; computation of tax on capital gain. Exemption from capital gains.
Income from other sources: basis of charge; chargeable incomes; specific deductions; amount not deductible;
computation of taxable income from other sources.
Computation of net taxable income: computation of gross total income ,carry forward and set-off of losses and
deductions under sec 80 and net taxable income and tax thereon incase of Indian as well as foreign companies
provision of minimum alternate tax and declaration and payment of dividend Tax provision in case of mergers
acquisition and amalgamation of company.
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Tax deduction at source; advance tax; self-assessment tax; assessment procedure regular and best judgement
assessment revision, rectification and appeal, provision relating to interest and refund of tax
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Tax planning in capital budgeting decision:, leasing ,hire purchase or buy decision raising of capital :equity,debt or
preference share, transfer pricing and its impact iii
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Taxation Law and Practice Volume 1, V. Balachandran and S. Thothadri, PHI Learning

CORPORATE TAXATION

COURSE OVERVIEW

As a student of management you will have to get your self

Corporate Tax Management reflects an overall planning of the

acquainted with various aspects of management. Tax planning

organisation. All the important areas of tax planning, connected

and Tax management is employed as one of the potent tools

with the foresight of tax management included in the various

for legitimately reducing the tax incidence. Effect of taxation are

study lessons, call for analytical application by the students and

so widespread and complicated in a changing business environ-

require thorough knowledge of the provisions of tax and case

ment, that management decisions tend to be based on wrong

laws. Further, the incidence of tax planning is so crucial to the

premises if the tax aspect is ignored. Whereever finance is

managerial decision-making process that it becomes important

involved or money matters are involved the management gets

to keep oneself abreast of the innovations/developments

very cautious. The Government is providing various tax

taking place in these areas.

benefits and incentives and companies endeavour to take

advantages thereof. It is being increasingly felt that tax manage-

Since the law is vast and further complicated by numerous

ment is not merely a legal exercise attempted in isolation but a

amendments introduced every year by the annual Finance Acts,

method of integrating all areas of management. Almost every

students should note that the course pack is prepared consider-

financial decision in the company has tax implications. Now, the

ing the Previous year 2003-2004 i.e. Assessment year 2004-2005.

corporate bodies should not organise their tax management in a

way which may be interpreted as tax evasion or tax avoidance.
While tax planning one has to keep himself in the legal frame
work of the Act as to avoid any inconvenience in the future.
Rather corporate are expected to maintain integrity of the
industry by adopting the line of tax planning which is permis-

To keep oneself updated and equip with the professional

expertise a lot of reference to various sources of information is
necessary, what is required most is regular and systematic study
of the basic provisions of law.

sible within the framework of tax laws, thus, bringing in its

fold the healthy practices of tax morality in the national interest

Students should refer to Bare Act and Income Tax Rules 2003,

and in their own interest.

to get used to the legal language and get maximum exposure to

the Act.

Remember Best tax planning is to pay all the taxes rightly.

Outcomes and Assessment

Bhargava S Income Tax for Students (Mashbra, 2003)

Bhattacharya B and Garg G Handbook of Direct Taxes (State

Outcomes

1.Explore assessibility criteria

for different form of taxable
entities

Assessment criteria
To achieve each outcome a student must
demonstrate the ability to:
Explain concept of assessment year and
residential status
Decide about the incidence of tax in case of a
given problem

Plan tax keeping in mind residential

status and assessment year
2.Compute total tax liability
considering various income
components

Use knowledge of income-tax computing

provisions for tax planning
Compute taxable income under various heads
of income
Assess net taxable income after considering
clubbing and set-off provisions and making
all possible deductions

3.Examine provisions regarding

income tax payment and
assessment

Explain how much tax has to be deducted,

when to be deducted and deposited in a given
case
Handle filing of tax returns in time
Summarise tax assessment done in the given
case

Mutual Book, 2003)

Dutta D C The Income Tax Law (State Mutual Book, 2003)
Girish A- Systematic Appoach to Income Tax (Bharat Law House,
2003)
Manoharan T N Students Handbook on Income Tax Law
(Snowhite, 2003)
Ranina H P Business and Corporate Taxation (State Mutual
Book, 2003)
Singhania V K Income tax Act, 1961 (Taxmann, 2003)
Singhania V K Students Guide to Income tax (Taxmann, 2003)

Delivery
The course would be delivered by way of classroom lectures and
discussions. Wherever possible a link would be made between
the academic instructions and its practical application on the
given case studies. Encouraging active participation of students
in the study sessions can do this

Guidance
Generating Evidence
Evidence of outcomes may be in the form of written or oral
assignments or tests. The assignments may focus on real
problems or case studies. Learning and assessment can be across
units, at unit level or at outcome level. Evidence could be at
outcome level although opportunities exist for covering more
than one outcome in an assignment
Links
Opportunities exist for linking work in this unit with Corporate Finance, and Management of Financial Services
Resources
Textbooks, discussions, quiz programs, tax law journals,
Digests and case studies. World Wide Web sites can be useful in
providing a conceptual insight into tax provisions.
Suggested reading
There are a large number of textbooks available covering the
areas contained within the unit.
Examples are:
Acharya S Law of Income tax 3 Volumes (State Mutual Book,
2003)
Bhargava B and Bhandari B Direct Taxes Digest (State Mutual
Book, 2003)
iii

CORPORATE TAXATION

Corporate Taxation

CONTENT
.

iv

Lesson No.

Topic

Page No.

Lesson 1

Taxation Structure in India

Lesson 2

Basic concepts in Income Tax - I

Lesson 3

Basic Concepts in Income Tax II

22

Lesson 4

Residential Status and Tax Incidence

31

Lesson 5

Incomes Exempt from Tax

43

Lesson 6

Exemption in Respect of Newly Established Undertaking

54

Lesson 7

Income from Salary

63

Lesson 8

House Property

72

Lesson 9

Capital Gains

79

Lesson 10

Income from other sources

85

Lesson 11

Profits and Gain of Business or Profession

92

Lesson 12

Depreciation

102

Lesson 13

Deductions Under Section 43B

109

Lesson 14

Deemed Profits and Practical Problems

on Business and Profession

117

Lesson 15

Amortisation of Certain Expenditure Under Section 35

126

Lesson 16

Deductions under Chapter VI-A

133

Lesson 17

Deductions under Chapter VI-A (Part 2.)

138

Lesson 18

Agriculture Income and Its Tax Treatment

144

Lesson 19

Directors Remuneration

147

Lesson 20

Tax on Book Profits

154

Lesson 21

Companies - Computation of Taxable Income

160

Lesson 22

Advance Payment of Tax

167

Lesson 23

Deduction and Collection of Tax at Source

172

Lesson 24

Interest Payments by Assessee and Department

183

Lesson 25

Setting-off Losses and Depreciation

191

Lesson 26

Miscellaneous Provisions

197

Lesson 27

Return of Income and Procedure of Assessment

203

Lesson 28

Income Tax Authorities

221

Lesson 29

Appeals and Revision

227

Lesson 30

Transfer pricing and other provisions to check avoidance of tax

235

Lesson 31

Tax Audit

244

UNIT I
LESSON 1:
TAXATION STRUCTURE IN INDIA

Lesson Objective

To understand the taxation structure in India.

To know the importance of taxes for the government and

society.

To know legal frame work of tax laws and there operations.

To know types of taxes collected by the Government.

To know the scope of Income Tax and its Applicability.

Hello students , a very very good morning to all of you. You

are all interested in taxes or no..; What do you think?
Whether it is a very tough subject or its a ok ok subject. And
you will go through it easily.

reach the tax payer. Important direct taxes are Income Tax, Gift
Tax and Wealth Tax. Important indirect taxes are Central Excise
(Duty on Manufacture), Customs (Duty on Imports and
Exports); Sales Tax; Octroi, Entry Tax, Service Tax, Expenditure
Tax etc.
Since Constitution of India is foundation and source of
powers to all laws in India, it is necessary to understand general
background of Constitution to enable us to understand and
appreciate each individual Law. In India, Constitution which
came into effect on 26th January1950 is supreme and all laws
and Government actions are subordinate to our Constitution.
Do you know that-

One very important thing I would like to make clear is that you
will enjoy it if you take it naturally. Always try to apply it
practically and I am sure you will definitely find it more easy and
more interesting. Dear friends remember that all the subjects are
very much interlinked and interconnected . As a student of
management you should be able to handle various aspects of
corporates together. For this subject what you need is only a
logical thinking .

Constitution is supreme law - Clear understanding of

concepts is vital for any discussion on taxation matters as power
to levy and collect tax is derived from Constitution. If it is
found that any Act, Rule, Notification or Government order is
not according to the Constitution, it is illegal and void and it is
called ultra vires the Constitution.

Keep one think in mind the very key to understand any thin in
its right perspective is to ask only one question.
Dont be too happy that just keep on asking questions to the
teacher. I mean to say that first ask the question

India is union of states - Our Constitution generally follows

British pattern, though concepts of federal structure are
borrowed from American and other constitutions. India is a
Union of States. The structure of Government is federal innature. Government of India (Central Government) has certain
powers in respect of whole country. India is divided into
various States and Union Territories and each State and Union
Territory has certain powers in respect of that particular State.
Thus, there are States like Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamilnadu,
Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab etc. and Union Territories like
Pondicherry, Chandigarh etc.

Why
to yourself and then if you dont get it , to the teacher.
Lets startYou see Government needs funds for various purposes like
maintenance of law and order, defence, social/health services,
etc. Government obtains funds from various sources, out of
which one main source is taxation.
Justice Holmes of US Supreme Court, rightly said that ta x
is the price w hich w e pa y for a C iv ilized Society .
Taxes are conventionally broadly classified as Direct Taxes and
Indirect Taxes. As the name suggests, direct taxes are paid
directly and indirect taxes are paid indirectly. The direct taxes are
paid directly by the person concerned. In case of indirect taxes,
they are paid by one person, but he recovers the same from
another person. Thus, the person who actually bears the tax
burden (the ultimate consumer) pays it indirectly through
some other person, who practically, merely acts as collecting
agent. Of course, he is liable if he fails to collect and pay the
taxes.
Direct taxes are those which the tax payer pays directly from his
income/ wealth/ estate etc., while indirect taxes are those which
the tax payer pays indirectly i.e. while purchasing goods and
commodities, paying for services etc. Broadly speaking, direct
taxes are those which are paid after the income reaches hands of
taxpayer; while indirect taxes are paid before the goods / services

In Vinay Chandra Mishra In re (1995) 2 SCC 584, it was held that

statutory provisions cannot override constitutional provisions.

Administration of State
President of India is head of the State (here, the word State is
used with a different meaning). The State has three organs.
A. Legislative organ - Parliament consists of President,
Loksabha (House of People) and Rajya Sabha (Council of
States). Parliament makes laws for governance of the country.
It also sanctions budgetary expenditure for Government.
B. Executive (administrative) organ - Administration is
looked after by Government for which Council of Ministers
is at its head. The Council of Ministers is headed by Prime
Minister. Government has to implement the laws passed by
Parliament.
C. Judicial organ - It has always been found in all the
countries that control and check over executive powers is
essential. In absence of such control, misuse of power is
very much likely. Our Constitution therefore provides
independent judiciary with wide powers. The highest court
in India is Supreme Court. Law declared by Supreme Court

is the law of the land and is binding on all Subordinate

Courts, Tribunals and Executive.
Our Constitution has endeavored to maintain balance among
these three organs namely legislation, administration and
judiciary, to ensure proper checks and balances.
Parliament to enact the laws, Judiciary to interpret the law and
Executive to implement the law. These three estates have
tremendous influence on the public life.
But what about state government organisation.
State government organisation - A structure similar to the one
at Centre is provided for each State. Governor (Rajyapal is the
head of the State, State Legislature (Vidhan Sabha) which is
elected body of the peoples representatives; passes various Acts.
Some States also have Vidhan Parishad (similar to Rajya Sabha).
The State government is administered under a Council of
Ministers of which Chief Minister is the head. Each State has a
High Court having wide judicial powers.
Judicial organ - something mostly heard in news and papers
and photo copy experienced in old Hindi feature films, right.
Dont worry here its a little bit different. Lets know what
actually it is.

Judicial Organ
Independent judiciary is biggest safety of a citizen.

Supreme Court
Supreme Court has wide powers of writ jurisdiction under
Article in respect of enforcement of fundamental rights. Article
136 grants discretion to Supreme Court to grant special leave to
appeal (called Special Leave Petition - SLP) from judgment,
decree, determination, sentence or order in any cause or matter
passed made by any court or tribunal in India. Article 141 of
Constitution provides that law declared by Supreme Court is
binding on all courts within India.
High Courts
Each State has a High Court. High Courts have been granted
powers to issue writs. The Writ is an order or process issued by
court or judicial Officers, asking person to perform or refrain
from performing any act. Article 226 grants powers to High
Courts to issue writs not only in respect of fundamental rights
but for any other pose. This is a very powerful right and is very
useful in case Government or other authorities do not give
justice to a person. Application made to High Court for this
pose is called writ petition. Since this power is given under
Constitution, this cannot limited by any Statute (Act) or
Government rules.

Legislative Organ
Various Laws can be passed (and amended) by Parliament
within the framework prescribed by the Constitution.

Mode of Passing Act

First, a bill is presented to Parliament. The bill is a draft of the
proposed to be passed. Often the bill is presented on the basis
of recommendations of some Committee. Some times, the bill
is studied by a Parliamentary Committee after presented to
Parliament. The bill is discussed and it is then passed with or
without amendments. After it is passed by both Houses of

Parliament, it is sent to President for his assent. The bill

becomes a Statute (Act) on the date on which President gives
his assent. The Act generally provides the date on which the Act
comes into effect. Sometimes, it comes into effect immediately,
while sometimes powers are delegated to government to decide
the date on which the Act will come into force. Often, powers
are given to bring the Act into force in parts, i.e. various
provisions of the Act can be brought into force in stages on
different dates. Similar procedure is adopted to amend (modify)
an existing Act.

Ordinances
Act can be passed only when Parliament is in session. (General
sessions: budget session, monsoon session, winter session
etc.). However, need may arise to immediate action and it may
not be possible to wait till Parliament session starts. In such
cases, President has been empowered under Article 123 of
Constitution to issue Ordinance. Such Ordinance has the same
force as Act of Parliament, except that the lance is valid only for
a limited period. If Parliament approves the Bill pertaining to
latter contained in the Ordinance, it is converted into an Act.
Otherwise, the Ordinance automatically lapses at the expiration
of 6 weeks from the date when Parliament assembles. (In case
of States, the Ordinance can be issued by Governor under
Article 213 of Constitution and other provisions regarding its
lapse etc.).
Delegated Legislation
Parliament is mainly concerned with policies of law. It is not
interested in routine procedures etc. Moreover, since the
situations are constantly changing, changes are inevitable. It is
not practicable to approach Parliament: and seek its approval for
every minor change. Parliament, therefore, delegates some
powers to other Authorities (Usually Government or some
Board) to make rules, regulations and issue notifications. This
is called delegated legislation. Often these are required. to be
published in Official Gazette. If the rules or regulations are
made or notifications are issued under the powers granted in
the Act, they have the same force as the main Act. The limitations are - (a) They cannot be contrary to any Act (b) They
cannot be issued with retrospective effect.
Effective Date of a Notification
A notification has to be published in Official Gazette, which is
then made available to public. In UOI v. Ganesh Das Bhojraj 116
ELT 431 = AIR 2000 SC 1102 = 2000(2) SCAl E 17 = 2000
AIR SCW 764 (SC 3 member bench), it has been held that
notification comes into operation from date of publication in
Official Gazette. The gazette is official record evidencing public
affairs. Court is required to presume its contents as genuine u/s
35 & 38 of Evidence Act, unless contrary is proved. Thus,
notification comes into effect on the day it is published in
Official Gazette and no further publication is required. [Minority view was that this should apply only to civil liability and not
criminal liability].
There is gap between issue of a notification and its publication
in Official Gazette. Supreme Court in some earlier judgments
had held that a notification becomes effective only when it is
published in Official Gazette and made available for sale. To
overcome the difficulty that was created by this judgment, it has

been provided that a notification will be effective on the date it

is issued. In order to ensure that public is aware of the change,
it has been provided that the notification will be published and
made available for sale by Director of Publicity & Public
Relations, Central Excise & Customs, on the day the notification is issued [section 5A(5) of CEA and section 102(4) of
Customs Act]. [Now, mere publishing of notification in
Official Gazette will be enough. It is not necessary for Government to prove that it was made available for sale].

Trade Circulars and Trade Notices

It is normal for Government to issue trade circulars, trade
notices and clarifications from time to time. These are issued to
clarify the views of the Government in respect of any Act, rules
or notifications or to give some information, etc. Such trade
circulars/trade notices do not have any legal force and they are
not binding on taxpayers or quasi judicial authorities. If such
trade circular or trade notice is beyond the provisions of Act or
Rules, such trade notice cannot be binding on Government
also, as there is no estoppel against a Statute. However, the
department, which issued the trade notice, itself cannot take a
stand contrary to the trade notice, but they can withdraw the
trade notice with prospective effect, if felt to be against law. The
circulars/trade notices are not binding on assessee, quasijudicial
authorities to courts.
Dont you think there should be some one to also control this
and look after the administration. We will know discuss about
the administrative organ.

Administrative Organ
Administration is looked after by Government for which
Council of Ministers is at its head. The Council of Ministers is
headed by Prime Minister. Prime Minister can head the administration till he enjoys the confidence of Parliament. Each
Minister is assigned a particular ministry. Government deals
with the matters through various departments and generally
head of the department who is a senior Govt. officer is called
Secretary. In some cases when the department is too big, a
Board is formed for controlling the department. The Board has
a Chairman and it usually consists of 5 to 7 members depending on the constitution of each Board.
Examples of such are Boards are Central Board of Direct Taxes
(CBDT), Central Board of Excise and Customs (CBE and C),
Railway Board, etc. Further, various senior and junior officers
are appointed by Government (Additional Secretary, Joint
Secretary, Deputy Secretary, Commissioner, Assistant Commissioners etc.) for administration. Powers are delegated to these
officers for execution of Government orders/policies.
Its time to start with our - original subject and our constitution.

Taxation Under Constitution

In the basic scheme of taxation in India, it is envisaged that (a)
Central Government will get tax revenue from Income Tax
(except on Agricultural Income), Excise (except on alcoholic
drinks) and Customs (b) State Government will get tax revenue
from sales tax, excise on liquor and tax on Agricultural Income
(c) Municipalities will get tax revenue from octroi and house
property tax.

Income Tax, Central Excise and Customs are administered by

Central Government. As regards sales tax, Central Sales Tax is
levied by Central Government while State Sales Tax is levied by
individual State Governments. Though Central Sales Tax is
levied by Central Government, it is administered by State
Governments and tax collected in each State is retained by that
State Government itself.
Article 246(1) of Constitution of India states that Parliament
has exclusive powers to make laws with respect to any of
matters enumerated in List I in the Seventh Schedule to
Constitution. (Called Union List) As per Article 246(3), State
Government has exclusive powers to make laws for State with
respect to any matter enumerated in List II of Seventh Schedule
to Constitution. Seventh Schedule to Constitution (referred to
in Article 246) indicates bifurcation of powers to make laws,
between Union Government and State Governments. Parliament has exclusive powers to make laws in respect of matters
given in list I of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution
(called Union List). List II (State List) contains entries under
jurisdiction of States. List III (concurrent list) contains entries
where both Union and State Governments can exercise power.
[In case of Union Territories, Union Government can make
laws in respect of all the entries in all three lists].

Union List Relevant to Taxation

List I, called Union List, contains entries like Defence of
India, Foreign affairs, War and Peace, Banking etc. Entries in
this list relevant to taxation provisions are as follows:
ENTRY NO. 82 - Tax on income other than agricultural
income. ENTRY NO. 83 - Duties of customs including export
duties.
ENTRY NO. 84 - Duties of excise on tobacco and other goods
manufactured or produced in India except alcoholic liquors for
human consumption, opium, narcotic drugs, but including
medicinal and toilet preparations containing alcoholic liquor,
opium or narcotics.
ENTRY NO. 85 - Corporation Tax.
ENTRY NO. 92A - Taxes on the Sale or purchase of goods
other than newspapers, where such sale or purchase takes place
in the course of Interstate trade or commerce.
ENTRY NO. 92B - Taxes on consignment of goods where
such consignment takes place during Interstate trade or
commerce.
ENTRY NO. 97 - Any other matter not included in List II, list
III and any tax not mentioned in list II or list Ill. (These are
called Residual Powers).
State List Pertaining to Taxation
State Government has exclusive powers to make laws in respect
of matters in list II of Seventh Schedule to our Constitution.
These entries include Police, Public Health, Agriculture, Land
etc. Entries in this list relevant to taxation provisions are as
follows:
ENTRY NO. 46 - Taxes on agricultural income.
ENTRY NO. 51 - Excise duty on alcoholic liquors, opium and
narcotics,

ENTRY NO. 52 - Tax on entry of goods into a local area for

consumption, use or sale therein (usually called Octroi).
ENTRY NO. 54 - Tax on sale or purchase of goods other than
newspapers except tax on interstate sale or purchase.
List III of Seventh Schedule, called concurrent list, includes
matters where both Central Government and State Government can make laws. This list includes entries like Criminal Law
and Procedure, Trust and Trustees, Civil procedures, economic
and social planning, trade unions, charitable institutions, price
control, factories, etc. In case of entries included in concurrent
list, in case of conflict, law made by Union Government
prevails. The only exception is that if law made by State
contains any provision repugnant to earlier law made by
Parliament, law made by State Government prevails, if it has
received assent of President. Even in such cases, Parliament can
make fresh law and amend, repeal or vary law made by State.
[Article 254 of Constitution].

Limitations of Taxation Powers

Article 265 of the Constitution states that no tax shall be
levied or collected except by authority of law, Article 300A of
the Constitution states that no person shall be deprived of its
property save by authority of law, The effect of these provisions is that any taxation which is found to be beyond the
powers of Law is illegal and Government has no authority to
levy that tax. If any amount is collected under a law which is
found to be illegal, Government cannot retain such amount
and must repay such illegally collected tax, Thus, whenever it has
been found that Govt. has collected tax without proper
authority of law, Courts have held that the illegally collected
taxes must be refunded, subject to provisions of Unjust
Enrichment in respect of Indirect Taxes.
India has a well developed tax structure with a three-tier federal
structure, comprising the Union Government, the State
Governments and the Urban/Rural Local Bodies. The power to
levy taxes and duties is distributed among the three tiers of
Governments, in accordance with the provisions of the Indian
Constitution. The main taxes/duties that the Union Government is empowered to levy are Income Tax (except tax on
agricultural income, which the State Governments can levy),
Customs duties, Central Excise and Sales Tax and Service Tax.
The principal taxes levied by the State Governments are Sales
Tax (tax on intra-State sale of goods), Stamp Duty (duty on
transfer of property), State Excise (duty on manufacture of
alcohol), Land Revenue (levy on land used for agricultural/nonagricultural purposes), Duty on Entertainment and Tax on
Professions & Callings. The Local Bodies are empowered to levy
tax on properties (buildings, etc.), Octroi (tax on entry of goods
for use/consumption within areas of the Local Bodies), Tax on
Markets and Tax/User Charges for utilities like water supply,
drainage, etc.
Taxation Structure in India
Direct Taxes
Indirect Taxes.
Examples
Examples
1.Income Tax
1.Excise Duty
2.Wealth Tax
2.Customs Duty
3.Sales Tax

Since 1991 tax system in India has under gone a radical change,
in line with liberal economic policy and WTO commitments of
the country. Some of the changes are:

Reduction in customs and excise duties

Lowering corporate Tax

Widening of the tax base and toning up the tax

administration.

An understanding of the Income-tax law requires a study of

the following:
A. The Income-tax Act, 1961 (amended up-to-date)
B. The Income-tax Rules, 1962 (amended up-to-date)
C. Circulars, clarifications issued from time to time by the
CBDT
D. Judicial decisions
The Income-tax Act, 1961 (Amended upto date)

The provisions of income tax are contained in the Income-tax

Act, 1961 which extends to the whole of India and (extended
to state of Sikkim from 1.4.1990) became effective from 1- 4 1962 (Section 1). I
Scope of Income-tax Act: The Income-tax Act contains
provisions for determination of taxable income, determination
of tax liability, procedure for assessment, appeals, penalties and
prosecutions. It also lays down the powers and duties of
various Income-tax authorities.
Since the Income-tax Act, 1961 is a revenue law, there are bound
to be amendments from time to time in this law. Therefore, the
Income-tax Act has undergone innumerable changes from the
time it was originally enacted. These amendments are generally
brought in annually along with the Union Budget. Besides
these amendments, whenever it is found necessary, the Government introduces amendments in the form of various
Amendment Acts and Ordinances.
Annual amendments: Every year a Budget is presented before
the Parliament by the Finance-Minister. One of the most
important components of the Budget is the Finance Bill, which
declares the financial proposals of the Central Government for
the next financial year. The Bill contains various amendments
which are sought to be made in the areas of direct and indirect
taxes levied by the Central Government. The Finance Bill also
mentions the rates of income-tax and other taxes which are
given in the First Schedule attached to such Finance Bill. The
First Schedule gives the rates of income-tax in 4 parts:
Part-I : It gives the rates of income-tax for various assessees for
the current assessment year e.g. the Finance Act, 2003 has given
the rates of Income tax for the assessment year 2004-05.
Part-II: It gives the rates for deduction of tax at source from the
income earned in the current financial year e.g. the Finance Act,
2003 has given the rates at which tax is to be deducted at source
in the financial year 2003-04. Similarly, Finance Act, 2004 shall
give the rates of TDS on the income earned during the financial
year 2004-05.
Part-III: It gives the rates for calculating income-tax for
deducting tax from income chargeable under the head Salaries.
The same rates are applicable for computation of advance tax to

be paid in the current financial year, e.g., Finance Act, 2003 has
given the rates for the computation of advance tax for the
assessment year 2004-05 and the Finance Act, 2004 shall give the
rates of advance tax for assessment year 2005-06.
Part-IV: It gives the rules for computation of Net Agricultural
Income.
You should also note that:
1. When the Finance Bill is approved by both the Houses of
Parliament and receives the assent of the President, it
becomes the Finance Act. The provisions of such Finance
Act are thereafter incorporated in the Income-tax Act.
2. Part-III of Schedule I of a particular Finance Act, which gives
the rates for computation of Advance Tax and TDS on
salary, etc., generally becomes Part-1 of the subsequent
Finance Act. e.g., Finance Act, 2003, Part-III has given the
rates for computation of Advance tax for Assessment Year
2004-05. The same rates shall become the rates of incometax for Assessment Year 2004-05, in the Finance Act,
2004.Similarly, rates given under Part III of Schedule I of
Finance Act, 2004, will become Part I of Schedule I of
Finance Act, 2005 and these will be the rates of income-tax
for Assessment Year 2005-06.
3. Besides the rates which are given in the Finance Act every
year, there are certain incomes which are taxable at the special
rates given in the Income-tax Act itself e.g. long-term capital
gain is taxable @ 10%/20% and income from lotteries,
crossword puzzles, etc. are taxable @ 30% for assessment
year 2004-05.
Existing Finance Act to Have Effect Pending Legislative
Provision for Charge of Tax [Section 294]

If on the first day of April in any assessment year, the provision has not yet been made by a Central Act for the charging of
income-tax i.e. the Finance Act has not been enacted, the
provisions of the previous Finance Act would continue to be
effective. In case the Finance Bill is before the Parliament but has
not yet been passed, then the rates at which the income is to be
taxed shall be the rates prescribed in such Bill or the rates
prescribed in the preceding Finance Act, whichever are more
favourable to the assessee.
Income-tax Rules 1962 (amended upto date)

Every Act normally gives power to an authority, responsible for

implementation of the Act, to make rules for carrying out
purposes of the Act. Section 295 of the Income-tax Act has
given power to the Central Board of Direct Taxes to make such
rules, subject to the control of Central Government, for the
whole or any part of India. These rules are made applicable by
notification in the Gazette of India. These rules were first made
in 1962 and are known as Income-tax Rules, 1962. Since then,
many new rules have been framed or existing rules have been
amended from time to time and the same have been incorporated in the aforesaid rules.
Circulars and Clarifications by CBDT

The CBDT in exercise of the powers conferred on it under

section 119 has been issuing certain circulars and clarifications
from time to time, which have to be followed and applied by
the Income-tax Authorities. However, these circulars are not

binding on the assessee or the ITA T or on the Courts. But

whenever there is any instruction which is in favour of the
assessee, the Income-tax Authorities would not be permitted to
go back on these instructions or circulars. Therefore, such
circulars or clarifications are binding upon the Income-tax
Authorities, but the same are not binding on the assessee,
although the assessee can claim benefit under such circulars.
[UCO Bank v CIT (1999) 237 ITR 889 (SC).
Judicial Decisions

Any decision given by the Supreme Court becomes a law which

will be binding on all the Courts, Appellate Tribunals, the
Income-tax Authorities as well as on all the assessees. Where
there are apparently contradictory rulings by the Supreme Court,
the decision of larger bench (whether earlier or later in point of
time) should always prevail. However, where the apparently
irreconcilable decisions are given by benches having equal
number of judges, the principle of the later decision being
applicable would be attracted.
Decisions given by a High Court, Income-tax Appellate
Tribunal, etc. are binding on all the assessees as well as the
Income-tax Authorities which fall under their jurisdiction,
unless it is over-ruled by a higher authority. The decision of a
High Court is binding on the Tribunal and the Income-tax
Authorities situated in the area over which the High Court has
jurisdiction.
The scheme of Taxation is as :
Every person, whose total income of the previous year exceeds
the maximum amount which is not chargeable to income tax, is
an assessee and chargeable to income tax at the rate or rates
prescribed in the Finance Act for the relevant assessment year.
However, his total income shall be determined on the basis of
his residential status in India.
An analysis of the above statement would reveal the following
important concepts, which are necessary for understanding the
framework of the Income-tax Act.
1. Person
2. Assessee
3. Assessment year
4. Previous year
5. Rate or rates of tax
6. Charge of income-tax
7. Maximum amount which is not chargeable to income-tax
8. Total income
9. Residential status.
We will discuss the above in due course of time.
Tax rates are given as under:

Direct Taxes
Personal Income Tax
Individual income slabs are 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% for annual
incomes upto Rs. 50,000, 50,000 to 60,000, 60,000 to 1, 50, 000
and above 1, 50, 000 respectively.

Corporate Income Tax

For domestic companies, this is levied @ 35% plus surcharge
of 5%, where as for a foreign company (including branch/
project offices), it is @ 40% plus surcharge of 5%. An Indian
registered company, which is a subsidiary of a foreign company,
is also considered an Indian company for this purpose.

Salient features are:

Withholding Tax for NRIs and Foreign Companies

Withholding Tax Rates for payments made to Non-Residents
are determined by the Finance Act passed by the Parliament for
various years. The current rates are:
1. Interest - 20% of Gross Amount
2. Dividends - 10%
3. Royalties - 20%
4. Technical Services - 20%
5. Any other Services - Individuals - 30% of net income
Companies/Corporates - 40% of net income
The above rates are general and in respect of the countries with
which India does not have a Double Taxation Avoidance
Agreement (DTAA).
Double Taxation Relief
India has entered into DTAA with 65 countries including
countries like U.S.A., U.K., Japan, France, Germany, etc. These
agreements provides for relief from the double taxation in
respect of incomes by providing exemption and also by
providing credits for taxes paid in one of the countries. These
treaties are based on the general principles laid down in the
model draft of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) with suitable modifications as
agreed to by the other contracting countries. In case of countries
with which India has double taxation avoidance agreements, the
tax rates are determined by such agreements.

Indirect Taxes
Sales Tax
Central Sales Tax (CST)
CST is 4% on manufactured goods.
Local Sales Tax (LST)

Where a sale takes place within a state, LST would be levied.

Such a tax would be governed by the relevant state tax legislation. This is normally up to 15%.

Excise Duty
Excise duty on most commodities ranges between 0 to 16%.
Only on seven items duty is imposed at 32%, viz., motor cars,
tyres, aerated soft drinks, air conditioners, polyesters filament
yarn, pan masala and chewing tobacco. Duty is charged at 30%
on petrol with additional excise duty at Rs. 7 per litre. The said
rates are subject to exemptions and deductions thereon as may
be notified from time to time. Central VAT (CENVAT) is
applicable to practically all manufactured goods, so as to avoid
cascading effect on duty. Small Scale Sector is exempted from
payment of excise duty from annual production upto Rs.10
million.
Customs Duty
The rates of basic duties vary from 0 to 30%.
6

Peak customs duty reduced from 220% (in 1991) to 30% (in
2002).

The general project import duty (for new projects and

substantial expansion of existing projects) reduced from
85% to 25%.

Import duty under EPCG Scheme is 5%.

R&D imports - 5% customs duty.

Export made with imported inputs get concessions in form

of duty drawback, duty entitlement pass book scheme and
advance licence.

Many type of industries such as 100% EOU and units in free

trade zone get facility of zero import duty.

An Authority for Advance Ruling for foreign investor.

Now time for to enjoy the homew ork , hope so I used the
right words.I know you are very intellectual and do it easily.
So answer the Questions:
1. Explain Taxation Structure in India.
2. Distinguish between Indirect Taxes and Direct Taxes.
3. Explain Status of Income Tax in Indian Constitution.
4. State the contents of List I, II and III of Seventh Schedule
to Constitution.
5. Tax Rates are not given under the Income Tax Act,1961 but
by the annual Finance Act Discuss.
6. Give your comments on Taxation structure regarding1.

Is it in right manner or needs some improvement.

2.

If you think any improvement should be their, clearly

state why and also state the loop holes in present
structure.

3.

Suggest a structure you feel should be implementedits advantages and how it is more efficient than the
present structure with respect to advantages to
Government, society and others.

(Note: Your comments/advantages should be classified on the

following grounds:Revenue Cost advantage, Tax evasion and
tax avoidance, Effectiveness, and practical implementation.)

LESSON 2:
BASIC CONCEPTS IN INCOME TAX - I
Lesson Objectives

To understand various concepts of Income Tax.

To know basis of charge of Income

To know types of Income.

To know who has burden of Proof.

After having a look at the taxation structure in India now let us

discuss some basic concepts of Income Tax Students if ones
base is strong i.e, say your basic of any subject is clear you can
solve any problem in your life.
To start with we will first see what is assessment year.

Assessment Year
As Per Section 2(9) of the Income Tax Act, 1961 Assessment year means the period of twelve months starting
from April 1, of every year and ending on March 31 of the next
year. For instance, the assessment year 2004-05 which will
commence on April 1, 2004, will end on March 31,2005. The
period of assessment year is fixed by statute. Income of
previous year of an assessee is taxed during the following
assessment year at the rates prescribed for such assessment year
by the relevant Finance Act.

Previous Year
Section 3 of the Act Talk About Previous Year
Previous year is the financial year immediately preceding the
assessment year. Income earned in a year is taxable in the next
year. The year in which income is earned is known as previous
year and the next year in which income is taxable is known as
assessment year. In other words, we can say that income earned
during the previous year 2003-04 is taxable in the immediately
following assessment year (i.e. 2004-05). There are some
exceptions to this rule which we will discuss afterwards.
* Uniform previous year - From the assessment year 1989-90
onwards, all assessees are required to follow financial year (i.e.
April 1 to March 31) as the previous year. This uniform
previous year has to be followed for all sources of income.
For example say, - For the assessment year 2004-05, income
earned by X Ltd. during the previous year 2003-04 (i.e., April 1,
2003 to March 31, 2004) is chargeable to tax. It is, however, not
necessary that X Ltd. should maintain books of account on the
basis of financial year. It is not necessary that X Ltd. should
close books of account on March 31 every year. X Ltd. may
maintain books of account on the basis of any other year but
for the purpose of income-tax, income of the previous year
2003-04 (i.e., April 1, 2003 to March 31, 2004) is taxable for the
assessment year 2004-2005.
If X Ltd. maintains books of account on the calendar year
basis, taxable income shall be determined as follows :

Accounting
Year
2002
2003
2004

Income as
per books of
Accounts
60000
70000
90000

Quarterwise break up of
Income
Jan March April-Dec.
18000
42000
26000
44000
21000
69000

Taxable income :
Assessment Year
2003-2004
2004-2005

Previous Year
2002-2003
2003-2004

Income (Rs.)
68000(42000+26000)
65000(44000+21000)

From the above example it is clear that whatever is the accounting year of the assessee for Income Tax purpose he has to
follow a uniform previous year beginning from April 1 and
ending on March 31.
Now let us discuss exceptions to the above rule.
* Previous year in the case of newly set-up business/profession:
In the case of newly set up business or profession or a source
of income newly coming into existence, the first previous year
will be the period commencing from the date of setting up of
business/profession (or, as the case may be, the date on which
the source of income newly comes into existence) and ending
the immediately following March 31.
Thus, in the case of a newly set up business/profession or new
source of income, the first previous year is a period of 12
months or less than 12 months. It can never exceed 12 months.
The second and subsequent previous years are always of 12
months each (i.e., April 1, to March 31).
Prob-l. X joins an Indian firm on November 18,2003. Prior to
November 18,2003, he is not in employment. He does not have
any other source of income. What are
Note - For the assessment year 2003-04, the assessee has income
from house property which can be said to be his existing source
of income during the previous year. His new source of income
comes into existence in the form of business income from
March 10, 2003. Therefore, the assessee has two previous years
for assessment year 2003-04. For the property income which is
his existing source, the previous year is 2002-03. For the
business income, which is his new source of income, the
previous year is a period commencing from March 10, 2003 to
March 31, 2003.
For computing taxable income for the assessment year 2003-04
(or any subsequent year), the income from both the previous
years will be aggregated, as to get the figure of total income one
has to include income from all sources.
* Previous year as defined in section 3 - Except in the case of
above exceptions, previous year is the financial year immediately
preceding the assessment year. For instance, for the assessment

year 2004-05, the immediately preceding financial year (i.e., 200304) is the previous year.
You know that income earned in a previous year is taxed in the
immediately following year i.e. assessment year. But again
practical difficulties play a role & thus there are some exceptions
to this also.

2004-05, on February 14,2005, the Assessing Officer comes to

know that X will leave India on April 12, 2005 with no
intention of returning. In this case, the Assessing Officer will
make 3 assessments for the assessment year 2004-05 :
a. Regular assessment for the previous year 2003-04 (i.e.,
income of the period April 1, 2003 to March 31, 2004) ;

* When income of previous year is not taxable in the immediately following assessment year :

b. Assessment for the income of the period April 1, 2004 to

March 31, 2005 ; and

The rule that the income of the previous year is assessable as

the income of immediately following assessment year has
certain exceptions as discussed below. These exceptions have
been incorporated in order to ensure smooth collection of
income-tax from these taxpayers who may not be traceable if
tax assessment procedure is postponed till the commencement
of the normal assessment.

c. Assessment for the income of the period April 1, 2005 to

April 12, 2005.

1. Shipping Business of Non-residents [Sec. 172]

Section 172 is applicable if the following conditions are satisfied
a. the taxpayer is a non-resident;
b. he owns a ship or ship is chartered by the non-resident
taxpayer;
c. the ship carries passengers, livestock, mail or goods shipped
at a port in India; and
d. the non-resident taxpayer may (or may not) have an agent/
representative in India. If all the aforesaid conditions are
satisfied, 7.5 per cent of amount paid (or payable) on
account of such carriage (including demurrage charge or
handling charge or similar amount) to the non-resident
taxpayer shall be deemed to be the income of the taxpayer.
For this purpose, the master of the ship shall submit a
return of income before the departure of the ship from the
Indian port (such return may be submitted within 30 days
of the departure of the ship, if the Assessing Officer is
satisfied that it will be difficult to submit the return before
departure and if satisfactory arrangement for payment of tax
has been made). Unless the tax has been paid (or satisfactory
arrangements have been made for payment thereof), a port
clearance shall not be granted by the Collector of Customs.
Under the above noted provisions of section 172, 7.5 per
cent of amount of freight, fare, etc., is deemed as income of
the non-resident taxpayer and tax is payable at the rate
applicable to a foreign company. Income is, thus, taxable in
the same year in which freight, fare, etc., is collected and not
in the immediately following assessment year.
2. Persons Leaving India [Sec. 174]
Section 174 is applicable as follows
a. It appears to the Assessing Officer that an individual may
leave India during the current assessment or shortly
thereafter.
b. He has no present intention of returning to India.
c. The total income of such individual up to the probable date
of his departure from India shall be chargeable to tax in that
assessment year.
For Instance - X, a foreign citizen, is residing in India since
2000. While completing his assessment for the assessment year

The above three income assessments shall be completed

separately. For the first assessment, tax shall be chargeable at the
rates applicable for the assessment year 2004-05. For the second
and third assessments, tax shall be chargeable at the rates
applicable for the assessment year 2005-06 which will be given in
Part III of the First Schedule to the Finance Act, 2004.

3. Bodies Formed for Short Duration [Sec. 174a]

Section 174A has been inserted from the assessment year 200203. This section is applicable as follows
There is an association of persons or a body of individuals
or an artificial juridical person, formed or established or
incorporated for a particular event or purpose.
It appears to the Assessing Officer that the above mentioned
association, body, etc., is likely to be dissolved in the
assessment year (i.e., April to March) in which such
association of persons or body of individuals or artificial
juridical person was formed or established or incorporated or
immediately after such assessment year.
The total income of such association or body or juridical
person for the period from the expiry of the previous year
for that assessment year up to the date of its dissolution
shall be chargeable to tax in that assessment year.
Let us have an example.
Say, Ram & Co. is an association of two individuals X and Y. It
is formed on April 10, 2003 for the purpose of completing a
contract given by a German company in India. It is likely to be
dissolved on September 10, 2004. While processing return
submitted by the association for the assessment year 2004-05,
the Assessing Officer comes to know on August 6, 2004 about
the probable date of dissolution.
In this case, the Assessing Officer will make two assessments
for the assessment year 2004-05:
a. Regular assessment for the previous year 2003-04 (i.e.,
income of the period April 10, 2003 to March 31, 2004); and
b. Assessment for the income of the period April 1, 2004 to
September 10, 2004.
The above two income assessments shall be completed
separately. For the first assessment, tax shall be chargeable at the
rates applicable for the assessment year 2004-05. For the second
assessment, tax shall be chargeable at the rates applicable for the
assessment year 2005-06 which will be given in Part III of the
First Schedule to Finance Act, 2004.

4. Person Likely to Transfer Property to Avoid Tax

[Sec.175]
The salient features of section 175 are given below
It appears to the Assessing Officer during any current
assessment year that a person is likely to charge, sell, transfer,
dispose of (or otherwise part with) any of his asset.
Such asset may be movable or immovable.
The taxpayer is likely to part with asset with a view to
avoiding payment of any liability under the Income-tax Act.
The total income of such person from the first day of the
assessment year to the date when proceeding is started under
section 175 is taxable in that assessment year.
For Instance: On December 19, 2003, the Assessing Officer
comes to know that Wolf Ltd. is likely to dispose of a house
property during January 2004 with a view to avoiding payment
of income-tax. A notice is issued by the Assessing Officer on
December 28, 2003 to Wolf Ltd. under section 175 to submit
return of income of the period commencing on April 1, 2003
to December 28, 2003.
Here, income from April 1, 2003 to December 28, 2003 is
chargeable to tax in the assessment year 2003-04 and tax will be
calculated at the rate applicable for the assessment year 2004-05
given in Part III of the First Schedule to the Finance Act, 2003.
5. Discontinued Business [Sec. 176]
The salient features of section 176 are as follows
A business or profession is discontinued in any assessment
year.
Income of the business/profession from April 1 of the
assessment year (in which the business/ profession is
discontinued) to the date of discontinuation may be taxable
in the assessment year in which the business/profession is
discontinued.
The above income is taxable at the discretion of the
Assessing Officer in the assessment year in which business is
discontinued or it may be taxed in the normal assessment
year (i.e., assessment year immediately following the previous
year).

If it is taxable in the assessment year in which the business /

profession is discontinued, then it is chargeable to tax at the
rate applicable to that assessment year.

It may be noted that in the first four exceptions discussed earlier

(i.e., shipping business of non-residents, persons leaving India,
bodies formed for short duration and transfer of property) tax
shall be charged in the previous year itself (it is mandatory on
the part of the Assessing Officer). But in the case of discontinued business, it is at the discretion of the Assessing Officer.
Say for example Mr. R discontinues his business on August 10,
2003. In this case, income will be taxable as follows
a. For the assessment year 2003-04, income of the previous
year 2002-03 will be taxable; and
b. Income of the period commencing on April 1, 2003 and
ending on August 10, 2003 may be taxable at the discretion
of the Assessing Officer in the assessment year 2003-04 at
the rate applicable to the assessment year 2004-05 given in

Part III of the First Schedule to the Finance Act, 2003 (or, on
the other hand, the Assessing Officer may wait till the
commencement of the normal assessment year and then
income of the period: April 1, 2003 to August 10,2003, shall
be taxed in the assessment year 2004-05 at the rate applicable
to the assessment year 2004-05 which will be given in Part I
of the First Schedule to the Finance Act, 2004).
Till now we discussed the period that are considered for Income
Tax purpose.
Now lets see who is required to pay Income Tax. The following
persons are liable to pay Income Tax Act 1961.

Important Note:
As the concept of Previous year and Assessment year is clear,
and you know that each budget along with it brings lots of
amendments. Keeping this in view the course pack is prepared
as per the provisions of Previous Year 2003-2004 i.e. Assessment Year 2004-2005. Students are advised to keep a track of
latest amendments and also Budget 2004 should be considered
for reference.
Always we have question who should pay tax, the following are
only liable to tax.
Person [Sec. 2(31)]
The term person includes:
a. An individual;
b. A Hindu undivided family;
c. A company;
d. A firm;
e. An association of persons or a body of individuals, whether
incorporated or not;
f. A local authority; and
g. Every artificial juridical person, not falling within any of the
preceding categories.
These are seven categories of persons chargeable to tax under
the Act. The aforesaid definition is inclusive, and not exclusive.
Therefore, any person, not falling in the abovementioned
categories, may still fall in the four corners of the term person
and accordingly may be liable to tax under section 4.
Thus the above definition includes all entities, organizations,
profit earning or not, individuals, artificial entities etc.
Let us consider each of them separately to have a better idea.
An Individual

Under the present Act, the word individual means only a

natural person, i.e., a human being. Deities and statutory
corporations are assessable as juridical person. Individual
includes a minor or a person of unsound mind Shridhar Uday
Narayan v. CIT[ 1962] 45 ITR 577 (All.), or a group of individuals- WTO v. C.K. Mammed Kayi [1981] 129 ITR 307 (SC).
Trustees of a discretionary trust have to be assessed in status of
individual and not in status of association of persons-CIT
v. Deepak Family Trust (No. 1) [1994] 72 Taxman 406 (Guj.).
A Hindu Undivided Family

A Hindu undivided family consists of all persons lineally

descended from a common ancestor and includes their wives

and unmarried daughters. Profits made by a joint Hindu family

are chargeable to tax as income of the Hindu undivided family
as a distinct entity or unit of assessment. Once a family is
assessed as a Hindu undivided family, it will continue to be
assessed as such till a finding of partition is given by the
Assessing Officer under section 171.

which specifically rules out constitution of partnership and

provides that (a) there is no sharing of profit or loss, and (b)
each party will bear its own loss and retain its own profit,
cannot be treated as an association of person- Van Oord
ACZ BV, In re, [2001] 115 Taxman 317 (AAR-N. Delhi).

A Company

Local authority is a separate unit of assessment. As per section

3(31) of the General Clauses Act, 1897, a local authority means a
municipal committee, district board, body of port commissioners, or other authority legally entitled to or entrusted by the
Government with the control and management of a municipal
or local fund. The definition was examined by the Apex Court
in various cases and the first important decision on the point
was Union of India v. R.C Jain AIR 1981 SC 951, indicating
certain tests therein. The major tests which can be carved out
from the above decision and subsequent decisions, are essentially, that (1) the authorities must have separate legal existence
as corporate bodies and autonomous status; (ii) it must
function in a defined area and must ordinarily, wholly or partly,
directly or indirectly be elected by the inhabitants of the area; (iii)
it performs Governmental functions such as running market,
providing civic amenities, etc.; (iv) it must have power to raise
funds for the furtherance of its activities and the fulfillment of
its projects by levying taxes/fees-this may be in addition to
money provided by the Government and control and management of the fund must vest with the authority.

It may be defined as an incorporated association which is an

artificial person, having an independent legal entity, with a
perpetual succession, a common seal, a common capital
comprised of transferable shares and carrying limited liability.
As per section 2(17) of Income Tax Act a company is defined
as:
A company meansi. Any Indian company, or
ii. Any body corporate incorporated by or under the laws of a
country outside India, or
iii. Any institution, association or body which is or was
assessable or was assessed as a company for any assessment
year under the Indian Income-tax Act, 1922 (11 of 1922), or
which is or was assessable or was assessed under this Act as a
company for any
assessment year commencing on or before the 1st day of
April,1970, or
iv. Any institution, association or body, whether incorporated
or not and whether Indian or non-Indian, which is declared
by general or special order of the Board to be a company:
Provided that such institution, association or body shall be
deemed to be a company only for such assessment year or
assessment years (whether commencing before the 1st day of
April, 1971, or on or after that date) as may be specified in the
declaration.
A Firm

A firm is a taxable entity separate and distinct from its partners.

As per section 2(23) of the Income Tax Act a firm, partner
and partnership have the meanings respectively assigned to
them in the Indian Partnership Act, 1932 (9 of 1932) ; but the
expression partner shall also include any person who, being a
minor, has been admitted to the benefits of partnership.
An Association of Persons or a Body of Individuals

The word associate means to join in common purpose or to

join in action, Therefore, association of persons means an
association in which two or more persons join in a common
purpose or common action. The term person includes any
company or association or body of individuals, whether
incorporated or not. An association of persons may have
companies, firms, joint families as its members-MM Ipoh
v.CIT[1968] 67 ITR 106 (SC). Mere execution of a document of
sale by two or more persons owning the property jointly cannot
bring the co-owners together as body of individuals. There
must be something more than joining together and executing
the documents- CIT v. Deghamwala Estates [1980] 121 ITR
684 (Mad.). While AOP must have some common purpose it is
not so with BOI. But each case has to be examined on the basis
of surrounding facts. A joint venture between two parties

10

Local Authority

Every Artificial Juridical Person

It includes all other entities of any nature not included above.By

inserting this category in the definition the department has
ensured that no organisation or entity is left out of the preview
of the Income Tax. These are not living things but are separate
entities in the eyes of the laws. Though they may not be sued
directly in a court of law but they can be sued through persons
managing them.It covers not only deities-Jogendra Nath
Naskar v. CIT[ 1969] 74 ITR 33 (SC) but also all artificial
persons with a juridical personality such as a Bar Council-Bar
Council of Uttar Pradesh v. CIT[1983] 143 ITR 584 (AIL).
Guru Granth Sahib is to be regarded as a juristic personShiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee, Asr. v. Som
Nath Das [2000] 160 CTR (SC) 61. This is residuary classification and, therefore, it does not cover those falling within any of
the preceding classifications.
One should note that Profit motive is not essential to be
treated as an Person under the Act. An Explanation is inserted
in section 2(31) with effect from the assessment year 2002-03. It
provides that an association of persons or a body of individuals or a local authority or an artificial juridical person shall be
deemed to be a person, whether or not, such person or body
or authority or juridical person, is formed or established or
incorporated with the object of deriving income, profits or
gains. Any entity formed with or without the aim of earning
profit thus can be treated as Person and liable to tax provisions.

Assessee [Sec. 2(7)]

Assessee means a person by whom any tax or any other sum of
money (i.e., penalty or interest) is payable under the Act. The
term includes the following persons:

A person (i.e., an individual; a Hindu undivided family; a

company; a firm; an association of persons or body of
individuals, whether incorporated or not; a local authority;
and every artificial juridical person) by whom any tax or any
other sum of money (including interest and penalty) is
payable under the Act (irrespective of the fact whether any
proceeding under the Act has been taken against him or not).

A person in respect of whom any proceeding under the Act

has been taken (whether or not he is liable for any tax,
interest or penalty). Proceeding may be taken:
1.

either for the assessment of the amount of his income

or of the 1oss sustained by him; or

4. Total income is calculated in accordance with the provisions

of the Income-tax Act as they stand on first day of April in
any assessment year. Accordingly, for arriving at total income
for the assessment year 2003-04, the income-tax
provisions as on April!, 2003 will be applicable- BadriPrasad
v. CIT [1990] 185 ITR 307 (Pat.), CIT v. S.A.Wahab [1990]
182 ITR 464 (Ker.). Any amendment made with effect from
April 2, 2003 is wholly irrelevant for the assessment year
2003-04. Likewise, the law existing during the previous year
2002-03 has no relevance for determining total income of the
assessment year 2003-04.
5. Tax is charged on every person.

2.

of the income (or loss) of any other person in respect

of whom he is assessable; or

6. The tax is levied on the total income of every assessee

computed in accordance with the provisions of the Act.

3.

of the amount of refund due to him or to such other

person.

Income [Sec. 2(24)]

Generally speaking, the word Income covers receipts in the
shape of money or moneys worth which arise with certain
regularity or expected regularity from a definite source. The
source of income need not be necessarily tangible as the return
for human exertion is also income. However, all receipts do not
form the basis of taxation under the act.
The definition of the term income in section 2(24) is
inclusive and not exclusive. Therefore, the term income not
only includes those things which are included in section 2(24),
but also includes such things which the term signifies according
to its general and natural meaning. Before discussing the
definition of income given under section 2(24) it is imperative
to know meaning of income as generally understood.
Income as generally understood for tax purposes - Entry 82 of
List I of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution empowers
Parliament to levy taxes on income other than agricultural
income. Entries in the Lists in the Seventh Schedule to the
Constitution should not be read in a narrow or restricted senseBhagwan Dass Jain v. Union of India [1981] 5 Taxman 7 (SC).
It, therefore, follows that in addition to receipts mentioned in
section 2(24) (which does not define the term income but
merely describes the various receipts as income), any other
receipt is taxable under the Act, if it comes within the general
and natural meaning of the term income.
According to the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, income
means that which comes in as the periodical product of ones
work, business, lands, or investments (commonly expressed in
terms of money); annual or periodical receipts accruing to a
person or a corporation.
In CIT v. Shaw Wallace & Co. 6 ITC 178 (PC), Sir George
Lowndes defined income as follows:
Income connotes a periodical monetary return coming in
with some sort of regularity, or expected regularity from definite
sources. The source is not necessarily one which is expected to
be continuously productive, but it must be one whose object is
the production of a definite return, excluding anything in the
nature of a mere windfall.
Anything which can be properly described as income is taxable
under the Act, unless expressly exempted - Gopal Saran Narain
Singh v. CIT [1935] 3 ITR 237 (PC). Income may not necessarily
be recurring in nature, though it is generally of that

Every person who is deemed to be an assessee. For instance,

a representative assessee is deemed to be an assessee by virtue
of section 160(2).

Every person who is deemed to be an assessee in default

under any provision of the Act. For instance, under section
201 (1), any person who does not deduct tax at source, or
after deducting fails to pay such tax, is deemed to be an
assessee in default. Likewise, under section 218, if a person
does not pay advance tax, then he shall be deemed to be an
assessee in default.

Now let us see the basis of charge of tax.

Charge of Income-tax [Sec. 4]

No tax can be levied or collected in India except under the
authority of law. Section 4 of the income tax Act, gives such
authority for charging of income tax. Where any Central Act
enacts that income tax shall be charged for any assessment year
at any rate or rates, income tax at that rate or those rates shall be
charged for that year in accordance with, and subject to the
provisions (including provisions for the levy of additional
income tax) of, this Act in respect of the total income of the
previous year of every person. Although income tax is charged
on the income of the previous year in the relevant assessment
year, but Income tax shall be deducted at source, or paid in
advance wherever it is so deductible or payable under any
provisions of the Act.
The following basic principles are followed while charging tax:
1. Income-tax is an annual tax on total income.
2. Income of previous year is chargeable in the next following
assessment year at the tax rates applicable for the assessment
year. This rule is, however, subject to some exceptions.
3. Tax rates are fixed by the annual Finance Act and not by the
Income-tax Act. If, however, on the first day of April of the
assessment year, the new Finance Bill has not been placed on
the statute books, the provisions in force in the preceding
assessment year or the provisions proposed in the Finance
Bill before Parliament, whichever is more beneficial to the
assessee, will apply until the new provisions become
effective.

11

characterKamakshya Narain Singh of Ramgarh v. CIT [1943] 11

ITR 513 PC). Though there are different concepts of income
for the purpose of taxation, income is broadly defined as the
true increase in the amount of wealth which comes to a person
during a stated period of time- Comm. of Corporation and
Taxation v. Filoon 38 NE 2d 693,700.
A study of the following judicial principles will be helpful to
understand the concept of income.
Regular and definite source - The term income connotes a
periodical monetary return coming in with some sort of
regularity- CIT v. Shaw Wallace & Co. 6 ITC 178 (PC). However,
it must be read with reference to facts of each case- Raghuvanshi
Mills Ltd. v. CIT[1952] 22 ITR 484 (SC).
Different forms of income - Income may be received in cash or
kind. When income is received in kind, its valuation is to be
made according to the rules prescribed in the Income-tax Rules.
If, however, there is no prescribed rule, valuation thereof is
made on the basis of market value.
Receipt vs. Accrual - Income arises either on receipt basis or on
accrual basis.
Income may accrue to a taxpayer without its actual receipt.
Moreover, in some cases, income is deemed to accrue or arise to
a person without its actual accrual or receipt. Tax incidence arises
either on accrual basis or on receipt basis.
Illegal Income

The income-tax law does not make any distinction between

income accrued or arisen from a legal source and income tainted
with illegality. By bringing the profits of an illegal business to
tax, the State does not condone it or take part in crime, nor does
it become a party to the illegality. The assessee might be
prosecuted for the offence and yet be taxed upon profits arising
out of its commission-Mann v. Nash [1932] 1 KB 752.
However, any expense or loss incurred by an assessee in carrying
on such business is not deductible. Explanation to section
37(1) provides that any expenditure incurred by an assessee for
any purpose which is an offence or which is prohibited by law
shall not be deemed to have been incurred for the purpose of
business or profession and no deduction or allowance shall be
made in respect of such expenditure. This amendment in
statute has now over-ruled the decision given by the Apex
Court in CIT v. Piara Singh [1980] 3 Taxman 67.

Diversion of income by overriding title vs. Application of

income - diversion of income by overriding title vs. application
of income - There is a thin dividing line between diversion of
income and application of income. While application of income
may be of little consequence, diversion of income has to be
examined carefully. In order to decide whether a particular
payment is a diversion of income or application of income, it
has to be determined whether amount sought to be diverted
reached the assessee as his own income or not. To put it
differently, it has to be seen whether the disbursement of
income made by the assessee was a result of fulfillment of an
obligation on him or whether income has been applied to
discharge an obligation after it reached the assessee. Where by an
obligation income is diverted before it reaches the assessee, it is
not taxable, but where the income is required to be applied to
discharge an obligation after such income reaches the assessee,
the same consequence, in law, does not follow. It is the first
kind of payment which can truly be excused and not the second
one. The second payment is merely an obligation to pay another
portion of ones income, which has been received and is since
applied. The first is the case in which the income never reaches
the assessee, who even if he were to collect it, does so, not as
part of his income, but for and on behalf of the person to
whom it is payable - CIT v. Sitaldas Tirathdas [1961] 41 ITR
367 (SC).
To get a clear view we will have one example -Say, X and Y
prepare an article for publication in Taxman, a tax and corporate
law weekly magazine on the understanding that remuneration
will be shared equally. The article is published in January 3, 2004
issue of Taxman. On February 7, 2004, X receives the entire
remuneration of Rs. 2,000 (as per practice of the magazine, the
remuneration is paid to the first author), a half of which is later
on paid by X to Y. The payment of Rs.1000 (being 50 per cent
of Rs. 2,000) by X to Y is diversion of income by overriding
title. The taxable income of X will be Rs.1000 (payment of
Rs.l000 to Y will not be treated as income of X as it is diverted
by an overriding title). Any expenditure or investment by X out
of his income of Rs. 1,000 will be an application of income.
To have better understanding, the following instances taken
from judicial pronouncements are worth mentioning:
Some other important instances of diversion of income by
overriding title are stated below:

Disputed Title

Income-tax assessment cannot be held up or postponed merely

because of existence of a dispute regarding the title of income.
The recipient is, therefore, chargeable to tax, though there may
be rival claims to the source of the income-Franklin v. IRC
[1930] 15 TC 464. A mere claim, on the other hand, by a person
against the recipient of income is not sufficient to make income
accrue to the claimant and render him liable for tax.

Income received from property charged under a courts decree

with maintenance allowance to a dependent and spent on
maintenance-Raja Bejoy Singh Dudhuria v. CIT [1933] 1 ITR
135 (PC).

Income from trust property which under the trust deed is to

be spent on the maintenance of the assessee and his wifeCIT v. Manilal Dhanji [1962] 44 ITR 876 (SC).

A part of commission given up under a contract before it

accrued-CIT v. Harivallabhdas Kalidas & Co. [1960] 39 ITR 1
(SC).

Amount credited by the assessee under a license towards a

certain fund for the purpose of returning it to the consumerPoona Electric Supply Co. Ltd v. CIT[ 1965]57 ITR 521 (SC).

Relief or reimbursement of expenses not treated as income Mere relief or reimbursement of expenses is not treated as
income. For instance, reimbursement of actual traveling
expenses for official purposes to an employee is not an income.
Similarly, when the assessee is relieved of his obligation of a
certain sum to a party by an order of court, the amount so
relieved cannot be treated as income of the assessee.
12

Assessee, owner of a plot of land entered into an agreement

with her father-in-law for joint investment in construction
of house property thereon on the basis of equal ownership
in plot and building and equal share in eventual rental
income. (It was held that one-half rental income stood
diverted at source by overriding title in favour of father-inlaw)-CIT v. Ram Prakash [1982] 9 Taxman 242 (Delhi).
Where one P, who had pre-existing rights in the assesseefirm, decided to keep out of the partnership and it was
provided that the assessee-firm would pay her 25 per cent of
profits or, in the event of loss, 6 per cent interest per annum
on the amount outstanding to her credit, it was held that the
amount payable to P were diverted at source by an overriding
title-CIT v. Pompei Tile Works [1988] 41 Taxman 181 (Kar.).
Similarly, when share devolves upon the widow of a partner
and his minor sons, the amount payable by the widow out
of her share income to minors is diverted at source CIT v.
Mohindevi Mohunta [1988] 171 ITR 557 (Born.). When an
amount is diverted by virtue of a partnership/subpartnership agreement, it is equivalent to diversion by
overriding title- CIT v. Raja Ram laiswal [1991] 57 Taxman
225 (All.).
Where under an agreement the assessee runs a dairy project
of State Government on lease and licence basis and as per
Governments directives profits are to be applied first
towards accumulated losses, there is diversion of assessees
income to the extent of profits so paid to GovernmentRajkot District Gopalak Co-operative Milk Producers Union
Ltd. v. CIT [1993] 204 ITR 590 (Guj.).
Assessee was a sugar manufacturing company. The
Government of India passed an order known as Molasses
Control Order, 1961 contemplating one-third of sale price
of molasses had to be accounted and funded separately to
Molasses Storage Fund Account and shall be utilized for
erection of adequate storage facilities. Accordingly, the
assessee credited the sum to the Molasses Storage Fund
Account. Since the assessee had absolutely no control over
the fund for its being utilized for any purpose and the
assessee was holding and maintaining that account only as a
trustee and also it was not free to withdraw the amount
without approval of the appropriate authority even for the
purpose for which the fund was created, the sum credited in
the Molasses Storage Fund Account cannot be added in the
assessees income. The extent of the amount specified to be
credited to the Molasses Storage Fund Account from out of
price of molasses, the same is diverted from source itself
and it never reached the assessee-CIT v. Nizam Sugar Factory
Ltd. [2002] 120 Taxman 378 (AP).

Instances of Application of Income

Annual payment received by an assessee under a guarantee,
though it is to be applied in paying interest on capital
furnished by the assessee-Nizam 5 Guaranteed State Railway
Co. v. Wyatt [1890] 2 TC 584.
Salary retained by employer for being credited to a
compulsory deposit fund is application of income -Bell v.
Gribble [1903] 4 TC 522. Similarly, the sum credited by

employer to employees account of Provident Fund Scheme

is application of income- Smyth v. Stretton [1904] 5 TC 36.

Income from dividend on shares purchased by an assessee

through a loan taken from a creditor and handed over to it
with an obligation to adjust it towards the payment of
interest on loan and part of the principal loaned - IRC v.
Paterson [1924] 9 TC 163 (CA).

Income from property, though it is paid as maintenance

allowance under a decree of court (without maintenance
being a charge upon the property yielding the income) CIT v.
Sitaldas Tirathdas [1961] 41 ITR 367 (SC).

Income received by an assessee from a property bequeathed

to him by its previous owner with a direction to spend for
obtaining probate of the will and on his shradh ceremony
expenses-PC Mullick v. CIT[1938] 6 ITR 206 (PC).

Royalty due from a lessee, though the lessee is to retain and

apply it towards adjustment of the debt due to him from
the assessee-CIT v. Manager of Katras Encumbered Estate
[1934] 2 ITR 100 (Pat).

25 per cent of fees earned by a medical officer which is directly

paid by patients to the State Government under the contract
of employment of the medical officer-CIT v. P.N. Awasthi
[1976] 105 ITR 320 (All.).

Where the assessee is appointed as sole selling agent of a

company in place of former selling agent and the assessee
pays certain amount of compensation to outgoing agent out
of its selling agency commission, and that payment of
compensation is not by an overriding title, created either by
the act of parties or by the operation of law CIT v. Imperial
Chemical Industries (India) (P.) Ltd [1969] 74 ITR 17 (SC).

Where the assessee-society received royalties and after

deducting expenses and creating reserve fund, distributed the
royalties among its members, it was held that the royalties
were the assessees income and it had merely applied it in a
particular way -Performing Right Society Ltd v. CIT[1977]
106 ITR 11 (SC).

Surplus from mutual activity - A person cannot make a taxable

profit out of a transaction with himself-Dublin Corporation v.
MAdam 2 TC 387. Income must, therefore, come from
outside. A surplus arising to a mutual concern cannot be
regarded as income chargeable to tax. A body of individuals,
raising contribution to a common fund for the mutual benefits
of members, cannot be said to have earned an income when it
finds that it has overcharged members and some portion of
contribution raised may safely be refunded.
The fact whether such body of individuals is incorporated or
not, is wholly irrelevant, so long as there is a complete identity
between the contributors as a class and the participants of the
benefits and surplus as a class. In other words, all the participators in the surplus/benefits must be contributors to the
common fund-CIT v. Bankipur Club Ltd. [1981] 6 Taxman 47
(Pat.). Where the members of the assessee association of
cement manufacturers were contributors to a common fund
and had the right to participate in surplus, the surplus would
not be assessable as the assessees income on the ground of
mutuality-CIT v. Cement Allocation & Co-ordinating Org.

13

[1999] 236 ITR 553 (Bom.). Rent receipts from the members to
whom the rooms were let out by the assessee-club, alongwith
other facilities, would not be assessable to income-tax on the
doctrine of mutuality-Chelmsford Club v. CIT [2000] 109
Taxman 215 (SC). Where, however, the assessee fund/trust,
created for the benefit of its employees, receives contributions
from members, management and donations from others also
and the assessee deposits the said amount in a bank and earns
interest, such interest income earned by it cannot be said to be
exempt on the principle of mutuality CIT v .l.T.l Employees
Death & Superannuation Relief Fund [1998] 101 Taxman 315/
234 ITR 308 (Kar.).
Society for maintenance of housing complex - Is it governed by
the doctrine of mutuality - If the members of an association
for maintaining housing complex take the following precautions, the association will be governed by the principle of
mutuality:
a. Every flat owner should be the member/shareholder of the
associations;
b. The association can be in the form of a company, cooperative society, etc.;
c. Only the members of the association (their family members)
and guests of the members should use common facilities;
d. Facilities may be provided on a no profit no loss basis; and
e. Surplus, if any, should be utilised in order to create new
facilities.
Once the principle of mutuality applies to the association, its
income connected with mutuality will not be liable to tax.
Appropriation of payment between capital and interest - Where
interest is due on a capital sum and the creditor gets an open
payment from the debtor, the creditor is at liberty to appropriate the payment towards principal-CIT v .Pateshwari Prasad
Singh [1970] 76 ITR 208 (All.). If, however, neither the debtor
nor the creditor makes any appropriation of payment as
between capital and interest, the Income-tax Department is
entitled to treat the payment as applicable to the outstanding
interest and assess it as income-CIT v. Kameshwar Singh [1933]
1 ITR 94 (PC).
While allocating a realisation between interest and principal
when claim is realised by auction sale of decree, or when a claim
is satisfied by executing a fresh mortgage, the following
principles are relevant:
1. To give security for a debt is not to pay a debt; execution of a
fresh mortgage does not pay a debt.
2. The excess of realisation over the principal sum is to be
allocated towards interest.
3. The income represented by interest arises when the sale is
confirmed.
4. Payment made to a prior mortgagee by the auction purchaser
or to a claimant is not deductible; if the purchaser was aware
of the claims, he would have taken that into account when
he made a bid.
5. Expenses incurred on completing the titles (after the court
sanction) are not deductible as he would have taken them
into account while making a bid.
14

6. The value of property to be taken into account is the amount

of bid offered and not the value put on it by the court when
inviting bids.
When the interest due on a previous advance is capitalised and a
fresh promise is made for payment of the aggregate, there is no
payment of the interest. It makes no difference whether the
fresh promise takes the form of a promissory note or a bond
or a mortgage, whether simple or usufructuary. Capitalisation
of interest is not equal to payment of it -Fakir Chand v. CIT
[1963] 49 ITR 842 (All.).

Temporary and Permanent Income

For the purpose of income-tax there is no distinction between
temporary and permanent income. Even temporary income is
taxable.
Lump sum receipt - Income, whether received in lump sum or
in installments, is liable to tax. For instance, arrears of bonus,
received in lump sum, is income and taxable as salary.
Personal gifts - Gifts of a personal nature, e.g., birthday gifts,
marriage gifts, etc., do not constitute income and, therefore,
recipient of such gifts is not liable to income tax.
If the recipient of a gift is a businessman, that fact does not
alter the character of the thing given. In order that a payment,
with a gift element or an element of bounty, may be treated as
part of the taxable income of a businessman, it must be shown
that that gift had been received in the course of, or as a necessary
incident of, the recipients business. Whether this is so or not in
any given case would depend upon so many considerations,
such as, for instance, the nature of the business, the relationship between the giver of the gift and the recipient, and various
other attendant circumstances.
Accordingly, where the assessee, doing money-lending business,
received gifts from relations, friends and well-wishers on the
occasion of graha-pravesam of his new house, the Assessing
Officer was not justified in holding that even a cursory look at
the list showed that the most generous of the assessees wellwishers were also those who had been his biggest borrowers
and, therefore, the presents were taxable as the assessees
income-CIT v .Paramanand Uttamchand [1984] 146 ITR 430
(Mad.). The amount of gift received by the assessee, a cine
artiste, from his Fans Association on occasion of 100th day
celebration of his film cannot be said to be in nature of
income liable to tax-R. Parthepan v. ITO [2000] 72 ITD 289/
68 TTJ (Mad.) 239.
Tax-free Income
If a person receives tax-free income on which tax is paid by the
person making payment on behalf of the recipient, it has to be
grossed up for inclusion in his total income.
For instance, X pays Rs. 25,000 per month to Y as tax-free salary
(tax of Rs. 3,000 per month is borne by X and directly paid to
the Government). In this case, the amount taxable in the hand
of Y is Rs. 28,000 per month.
Receipt on account of dharmada - Receipt on account of
dharmada, gaus hala and pathshala is not income and, therefore, not liable to tax-CIT v. Manoo Ram Ram Karan Dass
[1979] 116 ITR 606 (AlL), CIT v. Bijli Cotton Mills (P.) Ltd.

[1979] 116 ITR 60 (SC) and CIT v. Om Oil & Oil Seeds
Exchange Ltd. [1980] 3 Taxman 470 (Delhi).
Devaluation of currency - If an assessee receives extra money
on account of devaluation of currency, it is taxable. If the fund
is utilised in the course of business for a trading purpose, there
will be realisation of the profit arising on devaluation and the
profit would be taxable. If, on the other hand, the fund is not
utilised for a business operation (i.e., for non-trading purpose),
like payment of income-tax in the foreign country, there is no
profit and the difference in the exchange value cannot be
assessed to income-tax-CIT v. Mogul Line Ltd. [1962] 46 ITR
590 (Bom.).
Income includes loss - Income includes loss. While income
and profits and gains represent plus income losses represent
minus income -CIT v .Karamchand Premchand Ltd. [1960]
40 ITR 106 (SC). In CIT v. Harprasad & Co. (P.) Ltd. [1975] 99
ITR 118, the Supreme Court held that loss is a negative income
and in calculation of total income of an assessee both negative
and positive income should be taken into account.
Prize on winning a motor rally - Up to the assessment year
1972-73, receipts of a casual and non-recurring nature were
exempt from tax. The Finance Act, 1972 introduced a statutory
fiction so as to enlarge the concept of income by including
with effect from the assessment year 1973-74, winnings from
lotteries, crossword puzzles, races (including horse races), card
games and other games of any sort or from gambling or
betting of any form or nature. In the context of this legislative
step and the dictionary meaning of the word winnings, it is
clear that what is intended to be taxed is only a windfall that
reaches a person without any effort or without any skill.
Same income cannot be taxed twice - It is a fundamental rule
of the law of taxation that, unless otherwise expressly provided, the same income cannot be taxed twice. It is also not
open to the Assessing Officer, if income has accrued to the
assessee and is liable to be included in the total income of a
particular year on accrual basis, to ignore the accrual and
thereafter to tax it as income of another year on the basis of
receipt Laxmipat Singhania v. CIT [1969] 72 ITR 291 (SC). But
the same person can be taxed both as individual as well as the
karta of his family CIT v. Rameshwarlal Samvarmal [1971] 82
ITR 628 (SC). Though the rule that the same income cannot be
charged twice over in the hands of the same person is well
settled, there is no rule of law that income which has borne tax
in the hands of a particular individual becomes wholly immune
from tax in all its subsequent devolutions or passage to another
person-T.N.K. Govindaraju Chetty & Co. (P.) Ltd v. CIT [1964]
51 ITR 731 (Mad.).
Income should be real and not fictional - Income means real
income and not fictional income. A person cannot make a profit
of trading with himself or out of transfer of funds/assets
from one pocket to another pocket-Sir Kikabhai Premchand v.
CIT [1953] 24 ITR 506 (SC). Similarly, income does not arise in
a transaction between head office and branch office, even if
goods are invoiced at price higher than cost price-Ram Lal
Bechairam v. CIT[1946] 14 ITR 1 (All.). Likewise, income does
not accrue or arise at the time of revaluation of assets. Whether
an accrual has taken place or not must, in appropriate cases, be

judged on the principles of real income theory. In determining

the question whether it is hypothetical income or whether real
income has materialised or not, various factors will have to be
taken into account. In this connection the following proposition emerges:
It is the income which has really accrued or arisen to the assessee
that is taxable. Whether the income has really accrued or arisen
to the assessee must be judged in the light of the facts of the
situation. Where a debt has become bad, deduction in compliance with the provisions of the Act should be claimed and
allowed. Where the Act applies, the concept of real income
should not be so read as to defeat the provisions of the Act.
If there is any diversion of income at source under any statute
or by overriding title, then there is no income to the
assessee.The conduct of the parties in treating the income in a
particular manner is material evidence of the fact whether
income has accrued or not.
Mere improbability of recovery, where the conduct of the
assessee is unequivocal, cannot be treated as evidence of the fact
that income has not resulted or accrued to the assessee. After
debiting the debtors account and not reversing that entry, but
taking the interest merely in suspense account, cannot be such
evidence to show that no real income has accrued to the assessee
or has been treated as such by the assessee.
The concept of real income is certainly applicable in judging
whether there has been income or not, but in every case it must
be applied with care and within well recognised limits, and must
not be called in aid to defeat the fundamental principles of law
of income-tax as developed-State Bank of Travancore v.
CIT[1986] 24 Taxman 337 (SC).
Mere production does not amount to income under section
2(24) - Under section 2(24) income is defined, which postulates that the word income has to be given a very wide
meaning, but certainly it does not mean mere production or
receipt of a commodity which may be converted into money; it
certainly cannot be construed to be an income in its normal
connotation of the term income as envisaged under section
2(24)-Keshkal Co-operative Marketing Society Ltd. v. CIT[1987]
165 ITR 437 (MP).
Source of lncome need not existing the assessment year - It is
not necessary that source of income should exist in the
assessment year. If there is an income during the previous year,
it is chargeable to tax for the following assessment year, even if
the source of income does not exist during the assessment yearBeharilal Mullick v. CIT2 ITC 328 (Cal.).
Pin money - Pin money received by wife for her dress/personal
expenses and small savings made by a woman out of money
received from her husband for meeting household expenses, is
not treated as her income-R.B.N.J. Naidu v. CIT[1956] 29 ITR
194 (Nag.).
A ward received by a sportsman - The Central Board of
Direct Taxes had considered the question whether the award
received by a sportsman, who is not a professional, will be
taxable in his hands or not. In the case of a sportsman, who is
a professional, the award received by him will be in the nature
of a benefit in exercise of his profession and, therefore, will be

15

liable to tax under the provisions of the Income-tax Act.

However, in the case of non-professional the award received by
him will be in the nature of gift and/or personal testimonial.
Such awards in the case of a sportsman, who is not a professional, will not be liable to tax in his hands, as it would not be
in the nature of income. The question whether a sportsman is a
professional or not will depend upon the facts and circumstances of the each case-Circular No. 447 dated January 22, 1986.

[not being dividend under section 2(22)(e)] declared/distributed/paid by a domestic company during June 1, 1997 and
March 31, 2002 or after March 31, 2003 is not taxable in the
hands of shareholders. On such dividends, the company
declaring dividend will have to pay dividend tax.

Entries in books of account are not conclusive - It is well

settled that the way in which entries are made by the assessee in
his books of account is not determinative of the question
whether the assessee has earned any profit or suffered any lossState Bank of India v. ClT [1986] 157 ITR 67 (SC). A mere
book keeping entry cannot be income unless income has actually
resulted-CIT v. Shoorji Vallabhdas & Co. [1962] 46 ITR 144
(SC).

a. such contribution is received by a trust created wholly or partly

for charitable or religious purposes; or

A receipt which in law cannot be regarded as income cannot

become so merely because the assessee erroneously credited it to
the profit and loss account-CITv. India Discount Co. Ltd
[1970]75ITR 191 (SC).

Say, for instance XY Trust is created for public charitable

purposes. On June 10,2003, it receives a sum of Rs.l lakh as
voluntary contribution (not being with any specific direction)
from a business house. Rs.l lakh would be included in the
income of the trust.

Income of a state is not liable for union taxation - By virtue

of article 289( 1) of the Constitution, the property or income
of a State is not liable for Union taxation. However, income
derived by a statutory road transport corporation from its
trading activity cannot be said to be the income of the State
under article 289(1) of the Constitution. Consequently, such
corporation is not entitled to immunity from tax on its incomeAndhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corpn. v. ITO [1964] 52
ITR 524 (SC). This ruling does not, however, lay down the
proposition that if a statutory corporation does not carryon any
trading activities, it will automatically become the State as
contemplated by article 289 of the Constitution of India.
Revenue receipt vs. capital receipt - A revenue receipt is
taxable as income, unless it is expressly exempt under the Act.
On the other hand, a capital receipt is generally exempt from tax,
unless it is expressly taxable under section 45-Cadell Wvg. Mill
Co. (P.) Ltd. v. CIT [2001] 116 Taxman 77 (Bom.)
Burden of proof - Section 4 of the Act imposes a general
liability to tax upon all income. But the Act does not provide
that whatever is received by a person must be regarded as
income liable to tax. In all cases in which a receipt is sought to
be taxed as income, the burden lies upon the Income-tax
Department to prove that it is within the taxing provision.
Where, however, a receipt is in the nature of income, the
burden of proving that it is not taxable because it falls within
an exemption provided by the Act, lies upon the assesseeParimisetti Seetharamamma v. CIT[1965] 57 ITR 532 (SC).
Receipts which are termed as income under section 2(24) Under section 2(24), the term income specifically includes the
following:
Profits and gains - Income includes profits and gains. For
instance, profit generated by a businessman is taxable as
income.
Dividend - Income includes dividend. For instance, dividend
declared/paid by a company to a shareholder is taxable as
income in the hands of shareholders. However, dividend

16

Voluntary contributions received by a trust - In the hands

of a trust income includes voluntary contributions received by
it. This rule is applicable in the following cases:

b. such contribution is received by a scientific research

association; or
c. such contribution is received by any fund or institution
established for charitable purposes and notified under
section 10(23q)(iv)/(v).

Perquisites in the hands of employee - Any perquisite or profits

in lieu of salary is treated as income in the hands of an
employee.
For example Mr.Ramana is employed by Sitama Ltd. Apart
from salary; he has been provided a rent-free house by the
employer. The value of perquisite in respect of rent-free house
is taxable as income in the hands of Mr.Ramana.
Any special allowance or benefit any special allowance or benefitAny special allowance or benefit specifically granted to the
assessee to meet expenses wholly, necessarily and exclusively for
the performance of the duties of an office or employment is
treated as income.
Say, Ruby is employed by Diamond Ltd. She gets Rs.3,000 per
month as conveyance allowance apart from salary. Rs.3,000 per
month is treated as income [any amount which is spent for
official purposes out of conveyance allowance is exempt under
section 10(14)].
City compensatory allowance/dearness allowance - City
compensatory allowance or dearness allowance is treated as
income.
Any benefit or perquisite to a director - A non-monetary
benefit or perquisite is treated as income in the hands of the
following:
a. If it is given by a company to a director (whole-time or parttime) or a relative of a Director; or
b. If it is given by a company to a person who has a substantial
interest in the company or a relative of such person.
Relative for this purpose means the husband, wife, brother or
sister or any lineal ascendant or descendant of that individual.
If a person is beneficial owner of 20 per cent (or more) of
equity share capital in a company then such person is known as
a person who has substantial interest in the company.
The aforesaid rule is also applicable if any sum is paid by a
company in respect of any obligation which, but for such

payment, would have been payable by the director or any other

aforesaid person.
The words benefit/perquisite obtained from company would
only include such benefit which company has agreed to provide
and the person concerned can claim it as a matter of right. A
mere advantage without authority or knowledge of company is
not included in it- CIT v. A.R. Adaikappa Chettiar [1973] 91
ITR 90 (Mad.).
The amount received by the assessee as a partner in the erstwhile
partnership, on separation of some of the partners, cannot be
described as a benefit or perquisite having arisen from the
business or the exercise of a profession. The amount had been
received by the assessee-partner when four of his partners
separated from the erstwhile partnership and shares of
erstwhile partners in that firm were divided along with the
assets-CIT v. Bharatkumar R. Panchal [2002] 125 Taxman 183
(Guj.).

salary, bonus, commission or remuneration received by a

partner from a firm X is a partner in ABC, a partnership firm.
He gets Rs. 2,000 per month as salary from the firm. Rs. 2,000
per month is treated as income of X.28( va)Any sum received
for not carrying out any activity in relation to any business or
not to share any know-how, patent, copyright, trademark, etc.X
Ltd. gets a sum of Rs. 60,000 from A Ltd. for not carrying out
the activity of selling goods in Agra for a period of two years
from June 1, 2004. Rs. 60,000 is treated as income of X
Ltd.41 or 59Deemed profit taxable under section 41 or 59
During the previous year 1999-2000, X Ltd. writes off a sum of
Rs. 69,000 as bad debt. During the previous year 2003-04 X Ltd.
recovers a sum of Rs. 23,000 from the defaulting debtor. Rs.
23,000 is treated as income of X Ltd. for the previous year
2003-04.
Capital gains - Any capital gain under section 45 is treated as
income.

Any benefit or perquisite to a representative assessee any benefit

or perquisite to a representative assessee - Any non-monetary
benefit or perquisite to a representative assessee (like a trustee
appointed under a trust) is treated of income.

Insurance profit - Any insurance profit computed under

section 44 is treated as income.

For instance - Y is one of trustees of a charitable trust. The

trust provides him a residential accommodation. The perquisite
value of the accommodation is treated as income of Y.

Winnings from lottery - The following are treated as income:

Ok will you pay tax on winnings say, from crossword or any

other game. Yes, we have to - it is treated as our income.

Winnings from lottery (it includes winnings from prizes

awarded to any person by draw of lots or by chance or in any
other manner).

Winnings from crossword puzzles.

Winnings from races including horse races.

Winnings from card game and other games of any sort (it
includes any game show, an entertainment programme on
television or electronic mode; in which people compete to
win prizes or any other similar game).

Winnings from gambling.

Winnings from betting.

Let us have a look at the receipts which are specifically treated as

income.
Any sum chargeable under sections 28, 41 and 59 - is treated as
income and chargeable to income tax. The following receipts are
treated as income:
Section Nature of receipt Example 28(ii) Compensation or
other payments due or received by any person specifies in
section 28(ii) X is an agent of A Ltd. He gets a compensation
of Rs. 20,000 at the time of termination of his agency from A
Ltd. Rs. 20,000 is treated as income of X.28(iii)Income
derived by a trade, professional or similar association from
specific services performed for its members. XY is a trade
association of chemical manufacturers. XY gets a payment of
Rs. 80,000 from its members for advising them on how to
reduce the cost of manufacturing. Rs. 80,000 is treated as
income of XY.28( iiia)Profits on sale of a licence granted
under the Imports (Control) Order, 1955.A profit of Rs.
2,50,000 is generated by A Ltd. on sale of licence granted under
the Imports (Control) Order, 1955. Rs.2,50,000 is treated as
income of A Ltd.28(iiib)Cash assistance received by any
person against exports under any scheme of the Government
of India.A sum of Rs.37,000 is received by B Ltd. as cash
assistance against exports from the Government of India. It is
treated as income of B Ltd.28( iiic)Any duty of customs or
excise repaid as drawback to any person against exports.X Ltd.
exports goods outside India. During the previous year 2003-04
it gets as duty drawback of a sum of Rs. 95,000. Rs. 95,000 is
treated as income of X. Ltd.28(iv)The value of any nonmonetary benefit or perquisite arising from exercise of a
profession.A car owned by a partnership firm is used by one of
the partners for private purposes. The perquisite value of the car
is income in the hands of the partner.28( v)Any interest,

Employees contribution towards provident fund employees

contribution towards provident fund - Any sum received by an
employer from his employees as employees contribution to the
following is treated as income of the employer:
1. Employees contribution to any provident fund (recognised
or unrecognised).
2. Employees contribution to superannuation fund.
3. Employees contribution to any fund set up under the
provisions of the Employees State Insurance Act, 1948.
4. Employees contribution to any other fund for the welfare
of employees.
For example: Net profit of X Ltd. for the previous year 2003-04
is Rs. 1,86,000. It is calculated after debiting salary to employees:
Rs. 5 lakh. Out of Rs. 5 lakh, Rs. 50,000 is employees contribution towards provident fund. Rs.50000 is transferred by X Ltd.
to the provident fund account of the employees as follows - Rs.
30,000 before the due date of making such payment and Rs.
20,000 after the due date of such payment. Income of X Ltd.
shall be calculated as under:
Particulars

Rs.

17

Net profit as per profit and loss account

186000

Add Employees provident fund which is

treated as income of X Ltd.

50000

Total

236000

Less: Amount paid by X Ltd. on or before the

due date of making provident fund payment

30000

Taxable income of X Ltd.

206000

Amount received under keyman insurance policy - Any sum

received under a Keyman insurance policy (including bonus) is
treated as income in the hands of the recipient.
Come on we will discuss some thing. I will ask you a question.
You try to answer, afterwards I will help you out.
Prob.1: Under a decree of court, X has to make an annual
payment of Rs. 60,000 for maintenance of his wife and three
sons. The annual payment is not charged on any of his
property. X claims that Rs. 60,000 is deductible while computing his taxable income, since it is diversion of income by
overriding charge. Is he legally justified?
Ans: The true test for application of the rule of diversion of
income by an overriding charge, is whether the amount sought
to be deducted, in truth, never reaches the assessee as his
income. Where by obligation the income is diverted before it
reaches the assessee, it is deductible; but where the income is
required to be applied to discharge an obligation after such
income reaches the assessee, the same consequence, in law, does
not follow-CIT v. Sitaldas Tirathdas [1961] 41 ITR 367 (SC). In
the present problem, a portion of Xs income is applied to
discharge his obligation and it is not a case in which by an
overriding charge the assessee becomes only a collector of
anothers income. The annual payment of Rs. 60,000 is,
therefore, not excludible while computing Xs total income. The
matter would have been different if such an overriding charge
had existed either upon the property or upon its income.
Prob.2: XY Club Ltd., a social and sports club, conducts horse
races with amateur riders and charges fees for admission into
the enclosure of the club at the time of races. A resolution is
passed at a general meeting of the club for charging a surcharge,
apart from regular admission fee, the proceeds of which are to
go for local charities. Every entrant is issued two tickets-one, an
admission ticket, for admission to the enclosure of the club and
the other, a separate ticket in respect of surcharge for local
charities. Discuss whether receipts on account of surcharge is to
be treated as assessees income.
Ans: In the given problem, surcharge is not a part of the price
for admission but is a payment made for the specific purpose
of being applied to local charities. Surcharge is collected in
pursuant to a resolution and with an obligation to apply it for
charities. Surcharge is diverted before it reaches the hands of the
assessee and at no stage it becomes the part of assessees
income. The amount of surcharge is, therefore, not taxable in
the hands of the assessee-club-CIT v. Tollygunge Club Ltd
[1977] 107 ITR 776 (SC).
Prob.3: X is appointed as managing director of a company on
commission of 5 per cent of total sales made by the company.

18

If in any year the net profits of company are not sufficient to

declare 8 per cent dividend, X is bound to give up such portion
of commission (not being more than one-third of usual
commission) as may be necessary to make up the deficiency. The
agreement also provides that the commission is payable after
March 3 I and after accounts are passed by the general meeting
of shareholders. On March 13, 2004, the board of directors of
the company passes a resolution to the effect that X. the
managing director, has agreed to charge a lower rate of commission for the accounting year ending March 31, 2004. Discuss
whether the difference between commission receivable under
the original contract and the commission under the modified
contract is taxable in the hands of X
Ans: In this case all terms of contract relating to payment of
commission have to be read together as an indivisible and an
integral whole. The managing director has to be paid commission at the end of the year. Moreover, there is a liability to give
up a portion of commission in certain contingencies which also
can be determined only when the accounts are made up for the
year. It is thus clear that there is no accrual of any commission
till the end of the year. On this construction of contract, it
cannot be held that commission has accrued as and when the
sale takes place and as a result of X agreeing to the modification
of the agreement he has voluntarily relinquished a portion of
his commission-Shri Ambica Mills Ltd. v. CIT[1960] 39 ITR 1
(SC).
Prob. 4: XYZ Ltd, a public limited company, runs a club for its
members. Its objects are to promote social intercourse among
the members of the club, their families and friends, provide
them with a club house and accommodation. No income or
property can be paid or transferred by way of dividend, bonus
or otherwise by way of profit to the members. No remuneration or other monetary benefit can be given to any member
excepting payment of out-of-pocket expenses, reasonable
interest on money lent to the assessee-company and proper rent
on premises let to the club. During the accounting year ending
March 31, 2004, the assessee provided temporary accommodation to the members in its Madras property and realised a rent
of Rs. 34,000. Treating this sum as income from house
property, the Assessing Officer wants to tax it for the assessment year 2004-05. The Assessing Officer thinks that the
principle of mutuality does not apply to the income received
from renting out of premises to members. Discuss.
Ans: The whole concept of a members club is alien to profitmaking. It is a sharing of common amenities in a spirit of
comaraderie. Separate payment for some of the amenities is
only a mode of contribution and does not bring its case within
the vortex of taxation. The assessee here is not running a trade
but merely organising a social activity confined to its members.
The rooms are put up out of the funds of the club which
comes from contributions of the members. Whoever occupies
the premises does so as a member of the club, no surplus is
distributed among the members as dividends or bonus or
otherwise, as the club is prevented from doing so by its
memorandum of association. Therefore, this is a case where
there is no activity which is designed to make any profit as such,
and the profit, if any, is only incidental to the activities which are

mutual in nature. Moreover, such profit would reach the

members only in their character as members. Consequently, so
long as the occupation of the rooms is referable to the amenity
provided for the members themselves, no income can be said
to have been earned so as to bring it to tax under the Act. The
impugned amount is, therefore, not chargeable to tax-Presidency Club Ltd. v. CIT [1981] 127 ITR 264 (Mad.), Chelmsford
Club v. CIT[2000] 109 Taxman 215 (SC).

exclusive to one another and income which falls within one

head cannot be assigned to or taxed under another headKaranpura Development Co. Ltd. v. CIT[1962] 44 ITR 362
(SC).

Prob.5: The members of the X co-operative society are teachers.

The assessee is getting text-books from the Governmental
concessional rates and selling them to any person who wants to
purchase as also to its members at a discount. For the relevant
assessment years, the, the assessee is of the view that since it has
been formed for promoting the common interest of the
members the profits earned from them has an element of
mutuality and, therefore, its entire earning must be dissected
and those earned tram members must be excluded and those
earned from non-members may be taxed. Advise.

The method of book-keeping followed by an assessee cannot

decide under which head a particular income should goNalinikant Ambalal Mody v. CIT (supra).

Ans: In the instant case, the assessee is a profit-making

organisation. It purchases text-books at a discount from the
Government and sells them at a profit to various categories of
persons. It sells to members and to the whole world. Every sale
involves some profit. Therefore, there is no identity between
the contributors and the participators. The participators in the
profits are only members but the contributors are every
individual who may buy from the assessee. Once mutuality is
lost the whole income becomes liable to tax-Bihar Rajya Sikshak
Sahyog Sangh Ltd v. CIT [1987] 33 Taxman 403 (Pat.).
We now know that the Act considers the income definition as
very vast and is inclusive.
Let us now proceed with a discussion on Gross Total Income
and how to calculate it.
Gross total income:
As per section 14, income of a person is computed under the
following five heads:
1. Salaries
2. Income from house property
3. Profits and gains of business or profession
4. Capital gains
5. Income from other sources.
The following propositions should also be kept in view:
The aggregate income under these heads is termed as gross
total income. In other words, gross total income means total
income computed in accordance with the provisions of the Act
before making any deduction under chapter VI A i.e. sections
8OCCC to 8OU.
Under section 80B aggregating of income under the five heads,
after applying clubbing provisions and making adjustments of
set off and carry forward of losses, is known as Gross Total
Income.
The several heads into which income is divided under the Act
do not make different kinds of taxes. Tax is always one; but it
may arise under different heads to which the different rules of
computation have to be applied. These heads are in a sense

Income has to be brought under one of the heads under

section 14 and can be charged to tax only if it is chargeable
under the computing section corresponding to that head
Nalinikant Ambalal Mody v. CIT (supra).

Expenditure incurred in relation to exempt income, is not

deductible {Sec. 14A] Section 14A has been inserted from the
assessment year 1962-63. It provides that no deduction shall be
made in respect of expenditure incurred by the assessee in
relation to income which does not form part of the total
income under the Act.
Expenditure tn respect of one indivisible business cannot be
apportioned : Expenditure in respect of one indivisible
business generating taxable as well as exempt income cannot be
apportioned only because of section 14A. Apart from that, it is
a known legislative practice that whenever the law wants
something to be apportioned it does so provide. For instance,
seethe provisions of section 38 or section 8OHHC, 80HHD,
80HHE or rule 7A, 7B or 8, etc.
Completed assessments not to be reopened - Section 14A
was introduced retrospectively in order to clarify and state the
position of law that any expenditure relatable to income which
does not form part of total income cannot be set off against
other taxable income. This section was not introduced with
prospective effect, as that would have implied that before the
introduction of the said provisions, expenditure incurred to
earn exempt income was allowable.
Reopening of past completed assessments, having attained
finality, on the basis of newly inserted provisions of section
14A is likely to cause hardship to a large number of taxpayers
and would result in increasing avoidable litigation.
A proviso has been inserted in section 14A with effect from
May 11,2001. It clarifies that the provisions of section 14A shall
not empower the Assessing Officer to reassess the cases under
section 147 or pass an order enhancing the assessment or
reducing a refund already made or otherwise increasing the
liability of the assessee under section 154, for any assessment
year up to the assessment year 2001-02.
Gross total income forms the first step towards calculation of
total income. What is this total income and how to calculate tax
liability under the Act these are frequently asked questions. The
following will make the picture clear.
Here we will have rough idea of how to calculate total income
and tax liability.

Total Income and Tax Liability [Sec. 2(45)]

Total income of an assessee is gross total income as reduced by
amount deductible under sections 80CCC to 80U.The following
chart explains clearly computation of total income and tax
liability thereon :

19

Computation of Income for the Assessment Year

Particulars
Rs.

Rs.

Less: Adjustment on account of set-off and

carry forward of losses

xxx

Gross Total Income

xxx
xxx

Income from salary

xxx

Less: Deductions under sections 80CCC

to 80U

Income by way of allowance

xxx

Total income / net income

xxx

Taxable value of perquisite

xxx

Add: Agricultural Income (for tax purposes)

xxx

xxx

Less: Income claimed to be exempt from

income-tax

xxx

Total income or net income liable to tax

[rounded off u/s 288A]

xxx

1. Income from salaries-

Gross salary
Less: Deduction under section 16:Standard deduction [u/s 16(i)

xxx

Entertainment allowance [u/s 16(ii)]

xxx

Professional tax [u/s 16(iii)]

xxx

Taxable income under the head Salaries

xxx

2. Income from house property

Adjusted Gross Annual Value

xxx

Less: Municipal Taxes paid by owner

xxx

Adjusted Net annual value

xxx

Less: Deductions under section 24:

1.Standard Deduction u/s 24(i)

xxx

2.Interest on borrowed capital u/s 24(ii)

xxx

Taxable income under the head

Income from house property

xxx

3. Profits and gains of business or profession

Net profit as per Profit and Loss Account
xxx
Add: Amounts which are debited to P & L,
A/c but are not allowable as deductions
under the Act

xxx

Less: Expenditures which are not debited

to P&L,A/c but are allowable as deductions
under the Act

xxx

Less: Incomes which are credited to P & L

A/c but are exempt under sections 10 to 13A
or are taxable under other heads of income
xxx
Add: Those incomes which are not credited
to P & L A/c but are taxable under the head
Profits and gains of business or profession xxx
Taxable income under the head Profits
and gains of business or profession.

xxx

4.Capital gains
Amount of capital gains

xxx

Less: Amount exempt under sections 54,

54B, 54D. 54EC, 54ED,54F and 54G.

xxx

Taxable income under the head Capital gains

xxx

5. Income from other sources

Gross income

xxx

Less: Deductions under section 57

xxx

Taxable income under the head Income from

other sources

xxx

Total [i.e., (1) + (2) + (3) + (4) + (5)]

xxx

20

Computation of Tax Liability

Particulars
Rs.
Rs.
Tax on net income
xxx
Less: Rebate under sections 88,88B & 88C
xxx
Tax before Surcharge
xxx
Add: Surcharge
xxx
Tax after surcharge
xxx
Less: Relief under sections 89, 90 & 91.
xxx
Tax - liability [rounded off u/s 288B]
xxx
Less: Pre-paid Taxes Tax deducted or collected
at source
Xxx
Tax paid in advance
Xxx
Self assessment Tax paid.
Xxx
xxx
Add: Interest payable u/s 234A, 234B & 234C.
xxx
Tax Payable or Refundable
xxx
Now the question comes who decides the Income tax rates?
Tax Rates
Provisions for computation of taxable income are given by the
Income tax Act. At what rate income of a particular assessment
year is taxable, is not given by the Income-tax Act, but by the
Finance Act which is passed by Parliament alongwith budget for
the Central Government every year. For instance, the Finance
Act, 2003, provides tax rates in the First Schedule (Parts 1, II
and III) as follows
Part I of the First Schedule to the Finance Act, 2003 - It gives
income-tax rates for different assessees for the assessment year
2003-04.
Part II of the First Schedule to the Finance Act, 2003- It gives
rates for deduction of tax at source applicable for the financial
year 2003-04. If, a person is responsible for making a payment
on which he is supposed to deduct tax at source during 200304, then tax has to be deducted at source during 2003-04 at the
rates given in Part II of the First Schedule to Finance Act, 2003.
However, the rates for tax deduction from salary are given by
Part III.
Part III of the First Schedule to the Finance Act, 2003 - It gives
tax rates for different assessees for the payment of advance tax
during the financial year 2003-04 (i.e., for the assessment year

2004-05). The same rates are applicable for the tax deduction
from salary payment during the financial year 2003-04.

under sections 172 and 174 to 176, and precautionary assessment.

Generally, Part III of the First Schedule of a Finance Act

becomes Part I of the First Schedule of the subsequent Finance
Act. For instance, Part III of the First Schedule to the Finance
Act, 2003 will become Part I of the First Schedule to the Finance
Act, 2004.

Best Judgement Assessment [Sec. 144] - In the following cases,

the Assessing Officer may make a best judgment assessment in
the manner provided under section 144:

Computation of Tax Liability

b. Where the method of accounting mentioned in u/s 145 has

not been regularly followed by the taxpayer; or

Income-tax shall be calculated according to the rates given in

relevant Finance Act. For the assessment year 2003-04, tax shall
be calculated at the rates prescribed by the Finance Act, 2003.
Different assessees are taxable at different rates.
Special tax rates - Tax rates are given in the Finance Act, 2003.
Besides these tax rates, some incomes are taxable at special rates
given under the Income-tax Act for instance, long-term capital
gains are taxable at the rate of 20 per cent [sec. 112], winnings
from lotteries, races, card games, etc., are taxable at the rate of 30
per cent [sec. 115BB], royalty income in the hands of a foreign
company is taxable at the rate of 20 per cent or 30 per cent [sec.
115A(1)( b)]
Maximum marginal rate of tax - It is defined by section
2(29C) as the rate of income tax applicable in relation to the
highest slab of income in the case of an individual as specified
by the relevant Finance Act.
For instance, for the assessment year 2004-05, the maximum
marginal rate of tax is 33 per cent.
Exemption limit or exempted slab - The amount of the first
slab of income which is taxable at nil rate is known as exemption limit or exempted slab.
Rounding-off of income [Sec. 288A] - The taxable income
computed shall be rounded off to the nearest multiple of ten
rupees and for this purpose any part of a rupee consisting of
paise shall be ignored and thereafter if such amount is not a
multiple of ten, then, if the last figure in that amount is five or
more, the amount shall be increased to the next higher amount
which is a multiple of ten and if the last figure is less than five,
the amount shall be reduced to the next lower amount which is
a multiple of ten.
Rounding-off of tax [Sec. 288B] - The amount of tax
(including tax deductible at source or payable in advance),
interest, penalty, fine or any other sum payable, and the amount
of refund due, under the provisions of the Act shall be
rounded off to the nearest rupee and, for this purpose, where
such amount contains a part of a rupee consisting of paise
then, if such part is fifty paise or more, it shall be increased to
one rupee and if such part is less than fifty paise it shall be
ignored.

a. Where the Assessing Officer is not satisfied about the

correctness or completeness of the accounts of assessee;

c. Where the accounting standards, as notified by the

Government, have not been regularly followed by the
taxpayer.
Section 145(3) empowers the Assessing Officer to make a best
judgment assessment when he is not satisfied about the
correctness or completeness of the accounts of the assessee. It
is not possible to categorise various types of defects, which may
justify rejection of books of account of an assessee on the
ground that the accounts are not complete or correct. Each case
has to be considered on its own peculiar facts, having regard to
the nature of business. Though it is true that the absence of
stock register, in a given situation, may not per se lead to an
inference that the accounts are incomplete or false, the absence
of such a register, coupled with other factor like fall in profits,
etc., may lead to an inference that the accounts are not correctAction Electricals v. CIT [2002] 258 ITR 188 (Delhi).
I dont know why I feel very happy at the end of the lecture.
May be just to hear from you that Sir, what are todays questions
for home work.

Questions for Practice

1. Define the following terms as per Income Tax Act :
Person, Assessee, Previous Year, Assessment Year, Income.
Give atleast 5 (Five) examples of each.
2. State the exceptions as to Income of Previous Year is taxed
in the relevant assessment year.
3. What components constitute Total Taxable Income?
4. Write short notes on
1.
Tax liability,
2.
Section 288A,
3.
Section 288B.
5. Distinguish between Gross Income and Total Income.

Assessment [Sec. 2(8)]

Under section 2(8), the word assessment is defined to include
reassessment. In general context the word assessment means
computation of tax and procedure for imposing tax liability.
Under the Act, there are seven kinds of assessments-selfassessment, provisional assessment, regular assessment, best
judgment assessment, reassessment, jeopardy assessment

21

LESSON 3:
BASIC CONCEPTS IN INCOME TAX II
Lesson Objectives

To know relationship of Accounting and Income Tax

To know the difference between Capital receipts and Revenue

Receipts.

To know treatment of capital and revenue receipt in taxation.

To know accounting methods in taxation

To know rules of interpretation of the statute.

Dear students as I told you in the beginning that for this

subject you need to have knowledge of accounts as well. You
cannot study this subject in isolation.

Accounting and Income Tax

Along with Income Tax it is also essential to have accounting
knowledge before we proceed further with the subject.
First important concept is -

1. Capital Receipts vs. Revenue Receipts

Receipts are of two types, viz., capital receipts and revenue
receipts. The distinction between the two is vital because capital
receipts are exempt from tax unless they are expressly taxable
(for instance, capital gains are taxable under section 45, even if
they are capital receipts); whereas revenue receipts are taxable
unless they are expressly exempt from tax (for instance, incomes
exempt under sections 10 to 13A).
Capital receipts are normally exempt. However the following
capital receipts are included in the definition of income:
Income by way of capital gain u/s 45.
Compensation for modification / termination of services u/
s 17(3)(i).
Compensation or other payment due to or received by some
specified person covered under section 28(ii)(a),(b), & (c).
On the other hand there are certain revenue receipts which do
not form part of total income.As the Act does not define the
terms capital receipts and revenue receipts, one has to
depend upon natural meaning of the concepts as well as the
decided cases.
According to the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, while the
word capital means accumulated wealth employed reproductively, the word revenue means the return, yield, or profit
of any lands, property or other important source of income;
that which comes in to one as a return from property or
possessions; income from any source.
One should note the following points while deciding whether a
receipt is a capital or revenue receipt.
1. If a person disposes of a part or whole of his assets, the
general rule is that the mere change or realisation of an
investment does not attract liability to income-tax, but where
such realisation is an act which in itself is a trading
transaction, profit earned by sale/ conversion is taxable
22

Karam Chand Thapar & Bros. (P.) Ltd. v. CIT[1969] 74 ITR 26

(SC)
2. Receipts in the hands of recipient is material: - In order
to determine whether a receipt is capital or revenue in nature,
one has to go by its nature in the hands of the recipient. The
source from which the payment is made has no bearing on
the question CIT vs. Kamal Behari Lal Singha [1971] 82 ITR
460 (SC). It, therefore, follows that even if the amount is
paid, wholly or partly, out of capital, it may partake of the
character of a revenue receipt in the hands of the recipient.
Payment received on the redemption of debentures, held as
investment, is a capital receipt in the hands of the recipient,
even if the company makes payment out of its profits.
3. Payers motive is irrelevant - The motive of payer is not
relevant while deciding whether a particular receipt is revenue
or capital in nature-PH. Divecha v. CIT[1963] 48 ITR 222
(SC).
4. Receipt in lieu of source of income: - A receipt in lieu of
source of income is a capital receipt. A receipt in lieu of
income is revenue receipt. For instance, compensation for
loss of employment is a capital receipt, as it is in lieu of
source of income. Likewise, sale proceeds of trees removed
from land together with their roots, leaving behind no
prospect of regeneration, is a capital receipt as the receipt is in
lieu of source of income A.K. T.K.M. Vishnudatta
Antharjanam v. CIT [1970] 78 ITR 58 (SC). Where, however,
trunks of trees of spontaneous growth are cut so that the
stumps are allowed to remain in the land with the bark
adhering to the stumps to permit regeneration of the trees,
receipts from sale of the trunks would be revenue receiptsV. Venugopala Varma Rajah v. CIT[1970] 76 ITR 460 (SC). But
if the trees have been so cut that they regenerate In course of
time the amount of receipt would be revenue receipt-Maharaja
Dharmendra Pratap Narain Singh v. State of V.P. [1980] 121
ITR 806 (All.).
5. Commercial exploitation - Where the assessee had sold
trees of spontaneous growth, standing interspersed among
paddy field, subject to the condition that the stumps of the
trees were to be left intact, with the purpose, not of the
regeneration of the trees, but of the protection of the
surface of the land, the receipt was of a capital nature, as
there was no intention of exploiting the stumps of the trees
for earning income from the sale of the trees in future-CITv.
Ambat Echukutty Menon [1979] 120 ITR 70 (SC).
6. Exploitation of forest - Where the object and business of
the assessee-company were exploitation of the forest and;
under a Government approved scheme to clear the forest, it
cut and removed the trees together with roots leaving no
trace of the stumps behind, it was held that the income
from the sale of such trees had to be treated only as a

revenue receipt in the assessees hands-Indian Timber & Plywood

Corpn. Ltd. v. CIT [1981] 130 ITR 341 (Ker.).
7. Lump sum payment - In order to determine whether a
receipt is capital or revenue in nature, the fact that it is a lump
sum payment, large payment or periodic payment, is not
relevant.
8. Nature of receipt under company law or common law is
irrelevant: Treatment of a receipt under the company law or
general law is not relevant while deciding whether a receipt is
capital or revenue in nature under the tax law. Moreover, a
particular treatment of a receipt in accounts of the assessee is
not conclusive against or in favour of the assessee-Punjab
Distilling Industries Ltd v. CIT[1965] 57 ITR 1 (sq, Hoshiarpur
Electric Supply Co. v. CIT[1961] 41 ITR 608 (SC). It is the true
nature and the quality of the receipt and not the head under
which it is entered in the account books that would prove
decisive. If a receipt is a trading receipt, the fact that it is not
so shown in the account books of the assessee would not
prevent the assessing authority from treating it as trading
receipt-Chowringhee Sales Bureau (P.) Ltd v. CIT [1973] 87 ITR
542 (SC).
9. Disallowance to person making payment: The fact that
the amount paid is not allowed as permissible deduction in
the assessment of person making payment, cannot affect the
character of receipt in the hands of the recipient.
10. Insurance receipts: A receipt under a general insurance
policy may be a capital receipt, if the policy relates to a capital
asset or may be a revenue receipt, if the policy relates to
circulating asset.
11. Changes in rate of exchange of currency: If by virtue of
change in exchange rate of currency excess amount is realised
by an assessee, it shall be treated as capital receipt if it is kept
as an investment ; otherwise it is a revenue receipt-CITv.
Canara Bank Ltd [1967] 63 ITR 328 (SC).
12. Compensation on termination of an agreement:- If it is
found that a contract is entered into in the ordinary course of
business, any compensation received for its termination
would be a revenue receipt, irrespective of the fact whether its
performance is to consist of a single act or a series of acts
spread over a period. Where, however, a person who is
carrying on business is prevented from doing so by external
authority in exercise of a paramount power and is awarded
compensation thereof whether the receipt is a capital or
revenue receipt will depend upon whether it is compensation
for injury inflicted on a capital asset or on stock-in-tradeCITv. Rai Bahadur Jairam Valji [1959] 35 ITR 148 (SC).
13. The Supreme Court in the case of CIT v. Best & Co. (P.) Ltd.
[1966] 60 ITR 11, gave the following observations for
determining whether the compensation received forthe loss
of agency is a capital receipt or a revenue receipt:
Before coming to a conclusion one way or other, many
questions have to be answered: what was the scope of
earning apparatus or structure, from physical, financial,
commercial and administrative standpoint? If it was a
business of taking agencies, how many agencies it had, what
was their nature and variety? How were they acquired, how

one or some of them were lost and what was the total
income they were yielding? If one of them was given up,
what was the average income of the agency lost? What was
its proportion in relation to the total income of the
company? What was the impact of giving it upon the
structure of the entire business? Did it amount to a loss of
an enduring asset causing an unabsorbed shock dislocating
the entire or a part of the earning apparatus or structure? Or
was it a loss due to an ordinary incident in the course of the
business? The answer to these questions would enable one
to come to a conclusion whether the loss of a particular
agency was incidental to the business or whether it
amounted to a loss of an enduring asset. If it was the
former, the compensation paid would be a revenue receipt; if
it was the latter it would be a capital receipt. But these
questions can only be answered satisfactorily if the relevant
material is available to the income-tax authorities.
Applying the aforesaid guidelines, the Supreme Court in the
aforesaid case came to the conclusion that where
compensation is paid for loss of agency on the condition
that the assessee will not carryon competitive business for
five years, that part of the compensation which is relatable to
the loss of the agency is a revenue receipt and that part of
compensation which is ratable to the restrictive covenant is
capital receipt.
14. Ordinarily, compensation for loss of agency is regarded as a
capital receipt and it is for the department to establish that
the impugned case is an exception to this rule-Karam Chand
Thapar & Bros. (P.) Ltd. v. CfT [1971] 80 ITR 167 (SC).
You will be surprised to know that the act contains some
specific provisions which supersede the aforesaid principles.
The aforesaid principles have been superseded to a very large
extent by sections 17 and 28.
On a combined reading of the aforesaid principles and sections
17(3)(i) and 28(ii), the following position emerges:
1. Any compensation (or any other payment) due or received in
connection with termination of management or office or
agency or modification of the terms and conditions relating
thereto by the following persons is taxable under section 28(
ii), even if it is a capital receipt:
a.

any person (by whatever name called) managing the

whole (or substantially the whole) of the affairs of an
Indian company;

b.

any person (by whatever name called) managing the

whole (or substantially the whole) of the affairs of a
foreign company in India;

c.

any person (by whatever name called) holding an

agency in India for any part of the activities relating to
the business of any other person.

In the aforesaid case, compensation is taxable under section 28,

even if the recipient (i.e., manager, managing director, etc.) is an
employee and his regular income is taxable under section 15, or
even if he holds an office and regular income is taxable under
section 56.

23

2. Any compensation (or any other payment) due to (or

received by) any person in connection with the vesting of the
management of any property or business in the
Government or a corporation owned or controlled by
Government, is taxable under section 28(ii). In such case,
whether the compensation is a capital receipt or revenue
receipt is immaterial. In a case not covered by section 28(ii),
any compensation due to (or received) by an individual from
his employer (or former employer) at or in connection with
termination, or modification of terms of employment is
taxable as profit in lieu of salary under section 17(3)(i) and in
such case the principles governing capital and revenue receipts
are not relevant.

the requisition of its land by the Government, it was held that

such compensation could not be treated on the same footing
as compensation for acquisition and that the impugned
compensation would be a revenue receipt in the assessees
hands-Nawn Estates (P.) Ltd. v. CIT[1982] 137 ITR 557 (Cal.).
21. Subsidy - Payments in the nature of a subsidy from public
funds made to an undertaker to assist in carrying on the
undertakers trade or business are trading receipts. It is not
the source from which the amount is paid to the assessee
which is determinative of the question whether the subsidy
payments are of revenue or capital nature.
If any subsidy is given, the character of the subsidy in the
hands of the recipient whether revenue or capital-will have to
be determined by having regard to the purpose for which the
subsidy is given. If it is given by way of assistance to the
assessee in carrying on of his trade or business, it has to be
treated as trading receipt. But, if the scheme is that the
assessee will be given refund of sales-tax on purchase of
machinery as well as on raw materials to enable the assessee
to acquire new plants and machinery for further: expansion
of its manufacturing capacity in backward area, the entire
subsidy has to be treated as a capital receipt in the hands of
the assessee-Sahney Steel & Press Works Ltd. v. CIT [1997] 94
Taxman 368/228 ITR 253 (SC).

3. Any other compensation for loss of an office which does not

fall under section 28(ii) or 17(3)(i) will be governed by the
principles specified above and tax incidence will be attracted
only when the receipt is a revenue receipt. In other words, an,
other compensation [which does not fall under sections
28(ii) and 17(3)(i)] is not taxable if it is a capital receipt.
15. Compensation for refraining from competition:Compensation paid for agreeing to refrain from carrying on
competitive business in commodities in respect of which an
agency was terminated, or for loss of goodwill will prima facie
be of the nature of a capital receipt-Gillanders Arbuthnot & Co.
Ltd. v. CIT [1964] 53 ITR 283 (SC). Similarly, compensation
for restraint on exercise of profession is a capital receipt.
However, such compensation is chargeable to tax under
section 28(va).
16. Compensation for acquisition, requisition, damage or
use of assessees asset:- Any compensation (or any other
payment) due to (or received by) any person in connection
with the vesting of the management of any property or
business in the Government (or a corporation owned or
controlled by the Government) is taxable under section 28(
ii), even if it is a capital receipt. In all other cases, the
following propositions, taken from different judicial
pronouncements, should be kept in view:

22. Onus to prove - The onus to prove that the amount

received represents a revenue receipt is on the department. If,
in a given case, the department is able to show it, then the
onus shifts to the assessee to rebut it-Baghapurana Co-operative
Marketing Society Ltd. v. CIT[1989] 178 ITR 653 (Punj. &
Har.).
Few instances of capital , receipts - The following are a few
instances of capital receipts:

Cancellation of pooling agreement - Two rival companies

X and Y, engaged in the business of manufacturing in
margarine products, entered into pooling agreements in
order to avoid competition. Under the agreement, they
bound themselves to work in friendly manner and share
profits and losses of production according to agreed
manner. After the working of the agreement for about 19
years, X Company wished to cancel the agreement on making
payment of damages to Y Company. The sum received by Y
company, as compensation, was held to be a capital receiptVan Den Berghs Ltd. v. Clark [1935] 19 TC 390 (HL).

Excess collections by an electricity company Contributions collected in excess of actual cost by an

electricity company from consumers for installation of
electricity service lines were held to be a capital receiptHoshiarpur Electric Supply Co. v. ClT [1961] 41 ITR 608 (SC).

Capital sum payable in installments - Capital sum payable

in installments is treated as capital receipts-CITv. Kunwar
Trivikram Narain Singh [1965] 57 ITR 29 (SC).

Sale of loom hours - Receipt on account .of sale of surplus

loom hours is a capital receipt-CITv. Maheshwari Devi Jute Mills
Ltd. [1965] 57 ITR 36 (SC).

License to prospect the land - Where the licensee is granted

the right to enter upon land to prospect, search and mine,

17. Compensation for loss of profit - Compensation for loss

of profits due to compulsory vacation of business premises
is a revenue receipt-CITv. Shamsher Printing Press [1960] 39 ITR
90 (SC).
18. Carrying on business at reduced scale - Where godowns
used for storing business goods are requisitioned by
Government and despite requisition, the assessee continues
to carryon business though at a reduced scale, compensation
received by the assessee for loss of earning is a revenue
receipt- CIT v. Manna Ramji & Co. [1972] 86 ITR 29 (SC).
19. Requisition of land by Government - Where the assessee
purchased land for the purpose of setting up a market and
making profit and the said land was requisitioned by the
military authorities, it was he Id that the compensation paid
for the requisition was a profit derived from the land and
was, therefore, taxable-Rai Bahadur HP. Bannerji v. CIT[1951]
19 ITR 596 (Pat.).
20. Acquisition of land from dealer- Where the assesseecompany, a dealer in lands, was awarded compensation for

24

quarry, bore, dig and prove all bauxite lying in or within the
land and to remove, take away and appropriate samples and
specimens of bauxite in reasonable quantities, it was held that
the rent received by the assessee from the licensee was a
capital receipt-Maharaja Chintamani Saran Nath Sah Deo v. CIT
[1961] 41 ITR 506 (SC).

Partial destruction of assets - Where the assessees insured

building, plant and machinery were partly damaged and it
received compensation which was partly utilized for restoring
the damaged assets to working conditions, it was held that
title unutilised portion of the compensation was a capital
receipt-CITv. Sirpur Paper Mills Ltd [1978] 112 ITR 776 (SC).

Compensation for relinquishing rights - Compensation

received by a partner from another partner for relinquishing
all his rights in the partnership was held to be a capital receiptA.K. Sharfuddin v. CIT[1960] 39 ITR 333 (Mad.).

Profits after sale of business - The assessee-company,

though authorised by its memorandum of association to
sell and manufacture chemicals, and never exercised the said
power. It sold its business as a going concern. Due to the
purchasers default in making payment of purchase
consideration, it carried on business even after its sale on the
purchasers behalf. It earned profits on two transactions of
sale of chemicals. Deciding the question whether the said
profits were revenue receipts, it was held that the impugned
sale was a winding up sale with a view to realising the capital
assets of the company and not a sale in the course of
business operation; hence, the receipts were capital in natureCIT v. West Coast Chemicals & Industries Ltd [1962] 46 ITR 135
(sq. . Repatriation from foreign bank account - Where the
assessee-bank had balances in its branch at Karachi and after
partition these balances were frozen and not utilised in
banking operations and when the amounts were repatriated
to India, the assessee earned profit as a result of difference
between the Indian and Pakistani currency, it was held that the
impugned profit was a capital receipt, since, even assuming
that the impugned amount was originally stock-in-trade,
when it was blocked and the bank was unable to deal with
that amount, it ceased to be stock-in-trade-CIT v. Canara Bank
Ltd. [1967] 63 ITR 328 (SC)

Interest on LC for purchasing machine - Interest earned

on the amount deposited to open letter of credit for
purchase of machinery required for setting up the plant is a
capital receipt-CIT v. Kamal Co-operative Sugar Mills Ltd. [2000]
243 ITR 2 (SC). . Damages from supplier of machine - Receipt of
liquidate damages by an assessee from a machinery supplier
on account of the delay in supply of machinery, is a capital
receipt-CITv. Saurashtra Cement & Chemicals Industries Ltd.
[2002] 121 Taxman 223/253 ITR 373 (Guj.).

Few instances of revenue receipts - The following are a few

instances of revenue receipts:

Compensation for loss of a trading asset - Compensation

received in respect of loss of a trading asset or stock-in-trade
was held to be a revenue receipt-Shadboltv. Salmon Estate Ltd. 25
TC 52.

Subsidy from Government - Subsidy received from

Government, under scheme for promotion of industry, by
way of refund of sales tax is a revenue receipt-Kesoram
Industries & Cotton Mills Ltd. v. CIT[1991] 191 ITR 518 (CaL).

Surplus due to reduction in export duty - Surplus left with

seller due to reduction in export duty is a revenue receiptGenera 1 Fibre Dealers Ltd. v. CIT[ 1970] 77 ITR 23 (SC).

Lump sum payment in lieu of future rights of royalty Where the assessee transferred his quota of steel to a factory
owner on consideration of a royalty of Rs. 50 per ton on all
steel supplied to the factory owner and later agreed to take
lump sum in lieu of waiving his future rights of royalty, it
was held that lump sum was a revenue receipt since it
represented capitalised value of the royalty, which the
assessee might have received-National Steel Works Ltd. v.
CIT[1962] 46 ITR 646 (SC).

Compensation for loss of commission - The assessee,

which carried on the business of distribution of films, had
entered into agreement for advancing money to certain
producers towards the production of 3 films and acquiring
the rights of distribution thereof. After the assessee had
exploited its rights of distribution of films, the agreement
was cancelled and the producers paid an aggregate sum of
Rs. 26,000 to the assessee towards commission. It was held
that the sum received by the assessee was not compensation
for not carrying on its business but was a compensation for
the loss of commission which it would have earned had the
agreements not been terminated and, therefore, it was a
revenue receipt-CITv. South India Pictures Ltd. [1956] 29 ITR
910 (SC).

Interest under Land Acquisition Act - Statutory interest

received under section 34 of the Land Acquisition Act is
interest for delayed payment of compensation and is,
therefore, a revenue receipt liable to tax-Shamlal Narula v. CIT[
1964] 53 ITR 151 (SC). Termination of sale selling agency When the assessee (engaged in a variety of businesses,
including the sole selling agency, terminable at will, of A
Ltd.), on termination of sole selling agency received
compensation for three successive years based upon
commission paid in past, it was he ld that compensation
received was a revenue receipt Gillanders Arbuthnot & Co. Ltd.
v. CIT [1964] 53 ITR 283 (SC).

Exchange of capital asset for a perpetual annuity Where an owner of an estate exchanges a capital asset for a
perpetual annuity, it is ordinarily taxable income in his hands
(the position will be different if he exchanges his estate for a
capital sum payable in installments, the installments when
received would not be taxable)-CITv. Kunwar Trivikram
Narain Singh [1965] 57 ITR 29 (SC).

Acquisition of land from dealers - Compensation received

by the assessee-company (a dealer in land) from the
Government on account of requisition of land belonging to
the assessee was held to be a revenue receipt-Nawn Estates
(P.) Ltd. v. CIT [1982] 10 Taxman 292 (Cal.).

To have a better understanding the following problems will

help us.

25

Prob.l One of the premises owned by the assessee is requisitioned by the Government. Of the various sums paid by the
Government as compensation, the Government pays Rs.
57,000 towards the claim of the assessee on account of the
compulsory vacation of the premises, disturbance and loss of
business~ Is Rs. 57,000 taxable as income?
Ans: Since Rs. 57,000 is not received for any injury to the capital
assets of assessee (including goodwill) and it is received as
compensation for loss of profits, it is taxable as income-CITv.
Shams her Printing Press [1960] 39 ITR 90 (SC).
Prob.2 XYZ Ltd. has taken certain insurance policies including
consequential loss policy. One of the mills owned by the
assessee-company is completely destroyed by fire and Rs. 40,000
is received by it under consequential loss policy from the
insurance company. Is Rs. 40,000 received on account of loss of
profit taxable as income in the hands of the company?
Ans: Since receipt of Rs. 40,000 is inseparably connected with
the ownership and conduct of business, it is taxable as incomeRaghuvanshi Mills Ltd. v. CIT [1952] 22 ITR 484 (SC).
Prob.3 By a deed of lease, XYZ Ltd. gives 2 tea estates along
with building and machinery thereon for a period of 10 years in
consideration of annual rent of Rs. 54,000 and premium of Rs.
2,25,000. Of the premium, the sum of Rs. 45,000 is payable at
the time of execution of deed and balance of Rs. 1,80,000 is
payable in 32 quarterly installments of Rs. 5,625.
Is quarterly installment of Rs. 5,625 chargeable to tax as
income?
Ans: A case on similar facts was examined by the Supreme
Court in CITv. Panbari Tea Co. Ltd. [19651 57 ITR 422, wherein
the court held that premium constitutes a capital receipt even if
it was receivable in installments. Explaining the constituents of
premium, the Supreme Court observed:
The real test of a salami or premium is whether the amount
paid (in lump sum or in installments) is the consideration, paid
by the tenant for being let into possession. When the interest
of the lessor is parted with on a price, the price paid is premium
or salami. But the periodical payments made for continuous
enjoyment of the benefits under the lease are in the nature of
rent. The former is a capital receipt and the latter a revenue
receipt. There may be circumstances where the parties may
camouflage the real nature of the transactions by using clever
phraseology. It is not the form but the substance of the
transaction that matters, to Ascertain the intention of Parties.
Prob.4 XYZ Lid is formed with the objects, inter alia, of
acquiring and disposing coal mining leases in certain coalfields.
The assessee-company acquires coal mining leases over large
areas, develops them as coalfields and then sub-leases them to
collieries and other companies at royalty and salami. Discuss
whether the amounts received by the assessee-company as
salami for granting the sub-lease constitute taxable income.
Ans : In view of the Supreme Courts ruling in Karanpura
Development Co. Ltd. v. CIT [1962] 44 ITR 362, the transactions
of acquiring lease and granting sub-leases are in the nature of
trading and not enjoyment of property as land owner. Therefore, salami received is a trading receipt and is liable to tax as
income.
26

Prob.5. X discovered by chance the existence of kankar in

Punjab and brought about an agreement between X and local
authorities for the acquisition of sole and exclusive monopoly
rights for the production of cement. Afterwards X transferred
his rights under the agreement to a company of which X was
also one of the promoters. For the services rendered by X. the
company agreed to pay him one per cent yearly commission on
net profit earned by it. The company paid commission for 10
years. Thereafter it entered into a compromise with X. where
under the company agreed to pay commission for 3 years-200l,
2002 and 2003 and lump sum of Rs. 70,000 for termination of
agreement between the company and X Is Rs. 70,000, received
as compensation by X. chargeable to tax in his hands as
income?
Ans: None of activities of X can be considered as a business
activity but yet he did acquire an income yielding asset as a result
of his activities. However, the compromise destroyed that asset
and in its place he has been given Rs. 70,000 as compensation.
It has been paid as compensation to him because he gave up his
right to get commission in future to which he was entitled
under the agreement. It is price paid for surrendering a valuable
right which is a capital asset. Therefore, Rs. 70,000 is a capital
receipt-CIT v. Prabhu Dayal [1971] 82 ITR 804 (SC). It is,
however, chargeable to tax under section 45.
Prob.6 XYZ Ltd. purchases certain tracts of land rich in coal and
fireclay along with the right to receive the arrears of rent and
royalty from lessees. Discuss whether the amount receivable as
arrears of rent/royalty is taxable in the hands of the company?
Ans: Purchase of the right to collect arrears of rent and royalty
cannot be considered as income. It is true that the assessee
purchases the lessors right and by virtue of such purchase, it
becomes entitled to receive arrears of rent/royalty. The assesseecompany has no right to collect the arrears of rent/royalty as
owner of land. Therefore, receipt of arrears of rent/royalty
cannot be considered as income-CITv. Rajasthan Mines Lid
[1970] 78 ITR 45 (SC)
Along with having knowledge of important concepts of
income tax on should also know accounting principles to know
the transactions better.

Method of Accounting [Sec. 145]

Income chargeable under the head Profits and gains of
business or profession or Income from other sources is to
be computed in accordance with the method of accounting
regularly employed by the assessee.

Types of Accounting Methods

Mainly there are two types of accounting methods-mercantile
system and cash system. Under the mercantile system, income
and expenditure are recorded at the time of their occurrence
during the previous year. For instance, income accrued during
the previous year is recorded whether it is received during the
previous year or during a year preceding or following the
previous year. Similarly, expenditure is recorded if it becomes
due during the previous year, irrespective of the fact whether it
is paid during the previous year or not. The profit calculated
under the mercantile system is profit actually earned during the
previous year, though not necessarily realised in cash. In other

words, where accounts are kept on mercantile basis, the profits

or gains are credited, though they are not actually realised and
entries, thus, made really show nothing more than an accrual or
arising of the said profits at the material time-Indermani Jatia v.
CIT[1959] 35 ITR 298 (SC).
Under the cash system of accounting, revenue and expenses are
recorded only when received or paid. For instance, income
received during the previous year is included in taxable income
whether it is earned during the previous year or it is earned
during a year preceding or following the previous year. Similarly,
expenditure is deductible from the taxable income only if it is
paid during the previous year, irrespective of the fact whether it
relates to the previous year or not. Income under cash system
of accounting is, therefore, excess of receipts over disbursements during the previous year.

Choice of Accounting Method

An assessee may select cash or mercantile system of accounting
in respect of income chargeable under the heads Profits and
gains of business or profession and Income from other
sources. The choice of the method of accounting lies with the
assessee but the assessee must show that he has regularly
followed the method of accounting chosen by him-B. C. G.A.
(Punjab) Ltd. v. CIT[ 1937] 5 ITR 279 (Lahore). In other words,
once a particular method of accounting is followed by the
assessee, he must follow it on a consistent basis.
Only in the year where a change in the method of accounting is
introduced for the first time, one has to examine whether the
change introduced is meant to be regularly followed or not.
When it is found that an assessee has changed his regular
method of accounting by another recognized method and he
has followed the latter regularly thereafter, it is not open to the
Assessing Officer to go into the question of bona fides of the
introduction and continuance of the change-Snow White Food
Products Co. Ltd. v. CIT [1983] 141 ITR 861/[1982] 10 Taxman
37 (CaL). One cannot contend that a change has to be supported by cogent reasons showing the bona fides of the assessee
in so changing the method.
Accounting Standards
The Central Government has been empowered to prescribe by
notification in the Official Gazette, the accounting standards
which an assessee, will have to follow in computing his income
under the head Profits and gains of business or profession
or Income from other sources, The Government will consult
expert bodies like the Institute of Chartered Accountants of
India while laying down such standards, Vide Notification No.
9949, dated January 25, 1996, the Government has notified
Accounting Standard-I relating to disclosure of accounting
policies and
Accounting Standard-II relating to disclosure of prior period
and extraordinary items and changes in accounting policies (to
be followed by the assessee following mercantile system of
accounting) [for Accounting Standards I and II, see Annex to
this Chapter]. Accounting practice - Accounting practice cannot
override any provision of the Act Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals &
Fertilizers Ltd. v. CIT [1997] 227 ITR 172 (SC).

Method of Accounting Irrelevant in Some Cases

In the case of income chargeable under the heads Salaries,
Income from house property and Capital gains, the method
of accounting adopted by the assessee is not relevant in
determining its taxable income. For calculating taxable income
under the aforesaid heads, one has to follow the statutory
provisions of the Income-tax Act which expressly provide
whether a revenue (or expenditure) is taxable (or deductible) on
accrual basis or cash basis.
In order to know the law one should be able to interpret the
provisions of the Act properly. Misinterpretation, otherwise
leads to serious problems. So in order to avoid all legal
problems and to follow the act one should be acquainted with
the rules of interpretation.

Rules of Interpretation
Interpretation implies interpretating the provisions of the fiscal
statute. The task of interpretation is not a mechanical task. It is
more than a mere reading of mathematical formula. It is
possible that the same word used in different parts of statute
may sound differently. It is through task of interpretation that
the whole enactment is given a harmonious reasoning.

Need for Interpretation

English literature would have been much poorer if English
language could have been such that statute could be drafted
with divine precision. However, judiciary cannot simply fold
hands and blame draftsman of the enactment. Judiciary must
set to work on the interpretational activity of bringing out the
true legislative intent.
Interpretation v. Construction
While interpretation is interpretating the provisions of the
statute and bringing out of the basic legislative intent behind
the enactment, construction of statute stands on a different
footing. When provisions of the statute are drafted in such a
way that plain interpretation of statutory provisions produces
manifestly absurd and unjust result or provisions are contradicting one-another so that they cannot be harmonised, Court may
modify the language used by the Legislature or even do some
violence to it, so as to achieve the obvious intention of the
Legislature and produce a rational construction-K.P. Varghese v.
ITO [1981] 7 Taxman 13 (SC), CIT v. SodraDevi[1957] 32 ITR
615 (SC), CWT v. HasmatunnisaBegum [1989]42 Taxman 133
(SC).
Different Rules of Interpretation
The following are the different rules of interpretation:
Literal Rule

Primarily, statute should be interpreted according to the

expressions used by it in the statute. If the language of the
statute is clear and unambiguous and if two interpretations are
not reasonably possible, it would be wrong to discard the plain
meaning of the words used in order to meet a possible injusticeCIT v. T. V. Sundaram fyengar & Sons (P.) Ltd. [1975] 101 ITR
764 (SC), Murarilal Mahabir Prasad v. B.R. Vad [1976] 37 STC 77.
One of the pillars of statutory interpretation, viz., literal rule,
demands, that if the meaning of the statutory interpretation is
plain, the courts must apply the same regardless of the resultCWT v. Hasmatunnisa Begum [1989] 42 Taxman 133 (SC). So
27

long as the provision is free from ambiguity, the words used

therein should be given their plain meaning without importing
into it any foreign words and without subtracting any words
therefrom-CITv. Champarun Sugar Works Ltd. [1997] 225 ITR 863
(All.).
When there is a doubt about the meaning of any statutory
provision, the provision is to be understood in the sense in
which it can harmonise with the subject of the enactment and
the object which the Legislature has in view-CIT v. Chandanben
Maganlal [2002] 120 Taxman 38 (Guj.).
Golden Rule

If strict literal interpretation leads to an absurd result and object

sought to be accomplished would be defeated by such interpretation, then a construction that would avoid such absurdity
shall be thought of. The words are modified so as to avoid the
absurdity and inconsistency. Under such circumstances a
construction which results in equity rather than injustice shall be
preferred although it is often said that equity and taxation are
strangers-T.N. Vasavan v. CIT [1991] 99 CTR (Ker.) 103, Grey v.
Pearson [1857] 6 HL Cas. 61. Golden rule is, thus, also known as
rule of reasonable construction.
Mischief Rule

When a statute is amended or previous enactment is repealed to

give place to a new enactment to meet some specific purposes,
in such a case regard shall be had to the mischief which was
earlier prevailing in the law and now stood rectified.
The following principles enunciated in Heydons case [1584] 3 Co.
Rep. 7a, and firmly established, are still in full force and effect;
that for the sure and true interpretation of all statutes in
general (be they penal or beneficial, restrictive or enlarging of the
common law), four things are to be discerned and considered:
1. what was the common law before the making of the Act?
2. what was the mischief and defect for which the common law
did not provide;
3. what remedy Parliament has resolved and appointed to cure
the disease of the common-wealth; and
4. the true reason of the remedy. And then, the office of all the
judges is always to make such construction as shall suppress
the mischief and advance the remedy, and to suppress subtle
inventions and evasions for the continuance of the mischief
and pro privato commando, and to add force and life to the cure
and remedy according to the true intent of the makers of the
Act pro bono publico.
There is now the further addition that regard must be had not
only to the existing law but also to prior legislation and to the
judicial interpretation thereof-Dr. Baliram Waman Hiray v. Mr.
Justice B. Lentin [1989] 176 ITR 1 (SC).

Rule of Ejusdem Generis

The maxim generalia specialibus non derogantis regarded as a
cardinal principle of interpretation-State of Gujarat v. Ramjibhai
AIR 1979 SC 1098. The literal meaning of the expression is that
if there is an apparent conflict between two independent
provisions of law, the special provision must prevail- Union of
India v. Indian Fisheries (P.) Ltd [1965] 57 ITR 331 (SC). The
general provision, however, controls the cases where the special
28

provision does not apply as the special provision is applicable to

the extent of its scope-South India Corpn. (P.) Ltd. v. Board of
Revenue AIR 1964 SC 207.
In other words; a special rule controls or cuts down the general
provision-Bengal Immunity v. State of Bihar AIR 1955 SC 661.
Beneficial to The Assessee

It is necessary to remember that when a provision is made in

the context of a law providing for concessional rates of tax for
the purpose of encouraging an industrial activity, a liberal
construction should be put upon the language of the statuteCIT v. Strawboard Mfg. Co. Ltd. [1989] 177 ITR 431 (SC). When
two views are possible, the view that favours the assessee or is
beneficial to him should be followed-CIT v. P.R.S. Oberoi [1990]
52 Taxman 267 (CaL), Shankar Construction Co. v. CIT [1991] 56
Taxman 98 (Kar.).
Retrospective Legislation

There is a well settled principle against interference with vested

rights by subsequent legislation unless the legislation has been
made retrospective expressly or by necessary implication. If an
assessment has already been made and completed, the assessee
cannot be subjected to reassessment unless the statute permits
that to be done-CED v. M.A. Merchant [1989] 177 ITR 490 (SC).
Legislative amendment or enactment is principally concerned
with establishment of future rules of conduct. This presumption must be given effect to in the absence of any express
intention to operate the law retrospectively- Maneka Gandhi v.
Indira Gandhi AIR 1984 Delhi 428. See also Jagdamba Prasad Lalla
v. Anandi Nath Roy AIR 1938 Pat. 337.
Use of Expressions May, Shall; and: Or

Use of word may denotes discretion in complying with the

provision of the statute, while must or shall denotes
imperative to comply with statutory provision. Yet, these words
may be interpreted, interchangeably. Shall or must can be
interpretated as may depending upon the nature and
intention of the Legislature. When obligation to exercise a
power is coupled with a duty cast upon, or non-performance of
provisions of statute would make the purpose null and void,
then may can be construed as shall or must -Ambica
Quarry Works v. State of Gujarat AIR 1987 SC 1073,P.C. Puri v.
CIT [1985] 151 ITR 584 (Delhi).
Finance Ministers Speech

The object clause and the Finance Ministers speech are relevant
only when the provision itself is not clear and is ambiguous-Blue
Star Ltd v. CBDT[1990] 52 Taxman 113 (Born.). The speech
made by the mover of a Bill explaining the reason for the
introduction of the Bill can certainly be referred to for the
purpose of ascertaining the mischief sought to be remedied by
the legislation and the object and purpose for which the
legislation is enacted. This is in accord with the recent trend in
juristic thought not only in western countries but also in India
that interpretation of a statute being an exercise in the ascertainment of meaning, everything which is logically relevant should
be admissible-K.P. Varghese v. ITO [1981] 7 Taxman 13 (SC).

Marginal Notes

It is undoubtedly true that the marginal note to a section

cannot be referred to for the purpose of construing the section
but it can certainly be relied upon as indicating the drift of the
section. It cannot control the interpretation of the words of a
section particularly when the language of the section is clear and
unambiguous but, being part of the statute, it prima facie
furnishes some clue as to the meaning and purpose of the
section-K.P. Varghese v. ITO [1981] 7 Taxman 13 (SC).

Executive Instructions
Instructions issued by the Ministry or Department for guidance
of its officers are of no assistance in interpreting a taxing
statute-Commercial Corpn. of India Ltd v. ITO [1993] 201 ITR
348 (Bom.). Instructions are not binding on Commissioner
(Appeals), Income-tax Appellate Tribunal, High Court and the
Supreme Court. Even an assessee is not bound by the executive
instructions issued by CBDT. However, departmental officers/
Assessing Officers are bound by such instructions and circulars.
The interpretation of the Central Board of Direct Taxes can be
considered only as an aid to understanding the intention of
Parliament in enacting a section- Yogendra Chandra v. CWT
[1991] 187 ITR 58 (HP).
Schedules to Act

Schedules to Act cannot override simple and plain provisions

of the Act.
Constitutjqnal Validity

Any provision of law affecting the rights of individuals will

have to be read in the context of the Indian Constitution. The
provisions of law should not contravene the constitutional
provisions like the fundamental rights-CITv. Herekars Hospital
& Maternity Home [1991] 96 CTR (Kar.) 182.
Charging Section

Charging section has to be construed strictly. If a person has

not been brought within the ambit of the charging section by
clear words, he cannot be taxed at all-CWT v. Ellis Bridge
Gymkhana [1997] 95 Taxman 143 (SC).
Catch Phrase

A catch-phrase possibly used as a populist measure to describe

some provisions in the Finance Bill in the explanatory memorandum while introducing the Bill in Parliament can neither be
determinative of, nor can it camouflage the true object of the
legislation-Sashikant Laxman Kale v. Union of India [1990] 52
Taxman 352 (SC)
Re-enactment

It is very well-recognised rule of interpretation of statutes that

where a provision of an Act is omitted by an Act and the said
Act simultaneously reenacts a new provision which substantially
covers the field occupied by the repealed provision with certain
modification, in that event such re-enactment is regarded having
force continuously and the modification or changes are treated
as amendment coming into force with effect from the date of
enforcement of re-enacted provision-CIT v. Venkateswara
Hatcheries (P.) Ltd. [1999] 103 Taxman 503/237 ITR 174 (SC).

Now again its time for me to ask you some ,really very few and
easy questions. Such good students like you will any time solve
my questions.
1. Explain the meaning of previous year. What would be the
previous year for the new business started during the
financial year? Explain with examples.
2. Income-tax is assessed on the income of the previous year in
the next assessment year. State the exceptions to this rule.
3. Income-tax is charged on income of the previous year. Do
you fully agree with this statement? If not, what are the
exceptions?
4. Define the term Income. Distinguish between Gross Total
Income and Total Income.
5. Write short notes on the following terms used in the
Income-tax Act, 1961:
(a) Person, (b) Gross Total Income, (c) Assessee.
6. Discuss the special provisions of the Income-tax Act, in
respect of the assessment of:
(a) Persons leaving India, and (b) Income from a
discontinued business.
7. What are the essential features of the term Income?
Explain.

Practical Questions
1. An assessee commences his business on:
a.
4-9-2002;
b.
1-12-2003;
c.
1-2-2004.
In each case, what will be his assessment year?
Ans: (a) 2003-04; (b) 2004-05; and (c) 2004-05.
2. What will be the previous year in relation to assessment year
2004-05 in the following cases:
a.
A businessman keeps his accounts on financial year
basis.
b.
A newly started business commencing its operation
from 1-1-2004.
c.
A person gives Rs. 50,000 as loan @10% p.a. interest
on 1-9-2003.
Ans: (a) 1-4-2003 to 31-3-2004; (b) 1-1-2004 to 31-3-2004; and
(c) 1-9-2003 to 31-3-2004.
3. Which period will be treated as previous year for Income-tax
purposes for the assessment year 2004-05 in the following
cases:
a.
Sumit starts a new business on 1-11-2003 and prepares
final accounts on 30-6-2004.
b.
Meenal joined service in a company on 1-1-2004 at Rs.
2,000 per month. His next increment in salary will be
on 1-1-2005. Prior to this he was unemployed.
c.
Ashish Maheswari keeps his accounts on the basis of
financial year.
d.
Abhay Verma is a registered doctor and keeps his
Income and Expenditure Account on calendar year
basis.
29

e.

Jyoti Gupta bought a house on 1-8-2003 and let it out

at Rs. 800 per month.

Ans: (a) 1-11-2003 to 31-3-2004; (b) 1-1-2004 to 31-3-2004; (c) 14-2003 to 31-3-2004; (d) 1-4-2003 to 31-3-2004; and (e) 1-8-2003
to 31-3-2004.
4. X, who is a famous singer, came to India from America for
the first time on 26-1-2004. He gave many performances in
India from which he got Rs. 1,00,000. When he was to
return to America, the Income-tax Officer gave him a notice
and asked him to pay Income-tax immediately. He said in his
reply, My previous year ends on 31-3-2004 and my tax
liability will be in the assessment year 2004-05. What is your
opinion in this regard?
Ans: Under the exceptions, his assessment year will be 2003-04.
5. R, who has been permanently in India, migrated to USA on
18-11-2003.Explain how he will be taxed with regard to the
income earned between 1-4-2003 and 18-11-2003.
Ans: Under the exception, his assessment year will be 2003-04.

Notes:

30

LESSON 4:
RESIDENTIAL STATUS AND TAX INCIDENCE
Lesson Objective

To know meaning and importance of residential status from

view point of taxation

To know how to determine residential status of every

person as per the Act

To Know Incidence of tax for different taxpayers depending

on the residential status

To know types of income taxable in the hands of assessee.

Good morning everybody. Till now you are familiar with the
basic concepts and key words used and you also know what is
treated as income and what is not. After deciding the source of
income of the person, the next step is to define the residential
status.
Residential status of an assessee is important in determining
the scope of income on which income tax has to be paid in
India. Broadly, an assessee may be resident or non-resident in
India in a given previous year. An individual or HUF assessee
who is resident in India may be further classified into (1)
resident and ordinarily resident and (2) resident but not
ordinarily resident.
Under the Income Tax Act, the incidence of tax is highest on a
resident and ordinarily resident and lowest on a non-resident.
Therefore, it is in the assessees advantage that he claims nonresident status if he satisfies the conditions for becoming a
non-resident.
Total income of an assessee cannot be computed unless we
know his residential status in India during the pervious year.
According to the residential status, the assessee can be either:
1. Resident in India, or
2. Non-Resident in India
One has to keep in mind the following norms while deciding
the residential status of an assessee:
Section 6 lays down the test of residence for the following
taxable entities:
a. an individual;
b. a Hindu undivided family;
c. a firm or an association of persons or a body of individuals;
d. a company; and
e. every other person.

Different Kinds of Residential Status

Assessees are either (a) resident in India, or (b) non-resident in
India. As far as resident individuals and Hindu undivided
families are concerned, they can be further divided into two
categories, viz., (a) resident and ordinarily resident, or (b)
resident but not ordinarily resident. All other assessees (viz.- a
firm, an association of persons, a company and every other
person) can simply be either a resident or a non-resident.

Different residential status in respect of different previous

years of the same assessment year not possible [Sec. 6(5)] If a person is resident in a previous year relevant to an assessment year in respect of any source of income, he shall be
deemed to be resident in India in the previous year(s) relevant
to the same assessment year in respect of each of his other
sources of income.
Different residential status for different assessment years An assessee may enjoy different residential status for different
assessment years. For instance, an individual who has been
regularly assessed as resident and ordinarily resident, has to be
treated as non-resident in a particular assessment year if he
satisfies none of the conditions of section 6(1).
Resident in India and abroad - It is not necessary that a
person who is resident in India, cannot become resident in any
other country for the same assessment year. A person may be
resident in more than one country at the same time for tax
purposes, though he cannot have two domiciles simultaneously. It is, therefore, not necessary that a person, who is
resident in India, will be non-resident for all other countries for
the same assessment year.
Onus of proof - Whether an assessee is a resident or a nonresident is a question of fact and it is the duty of the assessee to
place all relevant facts before the income-tax authorities-Rai
Bahadur Seth Teomal v. CIT[1963] 48 ITR 170 (Cal).
In the case of V. Vr. N.M. Subbayya Chettiar v. CIT[1951] 19 ITR
168, the Supreme Court held that section 6(2) makes a presumption that a Hindu undivided family, a firm or association of
persons has to be a resident in India and the onus of proving
that they are not residents is on them. However, the burden of
proving that an individual or a company is resident in India lies
on the department-Moosa S. Madha & Azam S. Madha v. CIT [1973]
89 ITR 65 (SC).

Residential Status of an Individual

[Sec. 6]
An individual may be (a) resident and ordinarily resident, (b)
resident but not ordinarily resident, or (c) non-resident.

Resident and Ordinarily Resident [Sec. 6(1), 6(6)(a)]

To find out whether an individual is resident and ordinarily
resident in India, one has to proceed as follows .
Step 1 - First find out whether such individual is resident in
India.
Step 2 - If such individual is resident in India, then find out
whether he is ordinarily resident in India.
Basic conditions to test whether an individual is a Resident
in India or not: Under section 6(1), an individual is said to be
resident in India in any previous year, if he satisfies at least one
of the following basic conditions

31

a. He is in India in the previous year for a period of 182 days or

more; or
b. He is in India for a period of 60 days or more during the
previous year and 365 days or more during the 4 years
immediately preceding the previous year.
Note that the aforesaid rule of residence is subject to exceptions.
Person of Indian origin - A person is deemed to be of Indian
origin if he, or either of his parents or any of his grand-parents,
was born in undivided India. It may be noted that grand
parents include both maternal and paternal grand parents.
Additional Conditions to decide whether an individual is
an ordinarily resident in India or Not an ordinary resident
in India:
Under section 6(6), A person is said to be not ordinarily
resident in India in any previous year if such person isa. an individual who has not been resident in India in nine out
of the ten previous years preceding that year, or,
b. has not during the seven previous years preceding that year
been in India for a period of, or periods amounting in all to,
seven hundred and thirty days or more.
In determining the residential status of an assessee, the
following settled propositions have to be borne in mind:
1. Stay at the same place is not necessary.
2. Stay in territorial waters on a yatch moored in the territorial
waters of India would be treated as his presence in India for
the purpose of this section.
3. Presence for a part of a day - Where a person is in India
only for a part of a day, the calculation of physical presence in
India in respect of such broken period should be made on
an hourly basis. A total of 24 hours of stay spread over a
number of days is to be counted as being equivalent to the
stay of one day.

Resident and Ordinarily Resident [Sec. 6(1), 6(6)(a)]

An individual who satisfies at least one of the basic conditions
and does not satify the additional conditions mentioned above,
he is treated as a resident and ordinarily resident in India.
Non-Resident
An individual is a non-resident in India if he satisfies none of
the basic conditions. In the case of non-resident the additional
conditions above are not relevant.

Residential Status of a Hindu Undivided

Family [Sec. 6(2)]
A Hindu undivided family (like an individual) is either resident
in India or non-resident in India. A resident Hindu undivided
family is either ordinarily resident or not ordinarily resident.

When a Hindu Undivided Family is Resident or NonResident

A Hindu undivided family is said to be resident in India if
control and management of its affairs is wholly or partly
situated in India. A Hindu undivided family is non-resident in
India if control and management of its affairs is wholly
situated outside India.

32

The table given below highlights the same proposition

Place of control
Control and management of
the affairs of a Hindu
undivided family is
Wholly in India
Wholly out of India
Partly in India and partly
outside India

Ordinarily
resident
non-resident
or not
Resident or

Resident
Nonresident
Resident

As below.*
As below.*

Note - In order to determine whether a Hindu undivided

family is resident or non-resident, the residential status of the
karta of the family during the previous year is not relevant.
Residential status of the karta during the preceding years is
considered for determining whether a resident family is
ordinarily resident.

What is Control and Management

Different courts have defined the term control and management as follows De facto control - Control and management
means de facto control and management and not merely the
right to control or manage-CIT v. Nandlal Gandalal [1960] 40
ITR I (SC).
Place of Control and Management
Control and management is situated at a place where the head.
the seat and the directing power are situated. The head and
brain is situated where vital decisions concerning the policies of
the business, such as, raising finance and its appropriation for
specific purposes, appointment and removal of staff, expansion, extension, or diversification of business, etc., are
taken-San Paulo (Brazilian) Railway Co. v. Carter [1886] AC 31
(HL).
Residence of HUF in India
The mere fact that the family has a house in India, where some
of its members reside or the karta is in India in the previous
year, does not constitute that place as the seat of control and
management of the affairs of the family, unless the decisions
concerning the affairs of the family are taken at that place. The
mere fact of the absence of karta from India does not make the
family non-resident Annamalai Chettiar v. ITO [1958] 34 ITR
88 (Mad.).
Broad Propositions
The following propositions can be stated on the basis of the
rulings given in Subbayya Chettiar v. CIT [1951] 19 ITR 163
(SC) and Narasimha Rao Bahadur v. CIT [1950] 18 ITR 181.
1. Generally, HUF shall be taken to be resident in India unless
control and management of its affairs is situated wholly
outside India.
2. HUF may be residing in one place and doing a great deal of
business in other place.
3. Occasional visit of a non-resident karta to the place of HUFs
business in India would be insufficient to make HUF
ordinarily resident in India.

When a Resident Hindu Undivided Family is

Ordinarily Resident in India
A resident Hindu undivided family is ordinarily resident in
India if the karta or manager of the family (including successive
karta) does not satisfies the following two additional conditions as laid down by section for 6(6)(b).
Section 6(6)(b) defines conditions for a Hindu Undivided
Family which is Not an ordinary resident in India.
The section specifies two additional conditions as under:
a. A Hindu undivided family whose manager has not been
resident in India in nine out of the ten previous years
preceding that year, or,
b. has not during the seven previous years preceding that year
been in India for a period of, or periods amounting in all to,
seven hundred and thirty days or more.
If the karta or manager of a resident Hindu undivided family
does not satisfy the two additional conditions, the family is
treated as resident and ordinarily resident in India.

Residential Status of the Firm and

Association of Persons [Sec. 6(2)]
A partnership firm and an association of persons are said to be
resident in India if control and management of their affairs are
wholly or partly situated within India during the relevant
previous year. They are, however, treated as non-resident in
India if control and management of their affairs are situated
wholly outside India.
The above rule may be summarised as follows :
Place of control
Control and management of the affairs
of a firm/ association of persons is Wholly in India
Wholly outside India
Partly in India and partly outside India

Resident or
non-resident

Resident
Non-resident
Resident

Note - A firm/ an association of persons cannot be ordinarily or not ordinarily resident. The residential status of the
partners/ members of the firm/ association is not relevant in
determining the status of the firm/association.

What is Control and Management

While in the case of a firm, control and management is vested
in partners, in case of an association of persons it is vested in
the principal officer. Control and management means de facto
control and management and not merely the right to control or
manage. Control and management is usually situated at a place
where the head, the seat and the directing power are situated.
Where the partners of a firm are resident in India the normal
presumption is that the firm is resident in India. This presumption can, however, be effectively rebutted by showing that
the control and management of the affairs of the firm is
situated wholly outside India. The onus of rebutting the
presumption is on the assessee.

Residential Status of a Company

[Sec. 6(3)]
Section 6(3) of the Act says:

A company is said to be resident in India in any previous year,

ifi. it is an Indian company; or
ii. during that year, the control and management of its affairs is
situated wholly in India.
An Indian company is defined in section 2(26) as under:
Indian company means a company formed and registered
under the Companies Act, 1956 (1 of 1956), and includesi. a company formed and registered under any law relating to
companies formerly in force in any part of India (other than
the State of Jammu and Kashmir and the Union territories
specified in sub-clause (iii) of this clause) ;
a.

a corporation established by or under a Central, State or

Provincial Act;

b.

any institution, association or body which is declared

by the Board to be a company under clause (17);

ii. in the case of the State of Jammu and Kashmir, a company

formed and registered under any law for the time being in
force in that State;
iii. in the case of any Union territories of Dadra and Nagar
Haveli, Goa, Daman and Diu, and Pondicherry, a company
formed and registered under any law for the time being in
force in that Union territory - Provided that the registered or,
as the case may be, principal office of the company,
corporation, institution, association or body in all cases is in
India.
An Indian company is always resident in India. A foreign
company is resident in India only if, during the previous year,
control and management of its affairs is situated wholly in India.
In other words, a foreign company is treated as non-resident if,
during the previous year, control and management of its affairs
is either wholly or partly situated out of India. The table given
below highlights the same proposition
Place of control

Control and management of the

affairs
of a company is Wholly in India.
Wholly outside India
Partly in India and partly outside
India

Resident or non-resident
An Indian
A company
other than
company
an
Indian
company
Resident

Resident

Resident

Non-resident

Resident

Non-resident

Note - A company can never be ordinarily or not ordinarily

resident in India.

What is Control and Management

In determining residential status of a company, the following
broad propositions should be kept in view:
Control and Management

The term control and management refers to head and brain

which directs the affairs of policy, finance, disposal of profits
33

and vital things concerning the management of a company.

Control is not necessarily situated in the country in which the
company is registered. Under the tax laws a company may have,
more than one residence-Unit Construction Co. Ltd v. Bullock
[1961] 42 ITR 340 (HL). The mere fact that a company is also
resident in a foreign country would not necessarily displace its
residence in India.
Meeting of Board of Directors

Usually control and management of a companys affairs is

situated at the place where meetings of board of directors are
held. Moreover, control and management referred to in section
6 is central control and management and not the carrying on of
day to day business by servants, employees or agents-Narottam
& Pereira Ltd. v. CIT [1953] 23 ITR 454 (Born.) and CIT v.
Bank of China (in-liquidation) [1985] 23 Taxman 46 (Cal).

Residential Status of Every Other

Person [Sec. 6(4)]
Every other person is resident in India if control and management of his affairs is wholly or partly situated within India
during the relevant previous year. On the other hand, every
other person is non-resident in India if control and management of his affairs is wholly situated outside India.
Relation between residential status and incidence of tax [Sec. 5]
Under the Act, incidence of tax on a taxpayer depends on his
residential status and also on the place and time of accrual or
receipt of income.

Individual and Hindu undivided family

Resident and
Resident but not Non-resident in
ordinarily resident ordinarily resident
India
in India
in India
Taxable in India
Taxable in India Taxable in India

Indian income
Foreign income
Not taxable in
- If it is business income which is
Taxable in India
Taxable in India
India
controlled wholly or partly from India
Not taxable in
- If it is income from profession which is
Taxable in India
Taxable in India
India
set up in India
Not taxable in
Not taxable in
- If it is business income which is
Taxable in India
India
India
controlled from outside India
- If it is income from profession which is
Not taxable in
Not taxable in
Taxable in India
set up outside India
India
India
Not taxable in
Not taxable in
- Any other foreign income (like salary,
Taxable in India
India
India
rent, interest, etc.)
Any other taxpayer (like company, firm, co-operative society, association of
Particulars.
persons, body of individual, etc.)
Resident in India
Non-resident in India
Indian income

Taxable in India

Taxable in India

Foreign income

Taxable in India

Not taxable in India

Conclusions - The following broad conclusions can be drawn

1. Indian income - Indian income is always taxable in India
irrespective of the residential status of the taxpayer.
2. Foreign income - Foreign income is taxable in the hands of
resident (in the case of a firm, AOP, Company and every
other person) or resident and ordinarily resident (in the case
of an individual or a Hindu Undivided family) in India.
Foreign income is not taxable in the hands of non-resident
in India.

1ndian Income

In the hands of resident but not ordinarily resident taxpayer,

foreign income is taxable only if it is (a) business income and
business is controlled from India, or (b) professional income
from a profession which is set up in India. In any other case,
foreign income is not taxable in the hands of resident but not
ordinarily resident taxpayers.

Any of the following three is an Indian income

Receipt of Income

1. If income is received (or deemed to be received) in India

during the previous year and at the same time it accrues (or
arises or is deemed to accrue or arise) in India during the
previous year.

Income received in India is taxable in all cases irrespective of

residential status of the assessee.

Indian Income and Foreign Income

In order to understand the relationship between residential
status and tax liability, one must understand the meaning of
Indian income and foreign income.

2. If income is received (or deemed to be received) in India

during the previous year but it accrues (or arises) outside
India during the previous year.
3. If income is received outside India during the previous year
but it accrues (or arises or is deemed to accrue or arise) in
India during the previous year.
Foreign Income

If the following two conditions are satisfied, then such income

is foreign income
a. Income is not received (or not deemed to be received) in
India; and
b. Income does not accrue or arise (or does not deemed to
accrue or arise) in India.

Incidence of Tax for Different Taxpayers

Tax incidence of different taxpayers is as follows :

34

The following points are worth mentioning in this respect:

1. Receipt vs. Remittance

The receipt of income refers to the first occasion when the
recipient gets the money under his control. Once an amount is
received as income, any remittance or transmission of the
amount to another place does not result in receipt at the other
place-Keshav Mills Ltd v. CIT [1953] 23 ITR 230 (SC). For
instance, an assessee, after receiving an income outside India,
cannot be said to have received the same again when he brings
or remits the same to India. The position will remain the same
if income is received outside India by an agent of the assessee
(may be a bank or some other person) who later on remits the
same to India. Income after the first receipt merely moves as a
remittance of money. The same income cannot be received by
the same person twice, once outside India and once within
India.
2. Cash vs. Kind
It is not necessary that income should be received in cash.
Income may be received in cash or kind. For instance, value of a
free residential house provided to an employee is taxable as

salary in the hands of the employee though the income is not

received in cash.

value of goods to the foreign principal abroad before the actual

realisation of sale proceeds in India.

3. Receipt vs. Accrual

Receipt is not the sole test of chargeability to tax. If an income
is not taxable on receipt basis, it may be taxable on accrual basis.

Similarly, where a foreign consignor sent goods to an Indian

consignee who effected sales in India and collected sale proceeds
and after deducting its commission remitted the balance to the
foreign consignor, it was held that income from sale of goods
was received in India by the consignee on behalf of the
consignor Turner Morrison & Co. Ltd v. CIT[1953] 23 ITR 152
(SC).

4. Actual receipt vs. Deemed receipt

It is not necessary that an income should be actually received in
India in order to attract tax liability. An income deemed to be
received in India, in the previous year, is also included in the
taxable income of the assessee.
The Act enumerates the following as income deemed to be
received in India:
Annual accretion (i.e., interest in excess of 9.5 per cent) to the
credit balance of an employee in the case of recognised
provident fund.
Excess contribution of employer (i.e., in excess of 12 per
cent of salary) in the case of recognised provident fund.
Transfer balance
Tax deducted at source
Deemed profit under section 41
Receipt by Agent

Receipt of income by a bank, broker or other agent of the

assessee, is treated as receipt of income on behalf of the
assessee-Keshav Mills Co. Ltd. v. CIT [1953] 23 ITR 230 (SC).
If goods are sent by VPP, income is received at the time of
payment by buyer to the Post Office, irrespective of the fact
whether buyer directs the goods to be sent by VPP or the seller
does so on his own accord. Similarly, where goods are sent by
rail and the railway receipt is sent through a bank for being
delivered to the purchaser against payment, income is received at
time and place of payment to the bank-CIT v. PM. Rathod &
Co. [1959] 37 ITR 145 (SC).

5. Receipt of Income in the Case of Advance Money

In CIT v. Mysore Chromite Ltd. [1955] 27 ITR 12S, the Madras
branch of Eastern Bank Ltd. used to advance to the assessee, in
Madras, 50 per cent of the amount of provisional invoice
consigned by the assessee and sale proceeds were received from
the foreign buyers on behalf of the assessee by Eastern Bank
Ltd. in London, which adjusted against the sale consideration.
The Supreme Court held that the entire price was received in
London. The payment of 80 per cent of the amount of
provisional invoice by the Madras branch of Eastern Bank Ltd.,
was not a payment on account of price, but was an advance
made by them to their own customer on security of goods
covered by the bill of lading. The Court further observed that
the price was first received by the Eastern Bank Ltd., London,
on behalf of the assessee. Accordingly the Court held that the
entire price was received outside India.
6. Receipt in the Case of Sale by Commission Agent
In CIT v. S.K. F. Ball Bearing Co. Ltd. [1960] 40 ITR 444, the
Supreme Court held that where a commission agent effected sale
and recovered the proceeds in India on behalf of a foreign
principal, profits on sale would be received in India, even if the
commission agent had remitted a substantial portion of the

7. Receipt by Cheque
A receipt of cheque is equivalent to receipt of money. In other
words, when a cheque, bond or other negotiable instrument is
received, the date of receipt is the date when instrument is
received and not the date when the instrument is en cashedRaja Mohan Raja Bahadur v. CIT [1967] 66 ITR 378 (SC), Gurdas
Singh v. CIT [1964] 54 ITR 259 (Punj.). This rule is applicable
even if the cheque/instrument was accepted conditionally,
provided the cheque is not dishonoured subsequently on
presentation for payment.
8. Receipt When Cheque is Sent by Post
In the absence of an express or implied request by the creditor
or an agreement between the parties regarding the sending of
cheque by post, the mere posting of cheque would not operate
as delivery of the cheque to the creditor. In such a case, receipt
would be at the place where the cheque is delivered by the post
office to addressee. Where, however, a cheque is sent by post in
pursuance of an express/implied agreement/request, the post
office would be treated as an agent of the creditor and the
receipt would be at the place where cheque is posted-Azamjahl
Mills Ltd. v. CIT[1976] 103 ITR 449 (SC).
9. Determining Place of Payment
In the case of payment by cheques sent by post the determination of the place of payment would depend upon the
agreement between the parties or the course of conduct of the
parties. If it is shown that the creditor authorised the debtor
either expressly or impliedly to send a cheque by post, the
property in the cheque passes to the creditor as soon as it is
posted. Therefore, the post office is an agent of the person to
whom the cheque is posted if there be an express or implied
authority to send it by post-CIT v. Patney & Co. [1959] 36 ITR
488 (SC).
If there was nothing more, the position in law is that the post
office would not become the agent of the addressee-Shri
Jagdish Mills Ltd. v. CIT[1959] 37 ITR 114 (SC).

10. When Sale Proceeds are Received in Kind

If sale proceeds or payment is received in the form of immovable property, the date of receipt of income is the date when
conveyance is executed-CIT v. Kameshwar Singh [1933] 1 ITR
94 (PC). On the other hand, if sale proceeds/payment is
received in the form of movable property, the date of receipt of
income is the date when the movable asset is received. In case
of sale of trading assets for fully paid shares in another
company, date of realisation of income is the date of allotment
of shares- Gold Coast Selection Trust Ltd. v. Humphrey [1949]
17 ITR (Suppl.) 19 (HL). These propositions are applicable even

35

if the assets (movable, immova. ble or shares) are neither

realised nor realisable till later.

11. Mere Book Entry is Not Sufficient

To constitute a receipt of anything there must be a person to
receive and a person from whom he receives, and something
received by the former from the latter. A mere entry in an
account which does not represent such a transaction does not
prove any receipt, whatever else it may be worth-Gresham Life
Assurance Society v. Bishop [1902] AC 287 (HL). When,
however, amount due to an assessee is credited on his instruction to an account in the books of the payer, such credit
amounts to receipt by assessee. Moreover, entry in balance sheet
does not amount to receipt of income [Explanation I to sec. 5].
Burden of Proving

The burden of proving that any income is received by an

assessee in India is on the revenue-CIT v .Bikaner Trading Co.
Ltd. [1970] 78 ITR 12 (SC).
Question of Fact

The question regarding place of receipt of income is a question

of fact.

Accrual of Income
Income accruing in India is chargeable to tax in all cases
irrespective of the residential status of the assessee. The words
accrues and arises are used in contradistinction to the word
receive. Income is said to be received when it reaches the
assessee; when the right to receive the income becomes vested in
the assessee, it is said to accrue or arise-CIT v. Ashokbhai
Chimanbhai [1965] 56 ITR 42 (SC).
One should keep in view the following broad propositions:

Accrual is Generally Unconditional

Income has been said to accrue when there is a right to
payment and when there is unconditionalliability on behalf of
the payer to pay it to the taxpayer-H. Liebes & Co. v. CIR CCA
90 F.2d.932, 936. If it not dependent upon happening of some
contingency, the right or obligation may be classified as accrued-Helvering v. Russian Finance & Construction Corp.
CCA, 77 F.2d.324, 327.
In other words, a liability depending upon a contingency is not
a debt in praesenti or in futuro till the contingency happens. But
if it is a debt, the fact that the amount has to be ascertained
does not make it any the less a debt if the liability is certain and
what remains is only the quantification of the amount-CIT v.
Shri Goverdhan Ltd. [1968] 69 ITR 675 (SC).
Income is Said to Accrue When it Becomes Due
Income can be said to accrue when it is due. Postponement of
date of payment has a bearing only insofar as the time of
payment is concerned, but it does not affect the accrual of
income-Morvi Industries Ltd. v. CIT[1971] 82 ITR 835 (SC).
However, income accrues to the taxpayer at the time it
becomes due only where there is reasonable expectancy that the
right will be converted into money or its equivalent-Franklin
County Distilling Co. v. CIR CCA 6,125 F.2d 800, 804, 805. A
mere claim to a profit or a liability is not sufficient to make the
profit accrue-CIT v. Associated Commercial Corpn. [1963] 48
ITR 1 (Bom).

36

Accrual of Business Profit

The concept of accrual of profit of a business involves its
determination by the method of accounting at the end of the
accounting year. If profits accrue to the assessee directly from
the business the question whether they accrue day by day or at
the close of the year of account has at best an academic significance, but when upon ascertainment of profit the right of a
person to a share therein is determined, the question assumes
practical importance, for it is only on the right to receive profits
or income, profits accrue to that person. In case of partnership,
where accounts are to be made at stated intervals, right of a
partner to demand his share of profits does not arise until the
contingency which gives rise to that right has arisen CIT v.
Ashokbhai Chimanbhai [1965] 56 ITR 42 (SC).
Where under a contract, income arises on rendering of a years
service and is linked to annual profits, no income can accrue
before the year end-E.D. Sassoon & Co. Ltd. v. CIT [1954] 26
ITR 27 (sq. Where the managing agency agreement provides for
payment of commission at the end of the year, commission
will accrue to managing agents only thereafter-Cotton Agents
Ltd. v. CIT[1960] 40 ITR 135 (SC).
It is Incorrect to State that Profits Do not Accrue
Until Actually Computed
Unless the right to profits comes into existence, there is no
accrual of profit. If, however, there is right to receive profit, the
tax incidence cannot be suspended merely because profits are
not actually computed- CIT v. K.R.M. T. T. Thiagaraja Chetty &
Co. [1953] 24 ITR 525 (SC).
If income is taxable at the time of accrual, it cannot be
taxed on receipt basis: If a particular income is taxable on
accrual basis, it is not possible for the Assessing Officer to
ignore the accrual and thereafter to tax it as the income of
another year on the basis of receipt-Laxmipat Singhania v. CIT
[1969] 72 ITR 291 (SC). This rule is, however, subject to
exceptions provided by sections 15(c) and 45(5).
Accrual of business income in the case of composite
business: In case of composite business, i.e., in the case of a
person who is carrying on a number of businesses, it is always
difficult to decide as to the place of accrual of profits and their
apportionment inter se. For instance, where a person carries on
manufacture, sale, export and import it is not possible to say
that the place where the profits accrue to him is the place of sale.
The profits received relate firstly to his business as manufacturer, secondly to his trading operations, and thirdly to his
business of import or export. Profit or loss has to be apportioned between these businesses in a business-like manner and
according to the well established principles of accountancy. In
such cases, the profits attributable to manufacturing business
are said to accrue or arise at the place where manufacturing
operation is being done and profits which arise by reason of
sale are said to arise at the place where the sales are made and the
profits in respect of import/ export business are said to arise at
the place where the business is conducted-CIT v. Ahmedbhai
Umarbhai & Co. [1950] 18 ITR 472 (SC).
Accrual of profit in the case of forward contract - In the
case of speculative forward contract, profits accrue at the place

where the contract is made-Rupajee Ratnachand v. CIT[1955] 28

ITR 282 (AP).
Selling agents commission accrues at a place where sales
are effected: Selling agents commission accrues at the place
where sales are effected. If, however, contract of sale is made in
one place and the sale takes place at another place, apart of
selling agents commission accrues at the place where contract is
made-CIT v. Union Tile Exporters [1969] 71 ITR 453 (SC).
Commission payable for other services accrues at the place
where service is rendered: Normally commission payable to
managing director accrues at the place where duties of managing
director are performed-Shoorji Vallabhdas & Co. v. CIT [1960]
39 ITR 775 (SC). If commission is payable to the managing
director at a percentage of net profit, the entire commission
accrues at the place where service is performed, even if a part of
the profit arises outside India-see K.R.M. T. T. Thiagaraja
Chetty & Co. v. CIT[1953] 24 ITR 535 (SC). Similarly, remuneration of a director accrues at the place of rendering
service-Lakshmipat Singhania v. CIT [1969] 72 ITR 291 (SC).
Commission payable for rendering other services accrues at the
place where services are rendered Kathiawar Coal Distributing
Co. v. CIT [1958] 34 ITR 182 (Bom.).
Interest accrues where money is lent: In case of a moneylending transaction, the place of accrual of interest would be the
place where the money is actually lent, irrespective of where it
came from, since, without actual advance, no commission or
interest accrues or arises.
Interest in the case of compulsory acquisition: If the receipt
of the compensation amount results in capital gains, then the
right to such income would accrue in the year in which the
transfer is effected, i.e., when possession is taken under the
provisions of the Land Acquisition Act-CIT v. NewJehangir
Vakil Mills Co. Ltd [1979] 117 ITR 849 (Guj.). There is a clear
distinction between right to receive payment in dispute and
right to receive payment, which is admitted, and only quantification is left to be done. In the former, it is not taxable as it is a
mere claim, while, in the latter it is taxable. Interest in the case
of compulsory acquisition is taxable when it is not disputed,
i.e., when claim is admitted or when it is received- see CIT v.
Hindustan Housing & Land Devept. Trust [1986] 161 ITR 524
(SC), CIT v. Grand Cashew Corporation [1990] 182 ITR 216
(Ker.).
Profit does not accrue in transfers between head office and
branch office: If a branch office situated outside India sends
goods to its head office in India at an invoice price (which
includes a margin of profit), the entire profit accrues at the head
office where goods are sold. In such a case, profit does not
accrue or arise at the branch office because one man cannot trade
with himself-Ram Lal Bechairam v. CIT[1946] 14 ITR 1 (All.).
Dividends accrue at the place where the register of
members is kept: Dividends declared by a non-Indian
company accrue or arise at the place where the register of
members is kept-Kusumben D. Mahadevia v. CIT[1963] 47
ITR 214 (Bom.). On the other hand, dividend paid by an
Indian company outside India is always deemed to accrue or
arise in India by virtue of section 9(1)(iv).

Commission payable on passing of audited accounts

accrues only on the, date of meeting: If commission is to be
paid on passing of audited accounts in the general meeting of
shareholders of the company paying commission, commission
can accrue to the recipient only on the date of said meeting--see
J.P. Shrivastava & Sons v. CIT[1965] 57 ITR 624 (SC).
Profit on devaluation arises in the year of devaluation:
Profit on devaluation arises in the year in which currency is
devalued.
Profit on mortgage sale arises on the date of confirmation
of sale: Where a mortgagee purchases the mortgaged property
in Court sale and thus realises the amount due, the profits
must be deemed to have arisen on the date of confirmation of
the sale, and not on the date of decree or date of actual sale-Raja
Raghunandan Prasad Singh v. CIT [1933] 1 ITR 113 (PC).
Question as to source of income is not relevant: The
question as to the source of the income is not relevant for the
purpose of ascertaining whether the income accrues or arises in
India, because section 5(2) provides that all income from
whatever source derived is to be included in the total income
of a non-resident assessee if the income accrues or arises in
India during the relevant years-Performing Right Society Ltd. v.
CIT [1977] 106 ITR 11 (SC).
Question of fact/law: The question whether, on given facts,
certain income can be said to have accrued to a taxpayer is a
question of law CIT v .Jai Parkash Om Parkas h Co. Ltd.
[1964] 52 ITR 23 (sq. On the other hand, the question as to
what income has accrued is a question of fact-CIT v. Western
India Engg. Co. [1971] 81 ITR 712 (Guj.).
Lets now discuss about income deemed to accrue or arise in
India.
Section 9 deals with income deemed to accrue or arise in India.
Certain income is deemed to accrue or arise in India under
section certain income is deemed to accrue or arise in India
under section 9, even though it may actually accrue or arise
outside India. The section applies to all assessees irrespective of
their residential status, nationality, domicile and place of
business-CIT
v. Ahmedbhai Umarbhai & Co. [1950] 18 ITR 472 (Se). The
fiction embodied in this section, however, does not apply to the
income which actually accrues or arises to the assessees in IndiaCIT v. R.D. Aggarwal & Co. [1965] 56 ITR 20 (SC). The
categories of income which are deemed to accrue or arise in
India are as under:
Income from business connection [Sec. 9(1) ( i)] - The
following conditions should be satisfied
Condition One - The tax-payer has a business connection in
India.
Condition Two - By virtue of business connection in India,
income actually arises outside India.
If the above two conditions are satisfied, income which arises
outside India because of business connection in India is
deemed to accrue or arise in India.
A business connection involves a relation between a business
carried on by a nonresident
37

which yields profits or gains and some activity in India which

contributes to the earning of these profits or gains. A business
connection can arise between a non-resident and a resident if
both of them carryon business and if the non-resident earns
income through such a connection-CIT v. Ashok Jain [2002] 121
Taxman 328 (Delhi) (Mag.). It predicates an element of
continuity between the business of the non-resident and the
activity in India: a stray or isolated transaction is not normally
regarded as business connection.

What is Business Connection as Defined in the Act

It includes a profession connection. It includes a person acting
on behalf of a non-resident and who performs anyone or more
of the following
Activity One

He exercises in India an authority to conclude contracts on

behalf of the non-resident (it does not cover the activity of
only the purchase of goods or merchandise for the nonresident).
Activity Two

He has no such authority but habitually maintains in India a

stock of goods or merchandise from which he regularly delivers
goods or merchandise on behalf of the non-resident.
Activity Three

He habitually secures order in India (mainly or wholly) for the

nonresident or for non-residents under the same management.

Income by Way of Interest [Sec. 9(1)(v)]

Interest income of the following types are deemed to accrue or
arise in India:
Payable by Government

Interest payable by the Central Government or any State

Government is deemed to accrue/ arise. in India.
Payable by Resident

Interest payable by a resident shall be deemed to accrue/ arise in

India in all cases except in the following:
a. Interest payable by a resident in respect of any debt incurred,
or any money borrowed and used, for the purpose of a
business or profession carried on by him outside India; and
b. Interest payable by resident in respect of any debt incurred,
or any money borrowed and used for the purposes of
making or earning any income from any source outside
India.
It may be noted that where money borrowed by a resident for
the purposes of a business or profession carried on by him
outside India are actually used for any other purpose, interest
payable thereon is deemed to accrue or arise in India. Similarly,
interest payable on money borrowed by a resident for purposes
of making or earning any income from any source outside India
is deemed to accrue or arise in India if the money is actually
used for any purpose in India.
Payable by a Non-resident

Where a business is carried on in India through a person

referred to in Activity one, two or three (supra) only so much of
income as is attributable to the operations carried out in India
shall be deemed to accrue or arise in India.

Interest payable by a non-resident shall be deemed to accrue/

arise in India if it is in respect of any debt incurred, or money
borrowed and used, for purposes of a business or profession
carried on by him in India.

Independent brokers are excluded - The business connection,

shall not include cases where the non-resident carries on
business through a broker, general commission agent or any
other agent of an independent status, provided that such a
person is acting in the ordinary course of his business.

It may be noted that interest payable by a non-resident in

respect of any debt incurred, or money borrowed and used, for
the purposes of making or earning any income from any
source, other than the business or profession carried on by him
in India, is not to be deemed to accrue or arise in India.

Where a broker, general commission agent or any other agent

works (mainly or wholly) on behalf of anon-resident or other
non-residents under the same management, he shall not be
deemed to be a broker, general commission agent or an agent
of an independent status.

Income by Way of Royalty [Sec. 9( l)(vi)]

Dividend Paid by an Indian Company [Sec. 9(I)(iv)]

Any dividend paid by an Indian company outside India is
deemed to accrue or arise in India. In the case of a company
other than an Indian company, dividend shall be deemed to
accrue or arise at a place where register of members is keptKusumbai D. Mahadevia v. ClT [1963] 47 ITR 214 (Bom.).
The following points should be noted:
1. Dividend [not being dividend under section 2(22)(e)]
declared, distributed or paid by a domestic company during
June 1, 1997 and March 31, 2002 or after March 31, 2003 is
not taxable in the hands of shareholders.
2. Only dividend paid is covered by section 9(1)(iv) - Pfizer
Corpn. v. CIT [2003] 129 Taxman 459 (Born.)

38

Under clause (iv) of section 9(1), royalty income of the following types will be deemed to accrue or arise in India:
a. Royalty payable by the Central Government or any State
Government;
b. Royalty payable by a resident, except where the payment is
relatable to a business or profession carried on by him
outside India or to any other source of his income outside
India; and
c. Royalty payable by a non-resident if the payment is relatable
to a business or profession carried on by him in India or any
other source of his income in India.
Thus, royalty income consisting of lump sum consideration for
the transfer outside India of, or the imparting of information
outside India in respect of any data, documentation, drawings
or specifications relating to any patent, invention, model,
design, secret formula or process or trade mark or similar
property are ordinarily chargeable to tax in India under section
9(1)( vz)

Income by Way of Fees for Technical Services

[Sec. 9(1 )(vii)]

It would be useful to quote Denman and Vaisey, JJ. in this

context:

Clause (vii) specifies the circumstances in which fees for technical

services are deemed to accrue or arise in India. Under this clause,
income by way of fees for technical services of the following
types are deemed to accrue or arise in India:

Per Denman, J.- I do not think that employment means

only where one is set to work by others to earn money; a
man may employ himself so as to earn profits in many
ways-Partridgev. Mallandaine[1886] 18 QBD 276 (DC).

a. Fees for technical services payable by the Central Government

or any State Government;

Per Vaisey, J. - The word employment is one of very wide

significance. But the words employer and the employee are
much more restricted in their meanings. Thus I may be said
to employ my time or my talents without being in any
proper sense an employer, and I may also be said to be
employed in some pursuit or activity without being an
employee- Westall Richardson Ltd. v. Roulson [1954] 2
AER 448.

b. Fees for technical services payable by a resident, except where

the payment is relatable to a business or profession carried
on by him outside India or to any other source of his
income outside India; and
c. Fees for technical services payable by a non-resident if the
payment is relatable to a business or profession carried on by
him in India or to any other source of his income in India.
Now you need to concentrate on the following hints for tax
planning in respect of residential status :
But keep in mind that the case depends as per circumstances
and situaion.
For the purposes of tax planning the following broad propositions should be borne in mind. However, these propositions
would hold good only in the-context in which they have been
made:
In order to enjoy non-resident status, individuals, who are
visiting India on a business trip or in some other connection,
should not stay in India for more than 181 days during one
previous year and their total stay in India during any four
previous years preceding the relevant previous year should in no
case exceed 364 days.
If individuals, having been in India for more than 365 days
during four years preceding the relevant previous year, wish to
stay in India for more than 60 days, they should plan their visit
to India in such a manner that their total stay in India falls
under two previous years. To illustrate, such persons can come
to India any time in the first week of February and stay up to
May 29 without incurring any risk of losing their non-resident
status.
An Indian citizen or a person of Indian origin (whether
rendering service outside India or not) can stay for a maximum
period of 181 days on a visit to India without losing his nonresident status. If, however, such persons wish to stay in India
for more than 181 days, they should plan their visit in such a
manner that their maximum stay of 362 days fall under 2
previous years, stay in each previous year being not more than
181 days.
An Indian citizen, leaving India for the purpose of employment,
will not be treated as resident in India, unless he has been in
India in that year for 182 days or more. In other words, Indian
citizens going abroad for the purpose of employment can stay in
India for 181 days without becoming resident in that year, even
if they were in India for more than 365 days during the four
preceding years. This concession is available only to those who
want to leave the country for the purpose of employment.
However, the term employment is not defined in the Act.
One has, therefore, to depend upon judicial pronouncements.

Applying the aforesaid ratios, there is no reason why a professional who expects to setup an independent practice in, or a
businessman who wants to shift his activities to, a foreign
country should be denied the benefit of concession.
A non-resident can escape tax liability in respect of income
earned out of India if he first receives it out of India and then
remits the whole or part of it to India, even though the
business is controlled from India.
A person, who is not ordinarily resident, earning income
outside India from a business controlled outside India, can
avoid tax liability if he first receives such income in a foreign
country and then remits the whole or part of it to India, either
in the same year or in the following year(s).
Not ordinarily resident persons can claim set-off of losses
sustained in the business controlled outside India against their
income taxable in India, provided they shift the control of the
business to India.
I will give you some time to recollect what ever we did
today. So we can proceed further to other questions for a
revision once again.
1. How would you determine the residential status of an
individual? Explain.
2. The residential status is determined for each category of
persons separately. Discuss indetail how would you
determine the residential status for each category.
3. How would you determine the residential status of a
company? Can a company be not ordinarily resident in
India?
4. When is an individual said to be resident but not ordinarily
resident in India? What is the scope of Total Income in his
case?
5. How does the tax liability of a not ordinarily resident person
differ from that of a Resident person under the Income-tax
Act? Explain.
6. The incidence of income-tax depends upon the residential
status of an assessee. Discuss fully.
7. Write short notes on the following:
a.

Income received in India.

b.

Income deemed to be received in India.

c.

Income accrues and arises in India.

39

d.

Income deemed to accrue and arise in India.

8. For the assessment year 2004-05 X an Indian citizen having

business interest in India and Hong Kong, is a resident but
not ordinarily resident in India. How would you find out
the tax incidence in his case? Does it make any difference if he
is a non-resident?

Prob 1. The following is the income of Shri Sudhir Kumar for

the previous year 2003-04:

ROR
RNOR
NRI
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
1.Income received in India
wherever accrues

Profit from business in Iran

5000
5000
5000
received in India.
(ii) Income from house property
500
500
500
in Iran received in India.
2.Income accrued in India wherever
received
(a) Profit earned from business in 6000
Kanpur.
(b) Income from profession in
2000
India but received in England.
3.Income accrued and received
outside India
(a) Income from house property in 1000
Pakistan deposited in bank there.
(b) Profit of business established
20000
in Pakistan deposited there, business
being controlled from India.
(iii) Income from agriculture in England.
5000
----(4) Past untaxed foreign income brought
to India during the previous year
-------

Particulars

Total Income

9. Discuss the tax incidence of the assessee according to

residential status.
You must be thinking that no practical problems, only
theory and theory. Dont worry ,here are some poblems for
you.

Practical Questions

a. Profits from business in Iran received in India.

b. Income from house property in Iran received in India.
c. Income from house property in Pakistan deposited
in a bank there.

Rs.
500
1000

in a bank there, this business is controlled in India

20000

e. Income from profession in India but received in

England.

2000

f. Profits earned from business in Kanpur.

6000

g. Income from agriculture in England, it is all

spent on the education of children in London.

5000

h. Past untaxed foreign income brought into

India during the previous year

39,500

33,500

6000

6000

2000

2000

--20000

-----

13,500

5000

d. Profits of business established in Pakistan deposited

(out of Rs. 20,000 a sum of Rs. 10,000 is
remitted in India).

Particular

10000

From the above particulars ascertain the taxable income of Shri

Sudhir Kumar for the previous year 2003-04, if Shri Sudhir
Kumar is (i) a resident, (ii) not ordinarily resident, and (iii) a
non-resident.
Ans: Taxable Income of Shri Sudhir Kumar (For the previous year
2003-04)

Note:

1.

ROR: Resident and ordinary resident.

2.

RNOR: Resident but not ordinary resident.

3.

NRI: Non resident Indian.

Prob.2. An Indian company acquired in September 2003 plant

and machinery from a Swedish company. The purchase
agreement was executed abroad in April 2003 and provided for
payment entirely in foreign exchange. The agreement included a
clause saying that: if necessary the Swedish company would
depute engineers for assisting in the assembly and satisfactory
running of the machine for which too the payment is to be
made to the company in foreign exchange: On this last account
the Indian company had to make a payment of 20,000
excluding passages and daily allowances payable to the personnel The Assessing Officer holds that this represents the Swedish
companys income in India, on the ground that because of the
services rendered by that company in India, such income actually
accrued or arose in India. Is the Assessing Officer justified?
Ans: From the facts of the case, it is clear that the Swedish
company is to receive consideration from the Indian company
on two counts, distinct and separate from each other. The bulk
of the consideration is payable for the supply of plant and
machinery, while a sum of another 20,000 is for the assistance
rendered by the Swedish company to the Indian company in the
assembling of the plant and machinery supplied and their
satisfactory running. Such assistance, by its very nature, can be
rendered only in India, where the plant and machinery are
installed and run.
Now, if the assistance stems from the agreement entered into
between the Indian company and the Swedish company, and
the foreign personnel who render such assistance are borne on
the pay roll of the Swedish company, the inescapable conclusion
should be that it is the Swedish company which is rendering
technical service in India. The source of the income being in
India, the consideration received for such services, less the
expenditure incurred by it in respect thereof, will be clearly
assessable as its income accruing or arising in India.Where
income clearly accrues or arises in India, there is no question of

40

establishing that the income may, in terms of section 9(1), be

deemed to accrue or arise in India.
Prob.3. The assessee, a foreign company, entered into an
agreement in 1966 with an Indian company to render certain
technical know-how services of the following nature:
a. Furnishing of technical information and know-how with
respect to the manufacture of bonded abrasive and coated
abrasive products;
b. providing technical management including factory designs
and layout, plant and equipment, production, purchase of
materials, manufacturing specifications and quality of
products;
c. furnishing comprehensive technical information of all
developments in the manufacture of special products;
d. providing the Indian company with a resident factory
manager for starting the plant and superintending its
operations during its initial production stages, as also other
technical personnel necessary for the operation of the plant;
and e. training Indian personnel to replace the foreign
personnel as quickly as possible.
Further, it was found that (a) services rendered by the foreign
company for starting the factory in the shape of examining the
design and layout and sending its advice by post had not been
rendered in India, (b) the pamphlets and bulletins incorporating the research made by the foreign company were furnished by
post and this was rendered outside India, (c) services of foreign
technical personnel were made available to the Indian company
outside India and the Indian company employed them as their
own employees on its control, and (d) the training of the
foreign company! employees was imparted outside India. On
these facts can it be said that the foreign company has business
connection in India?
Ans: A case on similar facts was examined by the Supreme
Court in Carborandum Co. v. CIT [1977] 108 ITR 335, wherein
the court held that the service rendered by the foreign company
were wholly and solely rendered in the foreign territory. Even
assuming that there was any business connection between the
earning of income in the shape of technical fees by the foreign
company and the affairs of the Indian company, yet no part of
the activity or operation could be said to have been carried out
by the foreign company in India.
Prob.4. C, a British barrister, was appointed by an English
company to represent it in a patent case before the Delhi High
Court. The High Court rules provided that an advocate who is
not a member of the Delhi Bar can address the court only
through a member advocate. B, a member of Delhi Bar, was
appointed to be the advocate on record. B briefed C regarding
Indian precedents relating to the case. The English company
paid him a fee of Rs. 10,000 while C received in England a fee
of 25,000. The Assessing Officer treated B as the agent of C
under section 163 and taxed him in respect of 25,000.
Comment on the actions of the Assessing Officer.
Ans: The facts of this case are similar to the case of Barendra
Prasad Rayv. ITO [1981] 129 ITR 295 (sq. In this case, the
Supreme Court heldthat the connection between the advocate
on record and the foreign advocate was real and intimate and

that the foreign advocate earned his fees only through that
connection. The action of the Assessing Officer is, therefore,
legally correct and justified.
Prob:5. The assessee was a managing agent of a company. A
resolution for the payment of special additional remuneration
to the assessee at the rate of Rs, 15,000per annum was passed
on July 20, 1949. In the meantime, a representative suit was
filed by the shareholders of the company on July 16, 1949 for
perpetual injunction against giving such extra remuneration and
for declaring the resolution as illegal Temporary injunction
granted by the trial court was vacated on July 20, 1949, on the
assurance that the company will not make payment of extra
remuneration until the disposal of the suit. The trial court
decreed the suit on October 31, 1950 but on appeal, the High
Court by judgment dated November 25, 1955 reversed the
decree and held that the resolution was validly passed. The
company had debited the sum of Rs. 15,000 in the profit and
loss account prepared by it on June 22,1950 for the year ended
December 31,1949. For the later years, the company showed the
sum of Rs. 15,000 due under the resolution to the assessee as a
contingent liability. The amounts were not paid to the assessee
during the relevant years. The assessee died on November} 6,
1952. The amount of Rs. 58,125 was ultimately paid to his
heirs in 1956. The assessee was maintaining the mercantile
system of accounting. The sum of Rs. 15,000 was brought to
tax for each of the years 1950-51, 1951-52 and 1952-53. For the
assessment year 1953-54, the proportionate sum of Rs. 13,125
was brought to tax. The Tribunal, however, held the view that
no income had accrued to the assessee during the said years and
that the amount accrued to the assessee only in November 1955
when the High Court pronounced the judgment and till that
date the amount could not be said to have accrued to him. In
this view of the matter, the assessments were set aside. On
reference, the High Court, however, held that there was no
question of any controversy between the company on the one
hand and the assessee on the other. Merely because a third party
raised a dispute as regards the liability of the company to pay
the amount, it could not be said that the date of accrual of such
income was postponed to a future date when the rights were
finally adjudicated upon by a court of law. The High Court held
that the Tribunal was not right in holding that the sum of Rs.
58,125 accrued only in November 1955, when the High Court:,
judgment was pronounced. Advise the assessee.
Ans: The facts of the case are taken from Bubulal Narottamdas
v. CIT [1991] 187 ITR 473, wherein the Supreme Court held
that the assessee was maintaining his accounts on mercantile
system. In view of the resolution passed in the annual general
meeting of the company, income of Rs. 15,000 accrued to the
assessee in each year. This income was actually earned by him
during the relevant previous years. The right to receive the extra
remuneration flowed from the resolution. The income accrued
or arose at the end of each accounting year irrespective of the
fact whether the amount was actually paid by the company to
the assessee or not. Though the payment was deferred on
account of the pending litigation, it could not be said that
accrual of income was postponed simply because a suit was
filed by the shareholders challenging the validity of the resolution passed by the company. Income can be said to accrue when
41

the assessee has acquired a right to receive that income. In the

present case, the right to receive extra remuneration could not be
said to have arisen on the date of the judgment of the High
Court. The right to receive the extra remuneration arose only on
the resolution of the company. In view of the resolution, such
amount had become payable to the assessee by the company at
the end of the accounting year. What was deferred on account
of the pending litigation was not the accrual of the right but
the date of payment. There was, therefore, no force in the
contention that until the suit was finally decided by the High
Court, no right accrued to the assessee.

Practical Questions for Practice

(For detail solutions to these Practical Questions, refer Bharats
Practical Approach to Income Tax, Wealth Tax and Central Sales
Tax (Problems and Solutions), 2004 edition, by Girish Ahuja &
Dr. Ravi Gupta.)
1. X, a Gennan national, came to India for the first time on 17-1997. During the period from 1-7-1997 to 31-3-2004, he
stayed in India as follows-from 1-7-1997 to 31-10-1997;
from 1-51998 to 31-10-1998; from 1-11-1999 to 31-12-1999
and from 1-7-2002 to 31-8-2003. During the previous year
ended on 31-3-2004, Xs income consisted of: (a) business in
India: Rs. 40,000; (b) interest from an Indian company: Rs.
2,000; (c) dividends from non-Indian companies received in
Germany but remitted to India: Rs. 5,000; (d) business in
Gennany (controlled from India): Rs. 25,000; (e) income
from house property in Gennany: Rs. 8,000. Determine,
giving full reasons, the gross total income of X for the
assessment year 2004-05 after ascertaining his residence for
the purpose of income-tax.
Ans: Non-resident, Rs. 42,000.
2. X is a citizen of Bangladesh. His grandmother was born in a
village near Dhaka in 1940.He came to India for the first time
since 1981 on 3-10-2003 for a visit of 190 days.
Find out the residential status of X for the assessment year
2004-05 on the assumption that wife of X is a resident but not
ordinarily resident in India for the same year.
Ans: Non-resident.
3. During the previous year 2003-04, X, a foreign citizen, stayed
in India for just 69 days. Determine his residential status for
the assessment year 2004-05 on the basis of the following
information:
i. During 2000-2001, X was present in India for 365 days.
ii. During 1997-1998 and 1996-97, X was in Japan for 359 and
348 days respectively.
iii. Mrs. X is resident in India for the assessment year 2004-05.
Ans: Not ordinarily resident.
4. U was born in 1975 in India. His parents were also born in
India in 1948. His grand parents were, however, born in
England. U was residing in India till 15-3-2001. Thereafter,
he migrated to England and took the citizenship of that
country on 15-3-2003. He visits India during 2003-04 for 90
days. Determine the residential status of U for assessment
year 2004-05.
Ans: Resident.
42

5. M an Indian citizen left India for the first time on 24-9-2002

for employment in USA. During the previous year 2003-04
he comes to India on 5-6-2003 for 165 days. Determine the
residential status of M for the assessment year 2003-04 and
2004-05.
Ans: (a) Non-resident in India, (b) Non-resident in India.
6. R was born in Dhaka in 1945. He has been staying in
Canada since 1974. He comes to visit India on 13-10-2003
and returns on 29-3-2004. Determine his residential status
for assessment year 2004-05.
Ans: Non-resident in India.
7. A, a citizen of India, left India on 21-10-2001 for
employment abroad. Earlier to this date, he was always in
India. During 2002-03 and 2003-04 he came to India for 168
days and 185 days respectively. Determine his residential
status for assessment year 2004-05.
Ans: Resident.

Notes:

LESSON 5:
INCOMES EXEMPT FROM TAX
Lesson Objective

To know what are the Exemptions under the Act.

To know Income that are partially exempt and totally

exempt.

To know the conditions to avail exemptions.

To enable students to apply this conditions at time of tax

planning.

Hello everybody.Till date we are learning only that we

have to pay tax on our income .but even if a small
shopkeeper can give us some discount if we buy in good
quantity. Why not the Income Tax department? It
should also .. Yes it also considers the factHere also we are
not required to pay tax on all our income ,some income is
exempt it means we are not required to pay even a single cent
of it as tax can you believe this You have to On
satisfaction of some conditions some income is no taxable
while some income is not partly taxable and partly exempt.
Before starting with taxable income it is very necessary to know
which income is exempt and which is not? In this lesson we
will learn about which Income is Exempt and what are the
relevant provisions in order to avail the exemption. Some
Income is partly exempt and some income is fully exempt. All
receipts, which give rise to income, are taxable under the Income
Tax Act unless it is specially provided that it does not form part
of total income. Such income which does not form part of
total income may also be called income exempt from tax. As per
section 10 to 13A, certain incomes are either totally exempt from
tax or exempt upto a certain amount. Therefore these incomes,
to the extent these are exempt, are not included in total income
of an assessee for computation of total income.
Sections 10,10A,10B,10C,11,12,13 and 13A deals with income
which does not form part of an assessees total income. Section
10 gives a list of income absolutely exempt from tax, sections
10A,10B,10C,11,12,13 and 13A deal with specific exemptions
available to newly established industrial undertakings in free
trade zones,charitable trust and political parties.

Incomes Exempt Under Section 10

The following incomes are absolutely exempt from tax under
section 10, as they do not form part of total income; the
burden of proving that a particular item of income falls within
this section is on the assessee - Bacha F. Guzdar v. CIT [1955]
27 ITR 1 (SC). RE.R Nizams Religious Endowment Trust v.
CIT [1966] 59 ITR 582 (SC) and CIT v, Ramakrishna Deo
[1959] 35 ITR 312 (SC).

Agricultural Income [Sec.10(1)]

Agricultural income is exempt from tax if it comes within the
definition of agricultural income as given in section 2(1A). In
some cases, however, agricultural income is taken into consideration to find out tax on nonagricultural income.

Receipts by a Member from a Hindu Undivided

Family [Sec.10(2)]
Any sum received by an individual, as a member of a Hindu
undivided family, either out of income of the family or out of
income of estate belonging to the family, is exempt from tax.
Such receipts are not chargeable to tax in the hands of an
individual member even if tax is not paid or payable by the
family on its total income. The exemption is based upon the
principle of avoidance of double taxation. Income of a Hindu
undivided family is taxable in its own hands. Section 10(2),
therefore, exempts income received by a member from his
Hindu undivided family. Only those, members of a Hindu
undivided family can claim exemption under this clause who are
entitled to demand share on partition or are entitled to
maintenance under the Hindu law. Some of the receipts from a
Hindu undivided family are, however, taxable vide section 64(2)
For Example - X, an individual, has personal income of Rs.
86,000 for the previous year 2003-04. He is also a member of a
Hindu undivided family which has an income of Rs. 1,08,000
for the previous year 2003-04. Out of income of the family, X
gets Rs. 12,000, being his share of income. Rs. 12,000 will be
exempt in the hand of X by virtue of section 10(2). The
position will remain the same whether (or not) the family is
chargeable to tax. X shall pay tax only on his income of Rs.
86,000.
Share of profit from partnership firm [Sec. 10(2A)]
Share of profit received by partners from a firm (which is
assessed as firm) is not taxable in the hands of partners.
Interest to Non-residents [Sec. 10(4), (4B)]
The following interest incomes are exempt from tax:
a. In the case of a non-resident, interest on bonds or securities
notified by the Central Government including income by
way of premium on the redemption of such bonds;
b. In the case of a person resident outside India [under section
2(q) of the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act] income from
interest on money standing to credit in a Non Resident
(External) Account in India, in accordance with the said Act;
and
c. In the case of an Indian citizen or a person of Indian origin
who is a non-resident, the interest from notified Central
Government securities (i.e., National Savings Certificates VI/
VII issue), if such certificates are subscribed in convertible
foreign exchange remitted from outside through official
channels.
A person shall be deemed to be of Indian origin if he, or either
of his parents or any of his grand-parents, was born in
undivided India.
The Central Board of Direct Taxes have clarified that the joint
holders of the Nonresident (External) Accounts do not

43

constitute an association of persons by merely having these

accounts in joint names. The benefit of exemption under
section 10(4)(ii) will be available to such joint account holders,
subject to fulfillment of other conditions contained in that
section by each of the individual joint account holder-Circular
No. 592, dated February 4, 1991.
Value of concessional passage to a foreign national
employee [Sec. lO(6)(i)] - The exemption is not available
from the assessment year 2003-04.
Exemption from tax paid on behalf of foreign companies
in respect of certain income [Sec. 10(6A)] - Exemption
under section 10(6A) is applicable if the following conditions
are satisfied :
a. Income is derived by a foreign company by way of royalty or
fees for technical services received from the Government or
an Indian concern in pursuance of an agreement made by the
foreign company with Government or the Indian concern
after March 31,1976 but before June 1,2002;
b. Where the agreement relates to matter included in the
industrial policy (for the time being in force) of the
Government of India, such agreement is in accordance with
that policy and in other case the agreement is approved by
the Government; and
c. The tax on such income (under the terms of agreement) is
payable by the payer of royalty, etc. (i.e., by the Government
or the Indian concern). If all the aforesaid conditions are
satisfied, the tax so paid shall not be chargeable in the hands
of foreign company.
For example - X Ltd., a foreign company, provides technical
services to B Ltd., an Indian company, in accordance with an
approved agreement (date of agreement being January 2, 2000).
As per the agreement X Ltd. annually gets Rs. 80,000. Tax on
Rs. 80,000 (i.e., Rs. 16,000) is borne by B Ltd. If this exemption
is not available, then the amount taxable in the hand of X Ltd.,
will be Rs. 96,000 (i.e., Rs. 80,000 + Rs. 16,000). But because of
the exemption under section 10(6A) the amount taxable in the
hand of X Ltd. will be Rs. 80,000. Rs. 16,000, being the
amount paid by B Ltd. on behalf of X Ltd. will not be
chargeable in the hand of X Ltd.

Tax Paid on Behalf of Non-resident [Sec. 10(6B)]

The amount of tax paid by the Government or an Indian
concern on behalf of a non-resident or a foreign company in
respect of its income (but other than salary, royalty or technical
fee) is not to be included in computing the total income of
such non-resident or foreign company. This exemption is
available from the assessment year 1988-89 where such income
arises to a nonresident or a foreign company in pursuance of an
agreement entered into before June 1,2002 between the Central
Government and the Government of a foreign State or an
international organisation under the terms of that agreement or
of any related agreement which has been approved by the
Central Government before June 1,2002.
Technical Fees Received by a Notified Foreign
Company [Sec. 10(6C)]
Income by way of royalty or fees for technical services received
by a notified foreign company is exempt, if such income is
44

received in pursuance of an agreement entered into with the

Central Government to provide services in or outside India in
projects connected with security of India.
The following companies have been declared for the purpose of
section 10(6C) by the Central Government.

Company
Redecon Australia Pvt. Ltd.,
Australia; and Nedeco,
Netherland
State Foreign Economic
Corpn. for Export & Import
of Armament and Equipment,
Russia
Rolls Royce Military Aero
Engines Ltd., England
Dowty Aerospace Gloucester
Ltd., UK

Project
Technical fees payable for the
project "Seabird"
Technical fees for projects
connected with security of
India
Technical fees for projects
connected with security of
India
Project connected with
security of India.

Income of a Foreign Government Employee Under

Co-operative Technical Assistance Programmes [Sec.
10(8)]
Income of an individual serving in India in connection with
any co-operative technical assistance programme in accordance
with an agreement entered into by the Central Government and
a foreign Government, is exempt from tax. The exemption is,
however, available only if:
a. The remuneration is received by the individual, directly or
indirectly, from the foreign Government; and
b. Any other income of such individual which accrues or arises
outside India and is not deemed to accrue or arise in India,
provided such individual is required to pay income-tax
(including social security tax) to the foreign Government.
Remuneration or Fees, Received by Non-resident
Consultants and Their Foreign Employees [Sec.
10(8A), (8B)]
The following will not be chargeable to tax:
1. Under Section 10(8A)

The following two incomes in the case of a consultant are

exempt from tax:
any remuneration or fee received by him or it (directly or
indirectly) out of the funds made available to an international
organisation [hereafter referred to as the agency] under a
technical assistance grant agreement between the agency and the
Government of a foreign State; and any other income which
accrues or arises to him or it outside India, and is not deemed
to accrue or arise in India, in respect of which such consultant is
required to pay any income or social tax to the Government of
the country of his or its origin.
Who is a Consultant

The expression consultant has been defined to mean any

individual who is either not a citizen of India or, being a citizen
of India, is not ordinarily resident in India or any other person
who is a non-resident and is engaged by the agency for rendering technical services in India in accordance with an agreement

entered into by the Central Government and the said agency

and the agreement relating to the engagement of the consultant
is approved by the prescribed authority.
Under Section 10(8B)

The remuneration received by an employee of the consultant is

exempt from income-tax, provided such employee is either not
a citizen of India or, being a citizen of India, is not ordinarily
resident in India and the contract of his service is approved by
the prescribed authority before the commencement of his
service.
Income of Family Members of an Employee Serving
Under a Co-operative Technical Assistance Programme
[Sec. 10(9)]

Any family member of an employee, accompanying him to

India enjoys tax exemption in respect of foreign income or an
income not deemed to accrue or arise in India, if the family
member is required to pay income-tax (including social security
tax) to the foreign Government.
Pension and Leave Salary [Sec. 10( l0A), (10AA)]

Besides, any payment received by way of commutation of

pension by an individual out of annuity plan of the Life
Insurance Corporation of India from a fund set up by that
Corporation shall be exempt under section 10(10A).
Compensation Received by Victims of Bhopal Gas Leak
Disaster [Sec. l0(10BB)]

Pursuant to the decision of the Supreme Court, victims of

Bhopal Gas leak disaster are to be paid compensation in
accordance with the provisions of the Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster
(Processing of Claims) Act, 1985. With a view to providing
relief to these persons, a new clause (10EB) has been inserted in
section 10 with effect from the assessment year 1992-93 to
provide for exemption from income-tax on such compensation. However, compensation received by an assessee in respect
of an expenditure which has been incurred and allowed as a
deduction from taxable income, will not be exempt from
income-tax being in the nature of an obligation which, but for
such payment, would have been payable by the employee, is
considered a perquisite, and is chargeable to tax.
Under the amended scheme of taxation of perquisites, an
employer has been given an option to pay tax on the whole or
part of the value of perquisite (not provided for by way of
monetary payments), on behalf of an employee, without
making any deduction from the income of the employee. A
new clause (10CC) is inserted in section 10 with effect from the
assessment year 2003-04 to exempt the amount of tax actually
paid by an employer, at his option, on the income in the nature
of a perquisite (not provided for by way of monetary payment)
on behalf of an employee, from being included in perquisites.
Such tax paid by the employer shall not be treated as an
allowable expenditure in the hands of the employer under
section 40.
Amount Paid on Life Insurance Policies [Sec.10(10D)]

Any sum received on life insurance policy (including bonus) is

not chargeable to tax. Exemption is, however, not available in
respect of the amount received on the following policies

a. any sum received under section 80DD(3) or 80DDA(3) ;

b. any sum received under a Keyman insurance policy;
c. any sum received under an insurance policy (issued after March
31, 2003) in respect of which the premium paid in any year
during the term of policy, exceeds 20 per cent of the actual
sum assured.
In respect of (c) (supra), the following points should be noted
1. Any sum received under such policy on the death of a
person shall continue to be exempt.
2. The value of any premiums agreed to be returned or of any
benefit by way of bonus (or otherwise), over and above the
sum actually assured, which is received under the policy by
any person, shall not be taken into account for the purpose
of calculating the actual capita] sum assured.
Interest on Securities [Sec.10(15)]

Interest earned from specified securities is exempt from tax to

the extent to which amount of these certificates and deposits
do not exceed , in each case, the maximum amount which is
permitted to be invested or deposited therein.
Aircraft Lease Rent Payable to Foreign Government
[Sec. 10(15A)]

Under the provisions prior to the amendment by the Finance

Act, 1995, income-tax exemption s provided on any payment
made by an Indian company, engaged in the business of
operation of aircraft, to acquire an aircraft on lease from the
foreign Government or a foreign enterprise under an agreement
approved by the Central Government 1 this behalf. With effect
from the assessment year 1996-97, the scope of the aforesaid
exemption has been restricted by excluding therefrom payments
made for providing pares, facilities or services in connection
with the operation of the leased aircraft.
Moreover, the aforesaid exemption shall be available not only in
respect of payment for acquiring an aircraft on lease, but also in
respect of payment for acquiring an aircraft engine on lease.
If the agreement is entered on or after April 1, 1997 but before
April 1, 1999 - Section 10(15A) which provides exemption in
the case of lease rent of aircraft has been amended , the effect
that the exemption shall be available only in respect of agreement entered fore April 1, 1997 or after March 31, 1999. If the
agreement is entered after March 31, 197, but before April 1 ,
1999, the exemption under section 10(15A) will not be
available,). However, if the tax is paid by the payer of lease rent,
the tax so borne by it, will not be grossed up in the hand of the
recipient [sec. 10(6BB)].
Educational Scholarship [Sec. 10(16)]

Scholarship granted to meet the cost of education is exempt

from tax. A few examples are; Fullbright grant described as
maintenance allowance given to tutors/junior/senior research
fellowships awarded by the Department of Atomic Energy;
financial assistance to research workers in universities for
undertaking research of learned work (i.e., non-recurring grant
up to a maximum of Rs. 5,000) ; maintenance allowance
granted to foreign trainees under the International Association
for the Exchange of Students Scheme; research fellowship
granted by the University Grants Commission ; junior and

45

senior fellowship awarded by the Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research; National Research Fellowship awarded by
the Ministry of Education; living allowance/ stipend paid to
foreign trainees coming to India under the Technical Cooperative Scheme of the Colombo Plan and the Special
Commonwealth African Assistance Plan, etc. These are few
examples of educational scholarships exempt from tax under
section 10(16).
Financed by the Government

It is not necessary that scholarship should be financed by the

Government. Once it is proved that the amount received is
scholarship, it will be fully exempt from tax irrespective of its
terms of award.
The position will remain so even if the scholarship is received
for pursuing a course of education not leading to a degree-see
A. Ratnakar Rao v. CIT[1981] 6 Taxman 144 (Kar.).
No Further Enquiry, If Object is to Meet Cost of Education

The eligibility of a scholarship to be excluded from an assessees

total income depends on what it is meant for the person paying
or disbursing the scholarships. If it is paid only for meeting the
cost of education, it is exempt from tax even if the recipient,
does not spend the whole amount towards education or that
he is able to save something out of it-CIT v. V.K. Balachandran
[1984] 147 ITR 4 (Mad.). To put it differently,if the whole
object of the payment is to meet cost of education, then no
further inquiry is called for in order to exclude the amount from
taxable income under section 10(16);
Incidental Expenses

The term cost of education takes within its ambit not only
tuition fee but all other incidental expenses incurred for
acquiring education- Dr. J. C.N Joshipura v. Asstt. CIT[1996] 56
ITD 424 (Born.).
Daily Allowance of Members of Parliament (Sec. 10(17)]

Section 10(17) provides exemption to Members of Parliament

and State Legislatures in respect of the following allowances:
a. Daily allowance received by any Member of Parliament or any
State Legislature or of any Committee thereof (entire
amount is exempt);
b. Any allowance received by a Member of Parliament under the
Members of Parliament (Constituency Allowance) Rules,
1986 (entire amount is exempt); and
c. All allowances received by the members of a State Legislature
or any Committee thereof to the extent of Rs. 2,500 per
month in aggregate.

Awards [Sec. 10(17A)]

The following awards, whether paid in cash or in kind, are
exempt from tax. Any payment made in pursuance of any
award instituted in the public interest by the Central Government or any State Government or instituted by any other body
and approved by the Central Government. Any payment made
as reward by the Central Government or any State Government
for such purposes as may be approved by the Central Government in this behalf in the public interest. Awards approved by
the Government are:

46

Sir C.V. Raman Award for experimental research in applied

sciences; Meghnad Saha Award for research in applied sciences;
Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose Award for research in life sciences; A
wards by Bhartiya Jnanpith; Certificate of Honour to Sanskrit,
Arabic & Persian scholars; cash rewards for passing Hindi
examinations; National A wards for Films; Ramon Magsaysay/
Pope John XIII/Kennedy International Awards; Sangeet Natak
Academy (Annual A ward); Gelty Prize Conservation granted
from time to time by Smithsorian Institution, Washington;
Medical Council of India Silver Jubilee Research Award Fund;
Boarlaug Award received by Dr. Ch. Krishnamoorthy; Hari Om
Ashram Alem bic Research A ward (Annual Award);
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed/Dr. Rajendra Prasad/ Kheri Puraskar /
Sukumar Basu Memorial/Hooker A wards; Swatantrata Sainik
Scheme, 1980; Mahaveer A wards; Rameshwardas Birla National
Awards.
Pension to Gallantry Award Winners (Sec. 10(18)]

Income is exempt under section 10(18) if the following

conditions are satisfied
a. pension is received by the taxpayer;
b. the taxpayer was an employee of the Central Government or
State Government; and c. the taxpayer has been awarded
Param Vir Chakra or Maha Vir Chakra or Vir Chakra or any
other notified gallantry award.
Exemption is also available, if family pension is received by any
member of the family of an individual [who satisfies conditions (b) and (c) supra].

Former Rulers of Indian States (Sec. 10(19A)]

Annual value of anyone palace in the occupation of a former
ruler is exempt from tax under section 1O(19A). The exemption is limited to one palace in occupation of the ex-ruler.
Hence, even if only a part of a palace is in the occupation of a
ruler and the rest has been let out, the exemption would be
available for the entire palace-CIT v. Bharatchandra Banjdeo
[1986] 27 Taxman 456 (MP), CIT v. HH Maharao Bhim Singhji
[1988] 173 ITR 79 (Raj.). If a part of the palace is let out as a
garage, godown, quarter, etc., the exemption will be limited to
that portion of the palace which is in occupation of the exruler-Maharaval Lakshman Singh v. CIT [1986] 160 ITR 103
(Raj.).
Income of Local Authority [Sec. 10(20)]
The following income of a local authority is exempt from tax
a. income under the heads Income from house property.,
Capital gains or Income from other sources.;
b. income from a business carried on by it, which accrues or
arises from the supply of a commodity or services (not
being water or electricity) within its own jurisdictional area;
and
c. income from business from supply of water or electricity
within or outside its own jurisdictional area.
By virtue of this clause, entire income of a local authority is
exempt from tax except income from one source, i.e., the
income derived from the supply of a commodity or service
(other than water or electricity) outside its own jurisdictional
area.

Note: An Explanation is inserted in section 10(20) to define

local authority for this purpose with effect from the assessment year 2003-04. The expression local authority means
Panchayats and Municipalities as referred to in Articles 243(d)
and 243P(e) of the Constitution of India, Municipal Committees and District Boards, legally entitled to or entrusted by the
Government with the control or management of a Municipal
or a local fund and Cantonment Boards as defined under
section 3 of the Cantonments Act, 1924. The exemption under
clause (20) of section 10 would, therefore, not be available to
Agricultural Marketing Societies and Agricultural Marketing
Boards, etc. despite the fact that they may be deemed to be
treated as local authorities under any other Central or State
Legislation. Exemption under this clause would not be
available to Port Trusts.

Income of Housing Authority [Sec. 10(20A)]

Any income of an authority constituted in India for the
purpose of dealing with and satisfying the need for housing
accommodation or for the purpose of planning, development
or improvement of cities, towns and villages, is exempt from
tax up to the assessment year 2002-03.
Industrial development - Industrial development is covered
within the expression planning, development or improvement
of cities, towns and villages-Gujarat Industrial Development
Corporation v. ClT [1997] 94 Taxman 64 (SC).
Income of Scientific Research Association
[Sec. 10(21)]
Any income of a scientific research association, approved [Form
No. 3CF for obtaining approval] under section 35( 1)(ii) is
exempt from tax if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. It has to apply its income or accumulate it for application
(notice for accumulation shall be given in Form No. 10),
wholly and exclusively to the objects for which it is
established. Such accumulation will be governed by the
provisions of section 11(2)/(3).
2. It has not invested/ deposited its fund for any period
during the previous year otherwise than in anyone or more
of the forms/modes specified in section 11(5). However,
this condition is not applicable in respect of the following:
a.
Any assets held by the scientific research association
where such assets form part of the corpus of the fund
of the association as on June 1, 1973 ;
b.
Any assets (being debentures issued by, or on behalf
of any company or corporation), acquired by the
scientific research association before March 1, 1983;
c.
Any accretion to the shares, forming part of the corpus
of the fund mentioned in (a) supra, by way of bonus
shares allotted to the scientific research association;
d.
Voluntary contributions received and maintained in the
form of jewellery, furniture or any other article as the
Board may, by notification in the Official Gazette,
specify.
Exemption shall not be denied in relation to voluntary
contribution [other than the voluntary contribution in cash or
voluntary contributions of the nature referred in (a), (b), (c) or

(d) supra] subject to the condition that such voluntary contribution is not held by the scientific research association otherwise
than in anyone or more of the forms or modes specified in
section 11 (5), after the expiry of one year from the end of the
previous year in which such asset is acquired or March 31, 1992,
whichever is later.
3. Exemption is not available in relation to any income of such
association being profits and gains of business, unless the
business is incidental to the attainment of its objectives and
separate books of account are maintained in respect of such
business.
4. Section 10(21) has been amended with effect from the
assessment year 2003-04.
Under the amended provisions where the scientific research
association is approved by the Central Government and,
subsequently, that Government is satisfied that the scientific
research association has not applied its income in accordance
with the aforesaid provisions or the scientific research association has not invested or deposited its funds in accordance with
the aforesaid provisions or the activities of the scientific research
association are not genuine or the activities of the scientific
research association are not being carried out in accordance with
all or any of the conditions subject to which such association
was approved, it may, at any time after giving a reasonable
opportunity of showing cause against the proposed withdrawal
to the concerned association, by order, withdraw the approval
and forward a copy of the order withdrawing the approval to
such association and to the Assessing Officer.

Income of Educational Institutions [Sec.10(22)]

Section 10(22) has been omitted from the assessment year 19992000. One may, however, claim exemption under section
10(23C) or 11.
Income of Hospitals [Sec. 10(22A)]
Section 1 0(22A) has been omitted. One may, however, claim
exemption under section 10(23C) or 11.
Income of Specified News Agency [Sec. 10(22B)]
Any income of such news agency, set up in India solely for
collection and distribution of news, as the Central Government
may specify. in this behalf by notification in the Official Gazette,
is exempt from income-tax.
The following points should be noted:
1. The exemption is subject to the condition that the news
agency applies its income or accumulates it for application
solely for collection and distribution of news and it does not
distribute its income in any manner to its members.
2. The notification granting exemption under this clause shall,
at anyone time, have effect for not more than three
assessment years (including an assessment year or years
commencing before the date of issue of such notification),
as may be specified in the notification.
3. Section 10(22B) has been amended with effect from the
assessment year 2003-04. Where the news agency has been
specified, by notification, by the Central Government and,
subsequently, that Government is satisfied that such news
agency has not applied or accumulated or distributed its

47

income in accordance with the aforesaid provisions, it may, at

any time after giving a reasonable opportunity of showing
cause, rescind the notification and forward a copy of the
order rescinding the notification to such agency and to the
Assessing Officer.

Income of Games Association [Sec. 10(23)]

Any income of a games association established in India for the
purpose of control, supervision, regulation or encouragement
in India of the games of cricket, hockey, football, tennis or any
other notified games (viz., golf, rifle shooting, table tennis,
polo, badminton, swimming, athletics, volley-ball, wrestling,
basket-ball, kabaddi, weight lifting, gymnastics, boxing, squash,
chess, bridge, billiards, cycling, yachting, flying, judo, kho-kho,
horse riding, motor/motor cycle racing, mountaineering, body
building, soft ball, carom and rowing), is exempt from tax up
to the assessment year 2002-03.
As promotion of sports and games is considered as charitable
purpose within the meaning of section 2(15), an association/
institution, engaged in promotion of sports/ games can claim
exemption under section 11, even if it is not exempt under
section 10(23) -Circular No. 395, dated September 24, 1984.
Income of Professional Institution [Sec. 10(23A)]
Any income (other than income from house property or
income received for rendering any specific service, or income by
way of interest or dividend on investment) of a professional
institution is exempt from tax if the following conditions are
satisfied:
a. Professional institution is established in India for the
purpose of control, supervision, regulation or
encouragement of the profession of law, medicine,
accountancy, engineering or architecture or any other notified
profession (namely, company secretary, materials
management, chemistry and town planning) ;
b. The institution applies its income or accumulates it for
application solely to the objects for which it is established;
and
c. The institution is approved by the Central Government.
Section 10(23A) concerns professional associations and has no
application to a sports club-Sports Club of Gujarat Ltd. v.
CIT[1988] 171 ITR 504 (Guj.).
Section 10(23A) has been amended with effect from the
assessment year 2003-04. Where the aforesaid association or
institution has been approved by the Central Government and,
subsequently, that Government is satisfied that such association
or institution has not applied or accumulated its income in
accordance with the above
stated provisions or the activities of the association or institution are not being carried out in accordance with all or any of the
conditions subject to which such association or institution was
approved, it may, at any time after giving a reasonable opportunity of showing cause against the proposed withdrawal to the
concerned association or institution, by order, withdraw the
approval and forward a copy of the order withdrawing the
approval to such association or institution and to the Assessing
Officer.

48

Income received on Behalf of Regimental Fund

[Sec.10(23AA)]
Any income received by any person on behalf of any Regimental Fund or Non-Public Fund established by the armed forces
of the Union for the welfare of the past and present members
of such forces or their dependents, is exempt from tax.
Income of Fund Established for Welfare of
Employees [Sec.10(23AAA)]
Clause (23AAA) provides exemption from tax on any income
received by any person on behalf of a fund, established for such
purposes as may be notified by the Board , for the welfare of
employees or their dependents and of which fund such
employees are members. The exemption is available only if the
fund applies its income, or accumulates it for application,
wholly and exclusively to the objects for which it is established.
The aforesaid fund shall invest its funds and contributions
made by the employees and other sums received by it in anyone
or more of the forms or modes specified in section 11(5). The
said fund is to be approved by the commissioner in accordance
with the rules made in this behalf and such approval shall have
effect for such assessment year or years not exceeding three
assessment years as lay be specified in the order of approval.
Income of Pension Fund [Sec. 10(23AAB)]
Any income of a fund set up by the Life Insurance Corporation
of India on or after August 1, 1996 (or from the assessment
year 2002-03 any other insurer) under a pension scheme to
which contribution is made by any person for receiving pension
from such fund, and which is approved by the Controller of
Insurance or from the assessment year 2002-03 the Insurance
Regulatory and Development Authority, has been exempted
from income-tax.
Income from Khadi or Village Industries
[Sec. 10(23B)]
Any income of an institution constituted as a trust or society
and existing solely for the development of Khadi and Village
Industries, and not for the purpose of profit, is exempt from
tax. The exemption is, however, granted to the extent such
income is attributable to the business of production, sale, or
marketing of khadi or produce of village industries and if the
following conditions are satisfied:
a. the institution applies its income or accumulates it for
application, solely for the development of khadi or village
industries; and
b. the institution is approved by the Khadi and Village
Industries Commission.
Section 1O(23B) has been amended with effect from the
assessment year 2003-04 to provide that where an institution
has been approved by the Khadi and Village Industries
Commission and, subsequently, that Commission is satisfied
that the institution has not applied or accumulated its income
in accordance with the provisions stated above, or the activities
of the institution are not being carried out in accordance with all
or any of the conditions subject to which such institution was
approved, it may, at any time after giving a reasonable opportunity of showing cause against the proposed withdrawal to the
concerned institution, by order, withdraw the approval and

forward a copy of the order withdrawing the approval to such

institution and to the Assessing Officer.

c. The Prime Ministers Aid to Students Fund [sec.

10(23C)(iii)]; or

Income of Khadi and Village Industries Boards

[Sec. 10(23BB)]
Any income of Khadi and Village Industries Boards set up
under a State or Provincial Act for the development of khadi
and village industries in the State, is exempt from tax.

d. The National Foundation for Communal Harmony [sec.

10(23C)(iiia)]; or

Income of Statutory Bodies for the Administration

of Public Charitable Trust [Sec. 10(23BBA)]
Any income of bodies or authorities established or constituted
or appointed under any enactment for the administration of
public, religious or charitable trusts or endowments (including
maths, temples, gurdwaras, wakfs, churches, syna gogues,
agiaries or other public places of religious worship) or societies
for religious or charitable purposes, is exempt from tax. It has,
however, been clarified that the exemption will not apply to the
income of any such trust, endowment or society.
Income of European Economic Community
[Sec. 10(23BBB)]
Any income of the European Economic Community derived in
India by way of interest, dividends or capital gains, from
investments made out of its funds under such scheme as the
Central Government may specify by notification in the Official
Gazette [i.e., European Community International Institutional
Partners (ECIIP) Scheme, 1993] is exempt from tax.
Income of SAARC Fund [Sec. 10(23BBC)]
Section 10(23BBC) provides exemption from income-tax of any
income derived by the SAARC fund for Regional Projects which
was set up by Colombo Declaration issued on December
21,1991 by the Heads of State or Government of the Membercountries of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
established on December 8, 1985 by the Charter of the South
Asian Association for Regional Cooperation.
Income of the Secretariat of Asian Organisation of
Supreme Audit Institutions [Sec. 10(23BBD)]
Income of the Secretariat of the Asian Organisation of the
Supreme Audit Institutions which has been registered as
ASOSAI - SECRETARIAT under the Societies Registration
Act, 1860 will be exempt from tax for the assessment years
2001-02 to 2007 -08.
Income of Insurance Regulatory Authority
[Sec. 10(23BBE)]
Income of Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority is
exempt from tax from the assessment year 2001-02.
Income of Certain National Funds, Educational
Institutions and Hospitals [Sec. 10(23C)]
Exemption given by section 10(23C) is given below:

e. Any other charitable fund or institution which is notified by

the Central Government [sec. 10(23C)(iv)]; or
f. Any trust (including any other legal obligation) or institution
wholly for public religious purposes or wholly for religious
and charitable purposes which is notified by the Central
Government [sec. 10(23C)(v)].
A fund or institution mentioned at (e) or (f) supra will have to
satisfy some conditions to claim exemption.
Income of Educational Institutions

Income of the following educational institutions is exempt

from tax under section 10(23C):
a. any university or other educational institution existing solely
for educational purposes and not for purposes of profit,
and which is wholly or substantially financed by the
Government [sec. 10(23C)(iiiab)]; or
b. any university or other educational institution existing solely
for educational purposes and not for purposes of profit if
the aggregate annual receipts of such university or
educational institution do not exceed Rs. 1 crore [sec. 10( 23
C)( iiiad)] ; and
c. any university or other educational institution existing solely
for educational purposes and not for purposes of profit,
other than those mentioned in (a) and (b) supra and which
may be approved by the prescribed authority (i.e., the Chief
Commissioner) [sec. 10(23 C)( vi)].
An educational institution mentioned at (c) supra will have to
satisfy some conditions to claim exemption .

Income of Hospital
If the following conditions are satisfied, income of hospital is
exempt from tax under section 10(23C):
1. Income arises to a hospital or other institution for the
reception and treatment of persons
a.
Suffering from illness or mental defectiveness; or
b.
During convalescence; or
c.

2. The hospital or other institution exists solely for

philanthropic purposes and not for the purpose of profit.
3. The hospital or other institution is :
a.

Wholly or substantially financed by the Government

[sec. 10(23C)(iiiac)]; or

b.

The aggregate annual receipts of such hospital or

institution do not exceed Rs. 1 crore
[sec. 10(23C)(iiiae)]; or

c.

It is approved by the prescribed authority (i.e., the

Chief Commissioner) [sec.10(23C)(via)] [one has to
satisfy certain conditions for getting approval.

Income of Certain National Funds

Any income received by any person on behalf of the following

funds is exempt from tax:
a. The Prime Ministers National Relief Fund [sec. 10(23C)(i)] ;
or
b. The Prime Ministers Fund (Promotion of Folk Art) [sec.
10(23C)(ii)]; or

Requiring medical attention or rehabilitation.

Donations Received for Providing Relief to the

Victims of Earthquake in Gujarat

49

Any amount of donation received by the trust or institution in

terms of section 80G(2)(d) (i.e., for providing relief to victims
of earthquake in Gujarat) in respect of which accounts have not
been rendered to the prescribed authority or which has been
utilised for purposes other than providing relief to the victims
of earthquake in Gujarat or which remains unutilised on March
31, 2004 and not transferred to the Prime Ministers National
Relief Fund on or before the said date shall be deemed to be
the income of the previous year and shall be charged to tax.

equity shares of a venture capital undertaking in accordance

with the prescribed guidelines.

Venture capital company - The expression venture capital

company has been defined to mean such company as has
made investments by way of acquiring equity shares of a
venture capital undertakings in accordance with the prescribed
guidelines.

Venture capital undertaking - The expression venture

capital undertaking is defined to mean a domestic company
whose shares are not listed in a recognised stock exchange in
India. The business in which the undertakings may be
engaged are software; information technology; production
of basic drugs in the pharmaceutical sector; bio. technology;
agriculture and allied sectors; such other sectors as may be
notified by the Central Government in this behalf or
production and manufacture of any article or substance for
which patent has been granted to the National Research
Laboratory or any other scientific research institution
approved by the Department of Science and Technology.

Approval by the Central Goverment - The venture capital

fund or the venture capital company would require the
approval of the Central Government in accordance with the
rules made in this behalf and would also be required to
satisfy the prescribed conditions before being able to avail
this exemption. Such approval of the Central Government
will have effect for such number of assessment years as may
be prescribed in the order of approval. However, at one time
such approval can be given for a maximum number of three
assessment years.

Income of a Mutual Fund [Sec. 10(23D)]

Any income of the following mutual funds (subject to
provisions of sections 115R to 115T) is not chargeable to tax
a. A mutual fund registered under the Securities and Exchange
Board of India Act or regulation made thereunder;
b. A notified mutual fund set up by a public sector bank, or a
public financial institution or authorised by RBI.
Income of Exchange Risk Administration Fund
[Sec.10(23E)]
The exemption under section 1O(23E) is not available from the
assessment year 2003-04.
Income of Investor Protection Fund [Sec. 10(23EA)] Section 10 (23EA)
provides as follows 1. Any income of investor protection fund set up by
recognised stock exchanges in India, either jointly or
separately, as the Central Government may, by notification in
the Official Gazette, specify in this behalf, will be exempt
from tax.
2. Where any amount standing to the credit of the Fund and
not charged to income-tax during any previous year is shared,
either wholly or in part, with a recognised stock exchange, the
whole of the amount so shared shall be deemed to be the
income of the previous year in which such amount is so
shared and shall accordingly be chargeable to income-tax.
Exemption of Income of Credit Guarantee Fund
Trust for Small Industries [Sec. 10(23EB)]
Any income of the Credit Guarantee Fund Trust for Small
Industries, being a trust created by the Government of India
and the Small Industries Development Bank of India, is not
chargeable to tax for assessment years 2002-03 to 2006-07.
Income by way of dividend and long-term capital gains of
venture capital lunch and venture capital companies [Sec.
10(23FA)] - Clause (23FA) is applicable from the assessment
year 2000-01 if the following conditions are satisfied:
Dividend / long term capital gains - Any income by way
of dividends (not being dividend covered by section 115-0)
or long-term capital gains of a venture capital fund or a
venture capital company from investments made up to
March 31, 2000 by way of equity shares in a venture capital
undertaking will be exempt if other conditions are satisfied.
Venture capital fund - The expression venture capital
fund has been defined to mean a fund operating under a
registered trust deed established to raise money by the
trustees for the investments mainly by way of acquiring

50

Rules made by the Government - The rules made by the

Government are as follows
1. Application shall be made by a venture capital fund or a
venture capital company in Form No. 56AA.
2. The application should be accompanied by Form Nos. 56BA
and 56CA.
3. The above application shall be submitted to the Central
Government.
4. A venture capital fund or a venture capital company, as the
case may be, shall not invest more than 25 per cent of its
total money raised or total paid-up share capital in one
venture capital undertaking.
Date of investment: Investment should be made before April
1, 2000.

Income of Venture Capital Fund or Venture Capital

Company (Sec. 10(23FB)]
Section 10(23FB) has been inserted with effect from the
assessment year 2001-02.
Exemption under section 10(23FB) is available if the following
conditions are satisfied
Condition One

There is a venture capital company or venture capital fund.

Venture Capital Company

It means a company which

a. Has been granted a certificate of registration under the

Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, and regulations
made thereunder;
b. Fulfils the conditions as may be specified (with the approval
of the Central Goverment) by the Securities and Exchange
Board of India (SEBI) by notification in the Official Gazette.
Venture Capital Fund

It means a fund
a. Which operates under a trust deed registered under the
provisions of the Registration Act or operates as a venture
capital scheme made by UTI;
b. which has been granted a certificate of registration under the
Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, and regulations
made thereunder;
c. which fulfils the conditions as may be specified (with the
approval of the Central Government) by SEBI by
notification in the Official Gazette.
Condition Two

The venture capital company or venture capital fund has been

set up to raise funds for investments in a venture capital
undertaking,
Venture Capital Undertaking

hospital project (with at least 100 beds) (hereinafter referred

to as infrastructure enterprise).
4. The infrastructure enterprise is approved by the Central
Government on an application made by it in accordance with
the prescribed rules.
If all the aforesaid conditions are satisfied, then such income
will be exempt in the hands of infrastructure capital company or
infrastructure capital fund or a co-operative bank.
Infrastructure Capital Company

It means such company as has made investments by way of

acquiring shares or providing long-term finance to an enterprise
wholly engaged in the business stated in (3) (supra).
Infrastructure Capital Fund

It means a fund operating under a trust deed (registered under

the provisions of the Registration Act, 1908), established to
raise money by the trustees for investment by acquiring shares
or providing long-term finance to an enterprise wholly engaged
in the business stated in (3) (supra).
Long-term Finance

It means any loan or advance where the terms under which

money are loaned or advanced provide for repayment along
with interest thereof during a period of not less than five years.

It means a company

Interest

a. which is a domestic company;

Interest includes any fee or commission received by a financial

institution for giving any guarantee or for enhancing credit
(applicable from the assessment year 2002-03).

b. whose shares are not listed in a recognised stock exchange in

India; and
c. which is engaged in the business for providing services,
production or manufacture of an article or thing but does
not include such activities or sectors which are specified (with
the approval of the Central Government) by the SEBI by
notification in the Official Gazette, in this behalf.
If the aforesaid two conditions are satisfied, then any income
of such venture capital fund or venture capital company is
exempt from tax under section 10(23FB). The income of a
venture capital company or venture capital fund shall continue
to be exempt even if the shares of the venture capital undertaking in which the venture capital company or venture capital fund
has made the initial investment, are subsequently listed in a
recognized stock exchange in India,

Income of an Infrastructure Capital Fund/Company

[Sec.10(23G)]
The following conditions should be satisfied to avail exemption under section 10(23G)
1. There is an infrastructure capital fund or infrastructure capital
company or a cooperative bank.
2. It has earned income by way of dividend (not being covered
by section 115-0), interest or long-term capital gains.
3. The aforesaid income is derived from investments made on
or after June 1, 1998" by way of shares or long-term finance
in any enterprise which is wholly engaged in the business of
(a) developing; or (b) maintaining and operating; or (c)
developing, maintaining and operating any infrastructure
facility or a housing project [referred to in section 80-IB(10)]
or a hotel project (of not less than 3 star category) or a

Infrastructure Facility

It mean
a. A road including toll road, a bridge or a rail systems;
b. A highway project including housing or other activities being
an integral part of the highway project;
c. A water supply project, water treatment system, irrigation
project, sanitation and sewerage system or solid waste
management system;
d. A port, airport, inland waterway or inland port.

Income of Trade Unions [Sec. 10(24)]

Any income, chargeable under the heads Income from house
property and Income from other sources, of a trade union
registered under the Indian Trade Unions Act, 1926, formed
primarily for the purpose of regulating the relations between
workmen and employers or between workmen and workmen,
is exempt from tax. A similar tax exemption is also available to
an association of trade unions.
Income of Provident Funds [Sec. 1 0(25)]
The following income is exempt from tax under this clause:
a. interest on securities held by a statutory provident fund and
any capital gains arising from the sale, exchange or transfer of
such securities;
b. any income received by the trustees on behalf of a recognised
provident fund, and approved superannuation fund, or an
approved gratuity fund; and
c. any income received by the Board of Trustees on behalf of
Deposit-linked Insurance Fund.

51

Income of Employees State Insurance Fund

[Sec. 1O(25A)]
Clause (25A) provides income-tax exemption on any income of
the Employees State Insurance Fund of the Employees State
Insurance Corporation set up under the provisions of the
Employees State Insurance Act, 1948.
Income of a Member of Scheduled Tribe [Sec. 10(26)]
Exemption under section 10(26) is available if the following
conditions are satisfied
1. The taxpayer is a member of a Scheduled Tribe [article
366(25) of the Constitution].
2. The taxpayer resides in any area in the State of Nagaland,
Manipur, Tripura,Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram or districts
of North Cachar Hills, Mikir Hills, Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills
and Garo Hills on the Ladakh region of the State of Jammu
and Kashmir.
3. Exemption is available in respect of income which accrues or
arises, to him from any source in the areas or States specified
above. Exemption is available in respect of income by way
of dividend/interest on securities even if it arises from a
source in the areas not specified above.
Income of Resident of Ladakh [Sec. 10(26A)]
Any income accruing or arising to a resident of Ladakh district
from any source therein or out of India, is exempt from tax up
to the assessment year 1988-89, provided that such person was
resident in Ladakh district in the previous year relevant to the
assessment year 1962-63.
Income of a Body for Promoting Interest of
Scheduled Castes/Tribes [Sec. 10(26B)]
Any income of a corporation established by a Central, State or
Provincial Act or of any other body, institution or association
(wholly financed by the Government), formed for promoting
the interests of the members of the Scheduled Castes/Tribes/
backward classes, is exempt from tax.
Subsidy Received by Planters [Sec. 10(31)]
Subsidies received by the assessees engaged in the business of
growing and manufacturing rubber, coffee, cardamom or such
other commodities as the Central Government may by
notification specify ~ exempt from tax. The subsidy should be
received from or through the concerned Board under any
scheme for replantation or replacement of rubber plants, etc., or
for rejuvenation or consolidation of areas used for their
cultivation. To obtain this exemption, an assessee is required to
furnish to the Assessing Officer along with his return of
income for the assessment year concerned or within such further
period as the Officer may allow, a certificate from the concerned
Board, as to the amount of such subsidy received during the
previous year.
Income of Minor [Sec. 10(32)]
In case the income of an individual includes the income of his
minor child in terms of section 64(1A), such an individual shall
be entitled to exemption of Rs. 1,500 in respect of each minor
child if the income of such minor as includible under section
64(lA) exceeds that amount. Where, however, the income of
any minor so includible is less than Rs. 1,500, the aforesaid

52

exemption shall be restricted to the income so included in the

total income of the individual.

Capital Gain on Transfer of US64 [Sec. 10(33),

Applicable from the Assessment Year 2003-04]
Any income arising from the transfer of a capital asset being a
unit of US 64 [referred to in Schedule I of the Unit Trust of
India (Transfer of Undertaking and Repeal) Act, 2002] and
where the transfer of such assets takes place on or after April,
2002, shall be exempt from tax. This rule will be applicable
whether the capital asset (US64) is long-term capital asset or
short-term capital asset.
If income from a particular source is exempt from tax, loss
from such source cannot be set off against income from
another source under the same head of income-see CIT v. 5.5.
Thiagarajan [1981] 129 ITR 115 (Mad.), Ramjilal Rais v.
CIT[1965] 58 ITR 181 (All.). Consequently, loss arising on
transfer of units of US64 will not set off against any income in
the same year in which it is incurred and the same cannot be
carried forward.
Dividends and Interest on Units [Sec. 10(34)/(35)
Applicable from the Assessment Year 2004-05]
Clauses (34) and (35) have been inserted in section 10 from the
assessment year 2004-05. By virtue of these clauses, the
following will not be chargeable to tax from the assessment year
2004-05
a. Any income by way of dividend referred to in section 115-0
[i.e., dividend, not being covered by section 2(22)(e), from a
domestic company];
b. Income from units received by a unit holder from the
administrator of the specified undertaking as defined in Unit
Trust of India (Transfer of Undertaking and Repeal) Act,
2002, or Mutual Fund or the specified company on or after
April 1, 2003.
Consequently, no deduction will be available in respect of
dividends and interest on units under sections 80L and 80M.
The person paying dividends on shares or interest on units will
have to pay additional tax on dividend/income distributed
under sections 115-0 and 115R. However, income from transfer
of units is not exempt under this provision.
Long-term Capita/Gains on Transfer of Listed Equity
Shares [Sec. 10(36)]
Clause (36) has been inserted in section 10 with effect from the
assessment year 2004-05. By virtue of this clause, capital gains is
not chargeable to tax if the following conditions are satisfied
1. The asset which is transferred is a long term capital asset
being an eligible equity share in a company.
2. Such shares are purchased on or after March 1. 2003 but
before March 1, 2004.
3. Such shares are held by the taxpayer for a period of 12
months or more.
4. Eligible equity share for the purpose means,
a.
Any equity share in a company being a constituent of
BSE-500 Index of the Stock Exchange, Mumbai as on
the March 1. 2003 and the transactions of purchase and

sale of such equity share are entered into on a

recognised stock exchange in India; or
b.

Any equity share in a company allotted through a

public issue on or after the March 1,2003 and listed in a
recognized stock exchange in India before the March 1.
2004 and the transaction of sale of such share is
entered into on a recognised stock exchange in India.

If the aforesaid 4 conditions are satisfied, then the long-term

capital gain arising on transfer is not chargeable to tax. Conversely, long-term capital loss arising on transfer cannot be
adjusted against any income if the aforesaid conditions are
satisfied.
See I dont want to give you work at your home. But some of
you always insist on home work so that they can some there
performance. So, how can I say no to them .So take some
homework., I know you all are enjoyingggg it.
1. What do you mean by exempt income and taxable income.
2. State provisions of Long-term capital gains on transfer of
listed equity shares [Sec. 10(36)].
3. State the sections and conditions given in the act which you
think are essential for avoidance of double taxation and the
exemption is provided only in order to avoid double
taxation.
4. Whether Income of a minor is exempt in his own hands.
Give reasons for your answer.
5. Write a brief note on: Income by way of dividend and longterm capital gains of venture capital lunch and venture capital
companies [Sec. 10(23FA)].

Notes:

53

LESSON 6:
EXEMPTION IN RESPECT OF NEWLY ESTABLISHED UNDERTAKING
Lesson Objective

To know provisions for newly established undertakings in

free trade Zones.

To know provisions for 100% Export Oriented Units

To know provisions for export of artistic hand-made

wooden articles.

To know practical aspects of Exemptions.

Hi -, you see there are some business where the government is

taking initiative to develop these businesses by providing them
concessions and tax exemptions. As a student of management
you should be very well aware of these provisions . In this
lesson we will study in detail all these provisions and other
relevant requirement of the Act.
To start with we will first consider special provisions in respect
of newly established undertakings in free trade zone, etc. as
given in section 10 of the Act.
The provisions of section 10A are given below:
Conditions to be satisfied - In order to get deduction, an
undertaking must satisfy the following conditions:
1. Must begin manufacture of production in free trade zone
- It has begun or begins to manufacture/produced articles or
things or computer software during the following years
Location

Year

Free Trade Zone

During the previous year relevant to

the assessment year 1981-82 or
any subsequent year.

Electronic hardware
technology park or software
technology park

During the previous year relevant to

the assessment year 1994-95 or any
subsequent year

Special economic zone

During the previous year relevant to

the assessment year 2001-02 or any
subsequent year.

Free trade zones- Free Trade Zones are: Kandla Free Trade
Zone, Santacruz Electronics Export Processing Zone, Falta
Export Processing Zone, Madras Export Processing Zone,
Cochin Export Processing Zone and Noida Export Processing
Zone.
Electronic/software/hardware technology park - Electronic hardware technology park means any park set up in
accordance with the Electronic Hardware Technology Park
(EHTP) Scheme notified by the Government of India in the
Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
Software technology park - Software technology park means
any park set up in I accordance with the Software Technology

54

Park (STP) Scheme notified by the Government of India in the

Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
Computer software - Computer software means
a. any computer programme recorded on any disc, tape,
perforated media or other information storage device; or
b. any customized electronic data or any product or service of
similar nature, as may be notified by the Board,
which is transmitted or exported from India to any place
outside India by any means. For the purpose of section 10A or
10B, as long as a unit in the EPZ/EOU/STP itself produces
computer programmes and exports them, it should not matter
whether the programme is actually written within the premises
of the unit. Where a unit in the EPZ; EOU /STP develops
software sur place, that is, at the clients site abroad, such unit
should not be denied the tax holiday under section 10A or 10B
on the ground that it was, prepared on-site, as long as the
software is a product of the unit, i.e., it is produced by the unit.
The Central Board of Direct Taxes has specified the following
Information Technology enabled products or services, as the
case may be, for this purpose namely: (1) Back-office Operations; (iz) Call Centres; (iiz) Content Development or
Animation; (iv) Data Process. ing; (v) Engineering and Design;
(vz) Geographic Information System Services; (vii) Human
Resource Services; (viiz) Insurance Claim Processing; (ix:) Legal
Databases; (x) Medkal Transcription; (xz) Payroll; (xiz) Remote
Maintenance; (xiiz) Revenue Account. ing; (xiv) Support
Centres; and (xv) Web-site Services.
2. Should not be formed by splitting/reconstruct/on of
business - The industrial undertaking should not have been
formed by the splitting up or recon Tuctionof a business
already in existence. However, where an industrial undertaking i
formed as a result of re-establishment, reconstruction or revival
by the assessee of the business any such industrial undertaking
as is referred to in section 33B, in the circumstances and within
the period specified in that section the same will qualify for the
tax concession.
3. Should not be formed by transfer of old machinery - The
industrial under taking should not have been formed by the
transfer of a new business of machinery or plant previously
used for any purpose. For this purpose, any machinery or plant
which was used outside India by any person other than the
assessee is not regarded as machinery or plant previously used
for any purpose if the following conditions are fulfilled,
namely:
a. Such machinery or plant was not previously used in India;
b. Such machinery or plant is imported into India from a
foreign country; and
c. No deduction on account of depreciation in respect of such
machinery or plant has been allowed or is allowable in

computing the total income of any person for any period

prior to the installation of the machinery or plant by the
assessee.
Further, this tax concession is not denied in a case where the
total value of used machinery or plant transferred to the new
business does not exceed 20 per cent of the total value of the
machinery or plant used in that business.
4. There must be repatriation of sale proceeds into India Sale proceeds of articles or things or computer software
exported out of India must be received in, or brought into
India by the assessee in convertible foreign exchange during the
previous year or within a period of six months from the end of
the relevant previous year. For instance, for the assessment year
2004-05, the repatriation of the sale proceeds into India must
be completed on or before September 30, 2004. The sale
proceeds shall be deemed to have been received in India where
such sale proceeds are credited to a separate account maintained
for the purpose by the assessee with any bank outsideIndia
with the approval of the Reserve Bank of India.

Convertible Foreign Exchange

Convertible foreign exchange means foreign exchange which is
for the time being treated by the Reserve Bank of India as
convertible foreign exchange for the purposes of the Foreign
Exchange Regulation Act, 1973, and any rules made thereunder
or any other corresponding law for the time being in force.
Extension of Time Limit
The aforesaid limit of six months can be extended by the
Reserve Bank of India or such other competent authority as is
authorised under any law for the time being in force for
regulating payments and dealings in foreign exchange.
Audit
Deduction under section 10A shall not be admissible unless the
assessee furnishes in the prescribed form [Form No. 56F] along
with the return of income, the report of an accountant
certifying that the deduction has been correctly claimed in
accordance with the provisions of section 10A.
Amount of Deduction - General Provisions - If the aforesaid
conditions are satisfied, the deduction under section 10A may,
be computed as under:
Profits of the business of the undertaking X Export turnover
/ Total turnover of the business carried on by the under-taking
For this purpose, export turnover means the consideration in
respect of export by the undertaking of articles or things or
computer software received in, or brought into India by the
assessee in convertible foreign exchange within the prescribed
period but does not include the following:
a. Freight;
b. Telecommunication charges;
c. Insurance attributable to the delivery of the articles or things
or computer software outside India;
d. Expenses, if any, incurred in foreign exchange in providing
the technical services outside India.

On site development of computer software (including services

for development of software) outside India shall be deemed to
be export of computer software outside India.
Period of deduction- If the aforesaid conditions are satisfied,
the assessee can claim deduction under section 10A from his
total income, for a period of ten consecutive assessment years
beginning with the assessment year relevant to the previous year
in which the undertaking begins to manufacture or produce
such articles or things or computer software.
For the undertakings which have claimed exemption up to the
assessment year 2000-01 under the old section 10A, the
deduction shall be available for the unexpired period of 10
consecutive assessment years under the new section 10A.
For an undertaking which was initially located in free trade zone
or export processing zone and is subsequently located in a
special economic zone by reason of conversion of such zones
in to a special economic zone, the deduction shall be available
for 10 years from the previous year in which the undertaking
begins to manufacture or produce such articles or things or
computer software in such free trade zone or export processing
zone.
Relevant assessment year means any assessment year falling
within a period of ten consecutive assessment years referred to
in section 10A.
No deduction under section 10A shall be allowed to any
undertaking from the assessment year 2010-11.

Amount of Deduction - Special Provision

The deduction under section 10A in the case of an undertaking
which begins to manufacture or produce articles or things or
computer software during the previous year relevant to the
assessment year 2003-04 (or any subsequent year) in any special
economic zone, shall be as follows
First 5 years -100 per cent of profits and gains derived from
the export of such article! or things or computer software is
deductible for a period of 5 consecutive assessment year
(beginning with the assessment year relevant to the previous
year in which the undertaking begins to manufacture or produce
such articles or things or computer software, as the case may be)
Sixth and seventh year - 50 per cent of such profits and gains
is deductible for further 2 assessment years.
Eighth, ninth and tenth year- For the next three years, a
further deduction would be available to the extent of 50 per
cent of the profit provided an equivalent amount ~ debited to
the profit and loss account of the previous year and credited to
Special Economic Zone Re-investment Allowance Reserve
Account (hereinafter referred to as Special Reserve Account). The
following conditions should be satisfied
1. The Special Reserve Account should be utilised for the
purpose of acquiring new plant and machinery.
2. The new plant and machinery should be first put to use
before the expiry of 3 years from the end of the year in
which the Special Reserve Account was created.
3. Until the acquisition of new plant and machinery the Special
Reserve Account can be utilised for the business purposes of
the undertaking but it cannot be utilised for distribution of
55

dividends/ profits or for remittance outside India as profits

or for creating an asset outside India.
4. Prescribed particulars [Form No. 56FF] should be submitted
in respect of new plant and machinery along with the return
of income for the previous year in which such plant and
machinery was first put to use.
5. If the Special Reserve Account is misutilised then the
deduction would be taken back in the year in which the
Special Reserve Account is misutilised. If the Special Reserve
Account is not utilised for acquiring new plant and
machinery within three years as stated above then the
deduction would be taken back in the year immediately
following the period of three years.
4. Consequences of amalgamation / demerger - Where an
undertaking of an Indian company is transferred to another
company under a scheme of amalgamation or demerger, the
deduction under section 10A or 10B shall be allowable in the
hands of the amalgamated or the resulting company. However,
no deduction shall be admissible under these sections to the
amalgamating company or the demerged company for the
previous year in which amalgamation or demerger takes place.
5. Power of Assessing Officer to recompute profit - The
Assessing Officer has power to recompute profit in the
following two situations
Transfer between two businesses/units owned by the
taxpayer - The following conditions should be satisfied
1. The taxpayer carries on two or more businesses. At least one
of them is qualified for deduction under section 10A / 10B.
2. From the business which is eligible for deduction under
section 10A/ 10B, some goods are transferred to any other
business carried on by the taxpayer which is not eligible for
deduction under section 10A/10B, or vice versa.
3. The consideration for such transfer, which is recorded in the
books of account, is not equal to the market value of such
goods on the date of transfer.
If the aforesaid conditions are satisfied, the Assessing Officer
will recompute profits of the business qualified for deduction
under section 10A/ 10B as if the transfer in either case had been
made at the market value of the goods on the date of transfer.
Illustration - X Ltd. has two undertakings - Unit A (which is
eligible for deduction @ 100 per cent under section 10A/ 10B)
and Unit B (which is not eligible for a similar deduction).
Goods are transferred from Unit A to Unit B. For accounting
purposes, the transaction is recorded at a price, which is higher
than market value. Consequently, the accounting profit of Unit
A has increased (which is not chargeable to tax because of 100
per cent deduction under section 10A/ 10B) and the profit of
Unit B has been reduced (which is taxable at regular rates). To
check this practice, the Assessing Officer has power to recalculate
the profit as if the transaction is recorded at the market value.
Transfer by the assessee to any other person - The following
conditions should be satisfied
1. The taxpayer (eligible for deduction under section 10A/ 10B)
has some business transactions with any other person.

56

2. The business transaction is so arranged that the business

transacted between them produces to the taxpayer more than
the ordinary profits that might be expected to arise in such
eligible business.
3. This is due to close connection between the taxpayer and the
other person or due to any other reason.
If the aforesaid conditions are satisfied, the Assessing Officer
shall (in computing the profits of the business eligible for
deduction under section 10A/10B for the purpose of deduction under that section) take the amount of the profits as may
be reasonably deemed to have been derived therefrom.
Illustration - X Ltd. has an undertaking which is eligible for
deduction @ 100 per cent under section 10A/10B. Y Ltd. is not
eligible for a similar deduction. Goods are purchased by X Ltd.
from Y Ltd. at a price which is lower than market value.
Consequently, the accounting profit of X Ltd. has increased
(which is not chargeable to tax because of 100 per cent deduction under section 10A/10B) and the profit of Y Ltd. has been
reduced (which is taxable at regular rates). The aggregate tax bill
of the two companies has been reduced. To check this practice,
the Assessing Officer has power to recalculate the amount of
profits as may be reasonably deemed to have been derived
therefrom.

Impact of Claiming Deduction Under Section 10a

One should note the following consequences:
For the assessment year(s) succeeding the last assessment year
for which the deduction is claimed under this section, deduction
under section 32 and the expenditures under sections 35 and
36(1)( ix) pertaining to the assessment year 2000-0 I (or earlier
year) would be considered as had been given full effect to for the
period covered under the period of deduction. Thus, unabsorbed depreciation allowances or unabsorbed capital
expenditure on scientific research or family planning (pertaining
to the assessment year 2000-01 or earlier years) are not allowed
to be carried forward and set off against the income of
assessment years following the period of deduction.
The losses under section 72(1) or 74(1) or 74(3) (pertaining to
the assessment year 200001 or earlier years) are not allowed to be
carried forward in assessment years succeeding the period of
deduction. The deductions under section 80-IA or 80-IE shall
also not be available to such undertakings after the expiry of tax
holiday period.
In the assessment year following period of deduction, the
depreciation will be computed on the written down value of
the asset as if the depreciation has actually been allowed in
respect of each assessment year falling in the period of exemption.
Option available to new undertakings not to claim deduction under section 10A: The benefits under this section are
optional. In case the assessee does not wish to claim the benefit
under section 10A he has to file a declaration to this effect along
with the return of income before the due date of filing the
return for the first assessment year for which the deduction
under this section is available to him.

Students we always need to keep our exports high .In order to

encourage our exports the Act has provided for specific
exemptions to encourage corporates.
Lets see what are they-,
Special provisions in respect of newly established hundred
per cent export-oriented undertakings [Sec. 10B].
Section 10B has been inserted with a view to providing incentive
(similar to tax holiday available under section 10A) to hundred
per cent export-oriented units. The provisions applicable from
the assessment year 2001-02 are given below:
Conditions to be satisfied - An undertaking must satisfy the
following conditions in order to avail the deduction under
section 10B.
1. It must be an approved hundred per cent exportoriented undertaking- The expression hundred per cent
export-oriented undertaking means an undertaking which
has been approved as a hundred per cent export-oriented
undertaking by the Board appointed in this behalf by the
Central Government in exercise of the powers conferred by
section 14 of the Industries (Development and Regulation)
Act, 1951, and the rules made under that Act.
2. It must produce or manufacture articles or things or
computer software - It must manufacture or produce any
article or thing or computer software. The expression
computer software means
a.

b.

Any computer programme recorded on any disc, tape,

perforated media or other information storage device;
or
Any customized electronic data or any product or
service of similar nature as may be notified by the
Board, which is transmitted or exported from India to
any place outside India by any means. The Central
Board of Direct Taxes has specified the following
Information Technology enabled products or services,
as the case may be, for this purpose: (I) Back-office
Operations; (ii) Call Centres; (iii) Content
Development or Animation; (iv) Data Processing; (v)
Engineering and Design; (vi) Geographic Information
System Services; (vii) Human Resource Services; (viii)
Insurance Claim Processing; (ix) Legal Databases; (x)
Medical Transcription; (xi}Payroll; (xii) Remote
Maintenance; (xiii) Revenue Accounting; (xiv) Support
Centres; and (xv) Web-site Services.

3. It should not be formed by splitting/reconstruction of

business
4. It should not be formed by transfer of old machinery.
5. There must be repatriation of sale proceeds into india.
6. Audit report should be submitted in form no. 56G.

Amount of Deduction
If the aforesaid conditions are satisfied, the deduction under
section 10B may be computed as under:
= Profits of the business of the undertaking X Export turnover
Total turnover of the business carried on by the undertaking.

For this purpose, export turnover means the consideration in

respect of export by the undertaking of articles or things or
computer software received in, or brought into India by the
assessee in convertible foreign exchange within the prescribed
period, but does not include the following:
a. Freight;
b. Telecommunication charges;
c. Insurance attributable to the delivery of the articles\or things
or computer software outside India;
d. Expenses, if any, incurred in foreign exchange in providing
the technical services outside India.
Profits and gains derived from on site development of
computer software (including services for development of
software) outside India shall be deemed to be the profits and
gains derived from the export of computer software outside
India.
Period of deduction - If the aforesaid conditions are satisfied,
the assessee can claim deduction under section 10B, from his
total income for a period of ten consecutive assessment years
beginning with the assessment year relevant to the previous year
in which the undertaking begins to manufacture or produce
such articles or things or computer software.
For the undertakings which have claimed exemption upto
assessment year 2000-01 under the old section 10B, the
deduction shall be available for the unexpired period of 10
consecutive assessment years under the new section 10B.
Relevant assessment year means any assessment year falling
within a period of ten consecutive assessment years referred to
in section 10B.
No deduction under section 10B shall be allowed to any
undertaking from the assessment year 2010-11.

Impact of Availing Deduction Under Section 10B

In computing the total income of the assessee of the assessment year immediately succeeding the deduction period the
following points should be noted For the assessment year(s)
succeeding the last assessment -year for which the deduction is
claimed under this section, deduction under section 32 and the
expenditures under sections 35 and 36(1)(ix) (pertaining to the
assessment year 2000-0l or earlier years) would be considered as
had been given full effect to for the period covered under the
period of deduction. Thus, unabsorbed depreciation allowances
or unabsorbed capital expenditure on scientific research or
family planning (pertaining to the assessment year 2000-01 or
earlier years) are not allowed to be carried forward and set off
against the income of assessment years following the period of
deduction.
The losses under section 72(1) or 74(1) or 74(3) (pertaining to
the assessment year 200001 or earlier years ) are not allowed to
be carried forward in assessment years succeeding the period of
deduction. The deductions under section 80-IA or 80-IE shall
also not be available to such undertakings after the expiry of tax
holiday period.
In the assessment year following period of deduction, the
depreciation will be computed on the written down value of
the asset as if the depreciation has actually been allowed in

57

respect of each assessment year falling in the period of deduction.

Option available to new undertaking not to claim deduction under section 10B- Section 10B will be applicable to all
eligible undertakings unless the assessee opts out of scheme by
making a declaration under sub-section (8) before the due date
of furnishing return of income.
Illustration: Discuss the salient features of section 10A/10B
with the help of an example.
X Ltd. commences production on May 10, 2002 in the Madras
Export Processing Zone. It is qualified for tax holiday benefit
under section 10A for 8 consecutive assessment years (i.e.,
200304 to 2009-10). However, no deduction under section 10A
is available from the assessment year 2010-11. If X Ltd. does
not avail tax holiday exemption under section 10A, it can claim
normal incentives under the different provisions. Relevant data
is given below
Assessme
nt years

Income taxable Total turnover

if there is no tax
incentive

2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-10
2010-11

(Rs. in lakh)
10
20
30
40
50
60
40
100

(Rs. in lakh)
90
110
200
320
400
410
430
500

Export turnover
(i.e., amount brought
into India in convertible
foreign exchange)
(Rs. in lakh)
80
75
162
250
260
197
120
344

X Ltd. can claim normal deduction as stated above. Alternatively, it can claim complete tax holiday under section 10A for 8
consecutive years.
Assessment year 2003-04 to 2009-10:
Income
Less .- Deduction
under section 10A
Net income

2003-04
10
8
2
-

Assessment
2004-05
20

2005-06
30

Years.
2006-07
40

2007-08
50

13.64
6.36

24.3
5.7

31.25
8.75

32.5
17.5

(Rs.in lacs)
2008-09
2009.10
60
40
28.83
31.17

11.16
28.84

Assessment year 2010-11 onwards

Particulars
Gross total income

Rs.(Lakh)
100.00

Less: Deduction Under section 80HHC [it is not

available from the assessment year 2005-06]

Under section 80-IB [although it is available for a

period of 10 years, yet no deduction under section
80-IB is available after the expiry of tax holiday
under section 10A]

Net income
Note:

58

100.00

1. Deduction under section 10A for export sale is calculated as

follows: [Profit of the business X Export turnover (i.e.,
amount brought into India in convertible foreign exchange
within the specified time-limit) / Total turnover]. For the
assessment year 2003-04, it is calculated at the rate of 90 per
cent of the aforesaid amount.
2. After the tax holiday period
a.

The taxpayer cannot avail deduction under sections 80IA and 80-IE [sections 80HHB, 80HHBA, 80HHC,
80HHD, 80HHE, 80HHF, 80JJA and 80JJAA benefit
will be available];

b.

Unabsorbed allowance or loss pertaining to the

assessment year 2000-01 earlier years cannot be carried
forward;

c.

Depreciation allowance shall be determined as if

depreciation was claimed by the taxpayer during the tax
holiday period.

3. Tax incentive under section 10A, is optional. A taxpayer may

avail normal deduction under sections 80HH, 80RRA, 80-IA,
80-IB, 80RRC, etc., instead of availing exemption under
section 10A.
Now I will discuss with you provisions in respect of export of
artistic hand-made wooden articles. This is to encouage our
tradiional industries.
Special provision in respect of export of artistic handmade wooden articles [Sec. 10BA] :
Section 10BA is applicable from the assessment year 2004-05.
Conditions - To claim deduction under section 10BA, an
undertaking should satisfy the following conditions
It should manufacture eligible ar ticles or things - The
undertaking should manufacture or produce eligible articles or
things without the use of imported raw-material. Eligible
articles or things means all hand-made articles or things, which
are of artistic value and which requires the use of wood as the
main raw material.
It should be a new under taking - The undertaking is not
formed by splitting up, or the reconstruction, of a business
already in existence.

What is Splitting up of Business ?

The expression splitting up of the business already in
existence indicates a case where the integrity of a business
earlier in existence is broken up and different sections of the
activities previously conducted are carried on independently-CIT
v. Hindustan General Industries Ltd [1982] 137 ITR 851
(Delhi).
Reconstruction
The concept of reconstruction will not be attracted in cases
where (1) a concern which is already running one industrial unit
set up another industrial unit manufacturing identical goods, or
(2) a concern set up ancillary unit for manufacture of goods for
captive consumption.
Exception
The aforesaid condition of new undertaking is not applicable
where the business is re-established, reconstructed or revived by

the same assessee, by satisfying the conditions given in section

33B.

freight, telecommunication charges or insurance attributable

to the delivery of the articles or things outside India.

It should not be formed by transfer of mach/ner y or plant

previously used for any purpose - It is not formed by a
transfer to a new business of machinery and plant previously
used for any purpose. This rule is, however, not applicable in a
few cases.

2. The aforesaid method of pro rata determination must be

followed even in those cases where the assessee has export
business of eligible articles or things along with other lines
of business and separate books of account are maintained
for determining profits of export business.

90 per cent sale should be in overseas market - 90 per cent or

more of the sale of the undertaking during the previous year
should be by way of export of eligible articles or things. The 90
per cent minimum requirement must be satisfied with reference
to the total sales (export as well as non-export) of the undertaking and not with reference to the export sales alone. The
requirement applies to the undertaking and not to the
assessee. However, export shall not include any transaction by
way of sale or otherwise, in a shop, emporium or any other
establishment situated in India, not involving clearance at any
customs station as defined in the Customs Act, 1962.

3. The aforesaid profit is deductible for six assessment years,

i.e., assessment years 200405 to 2009-10.

Employment of 20 or more w orkers - It should employ 20

or more workers during the previous year in the process of
manufacture or production.
There must be repatriatlon of sale proceeds into india - Sale
proceeds of the eligible goods or things exported out of India
must be received in, or brought into,India by the assessee in
convertible foreign exchange during the previous year or within
a period of six months from the end of the relevant previous
year. For instance, for the assessment year 2004-05, the repatriation of the sale proceeds into India must be completed on or
before September 30, 2004.
Extension of time limit - The approval for extension of the
time-limit will be taken from the Reserve Bank of India or such
other competent authority as is authorised under any law for
the time being in force for regulating payments and dealings in
foreign exchange.
Audit - Deduction under section 10BA is not available unless
the assessee furnishes auditors report in prescribed form along
with the return of income.
Deduction under section 10a/ 10b is not taken - Where in
computing the total income of the undertaking for any
assessment year a deduction is claimed under section 10A or
10B, the undertaking shall not be eligible for claiming any
deduction under section 10BA.
Amount of Deduction - If the aforesaid conditions are
satisfied then deduction is available on the basis of amount
computed as follows:
Profit of the business of the undertaking X export turnover in
respect of eligible articles or things/total turnover of the
business carried on by the undertaking.
The following points should be noted:
1. Export turnover for this purpose means the consideration in
respect of export by the undertaking of eligible articles or
things received in, or brought into, India by the assessee in
convertible foreign exchange within the time-limit or within
the extended time-limit as stated above. It does not include

4. Where a deduction is allowed under section 10BA in

computing the total income of the assessee, no deduction
shall be allowed under any other section in respect of its
export profits.
The profit and loss account of X Ltd. for the year ending
March 31, 2004 is as follows:
Particulars

Rs.

Cost of goods sold

35,00,000 Sales turnover

Other expenses

50000

Net profit
Total

Particulars

Rs.

Interest on bank
Deposit

4950000
8500000

8000000
500000

8500000.

The company is engaged in the business of export of handmade artistic articles made of wood The following situations
are considered
1. The company employs less than 20 workers.
2. The company employs 20 or more workers but it uses
imported raw material
3. The company employs 20 or more workers. It does not
use imported raw material Out of the sales turnover of
Rs. 80,00,000, domestic turnover is Rs. 8,00,001.
4. The company employs 20 or more workers. It does not
use imported raw material Out of the sales turnover of
Rs. 80,00,000, sale in overseas market is Rs. 75,00,000 and
sale in domestic market is Rs. 5,00,000. Out of the export
of Rs. 75,00,000, amount remitted to India in convertible
foreign exchange till September 30,2004 is Rs. 66,50,000.
It does not include freight, insurance,
telecommunication charges, etc.
Situation 1 - As the company employs less than 20 workers,
nothing is deductible under section 10BA.
Situation 2 - As the company uses imported raw material,
nothing is deductible under section 10BA.
Situation 3 - As the export outside India is less than 90 per
cent of the turnover, nothing is deductible under section 10BA.
Situation 4 - As 90 per cent or more of its Sales (Rs. 75,00,000/
Rs. 80,00,000 = 93.75%) are by way of export outside India,
deduction under section 10BA is available on the following
lines
Export turnover (a)

6650000

Total turnover (b)

8000000
Profit of the business
(Rs. 49,50,000 - Rs. 5,00,000, being interest) (c) 4450000

59

Amount deductible under section 10BA

[(c) X (a) / (b)]

b.
3699062.50

Tax Holiday in case of a newly established 100%

Export Oriented Undertaking.

Income exempt under section 13A

6. Incomes of a charitable trust are exempt. Discuss.

The following categories of income derived by a political party

are not included in computing its total income:

Practicals are more important than the theory, so we will now

have a look at the Practical questions.

a. Any income which is chargeable under the heads Income

from house property, Capital gains and Income from
other sources ; and

Prob.1: X Ltd. has a 100 per cent EOU. It exports computer

software. Besides, it has another undertaking which develops
computer software for domestic market. From the information
given below, find out the amount of exemption under section
10B for the assessment year 2004-05

b. Any income by way of voluntary contributions.

Exemption under section 13A is not available unless the
political party satisfies the following conditions:
a. The political party keeps and maintains such books of
account and other documents as would enable the Assessing
Officer to properly deduce its income therefrom;
b. The political party keeps and maintains a record of each
voluntary contribution in excess of Rs. 20,000 and of the
names and addresses of persons who have made such
contributions;
c. The accounts of the political party are audited by a chartered
accountant or other qualified accountants; and
d. The treasurer of a political party (or any authorised person)
shall in each financial year prepare a report in respect of
contribution received by the political party in excess of Rs.
20,000 from any person/ company in that year and submit it
(before due date of submission of return of income) to the
Election Commission.
The Explanation to section 13A defines the term political
party as an association or body of individuals citizens of India
registered with the Election Commission of India as a political
party under paragraph 3 of the Election Symbols (Reservation
and Allotment) Order, 1968 and includes a political party
deemed to be registered with the Commission under the
proviso to sub-paragraph (2) of that paragraph. Hence,
exemption under section 13A is available only in the case of
political parties which satisfy the tests laid down in the aforesaid
definition.
Now let us have some questions to revise the whole thing.
1. Enumerate any ten items of income which do not form part
of Total Income.
2. Income-tax Act gives absolute exemption in respect of
certain incomes. Discuss.
3. Are the following incomes taxable:
a. Share of profit from a firm;
b. Share of Income of HUF
c. Income of a private tutorial bureau imparting education
d. Income of a private nursing home providing medical
facilities.
4. Discuss the incomes which are exempt in the case of a
political party. Are. there any conditions for claiming such
exemptions?
5. Write short notes on:
a.

60

Tax Holiday in case of a newly established industrial

undertaking in a Free Trade Zone.

Particulars.
Total turnover
Export turnover
Net profit

Under-taking I. Under taking Il Total (I + II)

(Rs.)
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
10,00,000
6,00,000
16,00,000
8,50,000
Nil
8,50,000
1,16,000
81,000
1,97,000

Ans: Computation of deduction under section 10B:

[Profit of the business of the undertaking X Export turnover/
Total turnover of the business carried on by the undertaking]:
[Rs. 1,16,000 X Rs. 8,50,000 + Rs. 10,00,000] = Rs. 98,600.
It may be noted that for determining the profits derived from
exports eligible for deduction under section 10A/ 10B the
profits and turnover of the relevant undertaking alone should
be considered and not the profits of the business as a whole
carried on by the assessee.
Prob.2: Discuss the provisions of sections 12A and 12AA
regarding registration of a trust.
Ans: A trust should apply for registration (Form No. 10A for
application) with the Commissioner of Incometax within one
year from the date on which the trust is created. Where an
application for registration is made after the aforesaid period,
the provisions of sections II and 12 will apply from the date of
creation of the trust, if the Commissioner is satisfied that the
person in receipt of income was prevented from making the
application within the aforesaid period for sufficient reason.
Where, however, the Commissioner is not so satisfied,
provisions of sections 11 and 12 are applicable from the
previous year in which application is made alone should be
considered and not the profits and turnover of the business as
a whole carried on by the assessee.
Procedure for registration is given by section 12AA. The
Commissioner shall call for documents and information and
hold enquiries regarding the genuineness of the trust or
institution. After he is satisfied about the charitable or religious
nature of the objects and genuineness of the activities of the
trust or institution, he will pass an order granting registration.
If, however, he is not so satisfied, he will pass an order refusing
registration, subject to the condition that an opportunity of
being heard shall be provided to the applicant before an order
of refusal to grant registration is passed by the Commissioner
and the reasons for refusal of registration shall be mentioned in
such order. The order granting or refusing registration has to be
passed within six months from the end of the month in which
the application for registration is received by the Commissioner
and a copy of such order shall be sent to the applicant. It may

be noted that the time-limit of 6 months is applicable only for

passing the order and not for sending a copy of it to the
applicant. The grant of registration shall be one of the conditions for grant of incometax exemption.

2. Suppose in the above case, the property is held under trust in

part only for charitable purposes [suppose 7096 of the
income of the trust is utilised for charitable purposes], then
the amount of exemption shall be determined as follows:

Prob.3: Discuss and illustrate the tax treatment of capital gain

derived by a charitable trust as specified under section 11(lA).
Ans: Where a capital asset of a charitable trust is transferred,
then the tax treatment of capital gain will be as under :
1. Where the whole of such net consideration is utilised in
acquiring the new capital asset (even investment for a fixed
term in a bank is treated as investment in capital asset) the
entire amount of the capital gain is regarded as having been
applied to charitable or religious purposes, and the entire
capital gain is not chargeable tax.
2. Where only a part of the net consideration is utilised for
acquiring the new capital asset, an amount, if any, by which
the cost of the new asset exceeds the cost of asset
transferred, is regarded as amount not chargeable to tax for
such purposes.
3. In a case where the asset which is transferred, formed part of
property held under trust in part only for charitable or
religious purposes, a proportionate amount of the capital
gain is regarded as having been applied to charitable or
religious purposes.
Provisions illustrated - To have better understanding of the
above provisions, the following examples are given
1. A trust holds a capital asset (being debentures of a company)
income of which is fully utilised for charitable purposes. The
capital asset is transferred on March 1,2004 and the capital
gain is calculated as under

Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Case 5

70% of the amount 70% of the

Amount applied
invested in the new Cost of old
For charitable purpose
Asset(Rs.) (1)
Asset (Rs.)(2) {i.e.,excess of 1 over 2.) (Rs.)
6,72,000
4,20,000
2,52,000
6,30,000
4,20,000
2,10,000
4,90,000
4,20,000
70,000
4,20,000
4,20,000
Nil
3,50,000
4,20,000
Nil

Prob.4: If income of a trust/institution is used/applied for

the direct or indirect benefit of the author of trust or other
interested person mentioned in section 13(3), then the
exemption under section 11 is not available. Discuss the
meaning of interested person.,
Ans: Meaning of interested person: For the purposes of
section 13, the following are interested persons: a. the author of
the trust or the founder of the institution;
b. Any person who has made a total contribution (up to the
end of the relevant previous year) of an amount exceeding
Rs. 50,000 (substantial contributor) ;
c. Any member of the HUF (or any relative of such member)
where such author or founder or substantial contributor is a
HUF ;
d. Any trustee of the trust or manager (by whatever name
called) of the institution;
e. Any relative of such author, founder, substantial
contributor,member,trustee or manager,

Particulars

Rs.

Sale proceeds

980000

f. Any concern in which any of the persons referred to above

has a substantial interest.

Less: Cost (i.e., cost of acquisition and cost of

improvement)

600000

R ela tiv e - Mea ning of - A relative in relation to an individual means:

Expenses on transfer

20000

a. Spouse of the individual;

Capital gain as per section 45 without giving

any exemption

360000

In this case, net sale consideration is Rs. 9,60,000 (ie., Rs.

9,80,000 - Rs. 20,000). Suppose, the trust acquires another
capital asset for Rs. 9,60,000 (or more), then the entire capital
gain of Rs. 3,60,000 will be exempt from tax. If, however, the
amount invested is less than Rs. 9,60,000, then the exemption
will be lower than Rs. 3,60,000. The amount of exemption
shall be determined as follows
Amount of invest,
ment in the hew
capital asset

Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Case 5

(1)
Rs.
9,60,000
9,00,000
7,00,000
6,00,000
5,00,000

Cost of th
Old asset
which is
Transferred
(2)
Rs.
6,00,000
6,00,000
6,00,000
6,00,000
6,00,000

Amount exempt as the

amount is applied
for charitable

[(1) - (2)]
Rs.
3,60,000
3,00,000
1,00,000
Nil
Nil

b. Brother or sister of the individual;

c. Brother or sister of the spouse of the individual;
d. Any lineal ascendant or descendant of the individual;
e. Any lineal ascendant or descendant of the spouse of the
individual;
f. Spouse of a person referred to in (b), (c), (d) or (e) above;
g. Any lineal ascendant or descendant of a brother or sister of
either the individual or of the spouse of the individual.
Substantial interest - Meaning of - For the aforesaid provisions, a person will be deemed to have substantial interest in a
company if he (or along with interested persons mentioned
above) beneficially holds at least 20% equity share capital of the
company at any time during the previous year. In the case of a
concern other than a company, a person will be deemed to have
substantial interest, if he (or along with interested persons
mentioned above) is entitled to at least 20% of the profits of
such concern at any time during the previous year.

61

Prob.5. If income of a trust/institution is used for the benefit

of interested persons, then exemption under section 11 is
not available. State the circumstances when income shall be
deemed to have been used in a manner which results in
conferring any benefit, amenity on any interested person.
Ans: Conferment of benefit, amenity or perquisite on an
interested person - The income or the property of the trust (or
institution) shall be deemed to have been used (or applied) in a
manner which results (directly or indirectly) in conferring any
benefit, amenity or perquisite (whether convertible into money
or not) on any interested person, in the following cases:
Where any part of the income or property of the trust (or
institution) is (or continues to be) lent to any interested person
for any period during the previous year without either adequate
security or adequate interest or both.
Where any land building or other property of the trust (or
institution) is (or continues to be) made available for the use of
any interested person for any period during the previous year
without charging adequate rent or other compensation.
Where any amount is paid by way of salary, allowance or
otherwise during the previous year to any interested person out
of the resources of the trust (or institution) for services
rendered by that person to such trust (or institution) and the
amount so paid is more than what may be reasonably paid for
such services.
Where the services of the trust or institution are made available
to any interested person during the previous year without
adequate remuneration or compensation.
Where any share, security or other property is purchased by or
on behalf of the trust (or institution) from any interested
person during the previous year for more than adequate
consideration.
Where any share, security or other property is sold by or on
behalf of the trust (or institution) to any interested person
during the previous year or less than adequate consideration.
Where any income or property of the trust (or institution) is
diverted during the previous year in favour of any interested
person. Where, however, the aggregate of income or the value
of the property so diverted does not exceed Rs. 1,000, this
provision is not interested person has a substantial interest
does not exceed 5 per cent of the capital of that concern,
exemption under section 11 will not be denied in relation to the
application of any income other than the income arising to the
trust or institution from such investment applicable.
Where any funds of the trust (or institution) are (or continues
to remain) invested for any period during the previous year in
any concern in which any interested person has a substantial
interest. Where, however, the aggregate of the funds of the
trust (or institution) invested in a concern in which any
interested person has a substantial interest does not exceed 5%
of the capital of that capital of that concern ,exemption u/s 11
will not be denied in relation to the application of any income
other than the income arising to the trust or institution from
such investment.
I have something more for you.

62

Objective Questions
l. Share of profit received by a partner from a partnership firm
is - (1) Exempt from tax in the hands of the partner; (2)
Chargeable to tax in the hands of the partners; (3)
Chargeable (or not) depending upon facts and circumstances
of the case; or (4) None of the above.
Ans: Exempt from tax in the hands of the partners.
2. X receives Rs. 3,40,000 from the Life Insurance Corporation
on December 5, 2003 on maturity of his endowment policy
(annual insurance premium: Rs. 12,000, sum assured: Rs.
3,00,000). The sum received includes Rs. 40,000 as bonus on
maturity. In such a case (1) Rs. 3,40,000 is chargeable to tax
for the assessment year 2004-05; (2) Rs. 40,000 is chargeable
to tax for the assessment year 2003-04; (3) Rs. 3,40,000 is
exempt from tax; or (4) None of the above.
Ans: Rs. 3,40,000 is exempt from tax.
3. X receives Rs. 55,000 as an award for tracing a missing person
on January 5, 2004. The father of the missing person
announced the award. The amount of award is - (1) Taxable
in the hands of X for the assessment year 2004-05; (2)
Exempt from tax; (3) Casual income of X for the
assessment year 200405; or (4) None of the above.
Ans: Taxable in the hands of X for the assessment year 2004-05.
4. Income of the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD), a
local authority, under the head Income from house
property is (1) Exempt from tax; (2) Chargeable to tax; or
(3) None of the above.
Ans: Exempt from tax.
5. X Ltd., an infrastructure capital company, approved by the
Central Government, has long-term capital gain of Rs.
5,20,000 for the previous year 2003-04. The amount is - (1)
Exempt from tax; (2) Chargeable to tax; or (3) None of the
above.
Ans: Exempt from tax.
6. The exemption under section 10(32) in case of a minor child
is - (1) Rs. i,500 in respect of each minor child; or (2) Rs.
1,500; or (3) Rs. 1,500 or the income of minor child included
in total income of the individual, whichever is lower.
Ans: Rs. 1,500 or the income of minor child included in the
total income of the individual, whichever is lower.
7. X Charitable Trust invests Rs. 1,25,000 in Indira Vikas Patra
on AprilS, 2003. The amount invested is - (1) In accordance
with the modes specified in section 11(5); or (2) Not in
accordance with the modes specified in section 11(5); or (3)
None of the above.
Ans: In accordance with the modes specified in section 11(5).
8. Income of a religious trust is chargeable to tax as income of
- (1) An association of persons; or (2) A body of
individuals; or (3) Individual; or (4) None of the above.
Ans: An association of persons.

LESSON 7:
INCOME FROM SALARY
Lesson Objective

To know basis of charge of salary income.

To know different types of allowances and there taxability.

To know valuation of perquisites.

To know the deductions from salary.

To know Rebate u/s 88,88B and 88C.

To know provisions for calculating taxable salary.

In corporate Taxation this income head is relevant from point

of view of TDS ( on salary) returns. Moreover today employees
look for a organization where they have maximum take
home amount and minimum tax .A tax planner is required to
plan the salary structure in such a manner that the tax liability
should be minimum. Students are suggested to refer suggested
books. Here we will just have an introduction to the topic.
Any remuneration paid by an employer to his employee in
consideration of his service is called salary. It includes monetary value of benefits and facilities provided by employer which
are taxable. Salary is paid in cash as well as in the form of
various allowances. The basic test of whether an income is
taxable as an salary income or not is Employer and Employee
Relation relationship between the two.

Basis of Charge as Per Section 15

As per section 15, salary consists of;
a. Any salary due from an employer (or a former employer) to
an assessee in the previous year, whether actually paid or not;
b. Any salary paid or allowed to him in the previous year by or
on behalf of an employer (or a former employer), though
not due or before it became due; and
c. Any arrears of salary paid or allowed to him in - the previous
year by or on behalf of an employer (or a former employer),
if not charged to income-tax for any earlier previous year.
Salary is taxable on due or receipt basis whichever is
earlier - Basis of charge in respect of salary income is fixed by
section 15. Salary is chargeable to tax either on due basis or on
receipt basis, whichever matures earlier. Accounting method
of the employee not relevant - It is worthwhile to mention that
salary is chargeable to tax on due or receipt basis (whichever
matures earlier) regardless of the fact whether books of account,
in respect of salary income, are maintained by the assessee on
mercantile basis or cash basis.
Therefore, various provisions are incorporated for valuation of
allowances and perquisites from tax point of view.
The term Salary as per Income Tax Act, 1961 [Section 17(1)] :
Salary is defined to include the following a) Wages, b) any
annuity or pension, c) any gratuity, d) any fees, ,commission,
perquisites or profits in lieu of or in addition to any salary or
wages; e) any advance of salary,; f) any payment received by an
employee in respect of any period of leave not availed by him g)

the taxable portion of annual, addition in the balance of

provident fund of employee, h) balance transferred to
recognised provident fund to the extent it is taxable.

Computation of Salary
Computation of taxable salary can be explained with the
following basic chart :
Salary
Basic Salary + Allowance + Perquisites + Profits in lieu of salary
Less
Standard Deduction + Entertainment Allowance + Employment tax
= Taxable Salary
Let us have a look what do we mean by allowances.
Payments in cash made by the employer to his employees
monthly, other that salary, is called an allowance. It is a fixed,
amount paid regularly in addition to salary for the purpose of
meeting some particular requirement connected with the
services rendered by an employee.
Allowances are classified in 3 categories as below:
1. Taxable allowances.
2. Allowances exempt from tax upto specified limit.
3. Fully exempted allowances.
Examples of allowances are given below:
a. Dearness allowance.
b. City compensatory Allowance.
c. Entertainment Allowance.
d. Medical AlIowance.
e. Special allowance.
f. Washing allowance.
g. Transport allowance
h. Tiffin allowance
i. Non practicing allowance - given to doctors in service
j. Hill station allowance.
k. Deputation allowance
l. Allowance to foreign citizens
m .Education allowance

Tax Treatment
House Rent Allowance
House rent allowance is paid to an assessee by his employer to
meet expenditure incurred on payment of rent in respect of
residential accommodation occupied by him. House rent
allowance is first added in the salary and the minimum of the
following is exempt from tax:

63

i. Amount equal to 50% of salary if house is situated in

Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi or Chennai and 40% of salary if he
is situated at any other place;

ployee. For valuation of this perquisites tax payers are classified

in three categories:

ii. House rent allowance actually received.

The value of rent free unfurnished house will be taken to be the

rent payable by the employee as per the government rules. The
value of rent free unfurnished accommodation provided to
government employees is arrived at as follows:

iii. Excess of rent paid over 10% of salary.

Note: Salary for this purpose means Basic salary, Dearness
allowance (if it forms part of salary), and Commission if based
on fixed percentage of turnover achieved by the employee.

Entertainment Allowance
It is an allowance given by an employer to his employee. It is
first added in salary and then deduction is given as per section
16(ii) which is explained below:
For the purpose of entertainment allowance employees are
classified as government employees and non-government
employees. Tax treatment is explained below:
a.

i. Rs. 5000, or
ii. 20% of salary, or
iii. the actual amount of entertainment allowance.
Non-government Employees

From assessment year 2002-03 and onwards entertainment

allowance received by an employee of a non-government
employer is not eligible for, deduction under section 16(11). It
is taxable under the head salaries.
As you know that a employee along with some allowances also
enjoys some Perquisites. Now we will see what we mean by a
Perquisite?
In order to attract and retain able employees organisation has to
pay them not only attractive salary but also offer other benefits
such as free accommodation, free use of motor car may be
along with driver, payment of gas, electricity and water charges
of the employees, providing with gardener, garden maintenance
expense etc. These are called as perquisites.
The term perquisites has been defined under section 17(2) as
follows:
perquisites may be defined as any casual emolument or
benefit attached to an office or position in addition to salary or
wages. It also denotes something that benefits a man by going
into his own pocket, it does not, however, cover mere reimbursement of necessary disbursements.
For perquisites in cash valuation is not necessary. They are added
in the amount of salary. However, when perquisites are paid in
kind they must be converted into money value because tax has
to be paid on salary including the taxable value of perquisites.
Hence, these perquisites paid in kind are valued as per income
tax rules.

Rules of Valuation of Perquisites

1. Rent free accommodation [ Rule 3 (a) ]
2. Rentfree unfurnished accommodation :
Rent free unfurnished accommodation means provision of free
housing (without furniture) facility by employer to the em64

Government Employees

Valuation = License Fee payable in respect of the accommodation in accordance with the government rules less Rent actually
paid by the employee.
ii.

Other Employees

Valuation depends upon whether the accommodation is owned

by the employer or is taken on lease or rent by the employer.,
a. Where accommodation is owned by the employer:
i.

10% of salary, in cities having population exceeding 4

lacs as per1991 census

ii.

15% of salary in other cities.

Government Employees

In case of government employees the least of the following is

exempt for tax.

b.

i.

b. Where accommodation is taken on lease or rent by the

employer Actual amount of lease rent paid or payable by the
employer or 10% of salary whichever is lower.
Note 1: Salary for the valuation of rent free unfurnished
accommodation will include basic salary plus all, taxable
allowances plus bonus plus Commission plus value of
electricity, gas and water bills paid or-reimbursed by the
Employer.

Valuation of Furnished Accommodation

If rent free furnished accommodation is provided then first
valuation of unfurnished accommodation is arrived at as per
the above provisions and 10% per annum of the original cost
of furniture is added in it. If furniture is hired by the employer
then actual hire charges are added in the valuation of unfurnished accommodation.
Perquisites in Respect of Motor Car
For valuation of this perquisite ownership of the car and the
purpose for which the car is used have to be taken, into account.
Accordingly, the following classification is made:

Particulars
a) If car is owned by the employee
1) Car expenses are met, by the
employee himself
2) Car expenses are met by the
employer
1. Car is used only for official purposes
2. Car is used for private purposes
3. Car is used for both official as well
as private purposes

Valuation
1) Not a perquisite, hence not
taxable

Not a perquisite hence not taxable

Actual expenditure of the employer
is taxable
A reasonable proportion of the
amount actually spent by the
employer as determined by ITO is
taken to be the value of perquisite.

b) Car is owned by the employer and

maintenance and running expenses are
met or reimbursed by the employer
1. Used only for official purposes

2. Used partly for. office and partly for

private

3.Used only for the private purpose of

an
employee
4.Used only for official purposes.
5.Used partly for office and partly for
private purposes

Not a perquisite provided

following if following conditions
are satisfied: i) The employer has to
maintained complete details of
journey undertaken for official
purpose. These particulars shall
include date of journey,
destination, mileage and: the
amount of expenditure incurred
thereon .ii) The employee gives a
certificate that the expenditure was
incurred wholly and exclusively for
the performance of his official
duty. iii)The supervising authority
of the employee, where ever
applicable gives a certificate to the
effect that the expenditure was
incurred wholly and exclusively for
the performance of his official
duty.
Rs. 1200 p.m. where the cubic
capacity of engine does not
exceed 1.6 litres or Rs. 1600 per
month if cubic capacity exceeds
1.6 litres. Rs. 600 p.m. is added in
the valuation if car is provided
along with chauffeur purposes
beyond 16 HP - 800 p.m.
* No specific rule

Not a perquisite hence not taxable.

Cubic capacity upto 1.6 litres 400
p.m. Cubic capacity beyond 1.6
litres 600 p.m.

Provisions regarding deductions from Salary Income :

Deductions from Salary Income (Section 16):
Income chargeable under the head Salaries is computed after
making the following deductions:
i. Standard deduction [Section 16(1)]
ii. Entertainment allowance [Section 16(11)]
iii. Professional tax: [Section 16(111)]
These are explained below:

Standard Deduction [Section 16(1)]

Standard deduction is allowed to all the salaried employees only.
For the Assessment Year 2003-2004 standard deduction is
available as under:

Annual Salary Income before

standard deduction
1,50,000 or less
More than Rs.1,50,000 but
not more than Rs.3,00,000
More than Rs.3,00,000 but
not more than Rs.5,00,000
More than Rs.5,00,000

Amount of Standard
deduction
1/3 of gross salary or
Rs.30,000 whichever is less
Rs.25,000.
Rs. 20,000.
Nil

Entertainment. Allowance [Section 16(11)]:

is an allowance given by an employer his employee. It is first
added in salary and then deduction is given as per section 16(ii)
which is explained below: For the purpose of entertainment
allowance employees are classified as government employees
and non-government employees. Tax treatment is explained
below:
a.

Government employees

In case of Government employees the least of the following is

exempt from tax:
i. Rs. 5000, or
ii. 20% of salary, or
iii. the actual amount of entertainment allowance.
From assessment year 2002-03 and onwards entertainment
allowance received by an employee of a non-government
employer is not eligible for deduction under section 16(ii). It is
taxable under the head salaries.
b.

Non-government Employees

From assessment year 2002-03 and onwards entertainment

allowance received by an employee of a non-government
employer is not eligible for deduction under section 16(ii). It is
taxable under the head salaries.

Professional Tax [Section 16(iii)]

Professional tax is levied by State Government. It is also called
as a tax, on employment. The actual amount of professional
tax deducted from the salary of an employee is allowed as a
deduction under section 16(iii).

Meaning, Types and Tax Treatment of

Provident Funds
Meaning
Provident Fund Scheme is a provision for retirement. As per
this scheme a certain percentage of salary is deducted as
contribution towards the fund. Employer generally contributes
an equal amount to the fund. This total amount is invested in
some securities. Interest earned on this amount is also credited
to the Provident Fund Account of an employee. On retirement, employee is paid the total amount standing to the credit
of his account, which includes:
1. Employees share of provident fund contribution,
2. Employers share of provident fund contribution,
3. Interest credited to the account.
However, employer in some cases may not contribute his share.
It depends upon the types of provident fund.

65

Types of Provident Fund

Provident funds are mainly classified in 3 types:
1.

Provisions Regarding Tax Rebate Under Section 88;

A salaried employee can claim tax rebate under the provisions

of sec.88, 88B and 88C.The steps in calculation of Tax Rebate
under section 88 are given below:

Statutory Provident Fund

Statutory provident fund is set up under the provisions of

Provident Fund Act 1925. This fund is maintained by
government organisations.
2.

1. Gross Qualifying Amount:

The gross qualifying amount is the aggregate of the following

amounts:

Recognised Provident Fund

a. Life Insurance Premium paid by an individual on his own

policies as well as on the policies of his children and policies
of spouse (life partner).

Recognised provident fund is set up under the provisions of

Employees Provident Fund and Gratuity Act, 1952. Generally,
employees in the private sector establishment wherein 20 or
more workers are employed are covered in recognised provident
fund.
3.

b. Contribution to provident fund (excluding contribution to

unrecognised provident fund).
c. Contribution to approved superannuation fund

Unrecognised Provident Fund

A provident ,fund not recognised by the Commissioner of

Income Tax (CIT) is called as unrecognised provident fund.

f. Contribution to PPF

4.

f. Interest accrued on NSC

e. Amount invested in National Savings Certificates (NSC)

Public Provident Fund

PPF scheme is established by Central Government for the

benefit of general public. A person need riot be a salaried
employee to take part in the scheme (salaried class of employees
can also open PPF account) wherein any person from the
general public can open PPF account in State Bank of India or
other notified nationalised banks for a period of 15 years in the
first instance. Interest at the notified rate (presently 9.5%p.a.) is
credited to this account.

g. Investment in Unit Linked Insurance Plan, 1971 of UTI

h. Repayment of housing loan upto Rs. 20,000 (principal
amount) provided the loan is taken from approved financial
institution
i. Investment in infrastructural bonds
An individual can invest maximum Rs. 100000(including
Rs.30000 in infrastructural bonds) in these securities. Thus,
maximum permissible investment ,in securities other than
investments in infrastructure bonds is restricted to Rs. 70,000.

Tax Treatment
The following table explains the tax treatment of various
provident funds mentioned above
Particulars

Statutory provident
fund

Employer's,
Contribution to
Provident fund
Tax rebate u/s 88
on employees
contribution.
Interest credited to
provident fund
Particulars

Exempt from tax

Available

Exempt from tax

Statutory provident.
fund

Lump sum payment

at the time of
retirement or
termination of
service.

66

Exempt from tax

Recognised

Unrecognised

Public

provident fund

provident fund

Provident fund

Exempt upto 12
percent of salary

Except from tax

employer does not

contribute

Available

Not Available

Exempt from tax if

rate of interest does
not exceed notified
rate of interest
excess.

Exempt from tax

Recognised

Unrecognised

Public

provident fund

provident fund

provident fund

Payment received in
respect of employee's
own contribution is
Exempt from tax
exempt from tax
in some cases when lnterest on
not exempt provident employee's.
fund will be treated contribution is
as an unrecognised taxable under the
fund from the
head"Income from
beginning
other sou rces".
Balance is taxable
under the
head"Salaries"

.Available

Exempt from

Exempt from tax

2. Amount of Tax Rebate

a. 30% of qualifying amount:

Tax rebate under section 88 will be available @ 30% of qualifying amount if the following 2 conditions are satisfied :
1. Income from salary before giving deduction under section 16
does not exceed Rs. 1 lacs and
2. Income from salary is not less than 90% of gross-total
income.
b. 20% of qualifying amount:
If gross total income does not exceed Rs. 1,50,000, Tax rebate
will be available at 20% of the qualifying amount.
c. 15% of qualifying amount:
If gross total income exceeds RS.1 ,50,000 but does not exceed
Rs. 5,00,000 tax rebate will be available at 15% of the qualifying
amount.
d. No tax rebate under section 88:
If gross total income exceeds Rs. 5,00,000 tax rebate under
section 88 will not be available.

Section 88B:
This section is applicable to the senior citizens.4above 65 years):
They can claim additional tax rebate of the lower of the
following two amounts:
1. Tax liability (before giving any rebate under section 88)
2. Rs.20,000
Section 88C:
Women assesses below 65 years of age can get additional rebate
of the least of the following two amounts:
1. Tax liability (before giving any rebate under Section 88)
2. Rs. 5,000
So far, we have discussed basic provisions regarding salary,
allowances and perquisites.
In our discussion we have included all the allowances and
discussed provisions regarding tax treatment of provident fund
and also rebate under section 88. On this basis now you can
attempt problem on this topic. However, a problem on salary
income has to be solved in a particular format which is given
below:

Particulars
Basic Salary
Add: Allowances:
Less: Allowances to the extent exempt
Add: Taxable value of Perquisites.
Gross Salary
Less : Deductions u/s 16:
1.Standard deduction u/s 16(i)
2. Entertainment Allowance u/s 16(ii)
3. Professional Tax u/s 16(iii)
Income from Salary.
Tax
Less : Rebate u/s 88,88B,88C.
Tax before surcharge
Add : Surcharge
Tax liability
Less : TDS
Advance Tax paid
Self assessment Tax paid
Tax Payable / Refundable

Rs.
XXX
XXX

XXX
XXX
XXX

XXX
XXX
XXX

Rs.
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX

XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX

XXX
XXX

Students are suggested to refer Income Tax Act 2003 and

Income Tax Rules for detail provisions of the Act. Now we will
have a look on some of the important aspects directly related
with the Corporates.
ESOPs or SWEAT EQUITY is the stuff that has made
crorepatis of even car-drivers in Company(s) like Infosys. These
are relatively new in India but gradually becoming the most
favoured portion of remuneration in private Company(s).

What are ESOPs?

ESOPs or Employees Stock Options Plans is the generic term
for a basket of instruments and incentive schemes that find
favour with the new upward mobile salary class and which are
used to motivate, reward, remunerate and hold on to achievers.
ESOPs are generally granted in the from of directly allotted
shares, debentures or warrants, stock options etc. These ESOPs
can have numerous variations alternative options. The characteristic facet of these ESOPs is that the compensation gets linked
with the increase in the price of the shares of the Employer
Company or rather the net worth of Company.
Variety Of ESOPs
The first variety of ESOPs is the scheme under which the
employee is directly allotted shares by the Company either at
market price or at a concessional price. Source of purchase may
be own funds of the employee or loan(s) from the Company,
Banks, Financial Institutions.
The second Variety is when the employee has the option to
acquire shares, debentures or warrants of the Company at a
price that may be the market price or lower than that. There is a
waiting period or Vesting Period when the employee has to
wait to exercise his option. After this is the Exercise Period
during which the option can be exercised for allotment of
shares, debentures or warrants.
There may also be a Lock-in Period during which the employee
can not sell these shares.
67

Third Variety may be Stock Appreciation Rights. A specified

number of shares are notionally allotted to him at a certain
price. At the end of a specified period, the price of the shares is
noted and if the price has increased then the difference is paid to
him by the Company.
Another Variety may be staggered options available to the
employee over a period of time.

What is a Stock Option?

It is a right, but not compulsion. The option-holder mayor
may not acquire the shares of the Company during a Specified
period at a pre-determined price, irrespective of the market price
at the time of giving the Stock option by the Company or at the
time of exercise of the option by the employee. There are many
factors to determine the employees decision with regard to
stock-options. It may happen that the employee ultimately may
not exercise his option.
What is Sweat Equity?
Sweat Equity means equity shares issued by the company to
employees or directors at a discount or for consideration other
than cash for making available know how in the nature of
intellectual property rights or value additions, by whatever name
called.
Who can Issue Sweat Equity?
All Company(s), whether private, public, listed or not-listed can
issue Sweat Equity Shares.
What is the Difference Between Sweat Equity and
ESOPs?
There may be no difference as the objective of both is to
remunerate the employee. Sweat Equity is only for issue of
shares, debentures or warrants at a discount or even nil consideration. ESOPs are incentive scheme(s) to motivate and retain
productive employees.
Can Sweat Equity be Issued for Free?
The Law has not set any limit on the rate of discount for issue
of shares to employees, the discount may be 100%.
Would the Benefit to the Employee in Account of
Free or Concessional Allotment or Shares,
Debentures or Warrants be not Taxed as Perquisites?
Yes and no, both! For AY 2000-01, the difference between the
market value and the cost of acquisition of such shares,
debentures or warrants was taxable as perquisites. However, for
AY.2001-02 and subsequent year(s), the Law stands modified
and such benefit(s) are not to be taxed as perquisites. Mere grant
of stock options or even exercise of such stock options
whereby shares are in fact allotted does not attract tax as
perquisite(s). They are to be taxed only once when sold, as
capital gains.
But What Shall be the Cost of the Shares if the Tax
had been Levied as Perquisite at the Time of
Exercise of Option?
In case where tax has been levied as perquisite at the time of the
exercise of the option by the employees, its fair market value at
the time of exercise of option shall be the cost of the share for
working out the capital gain. This amendment is w.e.f. 1.4.01

68

and, applies in relation to the AY. 2001-2002 and subsequent

years.

Does it Mean that Transfer of Capital Assets

Received as ESOPs or Sweat Equity Would not
Attract Capital Gains Tax?
No. Now w.e.f. 1.4.2001 i.e. for AY. 2001-02 and subsequent
year(s), even when such share(s), debenture(s) or warrant(s)
(received as ESOPs/Sweat Equity) are transferred.
under a gift or an irrevocable trust, the transaction will be a
taxable transfer. The transfer consideration will be the market
value of such assets minus the cost paid by the employee, if
any.
At What Rate is the Long Term Capital Gains in
Respect to GDRs Issued to Employees Under ESOPs
Taxable?
On Income by way of dividends or long term capital gains
Global Depository Receipts (GDRs) of an Indian company
purchased by a resident employee of such company engaged in
information technology software and/ or services, as per a
notified ESOP, is taxable u/s 115 ACA.
Do these Provisions Extend to Subsidiary
Companies, other Knowledge Based Industries?
Yes. With effect from 1.4.02, i.e. in relation to the A.Y. 20022003 and subsequent years, this concessional rate of taxation
now extends to income in respect of GDRs purchased by
employees of companies engaged in other knowledge based
sectors also, viz., entertainment service, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology industry or any other service as may be notified. The
concessional rate of taxation also applies to income from the
GDRs purchased by employees of subsidiary companies,
whether domestic or foreign, of the above companies.
What is the Position of TDS in the Year Such ESOPs
or Sweat Equity are Given/Allotted by the
Company?
When w.e.f. 1.4.01 the IT Act, 1961 does not consider
concessional allotment of share(s), debenture(s) or warrant(s)
to be treated as perquisites so the question of deducting TDS is
extraneous for A.Y. 2001-02 and subsequent year(s).

TDS (Tax Deducted at Source) and Salary

As I said in the beginning a finance person or the incharge is
under obligation to deduct TDS, we will study the provisions
of the TDS and salary.
Taxable income under the head Salaries for the purpose of
deduction of Tax at Source is estimated as below:
1. First the gross salary is computed after excluding all the
exempted income.
2. Then deduction(s) u/s. 16 is allowed.
After that, deductions under Chapter VI-A of the
3. Income Tax Act, 1961 are allowed. But it has to be ensured
that the aggregate of the deductions does not exceed the
figure of [(a)-(b)] and if the aggregate exceeds [(a)-(b)), the
same should be restricted to that amount.

This will be the amount of income under the head Salaries on

which Income tax would be deducted. This income should be
rounded off to the nearest multiple of ten rupees. Thereafter,
Income tax on the estimated income from salary is calculated at
the rates in force. The amount of tax rebate(s) is then deducted
from the income tax calculated. However, the tax rebate(s) are
limited to the income tax so calculated.
The amount of tax so arrived at should be deducted every
month in equal installments The net amount of tax deductible
is to be rounded off to the nearest rupee.
If the tax payer was working under two employers how is tds
to be deducted?
Section 192(2) provides for deduction of tax at source by such
employer (as the tax payer may choose) from the aggregate
salary of the employee who is or has been in receipt of salary
from more than one employer The employee furnishes to the
chosen employer details of the income under the head Salary
due/received from the former / other employer and also tax
deducted at source there from in writing and duly verified by
him and by the former / other employer. Then the present
employer will deduct tax at source for both the salary(s).

Is It Necessary that Deductions Claimed Should have

been Made out of Income Chargeable to Tax?
Yes. It is to be noted that deductions under Chapter VI-A of
the IT Act, 1961 are allowed only if the investments/payments
are made out of the income chargeable to tax of the financial
year relevant to the assessment year.
If the Tax Payer also Enjoys Income Under Other
Heads of Incomes/Sources, Should the Employer
Deduct TDS on Such Other Income(s)?
Not necessarily. An option to be is given U /S 192(2B) which
enables a tax payer to furnish details of income under any head
other than Salaries and to get the TDS thereon.
The employer shall take such other income and tax, if any,
deducted at source from such income, into account for the
purpose of computing tax deductible under section 192 of the
Income-tax Act. From 1.8.98 the DDOs have been empowered
to take into account the loss if any under the head Income
from House Property for making deduction of Income-Tax U
/S 192(1).
If the Salary is Being Paid in Foreign Currency What
Would be Its Taxable Value?
For the purpose of TDS on salary payable in foreign currency)
the value in rupees shall be calculated at the prescribed rate of
exchange, for each such payment.
Can TDS be Made at a Lower Rate or no Deduction
be Made Altogether?
Yes. Section 197 enables the tax payer to make an application in
Form No. 13 to his Assessing officer. In the absence of such a
certificate from employee, the employer should deduct income
tax on the salary payable at normal rates (Circular No.147 dated
28-10-1974).

If the Employer does not Issue a TDS Certificate, Is

There a Remedy?
Yes. As per Section 203, every person responsible for TDS must
furnish a certificate to the payee that tax has been deducted and
to specify the amount so deducted. This TDS certificate must be
furnished within one month from the end of the relevant
financial year. Even the banks deducting tax at the time of
payment of pension or bank-interest are required to issue such
certificates. This certificate is to be issued on the tax deductors
own stationary. If he fails to issue the TDS certificate to the tax
payer, he will be liable to pay, by way of penalty, under section
272A, a sum @ Rs. 100 for every day during which the failure
continues. However, the penalty shall not exceed the amount of
tax deductible.
Is the Liability of the Employer to Deduct and Pay
Tax Uis 192(1) Absolute and What if He Fails to do
So?
Yes. Such liability is absolute and any failure would attract
interest liability as well as other penal provisions. [CBDT F. No.
2371 41 75-AI PAC11 23.11.76]. He may also be prosecuted.
So again its time for you to answer my questions now.
Theoretical Problems
1. Write a short note on Income from Salary.
2. Write a note on Valuation of Perquisites.
3. State the importance of Income from Salary in Corporate
Tax Planning.
(Guidelines : Corporates are required to deduct tax at source
from salary for salaried employees and file a TDS return with
the department. Non compliance results in penalty.)
My special students something special for you.
Practical Problems
Prob:1: X is in the teaching staff of a well-known private
college in Pune. During the previous year 2003-04, he gets the
following emoluments: Basic salary: Rs. 1,86,000; dearness
allowance: Rs. 12,300 (forming part of salary) ; city compensatory allowance: Rs. 3,100 ; childrens education allowance: Rs.
2,340 (Rs. 65 per month for 3 children); house rent allowance:
Rs. 16,200 (rent paid: Rs. 20,000) and remuneration from the
Delhi University for acting as paper setter and examiner: Rs.
36,400 (expenditure incurred by X Rs. 3,400). He gets Rs. 18,890
as reimbursement from the employer in respect of expenditure
incurred on medical treatment of his family members from a
doctor. Besides, he gets Rs. 12,600 as reimbursement from the
employer in respect of books and journals purchased by him
for discharging his official work.
He contributes 11 per cent of his salary to statutory provident
fund to which a matching contribution is made by the employer. During the year, he spends Rs. 3,000 on purchase of
books for teaching purposes (not being reimbursed by the
employer). Besides, he makes an expenditure of Rs. 6,000 on
maintaining car for going to the college and pays Rs. 16,000 as
insurance premium on own life insurance policy (sum assured:
Rs. 50,000). Determine the taxable income and tax liability of X
for the assessment year 2004-05. Does it make any difference if
education allowance is for the grandchildren of X ?

69

Ans:
Basic salary

186000

Dearness allowance

12300

City compensatory allowance Education allowance:

Education allowance:
Less: Exempt [see Note 3
House rent allowance

3100
2340

780

16200

Less: Exemption [see Note 1]

170 16030

Reimbursement of medical expenditure

(i.e., Rs. 18,890 - Rs. 15,000)

3890

(not chargeable to tax)

Gross salary

Nil
222100

Less: Standard deduction

Net salary

30000
192100
33000

Less: Deductions

Nil
225100

Income-tax [see Annex 1]

41530

Less: Rebate under section 88

21813

Gross qualifying amount

10000

Contribution to statutory provident fund

Insurance premium(maximum: 2096 of sum assured)
Total

31813
4772
36758

Amount of rebate [1596 of Rs. 31,813] [see Note 4]

Tax (i.e., Rs. 41,530 - Rs. 4,772)

Nil
36758

Add: Surcharge (surcharge is not applicable if

net income does not exceed Rs. 8.50 lakh)
Tax payable
Notes:

Nil
36758

1. House rent allowance is exempt from tax to the extent of

the least of the following:

150000

Leave travel concession for proceeding on leave

(actual expenditure on rail fare: Rs. 4,100)

3800

Tiffin allowance (actual expenditure: Rs. 2,700)

4000
Reimbursement of ordinary medical expenses for
treatment of X and his family members in a private clinic 31300
Besides, X enjoys the following perks:
Free unfurnished flat at Delhi (rent paid by employer: Rs.
80,000).

Free use of Maruti 800 for official purposes. Car can also be
used for journey betweenoffice and residence and back and for
other domestic purposes (log-book is not maintained by the
employer).
Free meal (at the place of work): Rs. 14,700 (i.e., Rs. 70 per day
for 210 days, amount is directly paid to canteen by the employer).
Interest-free loan for purchasing home appliances (amount: Rs.
1,20,000; date of taking loan: March 1, 2000. Amount outstanding between April 1, 2003 and November 30, 2003: Rs.
76,000 and after November 30, 2003 : Rs. 50,000).
Though the salary falls due on last day of each month, salary of
March 2004 is received on April 15, 2004. Determine the taxable
income of X.
Ans:
Particulars

a.

Rs. 79,320 (being 4096 of Rs. 1,98,300) ;

Salary

b.

Rs. 16,200 (being the amount of house rent

allowance); or

Leave travel concession [exempt from tax ]

c.

Rs. 170 [being the excess of rent, paid over 1096 of

salary, i.e., Rs. 20,000 - 1096 of (Rs.l,86,000 +Rs.
12,300)].

Rs. 170 (being the least of the three sums) is, therefore,
exempt from tax .
2. Expenditure on books and maintenance of car is not
separately deductible, as standard deduction under section
16(z) is provided at prescribed rates in respect of
expenditure, incidental to the employment of an assessee.
Actual expenditure is, therefore, neither relevant nor taken
into account while computing taxable income.

70

Rs.

The employer provides two watchmen (salary: Rs. 700 per

month per person).

Tax on net income

[i.e., 1196 of (Rs. 1,86,000 + Rs. 12,300)]

Prob.2: X receive the following incomes during the year ending

March 31, 2004:
Salary (@ Rs. 12,500 for 12 months)

and journals for official work

Net income

4. In case gross total income exceeds Rs. 1,50,000 but does not
exceed, Rs. 5,00,000, the rebate under section 88 is available
@ 1596 of the net qualifying amount.

Particulars

Reimbursement of expenditure on books

Income from other sources

(i.e., Rs. 36,400 - Rs. 3.400) Gross total income

3. Education allowance for children is not chargeable to tax up

to Rs. 100 per child per month for a maximum of 2
children. Therefore, in this case, the amount not chargeable
to tax is Rs. 65 per month for 2 children, i.e., Rs. 1,560. If,
however, education allowance is given for grandchildren,
then exemption is not available.

Rs.
150000
Nil

Tiffin allowance (fully taxable)

Reimbursement of ordinary medical
expenditure (Rs. 31,300 - Rs. 15,000)

16300

Rent-free unfurnished flat [see Note 1]

15400

Two watchmen (Rs. 700 X 12 X 2)

16800

Free use of Maruti car (Rs. 1,200 X 12)

14400

Free meals [(Rs. 70-Rs. 50) X 210 days]

Perquisite in respect of interest-free loan
[1396 p.a. of Rs. 76,000 for 8 months + 1396 p.a.
of Rs. 50,000 for 4 months]
Gross salary

4000

4200

8753
229853

Less: Standard deduction

30000

Net income (rounded off)

199850

House rent allowance

Less: Exempt [see Note 2]

17,000
1800

Notes:

Academic research allowance [Rs. 10,000 - Rs. 4,000]

1 Salary for the purpose of computation of value of the

perquisite in respect of rent-free flat works out to Rs.
1,54,000 (i.e., Rs. 1,50,000 + Rs. 4,000). Rs. 15,400 (being
1096 of salary or rent paid by employer, whichever is lower,
is chargeable to tax).

Hotel accommodation [see Note 6]

2. Though salary of March 2004 is received after March 31,

2004, it will be chargeable to tax as the income of the
previous year 2003-04 on due basis.

Gross salary
Less: Standard deduction under section 16(1)

Particulars

PF contribution

Employers contribution to provident fund

21,600

Interest credited on May 10, 2003 to the provident

fund at the rate of 16.5 per cent

30,000

Allowance for holiday trip

1,800

Academic research allowance for training of X

10,000

House rent allowance

(rent paid for a house in Ajmer by X : Rs. 16,200)

17,000

X pays life insurance premium of Rs. 9,000 on own life

insurance policy (sum assured: Rs. 1,00,000)
On March 10,2004, X gets a wrist watch (cost: Rs. 3,610) from the
employer in appreciation of his past services. On March 17,2004,
X is transferred from Ajmer to Udaipur. While his family remains
in Ajmer, he joins his duties at Udaipur on March 18,2004. An
accommodation is provided by the employer in Royal Star Hotel.
Udaipur from March 18,2004 to March 31, 2004 (tariff being Rs.
1,200 per day is paid by employer).
Determine the taxable income and tax liability of X for the
assessment year 2004-05 assuming that income from other
sources is Rs. 86,720, X annually contributes Rs. 3,000 towards
the Unit-linked Insurance Plan and on March 10,2004, he has
received a sum of Rs. 2,600 from the Income-tax Department
(Rs. 2,400 being income-tax refund and Rs. 200 being interest
thereon).
Ans:
Basic salary [Note I]
Employers contribution to recognised provident
fund in excess of 12% of basic salary (i.e., Rs.
21,600 - 1296 of Rs. 1,44,000)
Interest credited to provident fund in excess
of 9.596 per annum (i.e., Rs. 30,000 X 7 + 16.5)
Holiday trip allowance

Income-tax [see Annex 1]

86920

46291

Gross qualifying amount

21600

LIP payment

9000

Unit-linked insurance plan

3000

Total
Amount of salary of rebate (15% of Rs. 33,600)
[see Note 7]

33600

Tax payable

41251

5040

Notes:
1. Computation of basic salary

[expenditure incurred: Rs. 4,000]

Particulars

30000

240970

Less: Tax rebate under section 88

3,500

184047

Net income (rounded off)

Prob:3. X gives the undernoted particulars of his income for

the year ending March 31, 2004 :

Tax deducted at source

Nil

154047

Tax on Rs. 2,40,970

Salary [after deduction of tax at source and own

contribution @ 15 per cent to recognized provident fund] 1,18,900

6000

Net salary
Income from other sources [Rs. 86,720 + Rs. 200,
being interest on income-tax refund]

3. Free meal (at the place of work) up to Rs. 50 per meal is not
chargeable to tax.

Rs.

15200

Rs.
144000

4320
27727
1800

Amount of salary net of tax and Xs contribution

towards provident fund

118900

Add: Tax deducted at source

Salary (net of Xs PF contribution @ 15%)

3500
122400

Add: PF contribution of X (i.e., 15/85 of

Rs. 1.22,400 or 15% of Rs. 1,44,000)

21600

Basic salary

144000

2. House rent allowance is exempt from tax to the extent of the

least of the following:
a.

Rs. 57,600 (being 40% of Rs. 1,44,000);

b.

Rs. 17,000 (being the amount of house rent

allowance); or

c.

Rs. 1,800 [being the excess of rent paid (i.e., Rs.

16,200), over 10% of salary, i.e., Rs. 1,44,000]

House rent allowance not chargeable to tax is Rs. 1,800.

3. Income-tax refund is not taxable. Interest on income-tax refund
is, however, taxable under the head Income from other
sources.
4. Tax payable is computed before deducting any prepaid taxes, i.e.,
tax deducted at source, advance tax and self-assessment tax.
5. As the cost of wrist watch is below Rs. 5,000, it is not chargeable
to tax.
6. If hotel accommodation is provided on transfer of an employee
for a period of 15 days, it is not chargeable to tax.
7. In case gross total income exceeds Rs.1,50,000 but does not
exceed Rs. 5,00,000, the rebate under section 88 is available @ 15
per cent of the net qualifying amount.

71

LESSON 8:
HOUSE PROPERTY
Lesson Objective

To know basis of income from house property

To know how to calculate income from house property.

Income from House Property

As we know that there are five heads of income, after salary we
will discuss about income from house property. The basis of
charge of income of salary is employee and employer relationship. Similarly, when we can say that the income received from
house property is taxable under the head income from house
property and not as business income.
Say that A Ltd. in business of running and operating Cinema
Halls. Here the question arises whether the income received
from operating the theatre is taxable as business income or
income from house property. Section 22 will answer our
question. Basis of charge is given in Section 22.

Chargeability [Section 22]

The annual value of property consisting of any buildings or
lands appurtenant thereto of which the assessee is the owner
shall be subject to Income-tax under the head Income from
house property after claiming deduction under section 24
provided such property, or any portion of such property is not
used by the assessee for the purposes of any business or
profession, carried on by him, the profits of which are chargeable to Income-tax.
Thus in above example A Ltd. should consider it as income
from Bussiness and not from House Property, just for the
reason that the property i.e. cinema property is used for
business. Thus if an asseessee is using the house property for
business or profession it cannot be taxed as income from house
property just for the reason that it is derived from house
property.
Basis of Charge
The basis of calculating income from house property is the
annual value. This is the inherent capacity of the property to
earn income. Income from house property is perhaps the only
income that is charged to tax on a notional basis. The charge is
not because of the receipt of any income but is on the inherent
potential of house property to generate income. The annual value
is the amount for which the property might reasonably be
expected to let from year to year.
Essential conditions for taxing income under this head :
The following three conditions must be satisfied before the
notional rental income of the property can be taxed under the
head Income from House Property:
i. The property must consist of buildings and lands
appurtenant thereto,
ii. The assessee must be the owner of such house property,

72

iii. The property may be used for any purpose, but it should
not be used by the owner for the purpose of any business or
profession carried on him, the profit of which are chargeable
to tax.
Property Must Consist of any Buildings or Lands
Appurtenant Thereto

Although the Act has used the word property in section 22,
but income of all types of properties are not taxable under this
head. The term property has a very wide meaning but property in sections 22 to 27 has not been used in its wider sense or
meaning. It is very much limited to a type defined by the
language of the section i.e. buildings and lands appurtenant
thereto. [Chitpore Golabari Co. P. Ltd. v CIT (1971) 82 ITR 753
(Cal)]. In other words there must be a house property which
must consist of buildings or land appurtenant thereto.
If any income is derived from vacant land then this income
would not be taxed under the head house property because
there is no building. Such income shall, however, be taxed
under the head income from other sources or income from
business depending upon the facts of the case.
Ownership of the Property

The assessee must be the owner of such house property. Any

income derived from a property which is not owned by the
assessee cannot be taxed under this head e.g. X takes a house on
rent of Rs. 4,000 p.m. and sublets it to Y and receives a rent of
Rs. 8,000 p.m. for this house. The rent derived by X cannot be
taxed under this head because X is not the owner of the house.
This income will be taxed either as business income or as
income from other sources.
1. The person who owns the building need not also be the
owner of the land upon which it stands. [Tinsukia
Development Corporation v CIT (1979) 120 ITR 466 (Cal)].
2. Though under the common law owner means a person
who has got valid title legally conveyed to him after
complying with the requirements of law such as the Transfer
of Property Act, the Registration Act, etc., in the context of
section 22, having regard to the ground realities and further
having regard to the object of the Income-tax Act, namely, to
tax the income, owner is a person who is entitled to receive
income from the property in his own right. The requirement
of registration of the sale deed in the context of section 22 is
not warranted. [CIT v PodarCement Pvt. Ltd (1997) 2261TR
625 (SC)].
Ownership includes both free-hold and lease-hold rights and
also includes deemed ownership.
Use of the House Property

For the purpose of charge under the head income from house
property, the crucial words are buildings or lands appurtenant
thereto. The purpose for which the building, etc. is being used

is not material. [CIT v Kanai Yalal Mimani (1979) 120 ITR 892
(Cal)] Thus house property may be let by the assessee for
residential purposes or for any commercial purpose. The
income derived from letting out of such house property will
always be taxable under this head. Even if it is the business of
the assessee to own and give houses on rent or to trade in
houses, the annual value of the houses owned by him during
the previous year would be taxable as Income from house
property. The annual value of house property, though
belonging to a business, must be charged under this head and
not under section 28, if the property is not used by the assessee
for the purposes of his business. It will remain so even if
property is held by the assessee as stock in trade of a business.
House owning, however profitable, is neither trade nor
business for the purpose of the Act. Similarly income from
property acquired in the course of money lending business and
treated as part of stock in trade of that business is to be
computed under section 22 and not under section 28.
[O.R.M.SP.SV. Firm v CIT (1960) 39 ITR 327 (Mad)].
However, the following are the exceptions to the above rule:
A. The annual value of the house property/portion of the
house property which is used for purpose of the business or
profession carried on by the assessee does not fall under this
head, provided profits of such business or profession are
chargeable to income-tax.
B. Where the property is let out with the object of carrying on
the business of the assessee in an efficient manner, then the
rental income shall be taxable as business income (provided
letting is not the main business but it is subservient!
incidental to the main business) because the letting out of
the property is incidental to the main business of the
assessee and in this case deductions/ allowances would have
to be calculated as relating to profits/gains of business and
not as relating to house property.
Similarly, where the premises of the assessee are given to any
Government agency for locating a branch of a bank, police
station, excise office, etc. for the purpose of running the
business of the assessee more efficiently, the rental income
from such buildings would be taxable as business income.
[CIT v National Newsprint & Paper Mills Ltd. (1978) 114
ITR 388 (MP)].
C. Where the income received is not from the bare letting of the
tenement or from the letting accompanied by incidental
services or facilities, but the subject hired out is a complex
one and the income obtained is not so much because of the
facilities and services rendered, the operations involved in
such letting of the property may be of the nature of
business or trading operations and the income derived may
be income not from exercise of property rights properly so
called so as to fall under section 22 but income from
operations of a trading nature falling under section 28. [CIT
v National Storage (P) Ltd (1967) 66 ITR 596 (SC). Similarly,
where the letting of the property is inseparable from letting
of other assets like machinery, furniture, etc. the entire
income would be taxable as profits or gains of business and
profession or income from other sources.

Property in a foreign country: In case of resident in India

(individual and HUF resident and ordinary resident in India)
income from property situated in foreign country is taxable,
whether such income is brought into India or not under the
provisions of this section. [Arunachalam Chettiar v. CIT (1945)
13 ITR 183 (Mad)] However, if the assessee is non-resident in
India or resident but not ordinarily resident in India, income
from a property situated in foreign country will be taxable in
India only when it is received in India during the previous year.
Under the head Income from House Property the basis of
charge is the annual value of the property.

What is Annual Value?

Annual Value is the amount for which the property might
reasonably be expected to let from year to year.
Four important points that are worth noting in the definition
of Income from Hose Property.
Income tax is levied on buildings or lands appurtenant thereto.
Annual value is the basis of computation of income. The legal
owner of the house property must be the assesses. The house
must not be used for the assesses business or profession.

Exceptions
Exceptions to the general rule that income from house property
is taxable under the head Income from House Property
Payingguest accommodation (it is assessable as business
income) Apartments, Buildings or staff quarters that have been
let out to employees and others. If letting houses on rent is the
assesses business then such an income is charged under the
head Business or Profession and not under the head Income
from House Property.
Letting of residential flats to employees is subservient and
incidental to the main business of the assessee ,rent charged by
the company or the employer will be taxable under the head
Profits and Gains of the business or profession.

Who are the OWNERS of a House Property?

The following are the owners of a house property:
The person in whose name the property is registered. In case of
a property where there is any dispute, the recipient of rental
income or the person who is in possession of the property. In
case of mortgage, it is the mortgagor and not the mortgage.
Who are Deemed Owners?
The following are deemed to be owners of the property:
An individual who transfers any house property to his or her
spouse e or to a minor child not being a married daughter,
without adequate consideration or not being a transfer in
connection with an agreement to live apart.
The holder of an impartible estate is a deemed owner of all the
properties comprised in the estate.
If a person takes land on lease and constructs a house upon it.
A member of Co-operative Society, Company to whom a
building or its part is allotted or leased under a house building
scheme of the society or the company.

73

Exempted Incomes
There are 2 Kinds of Exemptions Regarding Income
from House Property
Fully Exempted Income:
These are those income from house property that are fully
exempted from calculation.
Income from farm house.
Annual value of one palace of ex-Indian ruler.
Income from property used for assesses own business or
profession.
Income from one self-occupied house.
Income from house meant for self-residence but could not be
occupied throughout the P.Y. on account of his service,
business or profession at any other place.
Income from Property Owned by:

Local authority

Political party

Trade union

Charitable trust

Hospital

Games or Sports association

Development authority

University, college, etc

Partially Exempted Income

These are those income that is included in the assessors gross
total income but deduction is allowed from gross total income.
Income of a co-operative society from the letting of godown
for storage of commodities meant for sale. [Sec. 80P(2)]
Income of a co-operative society from house property, provided
its gross total income does not exceed Rs.20000 and the society
is not a housing society or any society manufacturing goods
with the aid of power.

Annual Value
An assessors income from house property is computed on the
basis of its annual value. Annual Value is the amount for which
the property might reasonably be expected to let from year to
year. If the annual value is not determined correctly, the taxable
income from house property will be wrong.

Calculation of Gross Annual Value

The Gross Annual Value can be decided on the basis of the
following factors:
De facto rent or Actual rental income Municipal valuation Fair
rent Standard rent where Rent Control Act is applicable House
which is let out Self-occupied house

Let Out Houses

Which is not Covered by Rent Control Act

In such a case, gross annual value is the greatest of the following three: (i) de facto rent; (ii) municipal value; (iii) fair rent
Which is Covered by Rent Control Act.

In this case, the gross annual value will be the actual rent
received or standard rent, whichever is higher. The gross
74

annual value can be lower than standard rent but it cannot

exceed standard rent except when de facto rent is higher than
standard rent.

Steps to Compute Gross Annual Value

Find out the maximum of municipal value, de facto rent, fair
rent of the property as if it is not covered by the Rent Control
Act. The maximum amount arrived as per the above step
should not exceed the following : De facto rent; or Standard
rent whichever is higher.
Self Occupied Houses
If it is self occupied for his own residential purposes and there
is only one such house, its annual value is NIL. Annual value in
case of more than one house being self occupied for residential
purposes. In Such a case only one house of his choice is treated
as Self Occupied and all other houses will be considered as
Deemed Let Out. In case of Deemed Let Out the gross
annual will be (a) Municipal value or (b) Fair rent, whichever is
higher. If such a property is governed by the Rent Control Act,
the maximum ceiling limit for gross annual value will be the
Standard rent fixed under the Rent Control Act. Thus, gross
annual value in such a case cannot exceed the standard rent. It
can however be equal to or lower than the standard rent. Self
occupied house remaining vacant. Income from house meant
for self-residence but could not be occupied throughout the P.Y.
on account of his service, business or profession at any other
place then in such a case annual value is NIL. House which is
self occupied by the owner for a part of the previous year and
for some part of the previous year it is let out. In such a case,
the annual value of the whole house shall be determined Then
the annual value for that period shall be deducted during which
the house is self-occupied by the owner. The balance left shall be
the annual value of the house.
Example
Taxable Income of Let out Property

Particulars
Step1: Gross
Annual Value

Step 2:Municipal
Taxes

Step 3: Deduction
under section 24
Repairs &
Collection Charges
Interest on
borrowed capital
Unrealised rent

Tax treatment
It is the max. of fair rent, municipal value
and actual rent. Gross Annual value
cannot however exceed the standard rent.
If actual rent received is in excess of
GAV the amount so received/receivable
is deemed to be gross annual value of the
property.Vacancy loss is adjusted here
(see note below).
From GAV taxes levied by municipal
authorities and paid by the assessee is
deducted. The bal. Is known as the Net
Annual Value (NAV).
These deductions are made from NAV.
30% of NAV is deductible.
Deductible on accrual basis.
It is deductible to the extent of income
under this head.

Vacancy Allowance
It is the deduction claimed with respect to which the house is let
out but it still remained vacant. Here, the deduction is allowed
on a proportionate basis (i.e.) that part of net annual value,
which is proportionate to the period during which the property
remains vacant. (E.g.) If the property has been let out for 7
months and during those 7 months the house remained vacant
for 3 months and in such a case the vacancy allowance shall be
3/7th of the net annual value. Vacancy allowance is not
permissible if the house remains vacant for a whole year.This
deduction is allowed from the Gross Annual Value.Vacancy
Allowance Deductible if and only if the property is let out
during sometime during the previous year and the house
remains vacant.
Deductions
As observed above there are certain deductions, which are
admissible under section 24(1). These deductions are exhaustive in nature and no further deductions apart from these are
allowed.
Repairs and Collection Charges
This is a fixed deduction and is allowable irrespective of actual
expenses incurred for repairs. The deduction is also available
even if the tenant meets the repair expenses. The deduction
allowed is 30% of the Net Annual value.
Interest
The amount of interest payable yearly should be calculated
separately and claimed as deduction every year. Now how does
this interest expense arise? Where the property has been
acquired, constructed, repaired, renewed, reconstructed with
borrowed capital, the amount of interest payable on such capital
is allowed as deduction. It is immaterial whether interest has
been actually paid or not paid during the year. Interest paid/
payable for the period prior to the previous year in which the
property is acquired/constructed will be aggregated & allowed in
5 successive financial years starting from the year in which the
acquisition/construction is completed. Interest on interest is
not deductible.
Unrealised Rent
Certain amount of rent may not be realisable because of default
by the tenant and such irrecoverable rent may be allowed as
deduction if the following conditions under Rule-4 are
satisfied.
The tenancy is bonafide.
The defaulting tenant is not in occupation of any other
property of the assessor.
The defaulting tenant has vacated, or steps have been taken to
compel him to vacate the property.
The assessor has taken all reasonable steps including legal
proceedings to claim the rent due from the tenant. The annual
value of the property to which the unpaid rent relates has been
include din the assessed income of the P.Y, during which that
rent was due and tax has been fully paid on such assessed
income.

Subsequent Recovery of Unrealised Rent

Where a deduction was claimed on account of unrealised rent

by the assessee in any previous year and subsequently the
assessee realises any amount in respect of such rent, the
amounts so realised shall be deemed to be income chargeable
under the head Income from house Property.

Property Owned by Co-owners

Sometimes certain property consisting of buildings and lands
appurtenant thereto are owned by 2 or more persons and in
such a case where their respective shares are definite and
ascertainable, such persons shall not be assessed as an association of persons in respect of such property, but the share of
each such person in the income for the property would be
computed in accordance with rules mentioned for income
calculation under the head Income from House Property.
Computation of Taxable Income of 1 Self-occupied
Property

Nature of House Property

Annual Value

If the property is selfoccupied

NIL

Deductions available u/s

24(1)
Only interest on borrowed
capital is deductible u/s
24(1)(vi) up to Rs.30000

If the property or a part

thereof is let during the
previous year.

Annual value of the entire

property as if it is let is
calculated and from this
the annual value of selfoccupied portion is
deducted. Further from
the let out portion the
proportionate annual value
for the period during
which it was self-occupied
has to be excluded. The
balance will be taxable
annual value.
NIL

All deductions u/s 24(1) are

available but subject to a
maximum of amount of
annual value computed under
column 2

If the property is not

actually occupied by
reason of the fact that
owing to his employment,
business or profession
carried on at any other
place, he has to reside at
that place.

Only interest on borrowed

capital is deductible u/s
24(1)(vi) up to Rs.30000.A
higher deduction of
Rs.150000/- is allowed as
deduction on satisfaction of
the following conditions:
1.Loan taken for construction
or purchase of house, 2.Loan
should be taken on or after
1.4.1999 and 3.The person
giving loan should certify
interest and principal amount
of loan separately.

In case of a company if the company has a self occupied

property, which is used by it in business will not be taxable as
income from house property. Say for example A Ltd. a construction co. has unsold flats which it is using for stores or are self
occupied will be treated as unsold stock and so included in the
Business Income.

Practical Problems
Prob:1. R has a house property situated in Delhi which consists
of two units. Unit A has 60% floor area, whereas Unit B has
40% floor area. Unit A was self occupied by R for 8 months
and w.e.f. 1-12-2003, it was let out for Rs. 10,000 p.m. Unit B
was also meant for self occupation but it was also let out w.e.f.

75

1-10-2003 for Rs. 8,000 p.m. The other particulars of the house
property were as under:
Municipal taxes paid

40000

Insurance premium

4000

Interest on money borrowed

20000

Compute income from house property for the assessment year

2004-05.
Solution: In the above question, both house properties are part
of the year self occupied and part of the year let out. Hence,
benefit of self-occupied for residential purpose shall not be
allowed due to provisions of section 23(3). In this case, annual
value of both the house properties shaH be determined as per
section 23(1).
Ans: Computation of income of house properties.

Insurance premium paid

3000

Interest on money borrowed for

purchase of house property

30000

Ans: Computation of Gross Annual Value which shall be

higher of the following two
a. Expected rent i.e. Municipal value or Fair rent whichever is
more i.e. Rs. 1,10,000 but it cannot exceed Rs. 1,00,000 (i.e.
standard rent)
:. it should be Rs. 1,00,000
b. Actual rent received or receivable
8,000 x 6

48000

11,000 x 4

44000

Total

92000

Unit A

:.Annual value shall be Rs. 92,000 as it is less than expected rent

owing to vacancy.

Gross annual value, higher of the foHowing two

120000
(a) Expected rent which shall be 10,000 x 12 = 1,20,000

Gross Annual Value

92,000

Less: Municipal taxes paid

18,000

Net annual value

74000

(b) Actual rent received or receivable 10,000 x 4 = 40,000

:. Gross annual value
Less: Municipal tax paid (60% of 40,000)

120000
24000

Net Annual Value

96000

Less: Deductions u/s 24

(a) Statutory deduction @ 30%

28800

(b) Interest on money borrowed

(60% of 20,000)

12000

:. Gross annual value

96000

Less: Municipal tax paid (40% of 40,000)

16000

Net Annual Value.

21800

Ans: The annual value of house properties owned by a person

other than those which are occupied by him for the purpose of
any business or profession carried on by him is charged to
Income-tax as Income from House Property. Annual value of
a property is defined as the sum for which the property might
reasonably be expected to let from year to year. If the property
is in the occupation of the tenant, the taxes levied by any local
authority in respect of the property shall, to the extent such
taxes are borne by the owner should be deducted in determining the annual value of the property of that previous year in
which such taxes are actually paid by the owner.

80000

Less: Deductions u/s 24

(a) Statutory deduction @ 30%

24000

(b) Interest on money borrowed

(40% of 20,000)

8000

Income From House Property Unit B.

32000
48000

Income from house property 55,200 + 48,000 = 1,03,200

Prob.2. R has a house property situated in Delhi. From the
following particulars submitted to you. Compute the income
from house property for the assessment year 2004-05.
90,000

If the property is let and if the rent received or receivable is in

excess of the sum mentioned above, the rent so received or
receivable shall be taken to be the annual value.
Q.2. How is the Annual Value of a Self -occupied Property
Computed?

Ans: The annual value of a house or part of a house shall be

taken to be NIL if
i. it is in the occupation of the owner for the purposes of his
own residence and
ii. it is not actually let during any part of the previous year and
no other benefit therefrom is derived by the owner.

The house property was let out w.e.f. 1-4-2003 for Rs. 8,000
p.m. which was vacated by tenant on 30-9-2003. It remained
vacant for 2 months. W.e.f. 1-12-2003, it was
let out for

Rs. 11,000 p.m.

Municipal taxes paid

20% of municipal valuation

76

52200

Q.1. On what Basis is Income from House Property Taxed?

(b) Actual rent received or receivable 8,000 x 6 = 48,000

1,00,000

30000

55200

(a) Expected rent which shall be 8,000 x 12 = 96,000

Standard rent

b. Interest

40800

Gross annual value, higher of the folJowing two:

1,10,000

22200

Income from house property.

Unit B

Fairrent

a. Statutory deduction @ 30%

Theoritical Questions

Income From House Property Unit A.

Municipal valuation

Less: Deductions u/s 24

Where two or more houses are in the occupation of the owner

for the purposes of his own residence, then the annual value
shall be taken to be Nil only in respect of any one house of his
choice. The annual value of the remaining house/houses will
be computed as if the said house/houses were let.

Q.3. What are the Deductions Admissible While

Computing Income from House Property?

Ans: The following deductions are to be made from the annual

value while computing income from house property
a. 30% of the annual value
b. Interest payable on loan taken for acquisition,
onstruction,repair,renewal or reconstruction of property.
In respect of a self-occupied property whose annual value is
taken as Nil, no deduction is admissible except deduction for
interest payable on loan as mentioned at (v) above, subject to a
ceiling of Rs.30,000/- ( if the property is acquired or constructed with capital borrowed on or after 1.4.1999 and if the
acquisition or construction is completed before 1.4.2003, the
interest allowable as deduction will be Rs.1,50,000/- instead of
Rs.30,000/-).
Q.4. If there is a Loss Under the Head Income from House
Property, can it be Adjusted Against Other Income?

Ans: Yes, any loss under the head Income from House
Property can be adjusted against income under any other head
in the same year.
Q.5. Can the Loss Under the Head House Property be
Carried Forward to the Subsequent Assessment Years?

Ans: Yes, from A.Y.1999-2000 and onwards loss under the

head House Property which cannot be wholly set off against
income from any other head in the same assessment year can be
carried forward and set off against income from House
Property for immediately succeeding 8 assessment years.
Q.6. The Property is Owned by Two or More Persons and
their Respective Shares are Definite. Will the Income
from Such Property be Assessed in the Hands of the
Association of Persons?

Ans: No, the income from such property will not be assessed in
the hands of the association of persons. The share of each
person in the income from the property shall be included in his
total income.
Q.7. How do I Deal with Income from House Property?

Ans: Now this gets slightly complicated. What you are doing
with your property will determine the tax treatment. If you are
living in your own home, the tax treatment will be different
from when you are using it for business or a profession. The
owner, or the deemed owner of a house property, inclusive of
the appurtenant land, is taxed on the annual value of the
property under the head income from house property. Where
the house property is used for carrying on any business or
profession, the income is not treated as income from the house
property, but as business income. The annual value of a selfoccupied property is taken as nil. Where there are more than
one such self-occupied properties, only one property, as per the
choice of the assessee can be taken at nil value. All others will be
treated as let out. Where the annual value is taken as nil, all the
deductions allowed on let-out property other than the interest
on borrowed capital, are not allowed. Where there is more than
one house or in the case of let-out property, the gross annual
value is the maximum of (i) municipal ratable value (ii) actual
rent if the property is let out and (iii) fair rent. The net annual

value(NAV) is arrived at by deducting municipal taxes actually

paid during the year.
From this NAV, the following deductions are permitted :
a. One-Fourth of NAV is deductible, for repairs and rent
collection charges irrespective of the actual expenses incurred.
b. Expenses on (i) Insurance premium (ii) ground rent (iii)
annual charge, not being a capital charge and not being a
voluntarily created one (iv) land revenue (v) irrecoverable rent
and (vi) State tax.
c. In the case of a let out property, vacancy allowance is
deductible if it remains vacant during a part of the year. The
amount deductible is that part of the NAV (not annual rent)
on a pro-rata basis. This deduction is however not
admissible if the property remains vacant throughout the
fiscal year. It has to be let out for some part of the year, even
for one day.
Ques.8. What About Deductibility of Interest on Housing
Loans?

Ans: If the property has been acquired, constructed, repaired,

renewed or reconstructed with borrowed capital, the interest
payable is deductible. In the case of let out properties, the entire
interest payable can be set off. In the case of self-occupied
property interest is deductible up to Rs. 75,000 but only on
capital borrowed after 1.4.99 and if the acquisition or construction of the property is completed before 1.4.2001. This terminal
date has been raised to 1.4.2003 and the amount of interest
deductible to Rs. 1,00,000 by the last Finance Act. The 2001-02
budget raises this deduction further to Rs. 1,50,000. Then again,
this relief is allowed only when the income from house
property becomes chargeable to tax. In other words, the
construction should be complete, the flat should be ready for
occupation and the municipal annual value is known. Take care
to disclose the address of the property, its nature - whether let
out or self occupied, and the computation of net income by
way of a separate annexure.
Q. 9. Is Income from Superstructure Built on Leased Land
Taxable as House Property Income?

Ans: Yes As the assessee is the owner of the superstructure the

income from such property is taxable as income from house
property.
Q. 10. Is the Interest Payable Outside India Allowed as a
Deduction U/S 24(1) While Computing the Income from
House Property?

Ans: No the interest paid or payable outside India is not

deductible.
Q. 11. Is Land Revenue Paid to the State Government in
Respect of Property Deductible U/S 24(1)?

Ans: Yes any sum paid on account of land revenue or any other
tax levied by State Government in respect of the property
whose income is computed under the head income from house
property is deductible on payment basis.
Q. 12. Is Insurance Premium Paid to Insure the Property
Allowable as a Deduction?

Ans: Yes amount of any premium actually paid to insure the

property against the risk of damage or destruction is allowed as

77

deduction u/s 24(1) in computing the income from house

property.
Students are suggested to refer the suggested books,Bare Act
,Rules and the following web sites.
www.thebharat.com/taxation/Inc_from_house_prop.html
http://in.taxes.yahoo.com/faq10_13.html

78

LESSON 9:
CAPITAL GAINS
Lesson Objectives

To know meaning of Capital Gains.

To know Basis of charge of capital gain.

To know the provisions of the Act in respect of capital gain.

To know how to calculate Capital Gain.

So far we learnt about Tax implications of Salary, House

Property and Business& Profession on the assessee i.e. Company Now we are going to deal with Gains or Losses on
transfer of Assets..

Capital Gains
Basis of Charge : [ 45 (1) ]
Any profits or gains arising out of the transfer of a capital asset
effected in the previous year shall be chargeable to income-tax
under the head Capital Gains and shall be deemed to be the
income of the previous year.. unless it is exempt under section
54 .
So we conclude that there must be capital asset which is
transferred in previous year and there is a gain on such transfer.
Capital Asset however does not include 1) Stock in Trade 2)
personal effect such as movable property except jewellery.. 3)
agricultural land in India 4) Gold Deposit Bonds issued under
the Gold Deposit Scheme 1999.
However, capital asset includes property of every kind whether
tangible or intangible.
Types of Capital Assets are 1) short term capital asset 2) Long
Term Capital Asset.
Short Term Capital Asset as per section 2(42A) is a capital asset
held by the for not more than 36 months. However, in case of
a) Equity or Preference shares held in the Company b) Any
listed security. 3) Units of UTI or Mutual Fund Units under
Section 10 (23D), the assets held for less than 12 months will be
Short Term Capital Assets.
The Capital assets not fulfiling the above criteria will be treated
as Long Term Capital Assets.. 2(29A);
Is very important to get acquainted oneself with the meaning
of transfer which is inclusive and not exhaustive.. There fore,
transfer includes.. 1) Sale 2) Exchange 3) Relinquishment of the
asset4) extinguishment of rights in an asset 5) compulsory
acquisition thereof under any law 6) when Capital Asset is
converted into stock in Trade.7) when possession of property
is foregone n discharge of any colateral contract under transfer
of property Act.
However, students should note that in case of relinqueshment
or extinguishment, there will be a capital loss.
Following are not considered as transfer. Students are advised
to read Sectoins 46,47 of Income Tax Act for further clarification.

where the assets are distributed to the shareholders on

liquidation, such transfer will not be regarded as transfer in the
hands of the Company.
Any transfer by the company to its 100% subsidiary company
provided the ater is an Indian Company.
Any transfer in the scheme of amalgamation of a capital asset
by the amalgamating company to the amalgamated company ..
any transfer by way of conversion of bonds or
debentures,debenture-stock or deposit certificates in any form,
of a company into shares or debentures of that company.
any transfer under the security Lending Scheme,1997 for lending
of any securities under an agreement or arrangement,which the
assessee has entered into with the borrower of such securities
and which is subject to the guidelines issued by SEBI or RBI in
this regard.
Computation of Short Term Capital Gain :
Full value of consideration

Less : a) Expenditure incurred wholly

and exclusively in Connection with
such a transfer.
b) Cost of Acquisition

c) Cost of improvement

Gross Short Term Capital Gain

______________
Less: Exemption, if available , u/s 54D,54G
Computation of Long-Term Capital Gains
Full value of consideration

Less : 1) Expenditure incurred wholly

and exclusively in Connection with
such a transfer
2) Indexed Cost of acquisition

3) Indexed cost of Improvement

Long Term Capital Gains

_________

Less : Exemption under Section 54D,54EC,54G

_________________
Full value of consideration means what the transferor
receives,or is entitled to receive as consideration for the capital
asset tansferred,It is not necessarily always the market value of
the asset on the date of transfer. The legislature has used the
expression full value of consideration instead of merely saying
consideration because the transfer for the purpose of Section
45(1) includes not merely sale, but also other modes of transfer
such as exchange,relinquishment of the asset,extinguishment
of rights in the capital asset etc. In the case of transfer where the
consideration is not money.
Cost of Acquisition :Cost of acquisition of an asset is the value
for which it was acquired by the assessee . Expenses of capital
79

nature for completing or acquiring the title to the property are

includible in the cost of acquisition.
Students are requested to abrest themselves with following
judicial rulings..
CIT vs. P. Rajendran [1981] 127 ITR 810 (Kar).

Computation of indexed cost of acquisition :

Cost of acquisition x C I I of the year of transfer

C I I of the year of acquisition

B.N.Pinto v. CIT

This aspect is very important in order to compensate one for

the increase in cost due to timming difference.

CIT vs. Maithreyi Pai.

Mode of Computation of Capital Gains

Cost of acquisition being the fair market value as on 01-04-1981

The income chargeable under the head capital gains shall be

computed b: deducting the following items from the full value
of the consideration received or accrued as a result of the
transfer of the capital asset:

In the following cases the assessee can take at his option,either

actual cost or fair market value of the asset as on April 1 ,1981 :
A where the capital asset became the rpoperty of the assessee
before April 1,1981
B where the capital asset became the rpoperty of the assessee by
any mode referred to in Section 49(1) and the capital asset
became the poperty of the previous owner before April 1,1981.

Indexed Cost of Acquisition ( Sec. 48)

As already mentioned, in the case of Short term caputal
gain,cost of acquisition and cost of improvement are deducted
from te value of the consideration for computation of capital
gain. On the other hand. In the case of long-term capital gain,
indexed cost of acquisition and indexed cost of improvement
are deducted instead of cost of acquisition and cost of improvement.
Indexed Cost of Acquisition means an amount which bears to
the cost of acquisition the same proportion as cost inflation
index for the year in which the asset is transferred bears to the
cost inflation index for the first year in which the asset is
transferred bears to the cost inflation Index for the first year in
which the asset was held by the assessee or for the year beginning on 01-04-1981 whichever is earlier.
Cost Inflation Index in relation to a previous year, means such
index as the Central Government may, having regard to
seventy-five % of average rise in the Consumer Price Index for
urban non-manual employees for the immediately preceding
year to such previous year.

Financial Year
1981-82
1982-83
1983-84
1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
1989-90
1990-91
1991-92
1992-93
1993-94
1994-95
1995-96
1996-97
1997-98
1998-99
1999-00
2000-01
2001-02
2002-03
2003-04

80

CII
100
109
116
125
133
140
150
161
172
182
199
223
244
259
281
305
331
351
389
406
426
447
463

(1) Expenditure incurred wholly and exclusively in connection

with such transfer. (2) The indexed cost of acquisition and
indexed cost of any improvement thereto.
Under section 48 the cost of acquisition will be updated by
applying the cost inflation index (CII). Once the cost inflation
index is applied to the cost of acquisition, it becomes indexed
cost of acquisition. This means an amount which bears to the
cost of acquisition, the same proportion as CII for the year in
which the asset is transferred bears to the CII for the first year in
which the asset was held by the assessee or for the year beginning on the 1st day of April, 1981 whichever is later. Similarly,
indexed cost of any improvement means an amount which
bears to the cost of improvement, the same proportion as CII
for the year in which the asset is transferred bears to the CII for
the year in which the Improvement to the asset took place. CII
for any year means such index as the Central Government may,
having regard to 75% of the average rise in the consumer price
index for urban non-manual employees for the immediately
preceding previous year to that year by notification in the Official
Gazette, specify in this behalf.
Note - The benefit of indexation will not apply to the longterm capital gains arising from the transfer of bonds or
debentures other than capital indexed bonds issued by the
Government.
In case of depreciable assets , there will be no indexation or the
capital gains will always be short-term capital gains.
As noted above, for the financial year 1981-82. CII is 100 and
the CII for each subsequent year would be determined in such a
way that 75% of the rise in consumer price index for urban
non-manual employees would be reflected in the rise in CII. It
would be seen that the date of transfer of an asset would be
immaterial as long as it is within a particular financial year. That
means, transfer of assets in any part of the year would be
subject to indexation using the same CII as applicable to an
asset transferred on 1 st day of April of the year. The effect is
that all the assets transferred during the year will be deemed to
be sold on the first day of the year.

Protection to Non-resident
In order to give protection to non-residents who invest foreign
exchange to acquire capital assets, section 48 contains a proviso.
Accordingly, in the case of non-residents, capital gains arising
from the transfer of shares or debentures of an Indian
company is to be computed as follows:

The cost of acquisition, the expenditure incurred wholly and

exclusively in connection with the transfer and the full value of
the consideration are to be converted into the same foreign
currency with which such shares were acquired. The resulting
capital gains shall be reconverted into Indian currency. The
aforesaid manner of computation of capital gains shall be
applied for every purchase and sale of shares or debentures in
an Indian company. Rule 115A specifies the rate of exchange for
this purpose.

acquisition of such shares, debentures or warrants shall be the

same as that arrived at under section 17(2).

Ascertainment of cost in specified circumstances [section 49]

Further, the cost of acquisition of the original shares held by

the shareholder in thedemerged company shall be deemed to
have been reduced by the amount as so arrived under the subsection (2C).

A person becomes the owner of a capital asset not only by

purchase but also by several other methods. Section 49 of the
Act gives guidelines as to how to compute the cost under
different circumstances.
In the following cases, the cost of acquisition of the asset shall
be deemed to be cost for which the previous owner of the
property acquired it. To this cost, the cost of improvement to
the asset incurred by the previous owner or the assessee must
be added:
Where the capital asset became the property of the assessee:
i. on any distribution of assets on the total or partition of a
HUF;
ii. under a gift or will;
iii. by succession, inheritance or devaluation;
iv. on any distribution of assets on the liquidation of a
company;
v. under a transfer to revocable or an irrevocable trust;
vi. under any transfer by a holding company to its 100%
subsidiary or vice versa;
vii. under any scheme of amalgamation by the amalgamating
company to the amalgamated company;
viii. by conversion by an individual of his separate property into
a HUF property,
For this purpose, the cost of acquisition of the asset to the
previous owner of the property is the cost to the latest previous
owner who acquired the asset otherwise than by any mode of
acquisition specified above.
Where shares in an amalgamated company become the property
of the assessee in consideration of the transfer of shares held
by him in the amalgamating company under a scheme of
amalgamation, the cost of acquisition to him of the shares in
the amalgamated company shall be taken as the cost of
acquisition of the shares in the amalgamating company.
It is possible that a person might have become the owner of
shares or debentures in a company during the process of
conversion of bonds or debentures, debenture stock or deposit
certificates., In such a case, the cost of acquisition to the person
shall be deemed to be that part of the cost of debentures,
debenture stock or deposit certificate in relation to which such
asset is acquired by that person. [Section 49(2A)] .
Where capital gains arise from the transfer of shares, debentures
or warrants allotted to any employee the value of which are
included as perquisites under section 17(2), the cost of

In the case of a demerger, the cost of acquisition of the shares

in the resulting company shall be the amount which bears to
the cost of acquisition of shares held by the assessee in the
demerged company the same proportion as the net book value
of the assets transferred in a demerger bears to the net worth of
the demerged company immediately before such demerger.
[Section 49(2C)]

For the above purpose, net worth means the aggregate of the
paid up share capital and general reserves as appearing in the
books of account of the demerged company immediately
before the demerger.
Normally speaking, capital gains must be computed after
deducting from the sale price the cost of acquisition to the
assessee. The various provisions mentioned above form an
exception to this general principle.

Cost of Improvement [section 55]

Goodwill of a business, etc. : In relation to a capital asset being
goodwill of a business or a right to manufacture, produce or
process any article or thing, or right to carry on any business, the
cost of improvement shall be taken to be nil.
Any Other Capital Asset

i. Where the capital asset became the property of the previous

owner or the assessee before 1-4-1981, cost of improvement
means all expenditure of a capital nature incurred in making
any addition or alteration to the capital asset on or after the
said date by the previous owner or the assessee.
ii. In any other case, cost of improvement means all
expenditure of a capital nature incurred in making any
additions or alterations to the capital assets by the assessee
after it became his property. However, there are cases where
the capital asset might become the property of the assessee
by any of the modes specified in section 49( 1). In that case,
cost of improvement means capital expenditure in making
any addition or alterations to the capital assets incurred by
the previous owner.
However, cost of improvement does not include any expenditure which is deductible in computing the income chargeable
under the head income from house property, profits and
gains of business or profession or income from other
sources.

Cost of Acquisition [section 55]

Goodwill of a business or a trademark or brand name associated with a business or a right to manufacture, produce or
process any article or thing, or right to carry on any business,
tenancy rights, stage carriage permits and loom hours - In the
case of the above capital assets, if the assessee has purchased
them from a previous owner, the cost of acquisition means the
amount of the purchase price. For example, if A purchases a

81

stage carriage permit from B for Rs. 2 lacs, that will be the
costof acquisition for A.

7. Under any such transfer referred to in sections 47(iv), (v), (VI)

and (via).

Self-generated Assets

8. Where the assessee is a Hindu undivided family, by the

mode referred to in section 64(2).

There are circumstances where it is not possible to visualise cost

of acquisition. For example, suppose a doctor starts his
profession. With the passage of time, the doctor acquires lot of
reputation. He opens a clinic and runs it for 5 years. After 5 years
he sells the clinic to another doctor for Rs. 10 lacs which includes
Rs. 2 lacs for his reputation or goodwill. Now a question arises
as to how to find out the profit in respect of goodwill. It is
obvious that the goodwill is self-generated and hence it is
difficult to calculate the cost of its acquisition. However, it is
certainly a capital asset. The Supreme Court in CITv. B.C.
Srinivasa Setty [1981] 128 ITR 294 (SC) held that in order to
bring the gains on sale of capital assets to charge under section
45, it is necessary that the provisions dealing with the levy of
capital gains tax must be read as a whole. Section 48 deals with.
the mode of computing the capital gains. Unless the cost of
acquisition is correctly ascertainable, it is not possible to apply
the provisions of section 48. Selfgenerated goodwill is such a
type of capital asset where it is not possible to visualise cost of
acquisition. Once section 48 cannot be applied, the gains
thereon cannot be brought to charge.
This decision of the Supreme Court was applicable not only to
self-generated goodwill of a business but also to other selfgenerated assets like tenancy rights, stage carriage permits, loom
hours etc. In order to supersede the decision of the Supreme
Court cited above, section 55 was amended. Accordingly, in case
of self-generated assets namely, goodwill of a business or a
trademark or brand name associated with a business or a right
to manufacture, produce or process any article or thing, or right
to carry on any business, tenancy rights, stage carriage permits,
or loom hours, the cost of acquisition will be taken to be nil.
However, it is significant to note that the above amendment
does not cover self-generated goodwill of a profession. So, in
respect of self-generated goodwill of a profession and other
self-generated assets not specifically covered by the amended
provisions of section 55, the decision of the Supreme Court in
B. C. Srinivasa Settys case will still apply.

Financial Assets

Many times persons who own shares or other securities become

entitled to subscribe to any additional shares or securities.
Further, they are also allotted additional shares or securities
without any payment. Such shares or securities are referred to as
financial assets in Income-tax Act. Section 55 provides the basis
for ascertaining the cost of acquisition of such financial assets.
1. In relation to the original financial asset on the basis of
which the assessee becomes entitled to deny additional
financial assets, cost of acquisition means the amount
actually paid for acquiring the original financial assets.
2. In relation to any right to renounce the said entitlement to
subscribe to the financial asset, when such a right is
renounced by the assessee in favour of any person, cost of
acquisition shall be taken to be nil in the case of such
assessee.
3. In relation to the financial asset, to which the assessee has
subscribed on the basis of the said entitlement, cost of
acquisition means the amount actually paid by him for
acquiring such asset.
4. In relation to the financial asset allotted to the assessee
without any payment and on the basis of holding of any
other financial assets, cost of acquisition shall be taken to be
nil in the case of such assessee. In other words, where bonus
shares are allotted without any payment on the basis of
holding of original shares, the cost of such bonus shares
will be nil in the hands of the original shareholder.
5. In the case of any financial asset purchased by the person in
whose favour the right to subscribe to such assets has been
renounced, cost of acquisition means the aggregate of the
amount of the purchase price paid by him to the person
renouncing such right and the amount paid by him to the
company or institution for acquiring such financial asset.

In the following cases, cost of acquisition shall not be nil, but

will be deemed to be the cost for which the previous owner of
the property acquired it:

6. In relation to equity shares allotted to a shareholder of a

recognised stock exchange in India under a scheme for
corporatisation approved by SEBI, the cost of acquisition
shall be the cost of acquiring his original membership of the
exchange.

Where the capital asset became the property of the assessee

Any Other Capital Asset

1. On any distribution of assets on the total or partial partition

of a Hindu undivided family.

a. Where the capital asset become the property of the assessee

before 1-4-1981 cost of acquisition means the cost of
acquisition of the asset to the assessee or the fair market
value of the asset on 1-4-1981 at the option of the assessee.

Other Assets

2. Under a gift or will.

3. By succession, inheritance or devolution.
4. On any distribution of assets on the dissolution of a firm,
body of individuals, or otherassociation of persons, where
such dissolution had taken place before 1-4-1987.
5. On any distribution of assets on the liquidation of a
company.
6. Under a transfer to a revocable or an irrevocable trust.

82

b. Where the capital asset became the property of the assessee

by any of the modes specified in section 49(1), it is clear that
the cost of acquisition to the assessee will be the cost of
acquisition to the previous owner. Even in such cases, where
the capital asset became the property of the previous owner
before 1-4-1981, the assessee has got a right to opt for the
fair market value as on 1-4-1981.

c. Where the capital asset became the property of the assessee

on the distribution of the capital assets of a company on its
liquidation and the assessee has been assessed to capital gains
in respect of that asset under section 46, the cost of
acquisition means the fair market value of the asset on the
date of distribution.
d. A share or a stock of a company may become the property of
an assessee under the following circumstances:
i.

The consolidation and division of all or any of the

share capital of the company into shares of larger
amount than its existing shares.

ii.

The conversion of any shares of the company into

stock,

iii.

The re-conversion of any stock of the company into

shares,

iv.

The sub-division of any of the shares of the company

into shares of smaller amount, or

v.

the conversion of one kind of shares of the company

into another kind.

In the above circumstances the cost of acquisition to the

assessee will mean the cost of acquisition of the asset calculated
with reference to the cost of acquisition of the shares or stock
from which such asset is derived.
Where the cost for which the previous owner acquired the
property cannot be ascertained, the cost of acquisition to the
previous owner means the fair market value on the date on
which the capital asset became the property of the previous
owner.

Computation of Capital Gains in Case of Depreciable

Asset [Section 50]
Section 50 provides for the computation of capital gains in case
of depreciable assets. It may be noted that where the capital
asset is a depreciable asset forming part of a block of assets,
section 50 will have overriding effect in spite of anything
contained in section 2(42A) which defines a short- term capital
asset.
Accordingly, where the capital asset is an asset forming part of a
block of assets in
respect of which depreciation has been allowed, the provisions
of sections 48 and 49 shall be subject to the following modification:
Where the full value of consideration received or accruing for
the transfer of the asset plus the full value of such consideration
for the transfer of any other capital asset falling with the block
of assets during previous year exceeds the aggregate of the
following amounts namely:
i. Expenditure incurred wholly and exclusively in connection
with such transfer;
ii. WDV of the block of assets at the beginning of the
previous year;
iii. The actual cost of any asset falling within the block of assets
acquired during the previous year such excess shall be
deemed to be the capital gains arising from the transfer of
short term capital assets.

Where all assets in a block are transferred during the previous

year, the block itself will cease to exist. In such a situation, the
difference between the sale value of the assets and the WDV of
the block of assets at the beginning of the previous year
together with the actual cost of any asset falling within that
block of assets acquired by the assessee during the previous year
will be deemed to be the capital gains arising from the transfer
of short- term capital assets.
Cost of acquisition in case of power sector assets [Section 50A]
With respect to the power sector, in case of depreciable assets.
referred to in section 32(1 )(i), the provisions of sections 48 and
49 shall apply subject to the modification that the WDV of the
asset (as defined in section 43(6)), as adjusted, shall be taken to
be the cost of acquisition.

Capital Gains in Respect of Slump Sales [section 50B]

i. Any profits or gains arising from the slump sale effected in
the previous year shall be chargeable to income-tax as capital
gains arising from the transfer of long-term capital assets
and shall be deemed to be the income of the previous year in
which the transfer took place.
Short term capital gains - Any profits and gains arising from
such transfer of one or more undertakings held by the
assessee for not more than thirty-six months shall be
deemed to be short-term capital gains. [Sub-section (1)]
ii. The net worth of the undertaking or the division, as the case
may be, shall be deemed to be the cost of acquisition and the
cost of improvement for the purposes of sections 48 and 49
in relation to capital assets of such undertaking or division
transferred by way of such sale and the provisions contained
in the second proviso to section 48 shall be ignored. [Subsection (2)]
iii. Every assessee in the case of slump sale shal1 furnish in the
prescribed form along with the return of income. a report of
an accountant as defined in the Explanation below subsection (2) of section 288 indicating the computation of net
worth of the undertaking or division, as the case may be,
and certifying that the net worth of the undertaking or
division has been correctly arrived at in accordance with the
provisions of this section. [Sub-section (3)]
Explanation 1 to the section defines the expression net
worth as the aggregate value of total assets of the undertaking
or division as reduced by the value of liabilities of such
undertaking or division as appearing in the books of account.
However, any change in the value of assets on account of
revaluation of assets shall not be considered for this purpose.
Explanation 2 provides that the aggregate value of total assets
of such undertaking or division shall be as follows:
i. In the case of depreciable assets: the written down value of
block of assets determined in accordance with the provisions
contained in sub-item (C) of item (i) of section 43(6)(c) and
ii. the book value for all other assets.
Special Provision for Full Value of Consideration in
Certain Cases [Section 50C]
A new Section 50C has been inserted by the Finance Act, 2002
to provide that where the consideration received or accruing as a
83

result of transfer of a capital asset, being land or building or

both, is less than the value adopted or assessed by any authority
of a State Government (Stamp Valuation Authority) for the
purpose of payment of stamp duty in respect of such asset,
such value adopted or assessed shall be deemed to be the full
value of the consideration received or accruing as a result of
such transfer.
It has been further provided in sub-section (2) of this section
that where the assessee claims before an Assessing Officer that
the value so adopted or assessed by the authority for payment
of stamp duty exceeds the fair market value of the property as
on the date of transfer and the value so adopted or assessed by
such authority has not been disputed in any appeal or revision
or no reference has been made before any other authority, court
or High Court, the Assessing Officer may refer the valuation of
the capital asset to a valuation officer as defined in section 2(r)
of the Wealth-tax Act, 1957. Where any reference has been made
before any other authority, Court or the High Court, the
provisions of section 16A (relating to reference to Valuation
Officer), section 23A (dealing with appealable orders before
Commissioner (Appeals), section 24 (order of Appellate
Tribunal), section 34AA (appearance by registered valuer),
section 35 (rectification of mistakes) and section 37 ( power to
take evidence on oath) of the Wealth-tax Act, 1957, shall, with
necessary modifications, apply in relation to such reference as
they apply in relation to a reference made by the Assessing
Officer under sub-section (1) of section 16A of that Act.
It is further provided in sub-section (3) that where the value
ascertained by such valuation officer exceeds the value adopted
or assessed by the Stamp authority the value adopted or
assessed shall be taken as the full value of the consideration
received or accruing as a result of the transfer. This amendment
will take effect from 1.4.2003.
Advance money received [section 51]
It is possible for an assessee to receive some advance in regard
to the transfer of capital asset. Due to the break-down of the
negotiation, the assessee may have retained the advance. Section
51 provides that while calculating capital gains, the above
advance retained by the assessee must go to reduce the cost of
acquisition.
Lets us have some questions on it.
1 What is the basis of charge of capital gain?
2. What do you mean by indexation cost?
3. How will you calculate capital gain, take one example and give
detail format for it.
4. What special provision for full value of consideration in
certain cases under section 50C.

84

LESSON 10:
INCOME FROM OTHER SOURCES
Lesson Objective

Method of Accounting

To know basis of charge of Income from other sources.

To know dividend at its taxability.

To know deductions permissible from income from other

sources.

To know how to calculate Income from other sources.

Income chargeable under this head is computed in accordance

with the method of accounting regularly employed by the
assessee. For instance, if books of account are kept on the basis
of mercantile system, income is taxable and expenditure is
deductible on due basis, whereas if books of account are kept
on the basis of cash system, income is taxable on receipt basis
and expenditure is deductible on payment basis.

Hello, Today We Will Study About Income from

Other Sources
Income form other sources is a residuary head of income i.e.
income not chargeable under any other head is chargeable to tax
under this head. Income chargeable under this head is computed in accordance with the method of accounting regularly
employed by the assesses i.e. if the assesses accounts only on
cash receipt and cash payment basis, income will be treated on
cash payment and cash receipt basis only ; otherwise it will be
treated on mercantile basis.
Income from other sources is the last head of income
specified under section 14.While section 56 defines the scope of
income chargeable under this head, sections 57 and 58 specify
the basis of computation of such income.
Basis of Charge [Sec. 56(1)]
This is the last and residual head of charge of income. A source
of income which does not specifically fall under anyone of the
other four heads of income (viz., Salaries, Income from
house property, Profits and gains of business or profession,
or Capital gains) is to be computed and brought to charge
under section 56 under the head Income from other sources.
In other words, it can be said that the residuary head of income
can be resorted to only if none of the specific heads is applicable
to the income in question and that it comes into operation only
if the preceding heads are excluded.
To put it differently, the residuary head of income can be
invoked only if all the following conditions are satisfied
1. There is an income.
2. That income is not exempt from tax under sections 10 to
BA.
3. That income is neither salary income, nor rental income from
house property, nor income from business/profession, nor
capital gains. These four categories of incomes are not
chargeable to tax under the head Income from other
sources, even if such incomes, or a part thereof, cannot be
brought to tax under their respective heads.
If the above three conditions are satisfied, income is taxable
under section 56 under the head Income from other sources.
However, there are some exceptions to this rule and these are
seven types of incomes specified by section 56(2) which are
always taxable under the residuary head.

Incomes charged to tax as Income from other sources.

As per section 56(2), the following income is chargeable to tax
under this head of income:
a. Dividends
b. Any winnings from lotteries, crossword puzzles, races
including horse races, card games and other games of any
sort or from gambling or betting of any form or nature
whatsoever;
c. Any sum received by the assessee from his employees as
contributions to any staff welfare scheme (if not taxable
under the head Profits and gains of business or
profession);
d. Interest on securities if not charged to tax under the head
Profits and gains of business or profession;
f. Income from letting of plant, machinery or furniture along
with the building and letting of building is inseparable from
the letting of plant, machinery or furniture (if it is not
taxable under the head .Profits and gains of business or
profession); and
g. Any sum received under a Keyman insurance policy including
bonus if not taxable as salary or business income.
Besides, the following income is also chargeable under the head
Income from other sources:
a. Income from subletting
b. Interest on bank deposits and loans;
c. Income from royalty (if it is not an income from business/
profession) ;
d. Directors fee;
e. Ground rent;
f. Agricultural income from a place outside India;
g. Directors commission for standing as a guarantor to
bankers;
h. Directors commission for underwriting shares of new
company;
i. Examination fees received by a teacher from a person other
than his employer;
j. Rent of plot of land;
k. Insurance commission;

85

t. Mining rent and royalties;

Dividend in Common Parlance

m .Casual income,

Dividend in its ordinary connotation means the amount paid

to or received by a shareholder in proportion to his
shareholding in a company out of the total sum so distributed.
Under the Companies Act, 1956, dividend can be paid out of
the current profits, undistributed profit of the previous
accounting year and money provided by the Central or State
Government for the payment of dividend in pursuance of
guarantee by the Government. Dividend income is chargeable
to tax under the head Income from other sources unless it is
exempt from tax. Dividend income is taxable irrespective of the
fact whether it is paid in cash or kind or whether it is paid out
of taxable income or tax free income by the company. Likewise,
it does not make any difference if dividend is paid out of
revenue profits or capital profits.

n. Annuity payable under a will, contract, trust deed (excluding

annuity payable by employer which is chargeable under the
head Salaries) ;
o. Salaries payable to a Member of Parliament;
p. Interest on securities issued by a foreign Government;
q. Family pension received by family members of a deceased
employee;
r. In case of retirement, interest on employees contribution if
provident fund is unrecognised income from undisclosed
sources;
t. Gratuity paid to a director who is not an employee of the
company;
u. Income from racing establishments;
v. Compensation received for use of business assets;
w. Annuity payable to the lender of a trade mark.
Interest earned on short-term investment of funds borrowed
for setting up of factory during construction of factory before
commencement of business has to be assessed as income from
other sources and it cannot be held to be non-taxable on
ground that it would go to reduce interest liability on borrowed
amount which would be capitalised.
Any other receipt which is income but which doesnt fall under
salary income, or business income or house property income or
capital gain will be a taxable as income from other sources.
Though dividend received from a domestic company is not
chargeable to tax in the hands of the receiver, there is one
exception regarding these dividends. According to section
2(22)(e), if a closely held company gives a loan in certain
circumstances to a person having substantial interest (10 per
cent ) or to a concern where the person having substantial
interest has at least 20 per cent interest, then the receiver of that
loan will be treated as if he has received the dividend amount to
the extent of loan and it will be taxable in his hands as dividend
income. This provision has been inserted so as to prevent
persons having substantial control and influence over the affairs
of a company to take away all funds of the company as lowinterest loans for their personal benefit to the prejudice of the
other holders.

Dividend and its Taxability

a. Any distribution entailing the release of companys assets
b. Any distribution of debentures, debenture-stock, deposit
certificates and bonus to preference Shareholders.
c. Distribution on liquidation of company
d. Distribution on reduction of capital
e. Any payment by way of loan or advance by a closely-held
company to a shareholder,
Any dividend declared, distributed or paid by a company to its
shareholders is chargeable to tax under the head Income from
other sources irrespective of the fact whether shares are held by
the assessee as investment or stock-in-trade.

86

Dividend Under the Income-tax Act

Section 2(22) gives definition of deemed dividend which is

chargeable to tax under the head Income from other sources,
even if the receipt is not regarded as dividend under the
Companies Act. However, the definition laid down by section
2(22) is inclusive and not exhaustive. If, therefore, a particular
distribution is not regarded as dividend within the extended
meaning of the expression in section 2(22), it may still be
dividend and chargeable to tax under section 56, provided it is
dividend under the ordinary meaning of the expression.
Under section 2(22), the following payments or distribution by
a company to its shareholders are deemed as dividends to the
extent of accumulated profits of the company holding
substantial interest, provided the loan should not have been
made in the ordinary course of business and money-lending
should not be substantial part of the companys business.
Accumulated Profits

Any payment or distribution of the aforesaid nature is treated

as dividend. There is, however, a maximum limit, viz., the
amount of accumulated profits. In other words, payment or
distribution under the aforesaid nature can be treated as
dividend only to the extent of accumulated profits of the
company. It is, therefore, essential to discuss meaning and scope
of the expression accumulated profits. Explanations 1 and 2
to section 2(22) throw light on the meaning of accumulated
profits. It is expressly provided that it does not include capital
gains arising before April 1, 1946 or after March 31, 1948 and
before April 1. 1956.
Does it Include Current Profit

In case of a company, which is not in liquidation, it includes all

profits of the company up to the date of distribution or
payment, whereas in the case of a company in liquidation, it
includes all profits of the company up to the date of liquidation. Where, however, the liquidation is consequent on the
compulsory acquisition of a companys undertaking by the
Government or a Government company, accumulated profits
do not include any profits of the company prior to the three
successive years immediately preceding the previous year in
which such acquisition took place. For instance, if accounting
year of a company is financial year and compulsory acquisition
takes place on March 13, 2003, accumulated profits will exclude
profits accumulated up to March 31,1999.

Conclusion
On the basis of different judicial decisions, the following
conclusions can be drawn in respect of accumulated profits:
1. Accumulated profits include all profits of a company up to
the date of distribution or payment. In the case of
liquidation of company, however, it includes all profits up to
the date of liquidation.
2. Accumulated profits are computed on the basis of
commercial profits and not on the basis of assessed income.
3. While calculating accumulated profits an allowance for
depreciation at the rates provided by the Income-tax Act
itself has to be made by way of deduction.
4. Balancing charge assessable under section 41 (2) does not
form part of accumulated profits as it is not commercial
profit but it is withdrawal of depreciation when the asset is
sold for a price higher than the written down value.
5. Accumulated profits include tax-free income, e.g., agricultural
income. However, receipts of capital nature are included in
accumulated profits only if such receipts are chargeable to tax
under the head Capital gains in the hands of recipient
company
6. Accumulated profits include general reserve.
7. Accumulated profits also include development rebate
reserve, development allowance reserve and investment
allowance reserve, as these reserves are not in the nature of
any expenditure or outgoing.
8. Provisions for taxation and dividends do not form part of
accumulated reserve.
9. Addition made by the Assessing Officer on account of
concealed income forms part of accumulated profit.
Distribution of Accumulated Profits Entailing Release of
Companys Assets

[Sec. 2(22)(a)] - Under sub-clause (a) of section 2(22), any

distribution by a company of its accumulated profits (whether
capitalised or not) is dividend, if it entails the release of
companys assets. In other words, there are two conditions
prescribed by this clause - first distribution should be from
accumulated profits (not from capital) and secondly, such
distribution must result in the release of the assets by the
company. When a company distributes bonus shares to equity
shareholders by capitalising its profits, then there is no release
of assets and consequently, bonus shares are not treated as
dividend.
Distribution of Accumulated Profits in the Form of
Debentures, Debenture Stock

[Sec. 2(22)(b)] - Under this clause, the following two distributions are treated as dividend to the extent of accumulated
profits (whether capitalised or not) of the company:
a. Distribution by a company to its shareholders (whether
equity shareholder or preference shareholder) of debentures,
debenture stock, or deposit certificates in any form, whether
with or without interest; and
b. Distribution by a company to its preference shareholders of
bonus share.

It is worthwhile to note that under the aforesaid circumstances,

distribution amounts to dividend in the hands of recipient
even if there is no release of assets at the time of distribution.
Distribution of Accumulated Profits at the Time of
Liquidation

[Sec. 2(22)(c)] Under sub-clause (c) any distribution made by

a company to its shareholders on its liquidation is treated as
dividend to the extent to which such distribution is attributable
to the accumulated profits (whether capitalised or not) of the
company immediately before its liquidation.
Under sub-clause (c), the following are, however, not treated as
dividend:
a. Any distribution in respect of preference shares issued for
full cash consideration; and
b. Any distribution insofar as such distribution is attributable
to the capitalised profits of the company representing bonus
shares allotted to its equity shareholders after March 31, 1964
but before April 1, 1965.
Distribution of Accumulated Profits on the Reduction of
its Capital

[Sec. 2(22)(d)] - Any distribution by a company to its

shareholders on the reduction of capital is treated as dividend
to the extent the company possesses accumulated profits
(whether capitalised or not). However, the following are not
treated as dividend under this clause:
a. Any distribution out of accumulated profits which arose up
to the previous year 1932-33;
b. Any distribution in respect of preference shares issued for
full cash consideration; and
c. Any distribution insofar as such distribution is attributable
to the capitalised profits of the company representing bonus
shares allotted to its equity shareholders after March 31, 1964
but before April 1, 1965.
Distribution of Accumulated Profits by Way of Advance
or Loan

[Sec. 2(22)(e)]- Under sub-clause (e) payments made after May

31, 1987 by way of loan/advance to the extent of accumulated
profit (excluding capitalised profit) by a closely-held company is
treated as dividend in the following two cases:
1. If loan/ advance is given to a shareholder (beneficially
holding 10 per cent or more of equity capital), it is chargeable
to tax as dividend in the hands of the shareholder. Apart
from loan/ advance to such shareholder, it includes payment
on behalf, or for the benefit, of such shareholder.
If loan/advance is given to a concern (a HUF/firm/company/
AOP/BOI) in which a shareholder (beneficially holding at least
10 per cent equity capital) of the payer company has a substantial interest, then such payment is taxable as dividend income of
the payee-concern. For instance, a partnership firm obtains a
loan/ advance from a closely held company, then such loan/
advance is treated as dividend in the hands of the firm if a
partner (entitled for at least 20 per cent profit of the firm at any
time during the previous year) is a shareholder (beneficially
holding at least 10 per cent equity share capital) in the company.
In the aforesaid circumstances, the amount of loan or advance

87

(given in cash or kind) is treated as dividend to the extent the

company possesses accumulated profits. For this purpose,
capitalised profits do not form part of accumulated profits. The
following payments are, however, not treated as dividend:
1. Any advance or loan made to a shareholder by a company in
the ordinary course of its business, where money lending is a
substantial part of the business of the company, is not
treated as dividend.
2. Any dividend paid by a company and set oft against any loan
or other monetary benefit which has already been treated as
dividend would not be assessed as dividend. If, however,
the dividend is not so set off but is paid to a shareholder
even when the loan is outstanding against him, it would not
be covered by this exception.

Other Points
The following amendments have been made in section 2(22)
with effect from-the assessment year.2000-01 :
1. Dividend does not include any payment made by a company
on purchase of its own shares in accordance with the
provisions contained in section 77 A of the Companies Act,
1956.
2. Dividend does not include any distribution of shares made
in accordance with the scheme of demerger by the resulting
company to the shareholders of the demerged company
whether or not there is a reduction of capital in the
demerged company.
Tax treatment in the hands of shareholders if dividends are
distributed during June 1,1997 and March 31, 2002 or after
March 31, 2003 - Tax treatment of dividend in the hands of
shareholders is as follows :
Dividend Received from a Domestic Company
If dividend is covered by section 2( 22) [not by clause (e) of
section 2(22)] and declared, distributed or paid during June 1,
1997 and March 31, 2002 or after March 31,2003, then it is not
taxable in the hands of shareholders under section 10(34). On
such dividend the company declaring dividend will pay dividend
tax under section 115 O. Tax will not be deducted at source
under sections 194, 195, 196C or 196D.
If a loan or advance is given which is deemed as dividend under
section 2(22)(e), then such loan or advance is taxable under
section 56 as dividend in the hands of recipient without
claiming any deduction under section 80L or 80M.
Dividend Received from a Non-Domestic Company
The exemption under section 10(34) is not available if dividend
is received from a company other than a domestic company and,
consequently, such dividend is chargeable to tax in the hands of
recipient.
Basis of charge [Sec. 8]

Method of accounting regularly employed by the assessee does

not affect basis of charge of dividend income fixed by section 8
Normal Dividend

Normal dividend declared at annual general meeting is deemed

to be the income of the previous year in which it is declared.

88

Deemed Dividend

Notional dividend under section 2(22) is treated as the income

of the previous year in which it is so distributed or paid.
Interim Dividend

Interim dividend is deemed to be the income of the previous

year in which the amount of such dividend is unconditionally
made available by the company to a shareholder. For instance,
an Indian company announces interim dividend on January 25,
2002 ; on March 10, 2002, the company declares April 10, 2002
as the date of payment of interim dividend and payment of
dividend is actually made on April 12, 2002 by posting dividend
warrant. In this case, the amount of dividend is chargeable to
tax for the previous year 2002-03, as interim dividend is
assessable when the dividend warrant is issued by the company.
Place of accrual [Sec. 9(1)(iv)]

Dividend paid by an Indian company is deemed to accrue or

arise in India.
Other Points for Consideration

Apart from what is discussed earlier, the following points merit

consideration in respect of tax incidence on dividend income :
Entire dividend income is chargeable to tax irrespective of the
fact that the company has declared dividend out of exempt
income. For instance, agricultural income is exempt from tax
under section 10(1). If a company declares dividend out of
agricultural income dividends are chargeable to tax in the hands
of recipient-shareholders.
Dividend is paid by the company to a member whose name
appears on the register of members. Recipient-shareholder is,
therefore, liable to pay tax on the entire dividend income
irrespective of the fact whether or not he was a shareholder for
the entire period for which the dividend is declared.
Winnings from lotteries, crossword puzzles, horse races and
card games, etc. . How to compute [Sec. 56(2)(ib)]
Winnings from lotteries, crossword puzzles, races including
horse races, card games and other games of any sort or from
gambling or betting of any form or nature whatsoever, is
taxable under section 56 under the head Income from other
sources.
The expression lottery includes winnings from prizes
awarded to any person by draw of lots or by chance or in any
other manner whatsoever, under any scheme or arrangement by
whatever name called and card game and other game of any
sort includes any game show, an entertainment programme on
television or electronic mode, in which people compete to win
prizes or any other similar game.
Tax incidence on winnings from lotteries, etc. - By virtue of
section 115BB, gross winnings from lotteries, crossword
puzzles, races including horse races (other than income from the
activity of owning and maintaining race horses), card games and
other games of any sort or from gambling or betting of any
nature whatsoever are chargeable to income-tax at a flat rate of
30 per cent (plus surcharge for the assessment year 2004-05) on
the gross winnings (without claiming any allowance or expenditure).

How to gross up if net winning is given - Under sections

194B and 194BB, tax is deductible @ 30 per cent (plus surcharge) on payments in respect of winnings from lotteries
exceeding Rs. 5,000. In case of winnings from races including
horse races, payments exceeding Rs. 2,500 are subject to tax
deduction at source at the rate of 30 per cent (plus surcharge).
If the net amount received is given, then the net amount shall
be grossed up to find out the amount chargeable to tax. An
example is given below for the assessment year 2004-05 to make
the aforesaid position clear
Particulars

Rs.

Winnings from lottery or horse race in case

of X on December 15,2003

1000000

Tax deduction at source by the payer @ 33 per cent

[3096 + 1096 of 3096 as surcharge]
Net amount received by X

330000
6,70,000

Basis of Charge

Income by way of interest on securities is taxable on receipt

basis, if the assessee maintains books of account on cash
basis. It is taxable on due basis when books of account are
maintained on mercantile system. Interest is taxable on
receipt basis, if such interest had not been charged to tax on
due basis for any earlier previous year.
Due Date of Interest

Interest on securities does not accrue everyday or according to

the period of holding of investment. For instance, if one holds
7 per cent securities from January 1,2004 to February 28, 2004, it
cannot be said that interest of two months has accrued to the
security holder. Generally, interest becomes due on due dates
specified on securities. For instance, if specified due dates of
interest of particular securities are March 1 and September 1
every year, interest of six months falls due on each such date
and holder of securities on these dates will be entitled to
interest of six months on each such date.

If it is given that X has received Rs. 6,70,000 on account of

winnings from lotteries (or winnings from horse race), then net
receipt shall be

Interest Exempt from Tax [Sec.10(15)]

Converted into gross amount as follows:

2. Interest on 7 per cent Capital Investment Bonds in the

hands of individuals and Hindu undivided families.

Source
Net winnings from lotteries or
crossword puzzle or horse race or
card games or other games
Winnings from other
gambling or betting

races,

Mode of Conversion
Net amount divided by
--------------------------------------------------------------------------.
[1-(0.30 + surcharge)]
As no tax is required to be
deducted, there is no difference
between net and gross amounts.

Interest on Securities [Sec. 56(2)(id)]

Income by way of interest on securities is taxable under the
head Income from other sources, if the same is not taxable as
business income under section 28.
Meaning of Securities

The word security is not defined under the Act. One has,
therefore, to depend upon its natural meaning and the meaning
ascribed to it under various judicial pronouncements. The
Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines the word security
as a document held by a creditor as guarantee of his right to
payment. In other words, unless the payment of debt is
secured in some way, a mere debt is not a security. Lord Shaw
in Singer v. Williams [1921] I AC 41 observed: A security
means a security upon something.... The term involves the idea
of relation of creditor with debtor, the creditor having a security
over property... or other things. The security must be
something beyond mere liability, though its nature and form
may differ in various cases.

Interest on Securities [Sec.2(28B)]

As per section 2(28B), interest on securities means
a. Interest on any security of the Central Government or a State
Government;
b. Interest on debentures or other securities for money issued
by or on behalf of a localauthority or a company or a
corporation established by a Central, State or Provincial Act.

Indicative list of interest exempt from tax is as under:

1. Interest on notified securities, bonds or certificates.

3. Interest received by a non-resident Indian from notified

bondst (i.e., NRI Bonds and NRI Bonds (Second Series)
issued by the State Bank of India) or by any individual
owning the bonds by virtue of being a nominee or survivor
of such non -resident Indian or by an individual to whom
the bonds have been gifted by the non-resident Indian
[Exemption will be available only if the bonds are purchased
by a non-resident Indian in foreign exchange. The interest
and principal received in respect of such bonds whether on
their maturity or otherwise, is not allowable to be taken out
of India. Where the individual who is a non-resident Indian
in the previous year in which the bonds are acquired,
becomes a resident in India in any subsequent year the
interest received from such bonds will continue to be exempt
in the subsequent year as well. If the bonds are encashed in a
previous year prior to their maturity by an individual who is
so entitled, the exemption in relation to the interest income
shall not be available to such individual in the assessment
year relevant to such previous year in which the bonds have
been encashed).
4. Interest on 9 per cent Relief Bonds, in the case of an
individual or Hindu undivided family.
5. Interest payable to any foreign bank performing central
banking functions outside India.
6. Interest on notified bonds/debentures of a public sector
company [for list of notified debentures of public sector
companies.
7. Interest on deposit made by a retired Government employee
or an employee of a public sector company, out of money
due to him on account of retirement [a deposit scheme has
been formulated in, which such employee may invest (whole

89

or part) of his retirement benefits for a lock-in-period of

three years).
8. Interest on securities held by the Welfare Commissioner,
Bhopal Gas Victims, Bhopal. or interest on deposits for the
benefit of the victims of the Bhopal gas leak disaster held in
such account with the Reserve Bank of India or with a public
sector bank, as the Central Government may, by notification
in the Official Gazette, specify in this behalf.
9. Interest on Gold Deposit Bonds issued under the Gold
Deposit Scheme, 1999.
10. Interest on notified bonds issued by a local authority.
Grossing up of Interest

Gross interest [i.e., net interest plus tax deducted at source] is

taxable. Net interest is grossed up in the hands of recipient if
tax is deducted at source by the payer.
Net interest (if tax is deducted at source) in the hands of the
recipient should be grossed up by multiplying it by the
following fraction: 100-;.-(100-Rate of tax deduction at source).

basis or some other basis), there is no letting of airconditioning plant and lifts to the tenants. Consequently, in
such case incomes from letting of building is taxable under
section 22 under the head Income from house property
and amount collected for providing different amenities shall
be taxable under section 56(1) [if such charges are not taxable
under section 28].
The aforesaid rule is applicable even if the assessee receives
composite rent from his tenant towards building as well as
services/ amenities. The portion of rent attributable to the
building should only be assessed as Income from house
property and balance portion attributable to amenities must be
assessed as Income from other sources-CIT v. Kanak
Investments (P.) Ltd. [1974] 95 ITR 419 (Cal.), CIT v. Model
Mfg. Co. (P.) Ltd. [1985] 21 Taxman 338 (Cal.).

Deductions Permissible from Income from Other

Sources
The income chargeable to tax under this head is computed after
making the following deductions:

Income from Machinery, Plant or Furniture Let on

Hire [Sec. 56(2)(ii)]
Income from machinery ,plant or furniture, belonging to the
assessee and let on hire ,is taxable as income from other sources
if the same is not chargeable to tax as income from Profits and
Gains of business or Profession.

1. Commission or Remuneration for Realizing Dividend or

Interest on Securities [Sec. 57(i)]

Income from Composite Letting of Building,

Machinery, Plant or Furniture [Sec. 56(2)(iii)].
If an assessee lets on hire machinery, plant or furniture and also
building and letting of building is inseparable from letting of
machinery, plant or furniture, income from such letting is
taxable as income from other sources, if the same is not
chargeable to tax under the head Profits and gains of business
or profession.
On the basis of the judicial pronouncements, the following
broad conclusions can be drawn:
1. If there is letting of machinery, plant and furniture and also
letting of the building and the two lettings form part and
parcel of the same transaction or the two lettings are
inseparable (in the sense that letting of one is not acceptable
to the other party without letting of the other; for instance,
letting of cinema house along with letting of furniture) then
such income is taxable under section 56(2)( iii) under the
head Income from other sources (if it is not taxable under
section 28). This rule is applicable even if sum receivable for
the two lettings is fixed separately.
2. If building is let out but other assets like machinery, plant or
furniture are not given on rent but only certain amenities like
lift services, air-conditioning, fire fighting facilities, etc., are
provided then section 56(2)( iii) is not applicable. The
essential requirement of section 56(2)( iii) is that there
should be letting of plant, machinery or furniture and also
letting of building. For instance, if the owner only
undertakes to install, erect and fit up and operate an air
conditioning and cooling plant and to install, fit up and
maintain a lift in the building for the benefit of all the
tenants at specified charges (maybe on no profit no loss

2. Deduction in Respect of Employees Contribution

Towards Staff Welfare Schemes [Sec. 57(ia)]

90

Any reasonable sum paid by way of commission or remuneration to a banker or any other person for the purpose of
realizing dividend or interest on securities on behalf of the
assessee is deductible.

Deduction in respect of any sum received by a taxpayer as

contribution from his employees towards any welfare fund of
such employees is allowable only if such sum is credited by the
taxpayer to the employees account in the relevant fund before
the due date. For this purpose due date is the date by which
the assessee is required as employer to credit such contribution
to the employees account in the relevant fund under the
provisions of any law or terms of contract of service or
otherwise.
3. Repairs, Depreciation In the Case of Letting Out of
Plant, Machinery, Furniture, Building

In the case of income chargeable under section 56( ii)/ (iii) the
following expenses are deductible:
a. Current repairs in respect of building[sec. 30(a)(ii)
b. Insurance premium in respect of insurance against risk of
damage or destruction of the premises [sec. 30( c] ;
c. Repairs and insurance of machinery, plant and furniture [sec.
31] ;
d. Depreciation [sec. 32].
4. Standard Deduction in the Case of Family Pension
[Sec. 57(iia)]

In the case of income in the nature of family pension, the

amount deductible is Rs.15,000 or 331/3 per cent of such
income, whichever is less.
For this purpose family pension means a regular monthly
amount payable by the employer to a person belonging to the
family of an employee in the event of his death.

5. Any Other Expenses for Earning Income [Sec. 57(iii)]

Any other expenditure is deductible under section 57(iii) if the

following four basic conditions are satisfied:

3. What are the permissible deductions from Income from

other sources.
4. What are specific disallowances from the head.

a. The expenditure must be laid out or expended wholly and

exclusively for the purpose of making or earning the income;
b. The expenditure must not be in the nature of capital
expenditure;
c. It must not be in the nature of personal expenses of the
assessee;
d. It must be laid out or expended in the relevant previous year
and not in any prior or subsequent year.
6. Deduction Allowable from Dividend Income

There was a conflict of opinion whether interest on money

borrowed for investing in shares was allowable as deduction if
shares had not yielded income. The controversy was, however,
laid to rest by the Supreme Court in CIT v. Rajendra Prasad
Moody [1978] 115 ITR 519, wherein the Court held that
interest paid is allowable as deduction even if the shares have
not yielded any income during the previous year.

Specific Disallowances
The following amounts are not deductible while computing
income under the head income from other sources: Amount
not deductible under section 58 - The following are not
deductible by virtue of section 58 :
a. Personal Expenes [Sec. 58(1)(a)(i))- Any personal expenses
of the assessee is not deductible.
b. Interest [Sec. 58(1 )(a)(ii)) - Any interest chargeable under the
Act which is payable outside India on which tax has not been
deducted at source is not deductible.
c. Salary [Sec.: 58(1)(a)(iii)) - Any payment chargeable under the
head Salaries and payable outside India is not deductible if
tax has not been paid or deducted therefrom.
d. Wealth Tax [Sec. 58(1)) . Any sum paid on account of
wealth-tax is not deductible.
e. In case of foreign companies expenditure in respect of
royalties and technical services received under an agreement
made after 31/3/76.
f. Any expenditure in connection with income from winning
form lotteries, crosswords, cross puzzles, races including race
horses, car race and other games of races, gambling, betting
of any form. However expense are allowed as a deduction in
computing the income of an assessee who earns income
from maintaining as well as holding race horses.
g. Disallowances by Section 40A [Sec. 58(2)) - Any amount
specified by section 40A is not deductible while calculating
income under the head Income from other sources.
h. Amounts not deductible by virtue of sections 115A, 115AB,
115AC, 115AD, 115BBA and 115D - No deduction is
available under section 57 in the case of income referred to in
sections 115A,115AB,115AC, 115AD,115BBAand 115D.
Lets discuss some questions.
1. Tell me about basis of charge of income from other sources.
2. After this ,tell me atleast 10 (ten) examples of income from
other sources.
91

LESSON 11:
PROFITS AND GAIN OF BUSINESS OR PROFESSION
Lesson Objective

To know basis of charge of income under the head.

To know meaning of Business with respect to the Act.

To know the principles of general deduction under the Act.

To know what are the specific deductions under the Act

under this head.

To know what are he deductions.

Dear students this is really a very interesting topic to study .This

is a very practical oriented lesson.This is the most important
lesson. You should really concentrate on this lesson.
Every businessman is interested in knowing his tax liability and
have some hints in order to minimise tax liability. Lets start
with basis of charge.

Basis of Charge(Sec 28)

Under sec. 28 the following eight types of income are chargeable
to Tax under the head Profit and Gains of Business Profession.
Profit and Gains of any Business or Profession.
Any Compensation or other payments due to or received by any
person Specified in Section28(ii)
Income Received or derived by a trade professional or similar
association from specific services performed for its members.
Profit on sale of import-entitlement Licenses, incentive by way
of cash compensatory support and duty drawback.
The value of any Benefit or perquisite whether convertible into
money or not arising from business or the exercise of a
profession.
Any interest, salary bonus, commission, or Remuneration
received by a partner of firm from such firm.
Any sum whether Received or Receivable in cash or in kind
under an Agreement for carrying out any activity in relation to
any business or not to share any know-how, patent, copyright,
trade-mark, License, franchise or any other business or nature or
information or technique likely to assist in the Manufacture or
processing of goods or provision for service.
Any sum received under a keyman insurance policy and
Income from speculative transactions Income from all the
above are computed in accordance with the provision of section
29.
Let Consider Each Head Individually
Meaning of Business: sec2 (13) describes business as includes
any (a) trade (b) commerce (c) Manufacturer (d) any adventure
or concern in nature of trade commerce or manufacture.
Further the definition of Business is not exhaustive, it covers
every facet of an occupation carried on by a person with a view
of earning profit. Thus the word Business means some real,

92

substantial and a Systematic Course of activity conducted with a

view to earn-profits.
Thus profit motive is a significant factor determining profit.
Though profit motive is significant but not the conclusion test
of Business for ex societies do carry on business but seldom
have profit motive as an objective.
Thus control and profit motive together constitute the
determining factor unless such control or authority to direct is
present, a person cannot be said to carry on Business. Thus
were either of the two are absent there cannot be a Business.
The essential characteristics of Business are
1. Business cannot be carried on oneself as business arises of
commercial transaction between two or more person. But
however there can be Business transaction between a
partnership firm and a limited company in which all the
partner are shareholder as a firm is a legal entity distinct from
its members.
2. Business includes trade: Trade is defined as primarily
exchanging goods for goods or money without changing the
original form of goods purchased.
3. Business includes Manufacturing: Means producing all
together new product with the help of men Material and
machines by which the thing produce is by itself
Commercially Saleable.
Business Income not Taxable under Profit and Gains of
Business or Profession:
In the following cases, income from trading or business is not
chargeable under section 28.
Income from House property were the letting out is incidental
to business.
Deemed Dividend U/S 2(22)(e) on share are taxable as income
from other sources under section 56(2)(1) even if the shares are
held as stock in trade.
Winning from Cotteries races etc are taxable under income from
other sources.
Meaning of Profession and Vocation As per sec-2 (36)
profession includes vocation. The word profession implies
attainment of special knowledge, which can be acquired only
after patient studies and applications for e.g.: charted accountants, cost accounts financial. Accountants and etc. However
whether a particular person is carrying on any profession is a
particular of fact.
Thus it is important to understand that as per the Act Business
and profession are different but the important point is though
there are two different section defining them but the both are
calculated under the same head i.e. Income from BusinessProfession.

Income of Trade or professional associations from specific

services (sec.28 (iii)) The excess of income over expenditure
accruing to a mutual association is not income and is not liable
to tax mutual association means the purpose for which the
society is formed i.e. transaction. Thus between members from
Non-Mutual Association is Taxable thus when Interest is
received from Fixed Deposit it is taxable but were as interest
received from members for delay in payment of subscription is
not taxable.

Export Incentives
Exporters are given. Export Incentives by way of cash compensatory services, duty, drawback and import, entitlement licenses.
The finance Act 1990 has provided that these receipts will be
taxed as revenue receipts under the head profit and gains of
Business or profession.
Value of Any Benefits or Perquisites

The value of any perquisite or benefit whether convertible into

money or not are taxable even they are received or contractual or
gratuitonal.

The settlement would be otherwise than by actual delivery or

transfer of commodity or Scripps.
However there are certain exceptions also for sec43 (5) if an
hedging contract, entered into by the merchant in the course of
Business to avoid future business losses through price fluctuation are excluded from the provision of sec 43 (5).
Thus if an Merchant enters into a forward contract for price
fluctuation and if the contract is cancelled than it would not be
taxable as speculative - transaction.

General Principle Governing Assessment of

Business Income
1. Business or Profession Should be Carried on During the
Previous Year

Income from business is taxable only if the business of

profession is carried on during the previous year .However the
following are taxable even if no business or profession are
carried on during the previous year.
Recovery or excess recovery against the deduction.

Receipt in case of non - compete fees and exclusively rights (sec

28 Va.): As applicable from the A.Y. 2003-2004.

Sale of asset used for scientific-research recovery against Baddebts.

The following sums are taxable:

Amount withdrawn from special reserves. Sum received after

discontinuous of business.

Any sum for not carrying out any activity in relation to a

business or
Any sum for not sharing any know-how, patents, copyrights,
trademarks, license, franchise or any other business or Commercial right of similar right nature or information or Technique
likely to assist in the Manufacturing or processing of goods.
Exception: The aforesaid a.) is not applicable to:

Any sum received on account of transfer of a right to carry

on business, which is chargeable as capital gains.

Any sum received on account of transfer of right to

manufacture produce or process any attitude or thing, which
is chargeable as capital gain.

Any sum received as compensation from the multilateral

fund in accordance with terms entered into with 9.0 I

The above provisions are applicable only in case of business

and not in case of profession. As profession it not covered by
section28 (Va).

Speculative Business
If an assessee carries on a speculative Transaction of such a
nature as to constitute a business, such business should be
distinct and separate. This provision has been enacted in section
73 which lays down that loss in speculative business Business
can be setoff only against profit of speculative transaction as a
transaction in which a contract for the purchase or sale of any
commodity including stock and share is periodically or ultimately settled otherwise than by Actual - delivery or transfer of
the commodity. Thus three elements should be present.
The contract is for the purchase or sale of stock, share or
commodity.
The contract for sale or purchase of any share stock or commodity is ultimately settled.

2. Income of Previous Year is Taxable During the

Following Assessment year
3. Profits in the Case of Winding Up

Profit made in case of winding up are not taxable under section

28 as no business is carried on in that case. However such
profits may be taxable as Capital gain. But however if the
business is closed and stock in trade is disposed of, the
resulting profit is taxable under section 28, as there is no
difference between an ordinary sale of goods and sale of goods
at the time of winding up in both case Profit is sole motive but
however in case of slump sale stock is sold there cannot be any
taxable business profit even if profit is realized.
4. Real Profit vs Anticipated Profit

The Taxable-profit is the amount which arises in that year.

Anticipated or future Profit are not considered. The only
exception is of closing - stock which may be valued at the lower
of cost or net realizable value.
5. Notional Profit not be Considered

Notional signifies imaginary hence for the purpose of Tax only

real profits are to be considered.
E.g. Of notional profit are withdrawn of goods for personal
use by the proprietor or header. The profits to be taxed are
commercial profit.
Thus a transaction should be viewed from commercial point of
view to determine whether it is real or notional.

Some Principles Governing Admissibility of

Deduction v/s 30 to 44D
It is the responsibility of the assessee to prove whether the
expenditure is Deduct able or not.
In order to claim deduction the expenditure should relate to
previous year.

93

In order to ascertain whether the expenditure relates to previous

year or not Insight be sought to the method of accounting
followed by the assessee.
An expenditure is allowable as deduction only if relates to the
assessees own business.
It is not necessary that benefit of expenditure should be limited
to the previous year in which the expenditure is incurred. A
revenue-expenditure incurred during the previous year is
deductable even if the benefit extent to the more than one-year.
Hence the concept of deferred revenue expenditure is not
applicable.
The expenses incurred should not be tainted with illegality.
Expenses are tainted with illegality are, like penalty imposed for
violation of any act.
The Basic principle to insert this clause is that business should
be carried On without the violation of any Act or rule.
Expenses related to exhaustion of wasting. Assets are not
deductable. Wasting assets are Mines, quarries timber. Bearing
land and etc.
Under the present scheme of the act, anticipated loss cannot be
deducted though the loss is certain. Thus provision for Baddebts is not deduct able on Investment in shares is also not
deductible.
The expenditure incurred must be revenue expenditure, capitalexpenditure are not deductible. Further it is the responsibility
of the assessee to prove whether the expenditure is revenue or
not.

Deduction Allowed
Are eliminated in section 30 to 37 section 40, 40 A and 43 B
cover expenses which are not deductable.
Section 30: Rent Rates Taxes and Repairs and Insurance of
Building

Under section 30 is the following deduction are satisfied

allowed :
The rent of premises, if the assessee has occupied the premises
as tenant and the premises as tenant and the amount of repairs
if he has undertaken to bear the cost of repairs.Any sum on
account of current repairs if the assessee has occupied the
premises otherwise than has a tenant any sum paid on account
of land, revenue local taxes or municipal taxes.Any sum paid as
Insurance premium against risk of damage or destruction of
the premise.
Section 31: Repairs and Insurance of Machinery, Plant and
Furniture

Expenditure for the above are allowed as deduction if they are

used for purpose of business or profession. The term repairs
means the expenditure is incurred to maintain or preserve an
already existing asset. If expenditure is incurred to being an
altogether new asset it is not repair but Capital-Expenditure
Insurance premium to cover the risk of the asset is also deduct
able.
One of the important deduction is depreciation under
section 32 which we will discuss indetail in next topic.

Other Deductions

94

Other Deductions [Section 36] - This section authorises

deduction of certain specific expenses. The items of expenditure and the conditions under which such expenditures are
deductible are:
Insurance premia paid [Section 36(1)(i)) - If insurance policy has
been taken out against risk, damage or destruction of the stock
or stock of the business or profession, the premia paid is
deductible. But the premium in respect of any insurance
undertaken for any other purpose is not allowable under the
clause.
Insurance premia paid by a Federal Milk Co-operative Society
[Section 36 (ia)) Deduction is allowed in respect of the amount
of premium paid by a Federal Milk Cooperative Society to effect
or to keep in force an insurance on the life of the cattle owned
by a member of a co-operative society being a primary society
engaged in supply of milk raised by its members to such
Federal Milk Co-operative Society. The deduction is admissible
without any monetary or other limits.
Premia paid by employer for health insurance of employees
[Section 36(1)(ib)) This clause seeks to allow a deduction to an
employer in respect of premia paid by him by cheque to effect
or to keep in force an insurance on the health of his employees
in accordance with a scheme framed by the General Insurance
Corporation of India and approved by the Central Government.
Bonus and Commission [Section 36(1)(ii)) - These are deductible in full provided the sum paid to the employees as bonus or
commission shall not be payable to them as profits or dividends if it had not been paid as bonus or commission. It is a
provision intended to safeguard against a private company or an
association escaping tax by distributing a part of its profits by
way of bonus amongst the members, or employees of their
own concern instead of distributing the money as dividends or
profits.
Interest on borrowed capital [Section 36(1)(iii)) - In the case of
genuine business borrowings, the department cannot disallow
any part of the interest on the ground that the rate of interest is
unreasonably high except in cases falling under section 40A. The
interest paid on capital borrowed for expanding a business is
allowable under this clause although the assets brought into
existence with the help of the borrowed capital had not been
actually used for purpose of the business. But the amount
allowable is limited only to interest; it does not include any
bonus or premium paid on redemption of debentures. For the
purpose of allowing the interest on borrowing, it is immaterial
whether the borrowed moneys are used for capital or revenue
purposes and the assets acquired by the borrowings are brought
into use during that year or not. For the purpose of allowance
the term interest must be taken to have the same meaning as is
given to it under the definition contained in section 2(28A).
Contributions to provident and other funds [Section 36(1) (iv)
and (v)] - Contribution to the employees provident and other
funds are allowable subject to the following conditions:
a. The fund should be settled upon a trust.

b. In case of Provident or a superannuation or a Gratuity

Fund, it should be one recognised or approved under the
Fourth Schedule to the Income-tax Act.
c. The .amount contributed should be periodic payment and
not an ad hoc payment to start the fund.
d. The fund should be for exclusive benefit of the employees.
The nature of the benefit available to the employees from the
fund is not material; it may be pension, gratuity or provident
fund.
Amount received by assessee as contribution from his employees towards their welfare fund to be allowed only if such
amount is credited on or before due date Clause (va) of section
36(1) and clause (va) of section 57 provide that deduction in
respect of any sum received by the taxpayer as contribution
from his employees towards any welfare fund of such employees will be allowed only if such sum is credited by the taxpayer
to the employees account in the relevant fund on or before the
due date. For the purposes of this section, due date will
mean the date by which the assessee is required as an employer
to credit such contribution to the employees account in the
relevant fund under the provisions of any law on term of
contract of service or otherwise.
As per paragraph 38 of the Employees Provident Funds
Scheme, 1952, the amounts under consideration in respect of
wages of the employees for any particular mouth shall be paid
within 15 days of the close of every month. A further grace
period of 5 days is allowed [CPFCs Circular No. E 128(1) 60111 dt. 19.3.1964].
Allowance for animals [Section 36(1 )(vi)] - This clause grants an
allowance in respect of animals which have died or become
permanently useless. The amount of the allowance is the
difference between the actual cost of the animals and the price
realisea on the sale of the animals themselves or their carcasses.
The allowance under the clause would thus recoup to the
assessee the entire capital expenditure in respect of animal.
Bad debts [Section 36(1)(vii) sub-section (2)] - These can be
deducted subject to the following conditions:
a. The debts or loans should be in respect of a business which
was carried on by the assessee during the relevant previous
year.
b. The debt should have been taken into account in computing
the income of the assessee of the previous year in which
such debt is written off or of an earlier previous year or
should represent money lent by the assessee in the ordinary
course of his business of banking or money lending.
The proviso to the above sub-clause provides that in the case of
banks to which clause (viia) applies, the amount of the deductions relating to any such debt or part thereof shall be limited to
the amount by which such debt or part thereof exceeds credit
balance in the provision for bad and doubtful debts account
made under that clause. The scope of the above proviso has been
expanded to cover any assessee and not only banks. This
amendment is effective from assessment year 1992-93.
For the purpose of clause (vii) it has been clarified in the Act
that any bad debt or part thereof written off as irrecoverable in

the accounts shall not include any provision for bad and
doubtful debts.
Further in the case of a claim for bad debts by an assessee
covered by section 36(1 )(viia), the bank or financial institution
etc. should have debited the bad debt to the provision for bad
and doubtful debts account. This is retrospectively effective
from 1-41992. Earlier the provision covered only banks.
Further, if on the final settlement the amount recovered in
respect of any debt. where deduction had already been allowed,
falls short of the difference between the debt -due and the
amount of debt allowed, the deficiency can be claimed as a
deduction from the income of the previous year in which the
ultimate recovery out of the debt is made. It is permissible for
the Assessing. Officer to allow deduction in respect of a bad
debt or any part thereof in the assessment of a particular year
and subsequently to allow the balance of the amount, if any, in
the year in which the ultimate recovery is made, that is to say,
when the final result of the process of recovery comes to be
known.
Furthermore, where any bad debt has been written off as
irrecoverable in the accounts of the previous year and the
Assessing Officer is satisfied that such a debt or part thereof, in
fact had become a bad debt in any earlier previous year not
falling beyond a period of four previous years in which the
debts should have been allowed provided the assessee accepts
such a finding [Section 155(6)].
Recovery of a bad debt subsequently [Section 41(4)] - If a
deduction has been allowed in respect of a bad debt under
section 36, and subsequently the amount recovered in respect of
such debt is more than the amount due after the allowance had
been made, the excess shall be deemed to be the profits and
gains of business or profession and will be chargeable as
income of the previous year in which it is recovered,sub-section.
Special deduction to Financial Corporations providing longterm finance for industrial or agricultural development [Section
36(1)(viii - A special tax concession is granted to financial
corporation providing long-term finance for the development
of industry, agriculture or infrastructure facility. This provision
is an exception to the general rule that no deduction is admissible in computing taxable profits in respect of any
appropriation of income which the taxpayer may make out of
his profits. It is only under this specific provision, financial
corporations are permitted to appropriate their profits towards
reserves with a view to augmenting their resources.
Accordingly, in respect of any special reserve created and
maintained by a financial corporation which is engaged in
providing long-term finance for industrial or agricultural
development or development of infrastructure facility in India
or by a public company formed and registered in India with the
main object of carrying on the business of providing long-term
finance for construction or purchase of houses in India for
residential purposes an amount not exceeding 40% of the
profits divided from such business of providing long-term
finance (computed under the head profits and gains of
business or profession before making any deduction under
this section) carried to such reserve account will be allowed as a
deduction.
95

Where the aggregate of the amounts carried to such reserve

account from time to time exceeds twice the amount of the
paid up share capital (excluding the amounts capitalized from
reserves) of the corporation or the company no allowance
under this clause shall be made in respect of such excess.
The expression infrastructure facility shall have the meaning
assigned to it in clause (23G) of section 10.
Deduction in respect of income from long-term finance for
development of infrastructure facilities - The deduction will
now be available also to approved financial corporations
providing long-term finance for development of infrastructure
facilities in India. For this purpose, the expression infrastructure facility shall have the meaning assigned to it in section
8O-IA.
Expenses on family planning [Section 36(1 )(ix)) - Any expenditure of revenue nature bona fide incurred by a company for the
purpose of promoting family planning amongst its employees
will be allowed as a deduction in computing the companys
business income; where, the expenditure is of a capital nature,
one-fifth of such expenditure will be deducted in the previous.
year in which it was incurred and in each of the four immediately succeeding previous years. This deduction is allowable only
to companies and not to other assessees. The assessee would be
entitled to carry forward and set off the unabsorbed part of the
allowance in the same way as unabsorbed depreciation.
Contribution to funds mentioned in section 10{23E) [Section
36(1) - Any sum paid by a public financial institution by way of
contribution towards any Exchange Risk Administration Fund
specified under section 10(23E) shall be allowed as a deduction
in the computation of profits and gains of business or
profession.
Expenses incurred for Y2K compliance [Section 36(1) Clause
(xi)]provides for allowing deduction in the computation of
profits and gains in respect of any expenditure incurred wholly
and exclusively by the assessee on or after the 1st April. 1999
but before the 1st April, 2000 in respect of a non-Y2K
compliant system, owned by the assessee and used for the
purposes of his business or profession, so as to make such
system Y2K compliant computer system.
Further. no such deduction shall be admissible unless the
assessee furnishes in the prescribed form, along with the return
of income, the report of an accountant, as defined in the
Explanation below sub-section (2) of section 288, certifying
that the deduction has been correctly claimed in accordance with
the provisions of this clause.

Meanings of Certain Terms

a. computer system means a device or collection of devices
including input and output support devices and excluding
calculators which are not programmable and capable of being
used in conjunction with external files. or more of which
contain computer programmes. electronic instructions. input
data and output data, that performs functions including, but
not limited to. logic. arithmetic, data storage and retrieval,
communication and control.
b. Y2K compliant computer system means a computer
system capable of correctly processing, providing or receiving
96

data relating to date within and between the twentieth and

twenty-first century.
Residuary Expenses [Section 37]

Revenue expenditure incurred for purposes of carrying on the

business, profession or vocation - This is a residuary section
under which only business expenditure is allowable but not the
business losses, e.g.. those arising out of embezzlement, theft.
destruction of assets. misappropriation by employees etc.
(These are allowable under section 29 as losses incidental to the
business). The deduction is limited only to the amount actually
expended and does not extend to a reserve created particular
case is of revenue nature or of a capital nature. The following
broad principles have been evolved by the decisions of the
various courts from time to time. These principles are neither
exhaustive nor are they intended to be. They would serve only
as guidelines to decide any problem arising in. regard to the
determination of the capital or revenue of a particular item
[Hyfam Ltd. v CIT [1913] 87 ITR 310 (A.P.)). .
If the expenditure is for the initial outlay or for acquiring or
bringing into existence any asset or advantage of an enduring
benefit to the business of the assessee or for extension of the
business which is already in existence or for substantial replacement of any existing business asset it must be treated as capital
expenditure. The Supreme Court has reiterated the above
principle in CiT v. Jalan Trading Co. (P) Ltd. [1985] 23 Taxman
(SC).
2. If, however, the expenditure, although incurred for the
purpose of the business that too for acquiring an asset or
advantage. is for running the business or for working out that
asset with a view to producing profits, it would be a revenue
expenditure. The expenditure incurred for the purpose of
carrying on the business undertaking would be of a revenue
nature. The expenditure which has to be incurred by an assessee
in the ordinary course of his business. to enable him to carry on
his trading operations is normally to be considered to be of a
revenue nature. The expenditure by the assessee cannot be
considered to be capital in nature merely because of the fact that
the amount involved is large. The quantum of the expenditure
cannot go to affect or alter the real nature and character of
expenditure.
In cases where the outgoing of money spent by the assessee
is so related to the
3. carrying on or the conduct of the business that it may be
regarded as an integral part of the profit-earning process of
operations and not for the acquisition of any asset of a
permanent character the possession of which is a condition
precedent to the running of the business. then such an item of
payment would constitute an expenditure of a revenue nature.
4. Any special knowledge, technical know-how or patent or
trade mark constitutes an asset and if such an asset is acquired
on payment for its use and exploitation for a limited period in
the business and the acquisition is not of an asset or advantage
of an enduring nature and at the end of the stipulated period
the asset or advantage reverts back intact to the giver of the
special knowledge or the owner of the patent, trade mark or
copyright. it would constitute an expenditure of a revenue

nature. In this context, it may be noted that a payment made to

ward off competition in business to a rival would constitute a
capital expenditure if the object of making that payment is to
derive an advantage by eliminating competition over some
length of time. The same result would not follow if there is no
certainty of the duration of the advantage and the same can be
put to an end at any point of time. How long the period of
contemplated advantage or the benefit should be in order to
constitute benefit of an enduring nature would depend upon
the facts and circumstances of each individual case. Although
enduring benefit need not be of an everlasting character, it
should not be so transitory and ephemeral that it may be
terminated at any time at the volition of any of the parties to
the contract.

processed before it is converted into stock-in-trade, the expenditure incurred over it would constitute a capital expenditure.

5. In cases of acquisition of a capital asset, it is immaterial

whether the price for it is paid by the assessee once and for all in
lumpsum or periodically and also whether it is paid out of
capital or income or is linked with the total sales or the turnover
of the business. In such a case, the expenditure or outgoing
would constitute payment of a capital nature although it may
indirectly be linked to or is paid out of revenue profit or sales.

The capital or revenue character of a particular item must be

decided from the facts and circumstances of each case and must
be based upon the principles of law applicable to those facts.
The fact that a particular transaction is treated by the parties as
capital or revenue in n<Jture or is called a sale, instead of being
an agreement to use or let out the particular asset would not
convert the capital or revenue character of the transaction.
Similarly, the entries made by the parties concerned in their
books of account or other documents would not always be
indicative or conclusive, as to what the real nature of the
transaction is based upon the above principles, the capital or
revenue character of a particular expenditure will have to be
decided in every case.

6. In cases where the amount paid for acquisition of an asset of

an enduring nature is settled, by the mere fact that the amount
so settled is chalked out into various small amounts or
periodical instalments the capital nature of the transaction or
expenditure would not in any way be affected nor the fact that
the payment is made in instalments or in small amounts would
in any way alter the nature of the expenditure from capital to
revenue. In other words, the magnitude of the payment and its
periodicity would not be deciding factors for determining the
capital or revenue nature of any particular payment.
7. A lumpsum amount paid for liquidating recurring claims
would generally be of a revenue nature; it would not cease to be
a revenue expenditure or get converted into capital expenditure
merely because its payment is spread over a number of years. In
such a case it is the intention and the object for which the assets
are acquired that determine the nature of the expenditure
incurred over it, and not the mode and the manner in which the
payment is made nor is it in any way related to or determined by
the source of such payment.
8. If the expenditure in question is recurring and is incurred by
the assessee during the ordinary course of the business or
manufacture, it would normally constitute a revenue expenditure.
9. An asset or advantage of an enduring nature resulting in
capital expenditure does not mean that such an asset should last
for ever; if the capital asset is, by its very nature, a short lived
one, the expenditure incurred over it does not on that account
cease to be a capital expenditure.
10. It is nowhere stipulated in the law that if a benefit of
enduring nature is obtained, the expenditure for securing it
must be treated as a capital expenditure. If the advantage or the
benefit acquired by the assessee is to get stock-in-trade of a
business it would constitute a revenue; but if what is acquired
by the assessee is not the advantage of getting his current or
trading assets directly but of something which requires to be

11. Further, an item of disbursement may be regarded as capital

expenditure when it is referable to fixed capital or a capital asset;
it is a revenue expenditure when it is referable to circulating
capital or stock in trade. Expenditure which relates to the
framework of the taxpayers business is a capital expenditure.
Expenditure incurred for the termination of trading relationship in order to avoid losses occurring in future though that
relationship, whether pecuniary loss or commercial inconvenience, is a revenue expenditure. Expenditure incurred for the
initial starting of the business before its setting up for
substantial expansion and also expenditure incurred after the
discontinuance of the business would be of a capital nature.

Miscellaneous instances of revenue expenditure: Payment made

for the use of goodwill, use of quota rights or in the case of a
hotel or restaurant business the cost of table linen, crockery,
pots is of a revenue expenditure. The cost of dredging carried
on by a harbour authority for the purpose of keeping the
channels clear for shipping is also of revenue expenditure.
Expenditure incurred by a surgeon or businessman on a study
tour abroad to acquire knowledge of the latest techniques
would be on revenue account.
Miscellaneous instances of capital expenditure: Expenditure on
improvement to property as distinguished from mere repairs or
that which is incurred by a company in raising loans or issuing
debentures for capital outlay would be capital expenditure if
they are incurred before the business is set up. Legal expenses
incurred in connection with the mortgages of the premises
belonging to the assessee in which the assessee carries on his
business are also capital expenditure.
Advertisements in Souvenirs of political parties: Sub-section
(2B) of section 37' disallows any deduction on account of
advertisement expenses representing contributions made by any
person carrying on business or profession in computing the
profits and gains of the business or profession. It has specifically been provided that the new provision for disallowance
would apply notwithstanding anything to the contrary contained in sub-section (1) of section 37. In other words, the
expenditure representing contribution for political purposes
would become disallowable even in those cases where the
expenditure is otherwise incurred by the assessee in his character
as a trader and the amount is wholly and exclusively incurred for
the purpose of the business. Accordingly, a taxpayer would not
97

be entitled to any deduction in respect of expenses incurred by

him on advertisement in any souvenir. brochure, tract or the like
published by any political party, whether it is registered with the
Election Commission of India or not.

e. It should not be in the nature of any personal expenses of

the assessee.

Limit of Reserve for Unexpired Risks: Under Rule 6E of the

Income-tax Rules, in computing the income from any business
of insurance other than life insurance, the deduction in respect
of the amount carried over to a reserve for unexpired risks
including the amount of any additional reserve shall be
restricted to : (a) in the case of a fire or miscellaneous insurance
business, 50% of the net premium income of the previous
year; (b) in the case of a marine insurance business. 100% of the
premium income of the previous year.

g. It should not be in the nature of capital expenditure. (The

principles to be followed for distinguishing capital
expenditure from revenue are discussed below.)

However, the amount of reserve or additional reserve disallowed under this provision in any year shall not be included in
the total income in the next year for the purpose of assessment.
The Explanation to Rule 6E defines net premium income to
mean the amount of premium received as reduced by the
amount of re-insurance premium paid during the relevant
previous year. Further, marine insurance includes the Export
Credit Insurance.
Explanation to section 37(1) - This Explanation is significant in
that it provides that any expenditure incurred by the assessee for
any purpose which is an offence or is prohibited by law shall
not be allowed as a deduction or allowance.

Amounts Not Deductible [Section 40]

By dividing the assessees into distinct groups, this section places
absolute restraint on the deductibility of certain expenses as
follows:
Section 40(a) - In the case of any assessee, the following
expenses are not deductible:
i. Any interest payable outside India (not being interest on
loan issued for public subscription before the 1 st day of
April, 1983) on which tax has not been paid or deducted at
source and in respect of which there is no person in India
who may be treated as an agent under section 163 ;
ii. Any sum paid on account of tax or cess levied on profits on
the basis of or in proportion to the profits and gains of any
business or profession;
iii. Any sum paid on account of wealth tax. against a contingent
lability.

Conditions for Allowance

The following conditions should be fulfilled in order that a
particular item of expenditure may be deductible under this
section:
a. The expenditure should not be of the nature described in
sections 30 to 36.
b. It should have been incurred by the assessee in the
accounting year.
c. It should be in respect of a,business carried on by the
assessee the profits of which are being computed and
assessed.
d. It must have been incurred after the business was set up.

98

f. It should have been laid out or expended wholly and

exclusively for the purposes of such business.

h. The expenditure should not have been incurred by the

assessee for any purpose which is an offence or is prohibited
by law.
This section is thus limited in scope. It does not permit an
assessee to make all deductions which a prudent trader would
make in ascertaining his own profit. It might be observed that
the section requires that the expenditure should be wholly and
exclusively laid out for purpose of the business -but not that it
should have been necessarily laid out for such purpose. There
fore, expenses wholly and exclusively laid out for the purpose
of trade are, subject to the fulfilment of other conditions,
allowed under this section even though the outlay is unnecessary.
For determining whether an expenditure is of the nature
contemplated by the foregoing provisions of law the following
tests should be applied:
1. Character as a trader : The expenditure should be incurred
by the assessee in his character as a trader.
2. Voluntarily expended on grounds of commercial
expediency : A sum of money expended, not out of
necessity but with a view to getting a direct and immediate
benefit to the trade, but voluntarily and on the grounds of
commercial expediency and in order indirectly to facilitate the
carrying on of the business may yet be expended wholly and
exclusively for purposes of the trade (Atherton v British
Insulated and Helsby Ltd. 10 LTC. 115 (H.L.)).
3. Direct concern and .direct purpose : In order to ascertain
whether the expenditure has been incurred wholly and
exclusively for the purpose of the business one must look to
the direct concern and direct purpose money is laid out and
not the remote or indirect result which may affect flow from
the expenditure.
4. Purpose of the assessees own business : The expenditure
should incurred for the assessees own business.
Notwithstanding this proposal as the expenditure is for the
whole and exclusive purpose of the assessee the mere fact
that the expenditure incidentally obtains some advance,
assessee in some character other than that of a trader, would
not deter of the finding that the expenditure was wholly and
exclusively incurred f the assessees business.
5. Unremunerative expenditure : The expenditure need not be
incurred! the purpose of earning profit in the year of
account. For example, the c or advertisement or expenses on
a foreign tour by the managing direct, deductible even tough
the income therefrom would be earned in future i
6. Treatment in asssessees accounts : The way in which an
item of expenditure treated in the assessees accounts is not a
conclusive evidence against of the assessee.

Payment out of profits and payments ascertained by reference

to profits: Which makes a payment which is computed in
relation to profits the question that Does the payment represent
a mere division of profit with another person or of expenditure the amount of which is ascertained by reference to the pr
payment would be allowable in the second case but not in the
first.
Distinction between capital and revenue expenditure: The line
of c between capital and revenue expenditure is very thin and
the ultimate conclusive nature of the expenditure is always a
mixed question of law and fact. In deciding an expenditure is
of a revenue or a capital nature, one must take into consideration nature and ordinary course of the business of the assessee
and the object for expenditure had been incurred.
Whether a particular item of expenditure is incurred for the
purpose of the business. must be viewed in the larger context
of business necessity and expediency for the purpose, one must
look not to the documents but also the surrounding circumstances as to arrive at a decision as to what exactly is the real
nature of the transaction. commercial point of view.
It is often very difficult to lay down a test of a comprehensive
nature which will have universal application. Different tests
have to be applied from the business profit and then conclusions must be arrived at on the question whether, on a fair
corelation of the whole situation as evident from the facts, the
expenditure in question in a particular case is of revenue nature
or of a capital nature. The following broad principles have been
evolved by the decisions of the various courts from time to
time. These principles are neither exhaustive nor are they
intended to be. They would serve only as guidelines to decide
any problem arising in regard to the determination of the
capital or revenue of a particular item [Hylam Ltd. V CIT[1913)
87 ITR 310 (A.P.)).
1. If the expenditure is for the initial outlay or for acquiring or
bringing into existence any asset or advantage of an enduring
benefit to the business of the assessee or for extension of
the business which is already in existence or for substantial
replacement of any existing business asset it must be treated
as capital expenditure. The Supreme Court has reiterated the
above principle in CIT v. Jalan Trading Co. (P) Ltd. [1985] 23
Taxman (SC).
2. If, however, the expenditure, although incurred for the
purpose of the business that too for acquiring an asset or
advantage, is for running the business or for working out
that asset with a view to producing profits, it would be a
revenue expenditure. The expenditure incurred for the
purpose of carrying on the business undertaking would be
of a revenue nature. The expenditure which has to be
incurred by an assessee in the ordinary course of his
business, to enable him to carry on his trading operations is
normally to be considered to be of a revenue nature. The
expenditure by the assessee cannot be considered to be
capital in nature merely because of the fact that the amount
involved is large. The quantum of the expenditure cannot go
to affect or alter the real nature and character of expenditure.
3. In cases where the outgoing of money spent by the assessee
is so related to the carrying on or the conduct of the business

that it may be regarded as an integral part of the profitearning process of operations and not for the acquisition of
any asset of a permanent character the possession of which
is a condition precedent to the running of the business, then
such an item of payment would constitute an expenditure
of a revenue nature.
4. Any special knowledge, technical know-how or patent or
trade mark constitutes an asset and if such an asset is
acquired on payment for its use and exploitation for a
limited period in the business and the acquisition is not of
an asset or advantage of an enduring nature and at the end
of the stipulated period the asset or advantage reverts back
intact to the giver of the special knowledge or the owner of
the patent, trade mark or copyright, it would constitute an
expenditure of a revenue nature. In this context, it may be
noted that a payment made to ward off competition in
business to a rival would constitute a capital expenditure if
the object of making that payment is to derive an advantage
by eliminating competition over some length of time. The
same result would not follow if there is no certainty of the
duration of the advantage and the same can be put to an end
at any point of time. How long the
5. Period of contemplated advantage or the benefit should be
in order to constitute benefit of an enduring nature would
depend upon the facts and circumstances of each individual
case. Although enduring benefit need not be of an
everlasting character, it should not be 50 transitory and
ephemeral that it may be terminated at any time at the
volition of any of the parties to the contract.
In cases of acquisition of a capital asset, it is immaterial
whether the price for it is paid by the assessee once and for all
in lumpsum or periodically and also whether it is paid out
of capital or income or is linked with the total sales or the
turnover of the business. In such a case, the expenditure or
outgoing would constitute payment of a capital nature
although it may indirectly be linked to or is paid out of
revenue profit or sales.
6. In cases where the amount paid for acquisition of an asset
of an enduring nature is settled, by the mere fact that the
amount so settled is chalked out into various small amounts
or periodical instalments the capital nature of the transaction
or expenditure would not in any way be affected nor the fact
that the payment is made in instalments or in small
amounts would in any way alter the nature of the
expenditure from capital to revenue. In other words, the
magnitude of the payment and its periodicity would not be
deciding factors for determining the capital or revenue nature
of any particular payment.
7. A lumpsum amount paid for liquidating recurring claims
would generally be of a revenue nature; it would not cease to
be a revenue expenditure or get converted into capital
expenditure merely because its payment is spread over a
number of years. In such a case it is the intention and the
object for which the assets are acquired that determine the
nature of the expenditure incurred over it, and not the mode
and the manner in which the payment is made nor is it in

99

any way related to or determined by the source of such

payment.
8. If the expenditure in question is recurring and is incurred by
the assessee during the ordinary course of the business or
manufacture, it would normally constitute a revenue
expenditure.
9. An asset or advantage of an enduring nature resulting in
capital expenditure does not mean that such an asset should
last for ever; if the capital asset is, by its very nature, a short
lived one, the expenditure incurred over it does not on that
account cease to be a capital expenditure.
10. It is nowhere stipulated in the law that if a benefit of
enduring nature is obtained, the expenditure for securing it
must be treated as a capital expenditure. If the advantage or
the benefit acquired by the assessee is to get stock-in-trade of
a business it would constitute a revenue; but if what is
acquired by the assessee is not the advantage of getting his
current or trading assets directly but of something which
requires to be processed before it is converted into stock-intrade, the expenditure incurred over it would constitute a
capital expenditure.
11. Further, an item of disbursement may be regarded as capital
expenditure when it is referable to fixed capital or a capital
asset; it is a revenue expenditure when it is referable to
circulating capital or stock in trade. Expenditure which relates
to the framework of the taxpayers business is a capital
expenditure. Expenditure incurred for the termination of
trading relationship in order to avoid losses occurring in
future though that relationship, whether pecuniary loss or
commercial inconvenience, is a revenue expenditure.
Expenditure incurred for the ::1itial starting of the business
before its setting up for substantial expansion and also
expenditure incurred after the discontinuance of the business
would be of a capital nature.
The capital or revenue character of a particular item must be
decided from the facts and circumstances of each case and must
be based upon the principles of law applicable to those facts.
The fact that a particular transaction is treated by the parties as
capital or revenue in nature or is called a sale, instead of being an
agreement to use or let out the particular asset would not
convert the capital or revenue character of the transaction.
Similarly, the entries made by the parties concerned in their
books of account or other documents would not always be
indicative or conclusive, as to what the real nature of the
transaction is based upon the above principles, the capital or
revenue character of a particular expenditure will have to be
decided in every case.
Miscellaneous instances of revenue expenditure: Payment made
for the use of goodwill, use of quota rights or in the case of a
hotel or restaurant business the cost of table linen, crockery.
pots is of a revenue expenditure. The cost of dredging carried
on by a harbour authority for the purpose of keeping the
channels clear for shipping is also of revenue expenditure.
Expenditure incurred by a surgeon or businessman on a study
tour abroad to acquire knowledge of the latest techniques
would be on revenue account.

100

Miscellaneous instances of capital expenditure: Expenditure on

improvement to property as distinguished from mere repairs or
that which is incurred by a company in raising loans or issuing
debentures for capital outlay would be capital expenditure if
they are incurred before the business is set up. Legal expenses
incurred in connection with the mortgages of the premises
belonging to the assessee in which the assessee carries on his
business are also capital expenditure.
Advertisements in Souvenirs of political parties: Sub-section
(28) of section 37' disallows any deduction on account of
advertisement expenses representing contributions made by any
person carrying on business or profession in computing the
profits and gains of the business or profession. It has specifically been provided that the new provision for disallowance
would apply notwithstanding anything to the contrary contained in sub-section (1) of section 37. In other words, the
expenditure representing contribution for political purposes
would become disallowable even in those cases where the
expenditure is otherwise incurred by the assessee in his character
as a trader and the amount is wholly and exclusively incurred for
the purpose of the business. Accordingly, a taxpayer would not
be entitled to any deduction in respect of expenses incurred by
him on advertisement in any souvenir, brochure, tract or the like
published by any political party, whether it is registered with the
Election Commission of India or not.
Limit of Reserve for Unexpired Risks: Under Rule 6E of the
Income-tax Rules, in computing the income from any business
of insurance other than life insurance, the deduction in respect
of the amount carried over to a reserve for unexpired risks
including the amount of any additional reserve shall be
restricted to : (a) in the case of a fire or miscellaneous insurance
business, 50% of the net premium income of the previous
year; (b) in the case of a marine insurance business, 100% of the
premium income of the previous year.
However, the amount of reserve or additional reserve disallowed under this provision in any year shall not be included in
the total income in the next year for the purpose of assessment.
The Explanation to Rule 6E defines net premium income to
mean the amount of premium received as reduced by the
amount of re-insurance premium paid during the relevant
previous year. Further, marine insurance includes the Export
Credit Insurance.
Explanation to section 37(1) . This Explanation is significant in
that it provides that any expenditure incurred by the assessee for
any purpose which is an offence or is prohibited by law shall
not be allowed as a deduction or allowance.
By dividing the assessees into distinct groups, this section places
absolute restraint on the deductibility of certain expenses as
follows:
Section 40(a) - In the case of any assessee, the following
expenses are not deductible:
i. Any interest payable outside India (not being interest on
loan issued for public subscription before the 1st day of
April, 1983) on which tax has not been paid or deducted at
source and in respect of which there is no person in India
who may be treated as an agent under section 163 ;

ii. Any sum paid on account of tax or cess levied on profits on

the basis of or in proportion to the profits and gains of any
business or profession;
iii. Any sum paid on account of wealth tax for the purpose of
this disallowance the expression wealth-tax means the
wealthtax chargeable under Wealth-tax Act, 1957, or any tax
of similar nature or character chargeable under any law in any
country outside India or any tax chargeable under such law
with reference to the value of the assets of, or the capital
employed in a business or profession carried on by the
assessee, whether or not the debts of business or profession
are allowed as a deduction in computing the amount with
reference to which such tax is charged, but does not include
any tax chargeable with reference to the value of any particular
asset of the business or profession.
iv. any sum which is chargeable under the head Salaries if it is
payable outside India and has not been paid or is deductible
at source therefrom under Chapter XVII-B of the Act; and
v. A contribution to a provident fund or the fund established
for the benefit of employees of the assessee, unless the
assessee has made effective arrangements to make sure that
tax shall be deducted at source from any payments made
from the fund which are chargeable to tax under the head
Salaries.
vi. Tax paid on perquisites on behalf of employees not
deductible:
The Finance Act, 2002 has inserted a new section 10(10CC) to
provide that in case of an employee, deriving income in the
nature of perquisites (other than monetary payments), the
amount of tax on such income paid;by his employer is exempt
from tax in the hands of that employee. The Finance Act, 2002
has correspondingly disallowed such payment as deduction
from the income o(the employer by inserting sub-clause (v) in
this section. Thus, the payment of tax, on perquisites by an
employer on behalf of employee will be exempt from tax *the
hands of employee but will not be .allowable as deduction in
the hands of the employer.

of remuneration or interest will also be disallowed.

However, it should be noted that the current partnership
deed cannot authorise any payment which relates to a period
prior to the date of earlier partnership deed.
Next, by virtue of a further restriction contained in subclause (iii) of section 40(b), such remuneration paid to the
working partners will be allowed as deduction to the firm
from the date of such partnership deed and not for any
period prior thereto. Consequently, if, for instance, a firm
incorporates the clause relating to payment of remuneration
to the working partners, by executing an appropriate deed,
say, on July 1, but effective from April 1, the firm would get
deduction for the remuneration paid to its working partners
from July 1 and onwards, but not for the period from April
1 to June 30. In other words, it will not be possible to give
retrospective effect to oral agreements entered into vis a vis
such remuneration prior to putting the same in a written
partnership deed.
iv. Any interest payment authorised by the partnership deed
falling after the date of such deed to the extent such interest
exceeds 18% (12% w.ef. 1.6.2002) simple interest p.a.
I know studying this topic is not so easy, but it is really
interesting subject, you will definitely enjoy it.

Lets Discuss Some Questions

1. What is the basis of charge of Income under the head.
2. Do you think there is a difference between Business and
profession.Give reasons for the same .What are the
provisions as contained in the act w.r.t to business and
profession.
3. State clearly the principles for treating an expenditure as
business expenditure or not.
4. What are the disallowances under this head. Do you think
that the provisions the act justify logical and practical base as
concerned the nature of business and the disallowances.
Give examples to support your arguments.

The amendment will take effect from 1.4.2003

Section 40(b) - In the case of any firm assessable as such the
following amounts shall not be deducted in computing the
income from business of any firm:
i. Any salary, bonus, commission, remuneration by whatever
name called, to any partner who is not a working partner. (In
the following discussion, the term remuneration is applied
to denote payments in the nature of salary, bonus,
commission);
ii. Any remuneration paid to the working partner or interest to
any partner which is not authorised by or which is
inconsistent with the terms of the partnership deed;
iii. It is possible that the current partnership deed may authorise
payments of remuneration to any working partner or
interest to any partner for a period which is prior to the date
of the current partnership deed. The approval by the current
partnership deed might have been necessitated due to the
fact that such payment was not authorised by or was
inconsistent with the earlier partnership deed. Such payments
101

LESSON 12:
DEPRECIATION
Lesson Objective

Meaning of depreciation.

Provisions for depreciation to avail the deduction under the

Act.

To know method of depreciation under the Act.

To know types of depreciation and rates of depreciation

given by the Act.

To know how to calculate depreciation under the Act.

Here we will discuss about depreciation. Do you know what are

the reasons for depreciation. Dont worry I will tell you - see the
basic reasons are time value, normal wear and tear of the asset
due to use, change in technology, obselence etc. So its obvious
its our loss or exependiture so we need to have a deduction in
this case.
The provisions for depreciation are given in section 32 of the
Act.

Depreciation [Section 32]

Section 32 allows a deduction in respect of depreciation
resulting from the diminution or exhaustion in the value of
certain capital assets.
An important Explanation has been introduced in the section
by Finance Act, 2001 which provides that deduction on account
of depreciation shall be made compulsorily whether or not the
assessee has claimed the deduction in computing his total
income.
The allowance of depreciation which is regulated by Rule 5 of
the IT Rules, is subject to the following conditions which are
cumulative in their application.
a. The assets in respect of which depreciation is claimed must
belong to either of the following categories, namely:
i.

Buildings, machinery, plant or furniture, being tangible

assets;

ii.

Know-how, patents, copyrights, trademarks, licences,

franchises or any other business or commercial rights
of similar nature, being intangible assets acquired on or
after 1 st April, 1998.

The depreciation in the value of any other capital assets

cannot be claimed as a deduction from the business income.
No depreciation is allowable on the cost of the land on
which the building is erected because the term building
refers only to superstructure but not the land on which it has
been erected. The term plant a~ defined in section 43(3)
includes books, vehicles, scientific apparatus and surgical
equipments. The expression plant includes part of a plant
(e.g., the engine of a vehicle); machinery includes part of a
machinery and building includes a part of the building.
However, the word plant does not include an animal,
human body or stock-in-trade. Thus plant includes all goods

102

and chattels, fixed or movable, which a businessman keeps

for employment in his business with some degree of
durability. Similarly the term buildings includes within its
scope roads, bridges, culverts, wells and tube wells.
b. The assets should be actually used by the assessee for
purposes of his business during the previous year - The
asset must be put to use at any time during the previous
year. The amount of depreciation allowance is not
proportionate to the period of use during the previous year.
Asset used for less than 180 days - However, it has been
provided that where any asset is acquired by the assessee
during the previous year and is put to use for the purposes
of business or profession for a period of less than 180 days,
depreciation shall be allowed at 50 per cent of the allowable
depreciation according to the percentage prescribed in respect
of the block of assets comprising such asset. It is significant
to note that this restriction applies only to the year of
acquisition and not for subsequent years.
If the assets are not used exclusively for the business of the
assessee but for other purposes as well, the depreciation
allowable would be a proportionate part of the depreciation
allowance to which the assessee would be otherwise entitled.
This is provided in section 38.
Depreciation would be allowable to the owner even in
respect of assets which are actually worked or utilized by
another person e.g., a lessee or licensee. The deduction on
account of depreciation would be allowed under this section
to the owner who has let on hire his building, machinery,
plant or furniture provided that letting out of such assets is
the business of the assessee. In other cases where the letting
out of such assets does not constitute the business of the
assessee, the deduction on account of depreciation would
still be allowable under section 57(ii).
c. The assessee must own the assets, wholly or partly - In the
case of buildings, the assessee must own the superstructure
and not necessarily the land on which the building is
constructed. In such cases, the assessee should be a lessee of
the land on which the building stands and the lease deed
must provide that the building will belong to the lessor of
the land upon the expiry of the period of lease. Thus, no
depreciation will be allowed to an assessee in respect of an
asset which he does not own but only uses or hires for
purposes of his business.
However, in this connection, students may note that the
Explanation 1 to section 32 provides that where the business or
profession of the assessee is carried on in a building not owned
by him but in respect of which the assessee holds a lease or
other right of occupancy, and any capital expenditure is incurred
by the assessee for the purposes of the business or profession
or the construction of any structure or doing of any work by

way of renovation, extension or improvement to the building,

then depreciation will be allowed as if the said structure or work
is a building owned by the assessee.
Depreciation is allowable not only in respect of assets wholly
owned by the assessee but also in respect of assets partly
owned by him and used for the purposes of his business or
profession.
In case of succession of firm/sole proprietary concern by a
company or amalgamation or demerger of companies - In
order to restrict the double allowance under the proviso to
section 32, in the cases of succession or amalgamation or
demerger, the aggregate deduction in respect of depreciation
allowable in the hands of the predecessor and the successor or
in the case of amalgamating company and the amalgamated
company or in the case of the demerged company and the
resulting company, as the case may be, shall not exceed the
amount of depreciation calculated at the prescribed rates as if
the succession/amalgamation, demerger had not taken place. It
is also provided that such deduction shall be apportioned
between the two entities in the ratio of the number of days for
which the assets were used by them.
Hire purchase - In the case of assets under the hire purchase
system the allowance for depreciation would under Circular
NO.9 of 1943 R. Dis. No. 27(4) LT. 43 dated 23-31943, be
granted as follows:
1. In every case of payment purporting to be for hire purchase,
production of the agreement under which the payment is
made would be insisted upon by the department.
Where the effect of an agreement is that the ownership of
the asset is at once transferred on the lessee the transaction
should be regarded as one of purchase by instalments and
consequently no deduction in respect of the hire amount
should be made. This principle will be applicable in a case
where the lessor obtains a right to sue for arrears of
instalments but has no right to recover the asset back from
the lessee. Depreciation in such cases should be allowed to
the lessee on the hire purchase price determined in accordance
with the terms of hire purchase agreement.
2.Where the terms of an agreement provide that the asset
shall eventually become the property of the hirer or confer
on the hirer an option to purchase an asset, the transaction
should be regarded as one of hire purchase. In such case,
periodical payments made by the hirer should for all tax
purposes be regarded as made up of (i) the consideration for
hirer which will be allowed as a deduction in assessment,and
(ii) payment on account of the purchase price, to be treated
as capital outlay
and depreciation being allowed to the lessee on the initial
value namely, the amount for which the hired assets would
have been sold for cash at the date of the agreement. The
allowance to be made in respect of the hire should be the
amount of the difference between the aggregate amount of
the periodical payments under the agreement and the initial
value as stated above. The amount of this allowance should
be spread over the duration of the agreement evenly. If,
however, agreement is terminated either by outright purchase

of the asset or by its return to the seller, the deduction

should cease as from the date of termination of agreement.
For the purpose of allowing depreciation an assessee
claiming deduction in respect of the assets acquired on hire
purchase would be required to furnish a certificate from the
seller or any other suitable documentary evidence in respect
of the initial value or the cash price of the asset. In cases
where no such certificate or other evidence is furnished the
initial value of the assets should be arrived at by computing
the present value of the amount payable under the
agreement at an appropriate per centum. For the purpose of
allowing depreciation the question whether in a particular
case the assessee is the owner of the hired asset or not is to
be decided on a consideration of all the facts and
circumstances of each case and the terms of the hire purchase
agreement. Where the hired asset is originally purchased by
the assessee and is registered in his name, the mere fact that
the payment of the price is spread over the specified period
and is made in instalments to suit the needs of the
purchaser does not disentitle the assessee from claiming
depreciation in respect of the asset, since the assessee would
be the real owner although the payment of purchase price is
made subsequent to the date of acquisition of the asset
itself.
Computation of Depreciation Allowance - Depreciation
allowance will be calculated on the following basis:
i. In the case of assets of an undertaking engaged in
generation or generation and distribution of power, such
percentage on the actual cost to the assessee as prescribed by
Rule 5(1A).
Rule 5(1A) - As per this rule, the depreciation on the
abovementioned assets shall be calculated at the percentage
of the actual cost at rates specified in Appendix IA of these
rules. However, the aggregate depreciation allowed in respect
of any asset for different assessment years shall not exceed
the actual cost of the asset. It is further provided that such
an undertaking as mehtioned above has the option of being
allowed depreciation on the written down value of such
block of assets as are used for its business at rates specified
in Appendix I to these rules.
However, such option must be exercised before the due date
for furnishing return under section 139( 1) for the
assessment year relevant to the previous year in which it
begins to, generate power. It is further provided that any
such option once exercised shall be final and shall apply to all
subsequent assessment years.
ii. In the case of any block of assets, at such percentage of the
written down value of the block, as may be prescribed by
Rule 5(1).
Block of Assets - 1. A block of assets is defined in clause (11)
of section 2 of the Act as a group of assets falling within a class
of assets comprising
a. tangible assets, being buildings, machinery, plant or
furniture;
b. intangible assets, being know-how, patents, copyrights,
trademarks, licenses, franchises or any other business or

103

commercial rights of similar nature, in respect of which the

same percentage of depreciation is prescribed.
Know-how - In this context, know-how means any industrial
information or technique likely to assist in the manufacture or
processing of goods or in the working of a mine, oilwell or
other sources of mineral deposits (including searching for
discovery or testing of deposits for the winning of access
thereto).
iii. Additional depreciation on Plant & Machinery acquired by an
Industrial Undertaking: Under the existing provisions of
section 32, depreciation on assets used for the purpose of
business or profession is allowable on the written down
value of the block of assets at the rate prescribed in the
Rules.
The Finance Act, 2002 has inserted clause (iia) in section 32(1)
w.e.f. 1.4.2003 to allow additional depreciation on any new
machinery or plant (other than ships and aircraft) acquired or
installed by an assessee after 31.3.2002 in the business of
manufacture or production of any article or thing at the rate
of 15% of the cost of such machinery or plant.
However, this additional depreciation is available only to
i. A new industrial undertaking for the year in which such
undertaking begins to manufacture or produce any article or
thing on or after 1.4.2002.
ii. Any industrial undertaking existing prior to 1.4.2002 for the
year in which it achieves the substantial expansion by way of
increase in its installed capacity of at least 25%.
Installed Capacity means the capacity of production as
existing on the 31st day of March, 2002.
Splitting up or the reconstruction of existing business or
transfer of any machinery or plant previously used for any
purpose is excluded from the scope of New Industrial
Undertaking.
Such additional depreciation will not be available in respect of:
i. Any machinery or plant already used within or outside India
by any other person.
ii. Any machinery or plant installed in office premises,
residential accommodation or in any guest house.
iii. Office appliances or road transport vehicles or
iv. Any machinery or plant, the whole or part of the actual cost
of which is allowed as a deduction under the head Profits
and Gains of Business or Profession.
To claim this additional depreciation, it will be mandatory to
furnish along with the Return of Income the details of
machinery or plant and increase in the installed capacity of
production in the prescribed form along with a report of an
accountant, as defined in the Explanation below sub-section (2)
of section 288, certifying, the correctness of the claim under this
Section.
(Effective from A. Y. 2003-04)

Terminal Depreciation
In case of a power concern as covered under clause (i) above, if
any asset is sold,discarded, demolished or otherwise destroyed
in the previous year, the depreciation amount will be the

104

amount by which the monies payable in respect of such

building, machinery, plant or furniture, together with the
amount of scrap value, if any, falls short of the written down
value thereof. The depreciation will be available only if the
deficiency is actually written off in the books of the assessee.
Moneys payable in respect of any building, machinery, plant
or furniture includes
a. Any insurance, salvage or compensation moneys payable in
respect thereof;
b. Where the building, machinery, plant or furniture is sold, the
price for which it is sold, so, however, that where the actual
cost of a motor-car is, in accordance with the proviso to
clause (1) of section 43, taken to be Rs. 25,000, the moneys
payable in respect of such motor-car shall be taken to be a
sum which bears to the amount for which the motor-car is
sold or, as the case may be, the amount of any insurance,
salvage or compensation moneys payable in respect thereof
(including the amount of scrap value, if any) the same
proportion as the amount of Rs. 25,000 bears to the actual
cost of the motor-car to the assessee as it would have been
computed before applying the said proviso;Sold includes a
transfer by way of exchange or a compulsory acquisition
under any law for the time being in force but does not
include a transfer, in a scheme of amalgamation, of any asset
by the amalgamating company to the amalgamated company
where the amalgamated company is an Indian company.
Actual Cost [Section 43(1)] - The expression actual cost
means the actual cost of the asset to the assessee as reduced by
that portion of the cost thereof, if any, as has been met directly
or indirectly by any other person or authority.
Actual cost in certain special situations [Explanations to section
43 (1)]
i. Where an asset is used for the purposes of business after it
ceases to be used for scientific research related to that
business, the actual cost to the assessee for depreciation
purposes shall be the actual cost to the assessee as reduced by
any deduction allowed under section 35( 1 )(iv) [Explanation
1]
ii. Where an asset is acquired by way of gift or inheritance, its
actual cost shall be the actual cost to the previous owner as
reduced in the first instance by the amount of depreciation
which has been allowed on such asset in respect of any
assessment year prior to the assessment year 1988-89, Le., the
year of transition to the block system. The amount so
arrived at shall be further reduced by the depreciation that
would have been allowable to the assessee for the
assessemnt year 1988-89 and subsequent years as if the asset
was the only asset in the relevant block on which depreciation
is allowable. [Explanation 2]
iii. Where, before the date of its acquisition by the assessee, the
asset was at any time used by any other person for the
purposes of his business or profession, and the Assessing
Officer is satisfied that the main purpose of the transfer of
the asset directly or indirectly to the assessee was the
reduction of liability of income-tax directly or indirectly to
the assessee (by claiming depreciation with reference to an

enhanced cost) the actual cost to the assessee shall be taken to

be such an amount which the Assessing Officer may, with
the previous approval of the Deputy Commissioner
determine, having regard to all the circumstances of the case.
[Explanation 3].
iv. Where any asset which had once belonged to the assessee
and had been used by him for the purposes of his business
or profession and thereafter ceased to be his property by
reason of transfer or otherwise, is re-acquired by him. the
actual cost to the assessee shall be
i.

the actual cost to him when he first acquired as reduced by

a.

b.

ii.

the amount of depreciation actually allowed

to him in respect of any previous year up to
1987-88 assessment year, and
the amount of depreciation that would have
been allowable to the assessee from 1988-89
assessment year onwards as if the asset were
the only asset in the relevant block of assets;
or

the actual price for which the asset is re-acquired by him

whichever is less. [Explanation 4].

v. Where before the date of acquisition by the assessee

(hereinafter referred to as the first mentioned person), the
assets were at any time used by any other person (hereinafter
referred to as the second mentioned person) for the
purposes of his business or profession and depreciation
allowance has been claimed in respect of such assets in the
case of the second mentioned person and such person
acquires on lease, hire or otherwise, assets from the first
mentioned person, then, notwithstanding anything
contained in Explanation 3, the actual cost of the transferred
assets, in the case of the first mentioned person, shall be the
same as the written down value of the said assets at the time
of transfer thereof by the second mentioned person.
[Explanation 4A].
We can explain the above as follows

purpose of the transaction is reduction of tax liability.

Explanation 4(A) is activated in every situation described
above without inquiring about the main purpose.
vi. Where a building which was previously the property of the
assessee is brought into use for the purposes of the
business or profession after 28-2-1946, its actual cost to the
assessee shall be the actual cost of the building to the
assessee, as reduced by an amount equal to the depreciation
calculated at the rates in force on that date that would have
been allowable had the building been used for the purposes
of the business or profession since the date of its acquisition
by the assessee. [Explanation 5]
vii. When any capital asset is transferred by a holding company
to its subsidiary company or by a subsidiary company to its
holding company then, if the conditions specified in section
47(iv) or (v) are satisfied, the transaction not being regarded
as a transfer of a capital asset, the actual cost of the
transferred capital asset to the transferee company shall be
taken to be the same as it would have been if the transferor
company had continued to hold the capital asset for the
purposes of its own business. [Explanation 6]
viii. In a scheme of amalgamation, if any capital asset is
transferred by the amalgamating company to the
amalgamated company, the actual cost of the transferred
capital assets to the amalgamated company will be taken at
the same amount as it would have been taken in the case of
the amalgamating company had it continued to hold it for
the purposes of its own business. [Explanation 7].
In the case of a demerger, where any capital asset is
transferred by the demerged company to the resulting
company, the actual cost of the transferred asset to the
resulting company shall be taken to be the same as it would
have been if the demerged company had continued to hold
the asset. However, the actual cost shall not exceed the WDV
of the asset in the hands of the demerged company.
[Explanation 7 A].

Explanation 4A overrides Explanation 3-Explanation 3 to

section 43( 1) deals with a situation where a transfer of any
asset is made with the main purpose of reduction of tax
liability (by claiming depreciation on enhanced cost), and the
Assessing Officer. having satisfied himself about such
purpose of transfer, may determine the actual cost having
regard to all the circumstances of the case.

ix. Certain taxpayers have, with a view to obtain more tax

benefits and reduce the tax outflow, resorted to the method
of capitalising interest paid or payable in connection with
acquisition of an asset relatable to the period after such asset
is first put to use. Certain judicial rulings also favoured this
approach. This capitalisationimplies inclusion of such
interest in the Actual Cost of the asset for the purposes of
claiming depreciation, investment allowance etc. under the
Income-tax Act. This was never the legislative intent nor was
it in accordance with recognised accounting practices.
Therefore, with a view to counter-acting tax avoidance
through this method and placing the matter beyond doubt,
Explanation 8 to section 43(1) provides that any amount
paid or payable as interest in connection with the acquisition
of an asset and relatable to period after asset is first put to
use shall not be included and shall be deemed to have never
been included in the actual cost of the asset. [Explanation 8]

In the Explanation 4A. a non-obstante clause has been

.included to the effect that Explanation 4A will have an
overriding effect over Explanation 3. The result of this is
that there is no necessity of finding out whether the main

x. Where an asset is or has been acquired on or after the 1 st day

of March, 1994 by an assessee, the actual cost of asset shall
be reduced by the amount of duty of excise or the additional
duty leviable under section 3 of the Customs Tariff Act,

A person (say A) owns an asset and uses it for the

purposes of his business or profession. A has claimed
depreciation in respect of such asset. The said asset is
transferred by A to another person (say 8). A then acquires
the same asset back from 8 on lease, hire or otherwise. 8
being the new owner will be entitled to depreciation. In the
above situation, the cost of acquisition of the transferred
assets in the hands of B shall be the same as the W.O.V. of
the said assets at the time of transfer.

105

1975 (51 of 1975) in respect of which a claim of credit has

been made and allowed under the Central Excise Rules,
1944. [Explanation 9].

actual cost of any asset acquired during the

previous year.

xi. Where a portion of the cost of an asset acquired by the

assessee has been met directly or indirectly by the Central
Government or a State Government or any authority
established under any law or by any other person, in the
form of a subsidy or grant or reimbursement (by whatever
name called), then, so much of the cost as is relatable to such
subsidy or grant or reimbursement shall not be included in
the actual cost of the asset to the assessee.
However, where such subsidy or grant or reimbursement is
of such nature that it cannot be directly relatable to the asset
acquired, so much of the amount which bears to the total
subsidy or reimbursement or grant the same proportion as
such asset bears to all the assets in respect of or with
reference to which the subsidy or grant or reimbursement is
so received, shall not be included in the actual cost of the
asset to the assessee. [Explanation 10]
xii. Where an asset is acquired outside India by an assessee,
being a non-resident and such asset is brought by him to
India and used for the purposes of his business or
profession, the actual cost of asset to the assessee shall be
the actual cost the asset to the assessee, as reduced by an
amount equal to the amount of depreciation calculated at the
rate in force that would have been allowable had the asset
been used in India for the said purposes since the date of its
acquisition by the assessee. [Explanation 11]
xiii. Where any capital asset is acquired under a scheme for
corporatisation of a recognised stock exchange in India
approved by the SEBI, the actual cost shall be deemed to be
the amount which would have been regarded as actual cost
had there been no such corporatisation.

Written Down Value [Section 43 (6)]

1. In the case of assets acquired by the assessee during the
previous year the written down value means the actual cost
to the assessee.
2. In the case of assets acquired before the previous year, the
written down value would be the actual cost to the assessee
less the aggregate of all deductions actually allowed in respect
of depreciation. For this purpose, any depreciation carried
forward is deemed to be depreciation actually allowed
[section 43(6)(c)(i) read with Explanation (3)].
a.
In the case of block of assets in regard to the
assessment year 1988-89, being the year of transition
to the system of depreciation allowance on blocks of
assets, the written down value shall be arrived at in the
following manner:
i.
The aggregate of the written down value of
all the assets falling within that block at the
beginning of the previous year shall first be
calculated.
ii.
The aggregate of the written down value
arrived at as above, shall be increased by the

106

b.

iii.

The sum so arrived at shall be reduced by the

moneys receivable by the assessee together
with the amount of the scrap value with
regard to any asset falling within that block
which is sold, discarded, demolished or
destroyed during the previous year.

iv.

In the case of slump sale, the written down

value of any block of asset shall be decreased
by the amount of actual cost as reduced by
the depreciation actually allowed.

The written down value of any asset in relation to the

assessment year 1989-90 and any subsequent
assessment year shall be worked out as under in
accordance with section 43(6)(c)(ii) :
i.

The written down value of the block of

assets in the immediately preceding previous
year shall be reduced by the depreciation
actually allowed in respect of the block of
assets in relation to the said preceding
previous year.

ii.

The sum arrived at as above shall be

increased by the actual cost of any asset
falling within that block which is acquired by
the assessee during the previous year.

iii.

The sum so arrived at shall be reduced by the

sale-proceeds and other amounts receivable
by the assessee with regard to any asset
falling within that block which is sold,
discarded, demolished or destroyed during
that previous year.

3. When in the case of a succession to business or profession,

an assessment is made on the successor under section 170(2),
the written down value of an asset or block of assets shall be
the amount which would have been taken as the written
down value if the assessment had been made directly on the
person succeeded to [Explanation 1 to section 43(6)(c)].
4. Where in any previous year any block of assets is transferred
by a holding company to a subsidiary company or vice versa
and the conditions of clause 47(iv) or (v) are satisfied or by
an amalgamating company to an amalgamated company the
latter being an Indian company then the actual cost of the
block of assets in the case of transferee company or
amalgamated company as the case may be, shall be the
written down value of the block of assets as in the case of
the transferor company or amalgamating company, as the
case may be, for the immediately preceding year as reduced by
depreciation actually allowed in relation to the said previous
year. [Explanation 2 to section 43(6)(c)].
5. Where in any previous year any asset forming part of a block
of assets is transferred by demerged company to the
resulting company, the written down value of the block of
assets of the demerged company for the immediately
preceding year shall be reduced by the written down value of

the assets transferred to the resulting company. [Explanation

2A to section 43(6)(c)].
6. Where any asset forming part of a block of assets is
transferred by a demerged company to the resulting
company:the written down value of the block of assets in
the case of resulting company shall be the Written down
value of the transferred assets as appearing in the books of
account of the demerged company immediately before the
demerger.
[Explanation 2B to section 43(6)(c)]
7. Where any asset forming part of a block of assets is
transferred in any previous year by a recognised stock
exchange In If\dia to a (ompany under a scheme for
corporatisation approved by SEBI, the written down value
of the block shall be the written down value of the
transferred assets immediately before the transfer.
[Explanation 5 to section 43(6)(c)]
8. Under the new system of block of assets the written down
value of any block of assets, may be reduced to nil for any of
the following reasons:
a.

b.

The moneys receivable by the assesSee in regard to the

assets sold or otherwise transferred during the
previous year together with the amount of scrap value
mayexceed the written down value at the beginning of
the year as increased by the actual cost of any new asset
acquired or,

3. X Ltd. Owns two buildings A & B on April 1, 2003 (rate of

depreciation: 10% depreciated value: Rs. 14, 15,700). It
purchases on December 1,2003 building C for Rs 3,10,000
(rate of depreciation: 10%) & sells building A during the
previous year 2003-04 (say on January 10,2004) for Rs
1,8,70,000, then depreciation for the previous year 2003-04
shall be determined as under:
Depreciated value of the block on April 1 2003
Add: Cost of building C
Total
Less: Sale proceeds of building A
Written down value
Depreciation [as the written down is the value is
lower that cost of buildings C which is put to
use for less than 180 days depreciation shall be
50% of 10% of Rs 1,38,700 ]
Depreciated value of the block on April 1,
2004.

14,15,700
3,10,000
17,25,700
15,87,700
1,38,700
6,9,35

1,31,765

4. X Ltd. Is engaged in the business of manufacture of car air

conditioners since 1986. On March 31, 2002 and March 31,
2004, the installed capacity is lakh units (per annum). During
the previous year 2003-04 the following assets are acquired to
substantially expand the installed capacity (installed capacity
on March 31, 2004 is 1.25 Lakh units per annum)[Rs in thousand]

All the assets in the relevant block may be transferred

during the year.

Block 1

Block 2

Block 3

25%

40%

60%

Now let us solve some problems on the above topic to have a

better understanding of the same.

Rate of Depreciation
Number of assets in the Block

1. X Ltd. Purchases a plant (rate of depreciation: 25%) on May

10, 2003. It is put to use on January 10, 2004. In this case the
plant is acquired during 2003-04 and in 2003-04 it is put to
use for less than 180 days. It is therefore qualified for half of
the usual depreciation (i.e. 12.5%).

Depreciated value of the block

on April 1,2003
Additions of plants (new) during
the previous year 2003-04
PlantA

900

17,10

6,00

64,00

2. Y Ltd. Purchases a plant (rate of depreciation: 25%) on May

10, 2003. It is put to use on January 10, 2005. In this case the
plant is acquired during 2003-04 and in 2003-04 it is put to
use at all. Therefore, for the previous year 2003-04 no
depreciation will be available. It is put to use in the previous
year 2004-05. For the previous 2004-05 the usual depreciation
will be available (as the asset is not acquired during 2004-05)
although it is put to use for the less than 180 days.

PlantB

6,00

PlantC

8,00

Sale of old plants(one plant in

each block)

10

21,98

15,00

Plant A,B & C are acquired during June 2003 & put to use
during July 2003. However, Plant C is put to use during the last
week of November 2003.
Find out the following:

Depreciated value of the block(i.e.

buildings A & B)on April 1,2003
Add: Cost of building C (purchased on
December 1,2003)
Less: Sale proceeds of building A
Written down value of the block
Depreciation [as building C is purchased in
the year 2003-04 & it is put to use for less
than 180 days depreciation on Rs 3,10,000
will be 10% of (Rs 8,55,700- Rs 3,10,000) ]
Depreciated value of the block on April
1,2004

14,15,700
3,10,000

a. Additional and normal depreciation for the assessment year

2004-05.
b. Capital gain on sale of old Plants and

17,25,700
8,70,000
70,070

c. Depreciated value of the blocks on April 1, 2004.

Ans:
Computation of additional depreciation

7,85,630

107

Categorize these asset in different blocks of assets:

Whether additional
depreciation is available
Rate of additional
depreciation [Plant C is put
to use for less than 180
days]
Actual cost
Additional depreciation

PlantA
Yes

PlantB
Yes

PlantC
Yes

15%

15%

7.5%

Rs
64,00,000
9,60,000

Rs
6,00,000
90,000

Rs
8,00,000
60,000

Computation of normal depreciation

Rate of depreciation
Depreciated value of the block on
April 1,2003
Add: Actual cost of Plants A , B , C
acquired during the previous year
Total (a)
Less: Sale proceeds of old
plants(cannot exceed Rs 6,00,000 + Rs
8,00,000 )
Written down value of the block on
March 31,2004
Less: Normal depreciation
Less: Additional depreciation as
computed earlier
Depreciated value of the block on
April 1, 2004[it may be taken as nil]
Computation of capital gains
Sale proceeds of old plants
Whether capital gain is taxable[the
block does not cease to exist sale
proceeds do not exceed the opening
balance plus new addition, i.e. (a)]
Less: Cost of acquisition [i.e. ,(a)]
Short term capital gain

Block 1
25%
Rs

Block 2
40%
Rs

Block 3
60%
Rs

90,00,000
64,00,000

17,10,000
6,00,000

6,00,000
8,00,000

73,00,000
(-) 10,000

23,10,000
(-) 21,98,000

14,00,000
(-) 14,00,000

72,90,000

1,12,000

Nil

18,22,500
9,60,000

44,800
90,000

Nil
60,000

45,07,500

(-) 22,800

(-) 60,000

10,000

21,98,000

15,00,000

No

No

No

Nil

Nil

1,00,000

Note: As shown above, X Ltd. Can claim depreciation as

follows
Normal Depreciation
Block 1
18,22,500
Block 2
44,800
Block 3
Nil
Total
18,67,300

Additional Depreciation
Plant A
9,60,000
Plant B
90,000
Plant C
60,000
Total
11,10,000

Prob.5: X starts a new business on April 10, 2003 & he

purchases the following assets:
Cost (Rs in lakh)
Building A- Office building
Building B- Residential building for manger
Building C- Factory building
Plant & Machinery- A-Office Computer
Plant & Machinery- B- Fax Machines
Plant & Machinery- C-Cars
Plant & Machinery- D- Air pollution control equipment
Plant & Machinery- E- PABX telephone system
Plant & Machinery- F-Air Conditions
Plant & Machinery- G- Scooters for Employees
Furniture- Office Furniture
Furniture- Furniture for welfare centre of Employees
Know-how- Know-how to manufacture goods
108

60.70
40.10
70.40
1.20
0.60
6.10
2.40
1.10
6.80
1.90
2.85
4.10
18.70

Ans:

Block 1- Buildings (rate of depreciation: 5%)

Buildings B Residential building
Block 2- Buildings (rate of depreciation: 10%)
Buildings A Office building
Buildings C Factory building
Total
Block 3- Plant & machinery (rate of depreciation: 25%)
Plant B- Fax machine
Plant E- PABX Telephone
Plant F- Air conditioners
Plant G- Scooters
Total
Block 4- Plant & machinery (rate of depreciation: 20%)
Cars
Block 5- Plant & machinery (rate of depreciation: 60%)
Plant A- Office Computer
Block 6- Plant & machinery (rate of depreciation: 80%)
Plant D- Air Pollution control equipment
Block 7- Plant & machinery (rate of depreciation: 15%)
Office furniture
Furniture for welfare centre
Total
Block 8- Know-how-(rate of depreciation: 25%)
Know-how- to manufacture goods

40.10
60.70
70.40
131.10

0.60
1.10
6.80
1.90
10.4
6.10
1.20
2.40
2.85
4.10
6.95
18.70

LESSON 13:
DEDUCTIONS UNDER SECTION 43B
Lesson Objective

To know importance of the section in business deductions.

To know impact of the same on business profits and tax

liability.

To know provisions of the Act as contained in the section.

To know different circulars in respect of this section.

Dear friends this is a section which allows deduction in respect

of certain expenses on cash basis only, irrespective of the
method of accounting followed by the assessee. Lets see what
the section has to say about itself.
Section 43B of the Income-tax Act, 1961 allows deduction of
certain expenses on cash basis only, even though the company
or businessman may be following the mercantile system of
accounting right from inception. The relevant portion of
section 43B as amended recently is reproduced below:
43-B. Notwithstanding anything contained in any other
provision of this Act, a deduction otherwise allowable under
this Act in respect of :
a. any sum payable by the assessee by way of tax, duty, cess or
fee, by whatever name called, under any law for the time
being in force, or
b. any sum payable by the assessee as an employer by way of
contribution to any provident fund or superannuation fund
or gratuity fund or any other fund for the welfare of
employees, or
c. any sum referred to in clause (ii) of sub-section (1) of section
36, or.
d. any sum payable by the assessee as interest on any loan or
borrowing from any public financial institution or a State
financial corporation or a State industrial investment
corporation, in accordance with the terms and conditions of
the agreement governing such loan or borrowing, or
e. any sum payable by the assessee as interest on any term loan
from a scheduled bank in accordance with the terms and
conditions of the agreement governing such loan, or
f. any sum payable by the assessee as an employer in lieu of any
leave at the credit of his employee, shall be allowed
(irrespective of the previous year in which the liability to pay
such sum was incurred by the assessee according to the
method of accounting regularly employed by him) only in
computing the income referred to in section 28 of that
previous year in which such sum is actually paid by him:
Provided that nothing contained in this section shall apply in
relation to any sum referred to in clause (a) or clause (c) or clause
(d) or clause (e) or clause (f) which is actually paid by the assessee
on or before the due date applicable in his case for furnishing
the return of income under sub-section (1) of section 139 in
respect of the previous year in which the liability to pay such

sum was incurred as aforesaid and the evidence of such

payment is furnished by the assessee along with such return:
Provided further that no deduction shall, in respect of any sum
referred to in clause (b), be allowed unless such sum has actually
been paid in cash or by issue of a cheque or draft or by any
other mode on or before the due date as defined in the
Explanation below clause (v-a) of sub-section (1) of section 36,
and where such payment has been made otherwise than in cash,
the sum has been realised within fifteen days from the due date.
Explanation 1 - For the removal of doubts, it is hereby
declared that where a deduction in respect of anysum referred
to in clause (a) or clause (b) of this section is allowed in
computing the income referred to in section 28 of the previous
year (being a previous year relevant to the assessment year
commencing on the 1st day of April, 1983, or any earlier
assessment year) in which the liability to pay such sum was
incurred by the assessee, the assessee shall not be entitled to any
deduction under this section in respect of such sum in computing the income of the previous year in which the sum is actually
paid by him.
Explanation 2 - For the purposes of clause (a), as in force at all
material times, any sum payable means a sum for which the
assessee incurred liability in the previous year even though such
sum might not have been payable within that year under the
relevant law.
Explanation 3 - For the removal of doubts it is hereby
declared that where a deduction in respect of any sum referred
to in clause (c) or clause (d) of this section is allowed in
computing the income referred to in section 28 of the previous
year (being a previous year relevant to the assessment year
commencing on the 1st day of April, 1988, or any earlier
assessment year) in which the liability to pay such sum was
incurred by the assessee, the assessee shall not be entitled to any
deduction under this section in respect of such sum in computing the income of the previous year in wbich the sum is actually
paid by him.
Explanation 3-A- For the removal of doubts, it is hereby
declared that where a deduction in respect of any sum referred
to in clause (e) of this section is allowed in computing the
income referred to in section 28 of the previous year (being a
previous year relevant to the assessment year commencing on
the 1st day of April, 1996, or any earlier assessment year) in
which the liability to pay such sum was incurred by the assessee,
the assessee shall not be entitled to any deduction under this
section in respect of such sum in computing the income of the
previous year in which the sum is actually paid by him.
Explanation 3-B - For the removal of doubts, it is hereby
declared that where a deduction in respect of any sum referred
to in clause (f) of this section is allowed in computing the
income, referred to in section 28, of the previous year (being a

109

previous year relevant to the assessment year commencing on

the 1st day of April, 2001, or any earlier assessment year) in
which the liability to pay such sum was incurred by the assessee,
the assessee shall not be entitled to any deduction under this
section in respect of such sum in computing the income of the
previous year in which the sum is actually paid by him.
Explanation 4 - For the purposes of this section,
a. Public Financial Institutions shall have the meaning
assigned to it in section 4-A of the Companies Act, 1956 (1
of 1956);
aa.

scheduled bank shall have the meaning assigned to it

in the Explanation to clause (iii) of sub-section (5) of
section 11;

b. State financial corporation means a financial corporation

established under section 3 or section 3-A or an institution
notified under section 46 of the State Financial Corporations
Act, 1951 (63 of 1951); State industrial investment
corporation means a Government company within the
meaning of section 617 of the Companies Act, 1956 (1 of
1956), engaged in the business of providing long-term
finance for industrial projects and eligible for deduction
under clause (viii) of sub-section (1) of section 36.
c. State Industrial Investment Corporation means a
Government company within the meaning of section 617 of
the Companies Act,1956 engaged in the business of
providing long-term finance for industrial projects and
eligible for deduction under clause ( viii) of Sub-section (1)
of Section 36
The first proviso to section 43-B provides that the provisions
of this section will not apply to any sum referred to in clauses
(a), (c) or (d) if the sum is actually paid on or before the date on
which the return of income is due to be furnished under
section 139(1) for the previous year in which the liability to pay
such sum was incurred. Thus, while the deduction in respect of
any sum payable as interest on any loan or borrowing from any
public financial institution or a State Financial Corporation or a
State Industrial Corporation, referred to in clause (d), is
allowable during the previous year even though the sum is
actually paid in the subsequent year within the specified due
date, the deduction in respect of any sum payable as interest on
any term loan from a scheduled bank, referred to in clause (e), is
allowable only if the sum is actually paid within the previous
year.
In order to remove undue hardship to assessees and to bring
parity among the conditions for allowance of deduction in
respect of both the above types of interest, the Act has
amended the first proviso to section 43-B so as to provide that
any sum payable by assessees as interest on any termloan from a
scheduled bank referred to in clause (e) will be allowed as
deduction during the previous year if such sum is actually paid
by the assessee on or before the due date applicable in his case
for furnishing the return of income under section 139(1).
These amendments have taken effect retrospectively from 1st
April, 1997, and, accordingly, apply in relation to the assessment
year 1997-98 and subsequent years.

110

Section 43-B(e), inter alia, allows deduction in respect of interest

payable on any term loan from a scheduled bank on actual
payment basis and not on accrual basis. Under the existing
provisions contained in Explanation 4(aa), the term scheduled
bank does not include a co-operative bank. The Act has
amended this Explanation so as to include a co-operative bank
within the meaning of the term scheduled bank. As a result
of this, the provisions of section 43-B(e) will now be applicable
in respect of interest payable on term loans from scheduled
banks including co-operative banks.
This amendment takes effect from the 15t day of April, 2000,
and, accordingly, applies in relation to the assessment year 200001 and subsequent years.
Under section 43-B, deduction for certain amounts payable by
the assessee is allowed in computing the income of that
previous year in which the sum is actually paid. The Act has
amended the section to provide that the deduction for any sum
payable by an employer in lieu of any leave at the credit of his
employee would also be allowed only on actual payment basis.
This amendment has taken effect from 1st April, 2002, and,
accordingly, applies in relation to the assessment year 2002-03
and subsequent years.
Under the existing provision, the sums referred to in clauses (a)
to (e) of section 43-B are allowable as a deduction when such
sum is actually paid by the assessee. The first proviso to section
43-B provides that the provisions of section 43-B shall not
apply to any sum referred to in clause {a) or clause (d) or clause
(e) if the sum is actually paid on or before the date on which the
return of income is due to be furnished under sub-section (1)
of section 139 for the previous year in which the liability to pay
such sum was incurred.
The amendment made by the Finance (No.2) Act, 1998, seeks to
apply the first proviso to section 43-B, in respect of any sum
payable by the assessee as interest on any term loan from
scheduled bank in accordance with the terms and conditions of
the agreement governing such loan.
This amendment will take effect retrospectively from 1st April,
1997, and will, accordingly, apply in relation to the Assessment
Year 1997-98 and subsequent years.As expected, some litigation
has arisen on the interpretation of this section.
The Supreme Court in C.l. T. v. Gujarat Polycrete Pvt. Ltd. (246 1.
T.R. 463) held that the Circular of the Central Board of Direct
Taxes dated September 25, 1987, (See (1988) 169 I.T.R. (St,) 53),
would apply only if a State Government had amended its Sales
Tax Act to provide that the sales tax which was deferred under
an incentive scheme framed by it would be treated as actually
paid, so as to meet the requirements of section 43-B of the
Income-tax Act, 1961.
The Supreme Court held in this case that notice had not been
taken of the Gujarat Sales Tax Act, 1969, to ascertain whether or
not there was such an amendment. Hence, the question
whether the Appellate Tribunal was right in law and on facts in
directing the Assessing Officer to allow the claim of the assessee
in respect of unpaid sales tax, if the same was covered by the
specific scheme of the Gujarat Government whereby the
deferred payment scheme was converted into interest-free loan,

particularly when the provisions of section 43-B were retrospective in operation, was a question of law which had to be
referred.
In C.l. T. v. Sri Balaji and Co. (246 I. T.R. 750), the Kerala High
Court held that if the Legislature had used specific language to
describe a payment, it could not be stretched to include certain
sums which were not in the nature of the payments mentioned
by the Legislature. In order to fall within section 43-B of the
Income-tax Act, 1961, the payment should be tax, duty, cess or
fee by whatever name called. The word by whatever name
called refers to tax, duty, cess or fee and, therefore, the payment
must be in the nature of tax, duty, cess or fee.
Rule 15 of the General Conditions of Karnataka Excise
Licences (General Conditions) Rules, 1967, provides for
payment of rent. The payment of rent has been treated to be a
liability by virtue of section 24 of the Karnataka Excise Act.
1965, in the nature of excise duty; but it has been held by the
apex Court that it is not excise duty. Payment of lease money
rental under the Karnataka Excise Licences Rules is a statutory
liability. However, the statutory liability would not come within
the purview of section 43-B of the Act.
The Supreme Court has granted special leave to the Department
to appeal against this judgment (See (2000) 246 I.T.R (St.) 103).
In G.I.T. v. Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (252 I.T.R. 43), the
Bombay High Court considered a case where the assessee
claimed deduction of Rs. 12,62,47,225 in respect of excise and
customs duty paid on the closing stock. The Assessing Officer
disallowed the claim on the ground that the assessee had not
debited the said amount to the profit and loss account in
respect of the goods falling in the closing stock nor was the said
amount included in the value of the closing stock. The Tribunal
allowed the appeal and held that the entire amount was an
allowable deduction in view of the fact that the assessee had
actually paid it during the year.
On appeal under section 260-A of the Income-tax Act, 1961,
the Bombay High Court held that it was found that the
assessee had paid the sum during the assessment year 1985-86
and the said amount was a part of the closing stock as on
March 31, 1985. The excise and customs duty paid and included
in the closing stock were allowable deductions. Therefore, the
assessee was entitled to claim deduction in respect of excise duty
and customs duty paid during the assessment year 1985-86
under section 43-B of the Act.
In C.I.T. v. Sitaram Textiles Ltd. (248I.T.R. 139), the Kerala High
Court held that section 43-B was Inserted by the Finance Act,
1983, with effect from April 1, 1964. In respect of the items set
out in the clauses of the said section, it virtually supersedes the
provisions of section 145 and provides that deduction would
be allowed only on the basis of actual payment, irrespective of
the method of accounting adopted by the assessee. Therefore,
from the assessment year 1984-85, even in the case of an
assessee who is following the mercantile system of accounting,
a liability which accrued during the accounting period relevant to
the assessment year in question, is not liable to be deducted in
the computation of the profits of the assesseeunless the
provisions of section 43-B are complied with.

Explanation 2 to section 43-B attempts to carve out a distinction between incurring liability and payment of the same. It
states that so far as clause (a) is concerned, viz., with respect to
tax, duty, cess or fee, any sum payable means a sum for which
the assessee incurred liability in the previous year even though
such sum might not have been payable within that year under
the relevant law. Explanation 2 is only with regard to section 43B(a) and it has no application to the other clauses in the section.
Explanation 2 was inserted to supersede decisions of certain
Courts to the effect that for tax which is payable after the close
of the relevant accounting year, the section does not apply.
Under section 43-B(d). the assessee can claim the benefit of
deduction of liability mentioned in clause (d) in a year where the
amount is not paid. It is not further necessary to find out
whether, even though liability has been incurred, it was payable
in that year.
Government audit fees are not covered by section 43-B as held
by the Bombay High Court in C.I.T. v. Shree Warna Sahakari
Sakhar Karkhana Ltd. (253 /. T.R. 226).
In the case of C./.T. v. Sri ]jagannath Steel Corporation 191 I.T.R.
676, the question of deductibility of Sales-tax liability discharged after expiry of the accounting year was considered in the
light of section 43B.
The facts of this case are that during the accounting year ended
on March 31, 1984, being the previous year relevant to the
Assessment Year 1984-85, the assessee collected an aggregate
sum of Rs. 5,03,310 as and by way of Central sales-tax. In the
said year of accounting, the assessee paid in the aggregate
Central sales-tax of Rs. 4,02,136 leaving a balance of Rs.
1,01,174 which was taken to the balance-sheet. The Income-tax
Officer, invoking the provisions of section 43B of the Incometax Act, added the said sum of Rs. 1,01,174 to the income
returned by the assessee.
The Commissioner of Income-tax (Appeals) declined to
interfere in the matter. Thereupon, the assessee moved the
Tribunal. Tribunal was of the view that if the assessee was
allowed time under the statute governing payment of sales-tax
and such payment was made within the period so prescribed
even though after the close of the accounting year, this payment
could not come within the purview of section 43B of the Act.
The assessee claimed before the Tribunal that the amount of
Rs. 1,01,174 was paid before the statutory dates which fell
outside the accounting year. Since the claim required examination by the Income-tax Officer, the Tribunal remanded the
matter to the Income-tax Officer to find out whether the
impugned amount was or was not statutorily payable before
the accounting year ended on March 31, 1984, and to allow the
relief accordingly.
On a reference, the Calcutta High Court observed that under
section 145 of the Income-tax Act, profits and gains of
business or profession are computed in accordance with the
method of accounting regularly employed by the assessee.
Under the mercantile system of accounting, income and
expenditure are accounted for on the basis of accrual and not on
the basis of actual receipts or disbursement. For the purposes
of computation of profits and gains of business or profession
section 43(2) of the Incometax Act defines the word paid to
111

mean actually paid or incurred according to the method of

accounting on the basis of which the profits or gains are
computed.
There are cases where taxpayers do not discharge their statutory
liability such as in respect of excise duty, employers contribution to provident fund, Employees State Insurance Scheme,
etc., for long periods of time, extending sometimes to several
years. For the purpose of their Income-tax assessments,they
claim the liability as deduction on the ground that they maintain
accounts on mercantile or accrual basis.

concerned in this case), shall, if his gross turnover calculated

from the commencement of any year exceeds the taxable
quantum at any time within such year, be liable to pay tax under
the Act on the expiry of two months from the date on which
such gross turnover first exceeds the taxable quantum, on all
sales effected after such expiry. Section 5(2) defines what is
meant by taxable turnover. Section 7(1) enjoins that no dealer
shall, while being liable to pay tax (under section 4 of the said
Act), carryon business as a dealer unless he has been registered
and possesses a registration certificate.

On the other hand, they dispute the liability and do not

discharge the same. For some reason or the other, undisputed
liabilities also are not paid. To curb this practice, the Finance Act,
1983, inserted section 43B to provide that the deduction for any
sum payable by the assessee by way of tax or duty under any
law for the time being in force (irrespective of whether such tax
or duty is disputed or not) or any sum payable by the assessee
as an employer by way of contribution to any provident fund
or superannuation fund or gratuity fund or any other fund for
the welfare of employees shall, irrespective of the previous year
in which the liability to pay such sum was incurred, be allowed
only in computing the income of the previous year in which
such sum is actually paid by him.

Rule 21 of the Bengal Sales-tax Rules, 1941, provides that every

registered dealer other than those referred to in rule 17 shall
furnish returns quarterly within 30 days from the expiry of each
quarter. Rule 36 of the said Rules provides that every dealer for
whom quarterly returns have been prescribed shall pay the tax
and surcharge due and additional surcharge, if any, due for any
quarter before furnishing the return for that quarter.

The Explanation to the section provides that an assessee who

had already been allowed a deduction of a liability on account
of tax or duty, etc., for the Assessment Year 1983-84 or any
earlier year in which the liability to pay was incurred cannot, in
respect of that liability, be allowed a deduction in the Assessment Year 1984-85 or any subsequent year on the ground that
he has actually made a payment towards such liability in that
year.

In other words, the time to pay tax due for any quarter stands
extended by 30 days from the expiry of each quarter. It is only
after the close of the quarter for which the return is due that a
dealer will be in a position to compute or calculate the tax
payable on the basis of the return to be furnished and deposit
the said amount in the treasury before furnishing the return.
No return will be accepted or treated as valid unless the return is
accompanied by the receipt showing payment in respect of the
dues shown in the return.

The object of section 43B is, therefore, to discourage those

taxpayers I who do not discharge their statutory liabilities even
though they claim and obtain those liabilities as deduction on
the ground that they maintain accounts on mercantile or accrual
basis. Section 43B was intended to apply to cases where the
statutory liability remained undischarged though the assessee in
such a case was entitled to claim deduction on the ground that
he maintains his accounts on mercantile or accrual basis.
However, the question to be considered is whether the provision in section 43B is applicable to a case where the statutory
liability has been discharged by the assessee within the period
prescribed under the law even though such payment is made
after the close of the relevant previous year. In other words, the
question is, if tax or duty is paid by the assessee in terms of the
statute imposing obligation to pay such tax or duty, even
though such payment is made in the next succeeding previous
year, whether the assessee is entitled to deduction of such
liability for the Assessment Year relevant to the previous year in
which such liability was incurred. The provisions of the salestax law of the State would apply mutatis mutandis in relation to
filing of returns and provisional assessment, advance payment
of tax, etc., under the Central sales-tax law.
The Calcutta High Court, therefore, considered the provisions
of the Bengal Finance (Sales-tax) Act, 1941. Section 4, subsection (2) of the said Act states the every dealer to whom
sub-section (1) does not apply (with which the Court was not
112

These provisions make it clear that a dealer has a statutory duty

to file the return within the prescribed time. Along with the
return he has also to pay the tax due on the basis of such
return. However, under the aforesaid rules, a return can be filed
within 30 days from the expiry of such quarter and the tax due
on such return has to be paid before furnishing such returns.

Further, the tax dues for the quarter cannot be ascertained,

before the close of the quarter for which the return is made
and, accordingly, the rules allow 30 days time to a dealer who
files quarterly returns to furnish along with the return the receipt
from the treasury or from the bank showing payment of such
dues. Therefore, if the period of quarterly return ends on 31st
March of a year, a dealer will get 30 days time from the expiry
of that date to make payment of the tax due and submit the
return along with the receipt showing the payment of such tax
computed in accordance with the return.
In such a case, a dealer, by filing the return and making the
payment, complies with the obligation imposed by the statute
under the sales-tax laws. It is true that the date of payment of
tax for the last quarter in some cases may fall beyond the last day
of the previous year maintained by the assessee. When an
assessee, in complying with any statutory obligation, actually
pays the tax within the period prescribed by statute, he cannot
be denied the benefit of deduction of such tax, although it may
have been paid after the close of the accounting year in which
such liability arose.
The object of section 43B is not to penalise an assessee who
does not merely show the tax dues as a liability but actually pays
the tax within the time prescribed by the statute. The object is
to collect the Government revenue by compelling the assessee

to discharge the liability by making actual payment and to get

the benefit of deduction.

Finance Act, 1989 with retrospective effect from April 1, 1984

reads as follows:

In other words, the object behind the provision is to provide

for a tax disincentive by denying deduction in respect of a
statutory liability which is not discharged by actual payment in
time. If the construction which is suggested by the Revenue is
accepted, in that event, although the assessee has incurred the
liability and the time to make payment of such liability has not
yet expired, the assessee will be disentitled to the benefit of
deduction, although he discharges the liability within the time
allowed by the relevant statute.

Explanation 2 - For the purposes of clause (a) as in force at all

material times, any sum payable means a sum for which the
assessee incurred liability in the previous year even though such
sum might not have been payable within that year under the
relevant law.

Although the liability may have been incurred during the

relevant previous year, it may not be possible to quantify such
liability until the expiry of the previous year where the last day
of the quarter coincides with the last day of the previous year. A
dealer can calculate the exact liability only after the expiry of the
particular quarter and, thereafter, he is to file the return along
with the receipted challan showing payment in terms of the
return. Amendments which have been made in section 43B,
according to the Revenue, showed that the intention of the
Legislature was not 10 permit any deduction of any liability
incurred during the previous year, unless such liability is
discharged within the relevant previous year.
The original section 43B, as it stood on April 1, 1984, could not
be literally applied to a case where the last day of the last quarter
under the sales-tax statute coincided with the last day of the
previous year. If the quarterly return period for the last quarter
ended on March 31, 1984, as was the case, a dealer could only
pay the tax for the said quarter earliest on April 1, 1984, which
fell in the subsequent previous year.
It was, therefore, impossible for an assessee to comply with the
provisions of section 43B as they stood originally. A dealer in
such a case would be denied the benefit of deduction, although
he had done all that he could have done. This provision was
clearly unjust and unworkable. The amendments were intended
to make the provisions workable. If an assessee. had paid the
sales-tax etc., on or before the due date applicable in his case for
furnishing the return of income, he would be entitled to claim
deduction of that amount and with regard to provident fund,
family pension, etc., the assessee would be entitled to claim
deduction if the same ]:lad been paid on or before the due date.
However, it was contended by the Revenue that the proviso to
section 43B was introduced by the Finance Act, -1987 with effect
from April 1, 1988 which was applicable only from the Assessment Year 1988-89. In other words, the benefit of the proviso
introduced from April 1, 1988, would not be available to the
taxpayer in respect of the Assessment Years 1984-85 to 1987-88.
The question, therefore was whether the object of the amendments made to section 43B would apply prospectively from the
Assessment Year 1988-89 or from the Assessment Year 198485. If the provisions were not harmoniously construed, in that
event, for the Assessment Years 1984-85 to 1987-88, the
assessee would be denied the benefit of deduction, even if the
liability incurred during the relevant previous year has been
discharged before the filing of the return relating to that
previous year. Explanation 2 to section 43B, inserted by the

This Explanation is therefore, intended to clarify the legislative

intent by providing that the words any sum payable mean
any sum, the liability for which has-been incurred by the
taxpayer during the previous year, irrespective of the date by
which such sum is statutorily payable. Having regard to the
intent and purport of the provisions of section 43B and the
amendments made from time to time, which the Calcutta High
Court had already indicated, this Explanation must be held to
be only clarificatory in nature and will be effective retrospectively.
Further, even if any sum payable means a sum for which the
assessee incurred liability in the previous year, so long as such
sum was paid before the return was filed, the benefit of
deduction could not be denied to the assessee. When the
section as a whole is read, the amendments by way of provisos
and Explanations are considered, when both textual and
contextual interpretations are taken into account and a harmonious constitution is made, it would be evident that the intention
was that the assessee who collects sales-tax, etc., during the
previous year and pays or deposits the tax pertaining to the last
quarter in the early part of the next succeeding previous year
and, in any event, before the filing of the return for the
previous year, it would be treated as sufficient compliance with
the provisions of sectjon 43B.
In the present case, having regard to the object of section 43B it
was held that the provisos and the Explanation have been
added as and by way of interpretation clause. The object is to
suppress the mischief of getting deduction of liability without
discharging such liability and not for the purpose of denying
relief to an assessee who discharges the liability incurred.
The provisos and the Explanation added to section 43B
supplied an omission and were intended to remove an
impossibility of performance and, therefore, could not be said
to be prospective in oparation.
If section 43B is interpreted as it originally stood in the manner
in which the Revenue sought to urge that deduction could be
claimed only upon actual payment of sales-tax etc., during the
previous year, it would require the assessee to do an impossible
act because the assessee could not have paid its tax liability in the
previous year ended on March 31, 1984, in respect of a quarter
ending on the last date of the previous year. Inconsistency, if
any, could be avoided by holding that although the provisos
have been introduced subsequent to the Assessment Year 198485 they would relate back to the time when the original
provision was inserted.
In other words, upon, a textual interpretation of the provisos
and the Explanation, it was held that the benefit of deduction
would be allowed so long as the assessee made the payment of
the tax which could not have been paid in the previous year

113

even if the assessee intended to pay because of the statutory

requirement governing such payment.
However, the assessee would be entitled to the benefit of such
deduction if the liability was discharged before filing the return
which would advance the object, purport and intention of
section 43B as amended. The benefit of deduction in such cases
should not be confined only to the Assessment Year 1984-85,
but should be extended to the subsequent Assessment Year
also.
In this case, the liability was required to be discharged or could
only have been discharged by the assessee after the expiry of the
accounting year within 30 days from the end of the accounting
year and, accordingly, this amount for the particular quarter was
not actually payable within the accounting year under the
relevant law.
The Calcutta High Courts attention had been drawn to the
decision of the Supreme Court in Kedarnath Jute Manufacturing
Co. Ltd. v. C.I. T. 82 1. T.R. 363 (SC). This decision had laid
down that the obligation to pay sales-tax arose as soon as the
sale was effected. It was concerned with the effective date of
discharge of such liability in the light of section 43B. The said
decision had no relevance to the facts of this case.
Further, the questions on the facts and in the circumstances of
this case as to whether the liability for sales tax accrued within
the previous year and whether the assessee discharged such
liability by actual payment within the period prescribed under
the relevant statute were not gone into by the Income-tax
Officer in this case.
The Court was, therefore, of the view that the Tribunal was
right in holding that, in a case like this, where the statutory
liability was actually discharged after the expiry of the previous
year in compliance with the relevant statute, the benefit of
deduction could not be denied to the assessee.
The Calcutta High Court, in C.I. T. v. Varas International (P.) Ltd.
(1998) 96 Taxman 435, considered an interesting point as to
what constitutes tax or fee when payable under law. The facts in
this case were that the assessee was engaged in the business of
manufacture and vending of country liquor. Under the Bengal
Excise Act, 1909, and the rules framed thereunder, the Government of West Bengal settled the right of manufacture and vend
of country liquor in favour of the licensee/contractor for a
consideration.
For the Assessment Year 1984-85, the assessee took a contract/
licence for manufacture of country liquor on payment of price/
licence fee. After the assessee took the contract/licence, he
challenged the said charge by means of a petition under article
226 of the Constitution of Inidia in the High Court of
Calcutta and obtained an ad interim order by which the State of
West Bengal was prohibited from collecting the price/licence fee
from the assessee.
After obtaining the ad interim order, the assessee in its return
debited Rs. 2,78,465.as excise duty to its profit and loss account
and further claimed deduction of the said liability. The Assessing Officer disallowed the deduction on the ground that the
nature of levy/consideration was duty and, as such, no
deduction could be allowed under section 43-B.

114

The Calcutta High Court, while deciding the reference application made by the Commissioner of Income-tax, considered
several decisions on the subject.
In Har Shankar v. Dy. Excise & Taxation Commissioner AIR 1975
SC 1121, a Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court held
since rights in regard to intoxicants belong to the State,. it is
open to the Government to part with those rights for a
consideration, and then observed, the distinction which the
Constitution makes for legislative purposes between a tax
and a fee and the characteristics of these two as also of excise
duty are well-known.
A tax is a compulsory exaction of money by public authority for
public purposes enforceable by law and is not a payment for
services rendered. A fee is a charge for special services rendered
to individuals by some governmental agency and such a charge
has an element in it of a quid pro quo. Excise duty is primarily a
duty on the production or manufacture of goods produced or
manufactured within the country.
The Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court in that case
thereafter held that the amounts charged from the licensees in
that case, i.e., the consideration for parting with the rights in
regard to intoxicants, to the licensees, i.e., persons in whose
favour such rights had been parted with, were evidently neither
in the nature of a tax nor excise duty and that the licence fee
which the State Government charged from the licensees
through the medium of auctions or the fixed fee need bear
no quid pro quo to the services rendered to the licensees.
In Panna Lal v. State of Rajasthan (2 SCC 633), three learned
Judges of the Supreme Court held that the licence fee stipulated
to be paid by the licensees was the price or consideration or
rental which the Government charged from the licensees for
parting with its privilege in stipulated lump sum payment and
was a normal incident of a trading or business transaction.
It was further held that the .State had the exclusive right to
manufacture and sell liquor and to sell the said right in order to
raise revenue. The rental was the consideration for the privilege
granted by the Government for manufacturing or vending
liquor. The rental was neither a tax nor an excise duty. It was
consideration for the grant of the privilege by the State Government.
In State of Haryana v. lage Ram AIR 1980 SC 2018, three learned
Judges of the Supreme Court held that the amount which was
paid by the vendors of intoxicants to the State Government for
obtaining from the State Government the right to vend
intoxicants was neither a fee nor excise duty, but the price of the
privilege which the State parted with in favour of such vendors.
In Synthetics & Chemicals Ltd. v. State of U.P. 1 SCC 109, a
Constitution Bench comprising of seven Judges of the
Supreme Court held that there was no fundamental right to
carryon trade or business in liquor which affects public health or
the welfare of the people. The States did have the power to
regulate the use of alcohol and that power included the power
to make provisions to prevent and/or check industrial alcohol
being used as intoxicating or drinkable alcohol.
In Government of Andhra Pradesh v. Anabeshahi Wine & Distilleries
{P.} Ltd. AIR 1988 SC 771, which was decided by two learned

Judges, some employees of the excise department were posted

at the factory of the licensee carrying on the business of
manufacture and sale of wine and , other allied products and
the licensee was liable to pay the salaries and allowances, etc., of
the excise staff so appointed when demand for payment of the
establishment charges was made by the Government.
It was held that the establishment charges payable by the
licensee were neither in the nature of tax nor excise duty, but
constituted the price or consideration which the Government
charged from the licensees for parting with its privileges and
granting them to the licensees.
All the aforesaid judgments were considered by the Supreme
Court in State of Uttar Pradesh v. Sheopat Rai AIR 1994 SC 813,
where it was held that the periodical licence for retail vend of
foreign liquor granted on the basis of a fixed fee or licence
fee connotes and means consideration received by the Government for parting with its exclusive privilege to deal in
intoxicants and such fee is neither a tax nor a fee nor an excise
duty nor cess and the same can only be levied under Entry 8 of
List 2 of Schedule VII to the Constitution.
In the light of the aforesaid decisions, the Calcutta High Court
in the case of Varas International (P.} Ltd. held that section 43-B
states that unless tax or duty or fee or cess, by whatever name
the same may be called,is paid in fact during the concerned year,
the assessee would not be entitled to the deduction in the
matter of computation of his income. If the amount payable is
neither tax nor duty nor fee nor cess, the question of applying
the provisions of the said section does not and cannot arise.
The Legislature in section 43-B has used the expression by way
of .
Therefore, it is the obligation of the Assessing Officer to
ascertain whether the amount payable was by way of tax or duty
or fee or cess, although the amount payable may not be
described as tax or duty or fee or cess. Hence, where the amount
is described as fee but, in fact, is not, the question of applying
section 43-B in regard to such payment will not arise.
In view of the above, the Court concluded that the Tribunal
was justified in deleting the impugned addition, holding that
the fee payable by the assessee in the instant case was not duty.
The aforesaid decision of the Calcutta High Court lays down
the proposition that an expenditure would be deductible on the
basis of the mercantile system of accounting where it does not
fall within the ambit of a statutory tax, duty, cess or fee. Hence,
such expenditure would be deductible on accrual basis, irrespective of the year of payment.
The Madhya Pradesh High Court held in C.I. T. v. Gorelal Dubey
(232 I. T.R. 246) that royalty payable to Government was in the
nature of tax and, therefore, section 43-B was applicable.
Before concluding this Chapter, it would be appropriate to set
out below various Circulars issued by the Central Board of
Direct Taxes on the provisions of section 43B.
Circular: No. 669, dated 5-10-1993

1. Attention is invited to Boards Circular No. 581, dated 28-91990, wherein it was, inter alia, stated that where a deduction
claimed is disallowed as, prima facie, inadmissible for want

of evidence in support thereof under section 143(1}(a}, it

cannot be subsequently allowed by a rectification order under
section 154 even if the assessee later on furnishes evidence in
support thereof. This clarification was made especially with
reference to the requirement of furnishing of evidence of
payment of tax, duty, etc., alongwith the return, contained in
section 43B.
2. The Board have reconsidered the matter and are of the
opinion that where the sums referred to in the first proviso
under section 43B had in fact been paid on or before the due
dates mentioned therein, but the evidence therefor had been
omitted to be furnished alongwith the return, the Assessing
Officers can entertain applications under section 154 for
rectification of the intimations under section 143(l)(a) or
orders under section 143(3), as the case may be, and decide
the same on merits.
3. Circular No. 581, dated 28-9-1990 stands modified to the
above extent.
Circular: No. 581, dated 28-9-1990

1. Instances have come to the notice of the Board where

deduction claimed under section 43B of the Income-tax Act
was disallowed as prima facie inadmissible, under section
143(l)(a), as the assessee had not furnished evidence of
payment of tax, duty, etc., alongwith the return. However,
later on, the deduction claimed was allowed under section
154 as the assessees subsequently furnished such evidence.
2. The aforesaid action of allowing the deduction subsequently
under section 154 is not in accordance with law. Furnishing
of evidence of payment of any sum by way of tax, duty, etc.,
alongwith the return is a necessary requirement for allowance
of deduction of that sum undersection 43B. The sums
disallowed as prima facie inadmissible under section
143(l)(a), in the absence of requisite evidence of the
payment, cannot be subsequently allowed under section 154.
This is because the scope of the powers to make prima facie
adjustments under section 143(l)(a) is somewhat coterminus with the power to rectify a mistake apparent from
the record under section 154.
3. Similarly, filing of evidence in support of an exemption/
deduction at the time of furnishing the Return of Income
has been prescribed as a necessary condition in certain other
sections of the Income-tax Act, such as sections 32AB(5),
33AB(2), 35D(4), 35E(6), 54(2), 54B(2), 54D(2), 54F(4),
54G(2), 80HH(5), 80HHA (4) , 8 OHHB (3) , 80HHC(4),
80HHD(6), 801(7), etc. In such cases also, where the
exemption/deduction claimed is disallowed as prima facie
inadmissible for want of evidence in support thereof under
section 143(l)(a), it cannot be subsequently allowed by a
rectification order under section 154 if the assessee later on
furnishes evidence in support thereof.
4. Such a view is also necessary from administrative angle as, if
the department condones such lapses in the initial stages, a
tendency may develop amongst the tax-payers not to file
relevant evidence at the time of filing the return and then
make a claim by putting in an application under section 154.
This tendency would unnecessarily increase infructuous work

115

for the department. Hence, strict view which is in accordance

with the legal provisions is necessary in such cases.
Circular: No. 674, dated 29-12-1993

1. The scope of application of the provisions of section 43B to

the sales tax collected but not actually paid under deferral
schemes of the State Governments was considered in
Boards Circular No. 496, dated 25-9-1987, and it was decided
that, where the State Governments make an amendment in
the Sales-tax Act to the effect that the sales tax deferred under
the scheme shall be treated as actually paid, the statutory
liability shall be treated as discharged for the purposes of
section 43B.
2. It has since been brought to the notice of the Board that
some State Governments, instead of amending the Salestax
Act, have issued Government Orders notifying schemes
under which sales tax is deemed to have been actually
collected and disbursed as loans. Such Government Orders
also provide that entries shall be made in the Government
accounts giving effect to deemed collections by crediting the
appropriate receipt-heads relating to sales tax collections and
debiting the heads relating to disbursal of loans. It has,
therefore, been represented that, as such conversion of the
sales tax liability into loans have similar statutory effect as can
be achieved through amendments of the Sales-tax Act, the
amounts covered under scheme should be allowed as
deduction for the previous year in which the conversion has
been permitted by the State Governments.
3. The Board have considered the matter and are of the
opinion that such deferral schemes notified by the State
Governments through Government Orders meet the
requirements of the Boards Circular No. 496, dated 25-91987 in effect though in a different form. Accordingly, the
Board have decided that the amount of sales tax liability
converted into loans may be allowed as deduction in the
assessment for the previous year in which such conversion
has been permitted by or under Government Orders.
Circular: No. 496 (F. No. 201/34/86-IT(A-II), dated 25-9-1987

1. Several State Governments have introduced sales tax deferred

schemes as a part of the incentives offered to entrepreneurs
setting up industries in backward areas. Under these
schemes, eligible units are permitted to collect sales tax and
retain such tax for a prescribed period. After this period, the
sales tax is to be paid to the Government either in lump
sum or in instalments.
2. Section 43B of the Income-tax Act, 1961, introduced by the
Finance Act, 1983, with effect from 1-4-1984 provides, inter
alia, that a deduction in respect of any sum payable by the
assessee by way of tax or duty under any law for the time
being in force shall be allowed from the income of the
previous year in which such sum is actually paid irrespective
of the previous year in which the liabi1ity to pay such sum
was incurred. Since the introduction of this provision, the
assessees who collect sales tax, but do not pay the amounts
to the Government during the previous year, under the
deferral schemes provided by the State Governments are not
entitled to the benefit of deduction from their income.

116

3. Representations have been received from various State

Governments and others that cases of deferred sales tax
payments should be excluded from the purview of section
43B as the operation of this provision has the effect of
diluting the incentive offered by the deferral schemes.
4. The matter has been examined in consultation with the
Ministry of Law and the various State Governments. The
Ministry of Law has opined that if the State Governments
make an amendment in the Sales Tax Act to the effect the
sales tax deferred under the scheme shall be treated as actually
paid, such a deeming provision will meet the requirements
of section 43B.
5. The Government of Maharashtra have by the Bombay Sales
Tax (Amendment) Act, 1987, made the amendment
accordingly. The Board have decided that where amendments
are made in the sales tax laws on these lines the statutory
liability shall be treated to have been discharged for the
purposes of section 43B.
So students its a very much legal subject ,with legal language.
You will learn this slowly and slowly. Now time to recollect all
this with the help of questions.
1. What is section 43B about. State its provisions in details.
2. What is the impact of the different circulars issued from time
to time on the taxability of the assessee.
3. What is the impact of the section on the tax liability.

LESSON 14:
DEEMED PROFITS AND PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
ON BUSINESS AND PROFESSION
Lesson Objective

To Know meaning of deemed profits.

To know treatment of deemed profits in Income Tax.

To know how undisclosed income/investments are taxed.

To know how taxable income from business or profession is

calculated.

Good morning students - today we will talk about deemed

profits and undisclosed income and investments and its various
aspects.
Lets first see - What are the deemed profits and how they are
charged to tax?
The following receipts are chargeable to tax as business income:
Recovery against any deduction [Sec. 41 (1) - Section 41 (1)
is applicable if the following conditions are satisfied :
1. In any of the earlier years a deduction was allowed to the
taxpayer in respect of loss, expenditure or trading liability
incurred by the assessee.
2. During the current previous year, the taxpayer:
a.

has obtained a refund of such trading liability (it may

be in cash or any other manner); or

b.

has obtained some benefit in respect of such trading

liability by way of remission or

cessation thereof (remission or cessation for this purpose

includes unilateral act of the assessee by way of writing off of
such liability in his books of account). If the above two
conditions are satisfied the amount obtained by such person (or
the value of benefit accruing to him) shall be deemed to be
profits and gains of business or profession and accordingly
chargeable to tax as the income of that previous year.
The following points should be noted
For the purpose of condition 2(a)(supra) there may (or may not)
be any remission or cessation of trading liability.
Where the assessee to whom any allowance or deduction has
been allowed in respect of loss, expenditure or trading liability,
is succeeded in his business either because of amalgamation or
demerger of two companies or on account of the constitution
of new firm or the business is continued by some other person
when the assessee ceases to carryon the business, then the
person succeeding will be chargeable to tax on any amount
received in relation to which deduction or allowance has been
made.
Provisions of section 41(1) can be invoked to tax excise duty
refunds received in the relevant assessment year even when the
part of excise duty was not Claimed as expenditure in the profit
and loss account of earlier years and the assessee had kept a
separate account in respect of collection and payment of excise

duty-Mysore Thermo Electric (P) Ltd. v. CIT[l996]221 ITR 504

(Kar.).
The aforesaid rule is applicable even if the business is not in
existence in the year of recovery. Provisions illustrated - To clarify
the above provisions, one can go through the following
examples
1. Rs.1,50,000 is paid as sales tax by x during the previous year
2002-03 and the same is allowed as deduction. The taxpayer
claims a refund of Rs.10,000 on June 16,2003 from the sales
tax department after getting a favourable verdict from the
Delhi High Court. Rs.10,000 is taxable for the previous year
2003-04, even if the business is not in existence during 200304.[in this case conditions 1 and 2(a) are satisfied].
2. Suppose in 1 supra before the verdict of the Delhi High
Court, X dies and the business is continued b) his son Y
who gets a refund of Rs.l0000 from the sales tax
department, then Rs.l0000 is taxable as business income of
Y [in this case conditions 1 and 2(a) are satisfied].
3. X Ltd. purchases goods on credit from different parties and
claims deduction on accrual basis. Generally, these bills are
paid at Bombay office within 6 months of submission of
delivery documents signed by the in charge of the Pune
depot. As some of these documents are misplaced by A, one
of the suppliers, he could not claim payment of a bill of Rs.
20,000 pertaining to 1999-2000, although X Ltd. has claimed
deduction during the same year. After the expiry of
limitation period of three years, during 2003-04, the
company credits the same in its profit and loss account,
although A, the supplier, has not discharged the liability of
the company. Rs. 20,000, in this case, is chargeable to tax by
virtue of section 41(1) as business income of the assessment
year 2004-05 [in this case conditions 1 and 2(b) are satisfied]
4. An assessee is allowed deduction for the assessment year
2001-02 in respect of Rs. 42,000 misappropriated by his
cashier, and later on in the previous year relevant for the
assessment year 2004-05, Rs. 8,000 (out of the sum so
misappropriated) is recovered by the assesssee. Rs. 8,000 is
chargeable to tax as business profits for the assessment year
2004-05 [in this case conditions 1 and 2(a) are satisfied].
5. X pays Rs. 80,000 as excise duty and claims the same as
deduction in 2000-01. Later on in 2003-04, he gets a refund
of Rs. 20,000 from the department by obtaining a
favourable verdict from the Delhi High Court. The
department files an appeal in the Supreme Court and the
matter is still pending.
In this case, Rs. 20,000 is taxable in the previous year 2003-04
[conditions 1 and 2(a) are satisfied). For condition 2(a), there
may not be any cessation of trading liability. If the Supreme
Court decides the appeal against the assessee, the amount,

117

which will be paid back, will be deductible in the year of

payment by virtue of section 43B.
Sale of assets used for scientific research [Sec. 41(3)] Where any capital asset used in scientific research is sold without
having been used for other purposes and the sale proceeds,
together with the amount of deduction allowed under section
35, exceed the amount of the capital expenditure incurred on
purchase of such asset, such surplus (i.e., sale price) or the
amount of deduction allowed, whichever is less, is chargeable to
tax as business income in the year in which the sale took place.
For instance, a company purchases scientific research equipment
for Rs. 86,000 during the previous year 1997-98 and claims/is
allowed Rs. 86,000 as deduction under section 35 for the
assessment year 1998-99. If the company sells the equipment
(without using it for a purpose other than for scientific research)
in the previous year 2003-04 for Rs. 41,000, Rs. 41,000 is
chargeable to tax for the assessment year 2004-05, even if the
assessees business is not in existence during the previous year
2003-04.
Recovery of bad debt [Sec. 41 (4)] - Where any bad debt has
been allowed as deduction under section 36(1)(viz) and the
amount subsequently recovered on such debt is greater than the
difference between the debt and the deduction so allowed, the
excess realisation is chargeable to tax as business income of the
year in which the debt is recovered.
For instance, an assessee sells goods worth Rs: 40,000 on credit
on October 1,2000. By writing off Rs. 15,000 out of Rs. 40,000,
he claims a deduction of Rs. 15,000 for the previous year 200001 under section 36(1)( vii) as bad debts. On June 10,2003, he
recovers Rs. 28,000 from the defaulting debtor. In this case Rs.
3,000 [i.e., Rs. 28,000 minus (Rs. 40,000-Rs. 15,000)] is chargeable
to tax for the previous year 2003-04 under section 41(4).
For this purpose, it is, however, immaterial whether the
business of the assessee is in existence (or not) during the
previous year in which recovery is made.
Recovery after discontinuance of business or profession
[Sec. 176(3A), (4)] Where any business or profession is
discontinued by reason of the retirement or death of the
person carrying on such business or profession, any sum
received after the discontinuance of the business or profession
is deemed to be the income of the recipient and charged to tax
in the year of receipt.
Adjustment of loss [Sec. 41 (5)] - Generally, loss of a
business cannot be carried forward after 8 years. An exception is,
however, provided by section 41 (5). This exception is applicable
if the following conditions are satisfied:
a. The business or profession is discontinued;
b. Loss of such business or profession pertaining to the year in
which it is discontinued could not be set-off against any
other income of that year;
c. Such business is not a speculation business; and
d. After discontinuation of such business or profession, there
is a receipt which is deemed as business income under section
41(1), (3), (4) or (4A).

118

The unabsorbed loss pertaining to the year in which business/

profession was discontinued is permitted to be set-off against
notional business income under section 41(1), (3), (4) or.(4A)
even after 8 years. It can be set off even if the return of loss is
not submitted in time.
Example for practice: A business (not being a speculation
business) is discontinued on December 10, 1985. At that time
there was unadjusted business loss of Rs. 35,000 (i.e., Rs.
10,000 of the previous year 1984-85 and Rs. 25,000 pertaining
to the period commencing on April 1, 1985 and ending on
December 10, 1985). On May 20, 2003, the assessee recovers a
debt of Rs. 48.000 from a debtor which was allowed as bad
debt in 1982-83 (or may be in some other year). Find out the
notional profit chargeable to tax for the previous year 2003-04
under section 41.

How and When Undisclosed Income/investments

are Taxed ?
The following are treated as income from undisclosed sources,
Cash credit [Sec. 68] - Where any amount is found credited in
the books of an assessee maintained for any previous year and
the assessee offers no explanation about the nature and source
thereof or the explanation offered by him is not, in the opinion
of the Assessing Officer, satisfactory, the sum so credited may
be charged to income-tax as the income of the assessee of that
previous year.
Unexplained investments [Sec. 69] - Where in the financial
year immediately preceding the assessment year, the assessee has
made investments which are not recorded in the books of
account, if any, maintained by him for any source of income
and the assessee offers no explanation about the nature and
source of the investments or the explanation offered by him is
not, in the opinion of the Assessing Officer, satisfactory, the
value of the investments may be deemed to be the income of
the assessee of such financial year.
Unexplained money, etc. [Sec. 69A] - Where in any financial
year the assessee is found to be the owner of any money,
bullion, jewellery, or other valuable article and such money,
bullion, jewellery, or other valuable article is not recorded in the
books of account, if any, maintained by him for any source of
income and the assessee offers no explanation about the nature
and source of acquisition of the money, bullion, jewellery or
other valuable article, or the explanation offered by him is not,
in the opinion of the Assessing Officer, satisfactory, the money
and the value of the bullion, jewellery or other valuable article
may be deemed to be the income of the assessee for such
financial year.
Amountof investments, etc., not fully disclosed in books of
account [Sec. 69B] - Where in any financial year the assessee
has made investments or is found to be the owner of any
bullion, jewellery or other valuable article, and the Assessing
Officer finds that the amount expended on making such
investments or in acquiring such bullion, jewellery or other
valuable article exceeds the amount recorded in this behalf in
the books of account maintained by the assessee for any source
of income, and the assessee offers no explanation about such
excess amount or the explanation offered by him is not, in the

opinion of the Assessing Officer, satisfactory, the excess

amount may be deemed to be the income of the assessee, for
such financial year.
Unexplained expenditure, etc. [Sec. 69C] - Where in any
financial year an assessee has incurred any expenditure and he
offers no explanation about the source of such expenditure or
part thereof, or the explanation, if any, offered by him is not, in
the opinion of the Assessing Officer, satisfactory, the amount
covered by such expenditure or part thereof, as the case may be,
may be deemed to be the income of the assessee for such
financial year.
The proviso to section 69C provides that notwithstanding
anything contained in any other provision of the Act, such
unexplained expenditure which is deemed to be the income of
the assessee shall not be allowed as a deduction under any head
of income.
Amount borrowed or repaid on hundi [Sec. 69D] - Where
any amount is borrowed on a hundi from, or any amount due
thereon is repaid to, any person otherwise than through an
account payee cheque drawn on a bank, the amount so borrowed or repaid shall be deemed to be the income of the
person borrowing or repaying the amount aforesaid for the
previous year in which the amount was borrowed or repaid, as
the case may be. To avoid double taxation, it has been provided
that if any amount borrowed on a hundi has been deemed
under the provisions of this section to be the income of any
person, such person should not be liable to be assessed again in
respect of such amount under the provisions of this section on
repayment of such amount. Moreover, for the purposes of this
section, the amount repaid includes the amount of interest paid
on the amount borrowed.
To have better understanding lets have a look at the following
problems.
Prob 1: X ltd. is a public company. Its profit and loss account
for the year ending March 31,2004 discloses a net profit of Rs.
7,86,000. Particulars noted from accounts are as follows
The company purchases a machine for Rs. 1,80,000 (rate of
depreciation : 25 percent) on September 1, 2003 for its new
industrial unit. The new units is, however, started on January 3,
2004. The company is not eligible foe any deduction under
section 80-IB. The company has claimed full years depreciation
of Rs. 45,000 (i.e. 25% of Rs. 1,80,000) in books of accounts.
Salary to staff and directors debited to profit and loss account is
Rs. 8,90,000. It includes the following :

Entertainment expenditure debited to profit and loss account is

Rs. 1,76,000.
A building is purchased for the purpose of promoting family
planning amongst the employees for Rs. 5,00,000. The
company has charged depreciation at the rate of 5 % in books.
Purchases debited to profit and loss account include the
following :Date of purchase
April 10, 2003
April 10, 2003
April 30, 2003
July 17, 2003
November 6, 2003
December 25, 2003
January 10, 2004

Amount of bill (Rs.)

9,500
12,000
51,000
40,000
25,000
37,000
48,000

Name of supplier
A
A
B
C
D ( Through agent E)
F
G

Bill No.
1
2
8
15
32
40
92

C is a director of X Ltd. and fair market value of goods

supplied by him (i.e. Bill No. 15) is Rs. 32,000/-. Payment of
Bill No. 40 is required to be made on the same day.
The aforesaid bills are paid as follows
Bill No.

Amount of
payment (Rs.)

To whom
payment is
made

Date of payment

Mode of
payment

1
1&2
8
8
8
15
15
32

2
21,500
10,000
21,000
20,000
36,000
4,000
25,000

3
A
B
B
B
C
C
E

4
April 30, 2004
May 1, 2003
May 2,2003
May 3, 2003
July 17, 2003
July 18, 2003
November 2, 2003

5
Cash
Cash
Crossed cheque
Bearer cheque
Bearer cheque
Cash
Cash

40

37,000

December 25, 2003

Cash

92

48,000

January 27, 2004

Cash

Comments

6
E has paid
on behalf of
X Ltd. to D
Banks were
closed on
December
25, 2003
-

Penalty of Rs. 60,000/- has been debited to the profit and loss
account. It is paid to the Government for companys failure to
complete a project undertaken by it from the government.
On March 1, 2004, he decides to change the mode of valuation
of closing stock from cost to cost plus 10 percent. The
amount of closing stock as on March 31, 2004 as shown in
balance sheet is Rs. 55,000.
Taking into consideration the above information, determine the
taxable income of X Ltd. for the assessment year 2004-05.
Prob2: Discuss the following:
A liability towards expenditure as per agreement was provided
in the books. However it was disputed for payment before a

Entertainment allowance : Rs. 70,000;

Expenditure on food or beverages provided to employees in
office, factory or other place of their work Rs. 60,000.
Expenditure on food provided to employees in a place other
than place of work Rs. 30,000. (Rs. 100 per employee for 50
employees for 6 days)
Entertainment allowance paid to directors Rs. 40,000.
Salary paid to an employee in cash (after tax deduction at source)
when he was temporarily posted for a period of 20 days at
Patna (bank account not maintained at Patna) Rs. 26,000.

119

Ans:

Particulars
Profit as per profit and loss account

Amount
7,86,000

Adjustment :
Purchase of machine on September 1,2003 (as the machine is put to use for a period of less than 180 days,, it
is qualified for half depreciation; normal depreciation : of 25% of Rs. 1,80,000 plus additional depreciation
of 15% of Rs. 1,80,000; the excess amount is disallowed)

Entertainment allowance to employees [ now it is fully deductible under section 37(1)]

Expenditure on food and beverages in office [deductible as normal expenditure under section 37(1)]
Expenditure on food and beverages out side office [now it is fully deductible under section 37(1)]
Entertainment allowance paid to directors [now it is fully deductible under deduction 37(1)]

(+) 9,000
-

Salary exceeding Rs. 20,000/- paod in cash [it is deductible under rule 6DD (i)] -

Entertainment expenditure ( now it is fully deductible)

Capital expenditure on family panning (amount deductible is 20% of Rs. 5,00,000/- i.e. Rs. 1,00,000/- ;
amount debited to profit and loss account is 5% of Rs. 5,00,000/- i.e. Rs. 25,000 ; the difference of Rs.
75,000/- allowed as deduction
(-) 75,000
Payment on account of purchases (see note)

(+)23,200

Penalty for failure to perform a job in time [ allowable as deduction see CIT v. Reliable Water Supply
Services of India( 1980) 124 ITR 199 (all)
Over valuation of closing stock ( i.e. 1/11 of Rs. 55000/-)
Net Income

(- ) 5000
738200

* Note
Payment for purchases
Payment of Bill No. 1 ( It is paid in cash it is allowed as deduction
As the amount of bill does not exceed Rs. 20000/- )
Payment of bill No. 2 ( allowed as deduction as the amount of bill does not exceed Rs. 20000/- ; disallowance i ppli bl
l if
t f bill d
t fp
ti
h b b
h
d R 20000)
Payment of Bill No-8 ( The amount of bill exceeds Rs. 20000/Disallowance is applicable is payment is exceeding Rs. 20000/ is made by bearer cheque or in cash)
Payment of Rs. 10,000/- on May 1, 2003 (allowed as deduction even if the amount is paid in cash as the
payment does not exceed Rs. 20,000)

Payment of Rs. 21,000 on May 2, 2003 (allowed as deduction as it is paid by crossed cheque)
Payment of Rs. 20,000 on May 3, 2003 (allowed as deduction as the payment made by bearer cheque does not
exceed Rs. 20,000)
Payment of Bill NO. 15 [amount disallowed under section 40A92) is Rs. 8,000, being the excess amount paid
to a director as a taxpayer; another disallowance which is applicable is Rs. 5,600 i.e. 20% of Rs. 28,000 (i.e. Rs.
36,000 Rs. 8,000 ) by virtue of section 40A93) as Rs. 36,000 is paid by bearer cheque; therefore the effective
disallowance is Rs. 13,600]

13,600

Payment of Bill No. 32 [where the payment exceeding Rs. 20,000 is made by a person to his agent who is
required to make payment in cash for goods or services on behalf of such person, disallowance under section
40A(3) ]
Payment of Bill No. 40 [where the payment exceeding Rs. 20,000 is required to be made in cash on a day on
which the banks were closed either on account of holiday or strike, disallowance under section 40A(3) ] Payment of Bill NO. 92. [ 20% of Rs. 48,000 is disallowed under section 40A(3)]
Amount disallowed under section 40A(2)/(3)

120

9,600
23,200

court of law on interpretation of clauses of the agreement. Can

it be claimed in the year of provision?
A Company paid the full consideration for building acquired for
its administrative office and occupied the same as the possession was taken. The registration could not take place before the
end of the previous year for some reason or other. Can the
depreciation claim be made?
Secret commission was paid and debited under commission
account. It is allowable as expenditure?
An assessee purchases know-how for manufacture of fuel
injection pipes on April 10, 2003. He wants proportional
reduction for six assessments years under section 35AB
commencing from assessment year 2004-05. Is this
allowable?[MAY 2000]
Ans:
In Kedarnath Jute Mills Ltd. v. CIT [1971] 82, ITR 363 (SC), it
was held that there where liability exists in present the claim for
the same cannot be denied merely because it has been disputed,
in case the assessee maintains his books of accounts on
mercantile basis of accounting. A liability in present is not a
contingent liability. It has to be provided in the year in which
the liability did really accrue.
Anyone in possession of property in his own title exerting such
dominion over the property as would enable others being
excluded therefrom and having right to use and occupy the
property and / or to enjoy its usufruct in his own right would
be the owner of the buildings though formal deed of the title
may not have been executed and registered as contemplated by
the Transfer of property Act 1882 Registration Act etc. The
intention of the Legislature in enacting section 32 would be
best fulfilled by allowing deduction in respect of depreciation to
the person in whom for the time being vests the dominion
over the building and who is entitled to use it in his own right
and using the same for the purpose of his business or profession- Mysore Minerals Ltd. v. CIT [1999] 106 Taxman 166/239
ITR 775 (SC)
Where the Tribunal upheld deduction commission as business
expenditure without satisfying itself that it was not incurred by
the assessee for any purpose which was an offence or which was
prohibited by law as provided in Explanation to section 37 (1)
the matter should be remanded to the Tribunal to consider and
decide the controversy in light of the said Explanation-CIT v.
Taraporvala Sons Co.(p) Ltd. [1999] 105 Taxman 438/239 ITR
319 (Bom).
As per section 35AB in case capital expenditure on acquisition
of technical know-how is incurred on or after April 1 1998 one
can claim depreciation under section 32. In other words
deduction of the capital expenditure on technical know-how in
six equal annual installments starting with the year in which
payment is made is permissible if expenditure in respect of
technical know-how is incurred upto March 31,1998.
In the present problem in view of the aforesaid provisions
since the expenditure is incurred after March 31, 1998 the
assessee cannot claim proportional reduction for six assessment
years under section 35AB. However the assessee can claim
depreciation under section 32.

Prob. 3: Discuss the following:

1. What are the provisions regarding the carry forward and set
off the unabsorbed depreciation under section 32. Write an
elaborate note.
2. Write short note on assessment of profits of retail trader.
3. XYZ Ltd. incurs an expenditure of Rs. 100 Crore for
acquiring the right to operate telecommunication services for
Haryana & Punjab circles. The payment of Rs. 100 Crore was
made in September 2002 & the licenses to operate the
services was valid for 10 years. In December 2003 the
company transfers part of the license in respect of Haryana
to ABC Ltd. for a sum of Rs. 27 Crore and continues to
operate the license in respect of the Punjab. What is the
amount allowable as deduction under section 35ABB to
XYZ Ltd. in respect of the license fee for assessment year
2004-05.
4. A contractor engaged in the business of civil construction
work does not maintain regular books of account. The total
bills submitted in respect of contracts for the period April 1
2003 to March 31,2004 are as under:
(Rs. In lakh)
Value of work carried out

25

Value of materials supplied at fixed costs by the contractee

Gross bills

8
33

Less: Amount retained at 10% by the contractee for the due

performance of the contract and refundable six months after
the completion of the contract
3.30
New Bills

29.70

How will the profit of the contractor be assessed by the

Assessing Officer.
5. XYZ Ltd. credited to its Profit & Loss account drawn for the
financial year ending March 31, 2004 the following amounts:
Rs.
Unclaimed wages for the years 1994-1996

280000

Deposits received from its customers (during the

financial year Rs. 84000 & 1994-95 Rs. 126000 for
the supply of Spare parts remaining unclaimed)

210000

amounts claimed & recovered from the agents of

its customers the excess freight paid by the
customers of the assessee- Co- remaining unclaimed
by the customers during the last 4-5 years.

342000

amounts collected by way of sales tax from its

customers in the financial year 1984-85 & deposited
with the State Govt. in-September 2003 the State Govt.
refunded the amount to the assesee Company when the
relevant provision relating to levy of sales tax
was struck down by the High Court.
300000
The assessee Company contends that it is not liable to pay
any tax in respect of any of the aforesaid credits made to its
profit and loss account during the financial year 2003-04 for the
following diverse reasons:
The way in which the entries are made by an assessee in his
books of accounts is not determinative of the question

121

whether it has earned any assessable profit or suffered any

assessable loss.
Amounts received by it from the customers and / or recovered
by it from the agents of the customers were never claimed by
and/or allowed to it as a business deduction in any of the
earlier years.
The liability of the assessee-company in respect of the aforesaid
sums became barred by limitations long before April 1, 2003.
Ans:
The relevant provision for assessment of profits of a retail
trader is contained in section 44AF. See para 162.6.
The amount deductible under section 35ABB in the hands of
XYZ Ltd. for the assessment year 2004-05 will be as under:
(Rs. In crore)
Cost of license acquired by XYZ Ltd.
Less: Amount written off during previous year 2002-03 under
section 35ABB
Written down value of telecom license as on April 1, 2003
Less: Sale proceed of a part of license
Remaining written down value
Amount deductible under section 35ABB for remaining 9
years [i.e. Rs. 63 crore/9]

100
10
90
27
63
7

Therefore for the assessment year 2004-05 Rs.7 crore is deductible under section 35ABB.
The profit of the contractor shall be as follows:
The contractor shall be governed by the provision of section
44AD. According to section 44AD, income from the business
of civil contractor will be estimated @ 8% of the gross receipts
from such business does not exceed Rs. 40 lakh.
The words gross receipts imply the amount, which the
contractor receives from the client for the contract and it will not
include the value of material supplied by the client Circular No.
684, dated June 10, 1994.
According to Accounting Standard 7 on accounting for
construction contrasts issued by ICAI amounts retained by
customer until the satisfaction of conditions specified in the
contract for lease of such amounts are either recognized in
financial statements as receivable or alternatively indicated by
way of note.
Point wise answer to the companys contention shall be as
follows:
According to section 41(1), whether any allowance or deduction
has been made in the assessment of any year in respect of loss ,
expenditure or trading liability and subsequently during any
previous year any amount is received by the assessee whether in
cash or in any other manner whatsoever in respect of such loss
or expenditure or some benefits in respect of trading liability by
way of remission or cessation thereof the amount obtained by
him or by virtue of benefit accruing to him is chargeable to tax
as business income. By inserting an Explanation to section41
(1) it has been provided to tax the remission or cessation of
liability into the hands of taxpayer and for this purpose the
expression loss or expenditure or some benefit in respect of
any such trading liability by way of remission or cessation
122

thereoff, shall be defined to include the remission or cessation

of any unilateral act of the assessee by way of writing off such
liability in his accounts. In the present problem in view of the
aforesaid provision by virtue of crediting unclaimed wages for
the years 1994 to 1996 to the profit and loss account there has
been unilateral remission of the liability and accordingly, Rs.
2,80,000 shall be taxable as business income under section
41(1).
In CIT v Batliboi & Co Pvt. Ltd. [1985] 149 ITR 604(Bom) and
Asstt. CIT v Trade Links Ltd. [1995] 54 ITD 108 (Delhi) it was
held that in case the assessee writes back to profit and loss
account certain unclaimed balances standing in the names of
various customers which had been indisputably received as
advance to be adjusted against supplies to be made subsequently these unclaimed accounts constitutes the trading
receipts.
In CIT v Karan Chand Thapar [1996] 222 ITR 112 (SC) , it was
held that an which was initially not received as a trading receipt
can still become a trading receipt having a regard to the subsequent conduct of the assessee in treating the same a his own
money and crediting the same to his profit and loss account.
In CIT v Thirumalaiswamy Naidu & Sons [1998] 230 ITR
534(SC), it was held that the amount of sales tax refunded to
the assessee by the Government was a revenue receipt liable to
tax under the express provisions of section 41(1).
Section 41(1) will not be attracted for assessee (being entitled to
make payment in respect of a debt) when debt becomes time
barred. But it shall be attracted if a liability or a time-barred
liability is written off in the books of account.
Prob 4: X & Co carry on business as brokers and underwriters
of shares on which they are entitled to brokerage and underwriting commission. Y Ltd. offered 1,00,000 shares of Rs. 10
each for public subscription. X & Co were appointed underwriters to this issue. It was entitled to 5% brokerage and 10%
underwriting commission on this issue. 75,000 shares were
taken up by the public and the underwriters subscribed to the
remaining shares. What will be the tax effect in the hands of X
& Co as a result of this issue? [MAY 1998]
Ans:
The underwriters business is to guarantee the subscription for
an agreed number of shares usually being the difference
between the shares issued and those taken up by the public by
charging a commission which is known as underwriting
commission. He also agrees to purchase the shares of a
company by charging specified underwriting commission and
brokerage on the shares to be purchased by him. Thus, an
underwriter subscriber to share capital by purchasing shares at a
discounted value and the value of the shares is reduced by
giving him such commission and brokerage. Accordingly the
underwriting commission does not automatically become his
income. If shares are fully subscribed he does not contribute
towards companys capital by purchasing its shares and merely
gets his brokerage and commission, which have to be reflected
in his profits. He is required to purchase shares only to the
extent the same are not subscribed by the public. Such purchase
transaction results in his purchasing those shares for consider-

ation equivalent to their face value less the amount of commission and brokerage. Thus the same Development Corporation
Ltd. [1997] 225 ITR 703 (SC).
Rs.
Underwriting commission [10% of(Rs 10 75000)]
Brokerage [5% of (Rs 10 75000)]
Net income
Computation of cost of 25000 shares subscribed by X & Co
Gross cost (25,000 Rs. 25,000)
Less:
Underwriting commission [Rs.10 25000]
Brokerage[5% of(Rs. 10 25000)]
Net Cost

75000
37500
1,12,500
2,50,000

25000
12500

37500
2,12,500

Prob 6: the return of X Bros. was taken up for scrutiny

assessment by issuing notices under sections 143 (2). X Bros.
were in the business of plying of goods carriages owning 8
lorries & returned an income of Rs 1,92,000. The assessing
officer noticed that a cash payment of Rs.25, 000 made to a
single party on the same day for the purpose of purchase of
tyres and spares had been claimed as expenses. He wants to add
this to the returned income. Is the Assessing Officer correct in
his view? [MAY 1997].
Ans:
According to section 44AE where an assesses owns not more
than ten goods carriages & is engaged in the business of plying,
hiring or leasing such goods carriages then notwithstanding
anything to the contrary contained in sections 28to 43 the
income of such business shall be deemed to be an amount
equal to Rs. 2000 per month (or part thereof) per goods carriage
which is chargeable to tax under the head Profits & Gains of
Business or Profession
Prob 7: Discuss the following:
1. An assess incurs expenditure of a capital nature on scientific
research related to the business carried on by him. Such
expenditure, which is allowable under section 35 remains
unabsorbed in the business in which it was, incurred .How
will the unabsorbed portion be dealt with?
2. You are engaged to carry out the tax audit of a firm under
section 44AB and in carrying out this assignment you are
required to tackle the following issues. Indicates how you
will deal with them:
Expenditure incurred in respect of which payment has been
made of a sum exceeding Rs.20000 otherwise than by a crossed
cheque or crossed bank draft.
Sum payable as an employer by way of contribution to provide
fund.
Particulars of loans or deposits exceeding the limit specified in
section 269SS taken during the year.
Accounting ratios in a trading concern.
Ans:
The following issues are raisedThe tax auditor has to specify the penalty or fine for violation
of law and any other penalty or fine as well as expenditure
incurred for any purpose which is an offence or which is

prohibited by law in Form No. 3CD. The tax auditor should

obtain in writing the details of all payments by way of penalty
or fine for violation of law or otherwise and how many
amounts has been dealt with in the books of accounts. He is to
give details of such items as have been charged in the account
and not to express any opinion as to the allowability or
otherwise of the amount.
The tax auditor should obtain a list of all cash payments in
respect of expenditure exceeding Rs.20, 000 made during the
year which should also include the list of payments exempted
in terms of Rule 6DD. The list should be verified with the
books of accounts in order to ascertain whether the condition
precedents are specified.
Detailed information is to be furnished with the regard to
amount received in respect of provident fund contributions
during the previous year due date for payment amount paid
during the previous year liability incurred during the previous
year in case the amount is paid by cheque whether realized
within 15 days etc.
The particulars such as (a) name & address of the lender or
depositor (b) amount of loans or deposit taken or accepted: (c)
maximum amount outstanding in the account at any point
during the previous year and (d) whether the loan or deposit
was taken or accepted otherwise than by an account payee cheque
or bank draft should be noted by the tax auditor.
Gross profit turnover ratio net profit turnover ratio and stock
turnover ratio should be computed by the tax auditor in the
case of a trading concern. While calculating these ratios the tax
auditor should assign meanings to the above terms as understood by generally accepted accounting principles.
Prob 8: Discuss the following:
1. X & Co a partnership firm, was dissolved on March 3l,
2003. The dues of the finn were received by it erstwhile
partners during the period May 2003 to November 2003. Can
the same he taxed in the hands of the firm for the
assessment year 2004-05? If not, in whose hands can they he
taxed?
2. Can deduction he claimed hv a company for the full discount
on issue of debentures in the year of issue itself? Discuss.
Ans:
1. According to section 176(3A), where any business is
discontinued in any year, any sum received after the
discontinuance shall be deemed to be the income of the
recipient and charged to tax accordingly in, the year of receipt,
if such sum would have been included in the total income
of the person who carried on the business had such sum
been received before such discontinuance.
As per section 189( I), where a firm is dissolved, the Assessing
Officer shall make an assessment of the total. Income of the
firm as if no such discontinuance or dissolution had taken
place.
In the. Present problem, in view of the aforesaid provisions the
following points may be noted:
The recipient in whose hands the income is taxable need not be
the same person who was carrying on the business before its

123

discontinuance. In such a case, the recipient of such sum would

be liable to tax as if it were the income of the recipient in the
year of its receipt,
If the person receiving the income is the same who carried on
the business, the sum so received may be taxed in that persons
hands.
Under section 189(1), the fiction has been created only for the
purpose of applying machinery, Provisions in respect of the
same assessee under the same status of the firm.
Under section 1 76(3A), no deeming provision treating the
person who has carried on the business before its discontinuance to be still in existence for the purpose of taxing when in
fact he has ceased to exist is made.
While analyzing the information given inthe above problem, it
may be assumed that the dissolution of the firm amounted to
discontinuance of business by X and Co. Since, the firm has
ceased to exist on its dissolution it cannot be taxed in light of
the provisions of section 189(1). The dues/receipts received by
the partners are assessable in their hands and consequently, the
partners are liable to.pay tax on these receipts.
2. When a company issues debenture at a discount, it incurs a
liability to pay a larger amount than the amount it has
borrowed and this liability is to be spread over the period of
the debentures. Such discount is essentially; n the nature of
business expenditure. This is a case where liability incurred by
the company is deferred.since, there is a continuing benefit to
the business and, therefore, only a proportionate amount of
discount is deductible every year over, the period of. the
debentures-Madras Industrial Investme11l Corporation Ltd. v.
CIT [1997] 225 ITR 802 (SC).
Now take on simple problem for Practice.

Problem for Practice

Prob. 1: X Ltd. is engaged in the business of manufacture of
goods in India of domestic market The audited Profit & Loss
Account for the year ending march 31, 2004 is as follows ;

124

Particular
Cost of Goods Sold
Office Expenses

Amt.
13,78,100
1,30,000

Salary to employees

12,80,000

Expenditure on scientific research

84,000

Bad debts

10,000

Entertainment exp.
Advertisement expd.
Travelling exp.
Ineterest
Income & Wealth Taxes
Sales Tax Excise duty & custom duty
Municipal Tax of Quarters given to
workers
Municipal Tax of commercial
Property
Repairs of workers quarters
Repairs of commercial property given
on rent
Repairs of factory
Insurance
Land Revenue of workers quarters
Land revenue of commercial building
Depreciation
Other expenses
Net Profit

57,000
2,27,000
3,20,000
82,000
1,16,000
1,76,000
16,000

10,000
36,000
2,000
6,000
1,86,000
1,10,710
2,72,290

Total

45,30,500

Particular
Sales
Rent of Quarters Near factory
given to worker
Rent of commercial property
given on rent to a foreign
bank
Sales proceeds of gold ( not
being stock in trade)
Amount charge from persons
using guest house of company

Amount
40,70,500
60,000
1,30,000

2,60,000
10,000

12,000
12,000
7,000

45,30,500

Other Information
1. Costo of Goods sold include the following
a.
Goods of Rs. 3,80,000 purchased on may 10 , 2003
from B Ltd. in which Mrs. X holds 70 % equity capital
( Mrs. X does not hold any share in X Ltd. , But X
holds 25 % share capital in X Ltd. , Similar Goods were
purchase on May 11, 2003 From market for Rs.
2,86,000) ( Out of Rs. 3,80,000, Rs. 3,50,000 is paid by
an account payee cheque and Rs. 30,000 is paid in cash)
b.
Goods purchased from Y Ltd. of Rs, 90,000 Which is
paid by a bearer cheque .
2. Out of salary to employees of Rs. 12,80,000Rs. 40,000 is employees contribution to recognized Provident
Fund Rs. 37,500 which is credited in the employees account in
the relevant fund before the due date .
Rs. 26,000 is bonus which is paid on Oct. 13 , 2004
Rs. 46,000 is commission which is paid on Dec. 1, 2004
Rs. 10,000 is incentive to workers which is paid on Dec. 10, 2004
Rs. 30,000 is paid outside India on which Tax is not deducted at
source nor paid to the government
Rs. 5,000 being Capital expenditure for promoting family
planning amongst employees ; and
Rs. 30,000 being entertainment allowance given to employees.
3. The expenditure on scientific research includes Rs. 40,000
being Cost of land and Rs. 10,000 Paid to an Approved
National Laboratory for undertaking scientific research under
an approved program .
4. Entertainment Expenses include the following ;
Expenses at five star Rs. 14,000

Expenses on providing food / beverages to employees in

office, factory or other place of their work.

c. Cost of maintaining a holiday home for the benefit of 140

employees of the company Rs. 30,000 .

Expenses on providing food / beverages to employees during

work hours in a place other than place of work ; Rs. 8,000 ( i.e.
Rs. 40 for an employee for 60 days + Rs. 25 for an employee
for 224 days);

d. Amount not deductible Under Section 37 (1) Rs. 4,000

Entertainment Expenditure incurred outside India ; Rs. 4,700(

Permission of R.B.I. has been taken)

12. Depreciation of Rs. 1,86,000 is calculated as follows: 25

percent of Rs. 4,00,000 being the depreciated value of the
block on April 1, 2003 + 25 percent of Rs. 3,44,000 , being
cost of machine which is put to use on March 1 , 2004 : cost
of Rs, 3,44,000 does not include traveling expenditure of
Rs. 6,000 which is included in traveling expenses )

5. Advertisement Expenditure includes the following

Expenditure incurred outside India Rs. 46,000 ( Permitted by
RBI to the extent of Rs. 41,400)

13. Indexed Cost of Acquisition of gold Rs. 2,41,000

Determine the amount of Net income of X. Ltd for the
Assessment Year 2004-05.

Club bills for entertaining customers Rs. 9,000;

Articles presented by way of advertisement ( 60 Articles cost of

each being Rs. 900, 36 Articles cost of each being Rs. 1,700 )
Rs. 16000 being cost of advertisement which appeared in a
News Paper owned by political party.
Rs. 11,400 being capital expenditure on advertisement
Rs. 60,000 paid in cash
Rs. 7,000 paid to a concern in which X has Substantial interest (
amount is excessive to the extent of Rs. 1,400 )
6. Travelling Expenses include the following
Rs. 1,60,000 being expenditure incurred on a foreign tour of Rs.
9,000 out of which is incurred in Indian currency and Rs.
1,51,000 in foreign currency ( 1,40,000 permitted by RBI under
foreign exchange regulations ) for a visit of 8 days to Germany
2 days are utilized by X for attending personal work
Rs. 40,000 being expenditure on air fair in India by a sales
manager( Who is otherwise entitled for a first class rail travel .,
Rs. 6,000 incurred for purchasing a machine for factory which is
put to use on March 1, 2004
Rs. 54,000 being hotel expenses as follows
4 days visit to Madras Rs. 16,000;
3 days visit to Bombay Rs. 6,000;
17 days visit to Bangalore Rs. 32,000
7. Out of Rs, 82000 ( being interest) Rs. 60,000 is payable
outside India (no Tax is deducted at source) and Rs. 15,000
is payable to IDBI ( Amount is paid on Dec. 6 , 2004)
8. Taxes debited P& L Account have been paid as follows
Income Tax / Wealth Tax on May 31 ,2004
Sales Tax / Excise Duty and Custom duty Rs. 1,70,000 on
march 31, 2004 and Rs. 6,000 on Dec. 10, 2004
Municipal Tax ( Workers Quarters ) on June 30 , 2004.
Municipal Tax ( Commercial Building) on June 30
9. Out of Insurance of Rs. 36,000 , Rs. 6,000 is Fire Insurance
Premium of workers Quarters ( paid on April 10, 2004 )
and Rs. 4,000 is Fire Insurance Premium of Commercial
Building ( paid on April 10, 2004)
10. Land Revenue of Rs. 8,000 is paid on September 10 , 2004
11. Other Expenses include the following
a. Repairs of Guest House Rs. 6,000
b. Cost of Facilities provided in the guest house Rs. 41,200

125

LESSON 15:
AMORTISATION OF CERTAIN EXPENDITURE UNDER SECTION 35
Lesson Objective

To know nature of the section 35.

To know the provisions of the section.

To know the conditions o be satisfied to get the benefit

under the section.

To know the amount of deduction under the section.

Let me describe the section so know the benefits under it which

will help us in tax planning.
Section 35 of the Act speaks of expenditure on scientific
Research.

Expenditure on Scientific Research

[Section 35]
This section allows a deduction in respect of any expenditure
on scientific research related to the business of assessee. The
expression scientific research as defined in section 43(4}(i)
means activities for the extension of knowledge in the fields of
natural or applied science including agriculture, animal husbandry or fisheries. A reference to expenditure incurred on
scientific research would include all expenditure incurred for the
prosecution or the provision of facilities for the prosecution of
scientific research but does not include any expenditure incurred
in the acquisition of rights in or arising out of scientific
research. In particular, a reference to scientific research related to a
business or a class of business would include (i) any scientific
research which may lead to or facilitate an extension of that
business or all the business of that class, as the case may be ; (ii)
any scientific research of a medical nature which has a special
relation to the welfare of the worker employed in that business
or all the business of that class, as the case may be.
The deduction allowable under this section consists of

Revenue Expenditure
1. Any revenue expenditure incurred by the assessee himself on
scientific research related to his business. Expenditure
incurred within three years immediately preceding the
commencement of the business on payment of salary to
research personnel engaged in scientific research related to his
business carried on by the taxpayer or on material inputs for
such scientific research will be allowed as deduction in the
year in which the business is commenced. The deduction will
be available only in respect of expenditure incurred after 31st
March, 1973 and will be limited to the amount certified by
the prescribed authority.
2. An amount equal to 1 Yo. times of any sum paid to a
university, college or other institution or scientific research
association which has as its object, the undertaking of
scientific research to be used for scientific research provided
that the university, college institution or association is

126

approved for this purpose by the Central Government by

notification in the Official Gazette.
The scope of the above deduction has been extended to
cover expenditure on sponsored research carried out in the
in-house research and development facilities of public
companies. For the purpose, the expression public sector
company means Government company as defined in
section 617 of the Companies Act, 1956.
The payments so made to such institutions would be
allowable irrespective of whether (i) the field of scientific
research is related to the assessees business or not, and (ii)
the payment is of a revenue nature or of a capital nature.
3. A sum equal to 1.25 times of any amount paid to any
university, college or other institution approved by the
Central Government by notification in the Official Gazette to
be used for research in any social science or statistical research.

Capital Expenditure
Any expenditure of a capital nature related to the business
carried on by the assessee would be deductible in full in the
previous year in which it is incurred.
Capital expenditure prior to commencement of business - The
Explanation added to sub-section (2) specifically provides that
where any capital expenditure has been incurred prior to the
commencement of the business the aggregate of the expenditure so incurred within the three years immediately preceding
the commencement of the business shall be deemed to have
been incurred in the previous year in which the business is
commenced.
Consequently, any capital expenditure incurred within three years
before the commencement of business will rank for deduction
as expenditure for scientific research incurred during the
previous year.
Expenditure on land disallowed - No deduction will be allowed
in respect of capital expenditure incurred on the acquisition of
any land after 29-2-1984 whether the land is acquired as such or
as part of any property.
For the above purpose the expression land would include any
interest in land and it shall be deemed to be acquired on the
date on which the document purporting to transfer the land is
registered under the Registration Act, 1908 and where the
possession of any land has been obtained in part performance
of a contract of the nature referred to in section 53A of the
Transfer of Property Act, 1882, on the date on which such
possession was obtained.
If any question arises under this section as to whether, and if
so, to what extent, any activity constitutes, or any asset is being
used, for scientific research, the Board shall refer the question to
a. The Central Government, when such question relates to any
activity under clauses (ii) and (iii) of sub-section (1) Le. any

scientific research, or any research in social science or statistical

research carried on by a university, college or institution
approved for this purpose, and its decision shall be final;
b. The prescribed authority, when such question relates to any
activity other than the activity specified in clause (a) above
whose decision shall be final.

Carry Forward of Deficiency

Capital expenditure incurred on scientific research which cannot
be absorbed by the business profits of the relevant previous
year can be carried forward to the immediately succeeding
previous year and shall be treated as the allowance for that year.
In effect, this means that there is no time bar on the period of
carry forward. It shall be accordingly allowable for that previous
year.
No Depreciation

Section 35(2)(iv) clarifies that no depreciation will be admissible

on any capital asset represented by expenditure which has been
allowed as a deduction under section 35 whether in the year in
which deduction under section 35 was allowed or in any other
previous year.
Approval by Central Government

The Central Government by notification in the Official Gazette

will approve such scientific research association, university,
college or institution for the purpose of sections 35(1 )(ii) and
35(1 )(iii).
The scientific research association, university or college or other
institution referred to in section 35(1 )(ii) or (iii) shall make an
application in the prescribed form and manner to the Central
Government for the purpose of grant of approval or continuance thereof under these clauses.
The Central Government may call for such documents (including audited annual accounts) or information from the ,scientific
research association etc. in order to satisfy itself about the
genuineness of the activities of the research association.
Notification issued by the Central Government under these
clauses shall at any time have effect for not more than three
assessment years (including an assessment year or years
commencing before the date on which such notification is
issued), as maybe specified in the Notification.

Application of Section 41
Section 41, inter alia, seeks to tax the profits arising on the sale
of an asset representing expenditure of a capital nature on
scientific research. Such an asset might be sold, discarded,
demolished or destroyed, either after having been used for the
purposes of business on the cessation of its use for the
purpose of scientific research related to the business or without
having been used for other purposes In either case, tax liability
could arise. In the first case, where the asset is sold, etc., after
having been used for the purposes of the business, the moneys
payable in respect of such asset together with the amount of
scrap value, if any, could be brought to charge under section 41
(1) the provisions of which are wide enough to cover such
situations and to bring to tax that amount of deductions
allowed in earlier years. It may be noted that in such cases, the
actual cost of the concerned asset under section 43(1) read with

explanation would be nil and no depreciation would be allowed

by virtue of section 35(2)(iv).
Where the asset representing expenditure of a capital nature on
Scientific Research is sold without having been used for other
purposes, then the case would come under section 41 (3) and if
the proceeds of sale together with the total amount of the
deductions made under section 35 exceed the amount of capital
expenditure, the excess or the amount of deduction so made,
whichever is less, will be charged to tax as income of the
business of the previous year in which the sale took place.
Sum paid to National Laboratory, etc. - Sub-section (2M) of
section 35 provides that any sum paid by an assessee to a
National Laboratory or University or Indian Institute of
Technology or a specified person for carrying out programmes
of scientific research approved by the prescribed authority will
be eligible for weighted deduction of one and one-fourth times
of the amount so paid.
No contribution which qualifies for weighted deduction under
this clause will be entitled to deduction under any other
provision of the Act.
The authority which will approve the National Laboratory will
also approve the programmes and procedure. Such programmes
and procedure will be specified in rules.
The prescribed authority can call for each document or information as it considers necessary to satisfy itself about the
genuineness of scientific research activities of the National
Laboratory applying for approval. The prescribed authority
under Rules 6(3) to(7) is Secretary, Department of Scientific &
Industrial Research/Director General,

Income-tax Exemptions
National laboratory means a scientific laboratory functioning at
the national level under the aegis of the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, Indian Council of Medical Research or the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Defence
Research and Development Organisation, the Department of
Electronics, the Department of BioTechnology, or the Department of Atomic Energy and which is approved as a National
Laboratory by the prescribed authority in the prescribed manner.
Specified person means a person who is approved by the
prescribed authority.
A Company Engaged in Business Od Drugs, Electronic
Equipments, Etc. (Sec. 35)

Where a company engaged in the business of bio-technology or

in manufacture or production of any drugs, pharmaceuticals,
electronic equipments, computers, telecommunication equipments, chemicals or any other article or thing notified by the
Board incurs any expenditure on scientific research on inhouse
research and development facility as approved by the prescribed
authority, a deduction of a sum equal to one and one-half
times of the expenditure will be allowed. Such expenditure
should not be in the nature of cost of any land or building.
For this clause, expenditure on scientific research in relation to
drugs and pharmaceuticals shall include expenditure incurred on
clinical drug trial, obtaining approval from any state regulatory
authority, and filing an application for a patent under the
Patents Act, 1970.
127

No deduction will be allowed in respect of the above expenditure under any other provision of this Act.
No company will be entitled to this deduction unless it enters
into an agreement with the prescribed authority for co-operation in such research and development facility and for audit of
accounts maintained for that facility.
The prescribed authority shall submit its report in relation to
the approval of the said facility to the Director General in such
form and within such time as may be prescribed.
No deduction shall be allowed in respect of such expenditure
incurred after 31-3-2005.

Prescribed Authority
Rule 6 of the Income-tax Rules specifies the prescribed
authority for the purpose of section 35, in relation to research
in the field of agriculture. animal husbandry and fisheries,
medical sciences, social sciences or statistical research and other
natural or applied science. The expression prescribed authority, for this purpose refers to the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research. the Indian Council of Medical Research or
the Indian Council of Social Sciencp Research or the Secretary,
Department of Science and Teohnology, Government of India
or any other officer of the Department nominated by him in
this behalf as may be appropriate to the nature of the scientific
research in question of Rule 6.
Amortization of Capital Expenditure on Acquisition of
Patents and Copyrights [Section 35A]

With effect from assessment year 1999-2000, intangible assets

have been brought within the ambit *of section 32. Hence, the
provisions of section 35A will not be applicable for expenditure
of this nature incurred after 31-3-1998.
Lumpsum consideration for know-how [Section 35AB] - With
effect from assessment year 1999-2000, intangible assets have
been brought within the ambit of section 32. Hence. the
provisions of section 35A will not be applicable for expenditure
of this nature incurred after 31-3-1998.
Expenditure for Obtaining Licence to Operate
Telecommunication Services [Section 35ABB]:

i. Where any capital expenditure has been incurred for acquiring

any right to operate telecommunication services and for
which payment has actually been made to obtain a licence, a
deduction will be allowed in equal annual instalments over
the relevant previous years.
Relevant previous years means
a.

in a case where the licence fee is actually paid before the

commencement of the business to operate
telecommunication services, the previous years
beginning with the previous year ill which such
business commenced;

b.

in any other case, the previous years beginning with the

previous year in which the licence fee is actually paid,
and the subsequent previous year or years during which
the licence, for which the fee is paid, shall be in force.

Payment has actually been made means the actual payment

of expenditure irrespective of the previous year in which the

128

liability for the expenditure was incurred according to the

method of accounting regularly employed by the assessee.
ii. Moreover, any capital expenditure so incurred before the
actual commencement of the business shall also be eligible
for deduction under sub-section (1).
iii. Where the licence is transferred and the proceeds of the
transfer (so far as they consist of capital sums) are less than
the expenditure incurred remaining unallowed, a deduction
equal to such expenditure remaining unallowed, as reduced
by the proceeds of the transfer, shall be allowed in respect of
the previous year in which the licence is transferred.
iv. Where the whole or any part of the licence is transferred and
the proceeds of the transfer (so far as they consist of capital
sums) exceed the amount of the expenditure incurred
remaining unallowed, so much of the excess as does not
exceed the difference between the expenditure incurred to
obtain the licence and the amount of such expenditure
remaining unallowed shall be chargeable to incometax as
profits and gains of the business in the previous year in
which the licence has been transferred.
Where the licence is transferred in a previous year in which
the business is no longer in existence, the above provisions
will apply as if the business is in existence in that previous
year.
v. Where the whole or any part of the licence is transferred and
the proceeds of the transfer (so far as they consist of captial
sums) are not less than the amount of expenditure incurred
remaining unallowed, no deduction for such expenditure
shall be allowed in respect of the previous year in which the
licence is transferred or in any subsequent previous year.
vi. Where a part of the licence is transferred in a previous year,
the proceeds of transfer will be subtracted from the
expenditure remaining unallowed. Such remainder will be
divided by the number of relevant previous years which have
not expired at the beginning of the previous year during
which the licence is transferred.
vii. Where in a scheme of amalgamation the amalgamating
company sells or otherwise transfers the licence to the
amalgamated company being an Indian company, the above
provisions with regard to the chargeability of the surplus will
not apply to the amalgamating company. Further, the
provisions will apply to the amalgamated company as they
would have applied to the amalgamating company if the
latter had not transferred the licence.
viii. The said provisions relating to transfer of licence given in
(iii), (iv) and (v) above shall not be applicable in the case of
demerged company where the demerged company sells or
transfers the licence to the resulting company (being an
Indian company) and the provisions of the section allowing
deduction of expenditure incurred for obtaining the licence
shall be applicable to the resulting company as it would have
applied to demerged company.
ix. Where a deduction is claimed and allowed fur any previous
year under sub-section (1) of the section 35ABB, then, no
deduction on the capital expenditure so incurred shall be
allowed by way of depreciation under sub-section (1) of

section 32 in respect of acquiring any right to operate

telecommunication services.
Promotion of social and economic welfare [Section 35AC] Under this section, deduction will be allowed in computing
profits of business or profession chargeable to tax, in respect of
the expenditure incurred for an eligible project or scheme for
promoting social and economic welfare or uplift of the public
as may be specified by the Central Government on the recommendations of the National Committee. For this purpose,
National Committee will be the committee constituted by the
Central
Government from amongst persons of eminence in public life.
Rules 1 t-F to 11-0 deal with the National Committee for
Promotion of Social and Economic Welfare and the guidelines
for granting approval of associations and institutions and for
recommending projects or schemes, for the purposes of this
provision.
The Committee can withdraw the approval to an association or
institution if it is satisfied that the project or the scheme is not
being carried on in accordance with all or any of the conditions
subject to which approval was granted and after giving a
reasonable opportunity to the concerned association or
institution of showing cause against the proposed withdrawal.
The deduction will be allowed in case where the qualifying
expenditure is either incurred by way of payment to a public
sector company. a local authority or to an approved association
or institution for carrying out any eligible project or scheme.
However, companies will be allowed the deduction also in cases
where expenditure is incurred by them directly on an eligible
project or scheme.The claim for deduction under this section
should be supported by a certificate obtained from the public
sector company, local authority or approved association or
institution as the case may be. Where the claim is in respect of
expenditure directly incurred by a company on an eligible project
or scheme, a certificate should be obtained from a Chartered
Accountant.
Similarly, the Committee can withdraw a notification regarding
an eligible project or scheme if it is satisfied that the project or
the scheme is not being carried out in accordance with all or any
of the conditions subject to which such project or scheme was
notified and after giving a reasonable opportunity of showing
cause against the proposed withdrawal.
The Finance Act. 2002 has inserted sub-section (6) w.e.f.
1.4.2003 providing that
i. Where the approval of the National Committee or the
notifiication in respect of eligible project or scheme is
wjthdrawn in case of a public sector company or local
authority, etc: or
ii. Where a company has claimed deduction in respect of any
expenditure incurred directly on the eligible project or scheme
and the approval for such project or scheme is withdrawn by
the National Committee,the total amount of payment
received by the public sector company or the local authority,
etc., as case may be, in respect of which it has furnished a
certificate, or the deduction claimed by the company shall be
deemed to be the income of such company/authority, etc.

for previous year in which the approval or notification is

withdrawn. Further, tax will be charged on such income at
the maximum marginal rate in force. (i.e. 30% plus applicable
surcharge)
Contributions for Rural Development [Section 35CCA]

This section allows a deduction of the following expenditure

incurred by the assessee during the previous year:
1. Payment to an association or institution, having the objective
of undertaking programmes of rural development. Such
payment must be used for carrying out any programme of
rural development approved by the prescribed authority.
Conditions for Allowance
a.

The assessee must furnish a certificate from such

association (which should be authorised by the
prescribed authority to issue such a certificate) that the
programme of rural development had. been approved
by the prescribed authority before 1-3-1983 and

b.

Where such payment is made after 28-2-1983. the

programme should involve work

by way of (i) construction of any building, or other structure

(to be used for dispensary, school, training or welfare centre,
workshop, etc.) or (ii) the laying of any road or (iii) the
construction or boring of a well or tube well or (iv) the
installation of any plant or machinery and such work must
have commenced before 1-3-1983.
2. Payment to an association or institution having as its object
the training of persons for implementing rural development
programme.
Conditions:
a.

Assessee must furnish a certificate from such

association (which should be authorised by the
prescribed authority to issue such a certificate) that it
has been approved by the prescribed authority before
1-3-1983.

b.

Such training of persons must have started before 1-31983.

3. Payment to a rural development fund set up and notified by

the Central Government.
The expression programme of rural development for this
purpose have the same meaning as has been assigned to it
under Explanation to section 35CC(i).
4. Payments made to National Urban Poverty Eradication
Fund (NUPEF) set up and notified by the Central
Government.
It has been specifically provided that in every case where any
deduction in respect of contribution for rural development
is claimed by the assessee and allowed to him for any
assessment year in respect of any expenditure incurred by
way of payment of contribution to the approved association
or institution, no deduction in respect of the same
expenditure can again be claimed by the assessee under any
other relevant provision.Contributions to Institutions or
Associations for Conservation of Natural Resources [Section
35CCB] - Section 35CCB allows deduction of any

129

expenditure incurred on or before 31.3.2002 by way of sums

paid to an association or institution whose object is the
undertaking of any programme of conservation of natural
resources to be used for carrying out any such programme
approved by a prescribed authority. Also payment of any
sum on or before 31.3.2002 to an association or institution
which has as its object the undertaking of any programme
of conservation of natural resources or afforestation is
allowed as deduction. Such sums must be used for such
purposes. A deduction is also allowed of amount paid to
specified funds for afforestation. The prescribed authority
shall not grant such approval for more than three years at a
time. Where a deduction under this section is claimed and
allowed for any expenditure for any assessment year, no
deduction shall be allowed in respect of such expenditure
under any other provision of the Act for that assessment
year or for any other assessment year.
Amortisation of Preliminary Expenses [Section 35D]

Section 35D provides for the amortization of preliminary

expenses incurred by Indian companies and other resident noncorporate taxpayers for the establishment of business concerns
or the expansion of the business of existing concerns. This
section applies (a) only in respect of expenses incurred after 313-1973; (b) only to Indian companies and resident persons but
not to non-residents and foreign companies; (c) in the case of
new companies to expenses incurred before the commencement
of the business; (d) in the case of extension of an existing
industrial undertaking to expenses incurred till the extension is
completed, Le., in the case of the setting up of a new industrial
unit - to expenses incurred till the new unit commences
production or operation. However, the expenditure incurred
after 31-3-1998 shall be amortized in 5 years instead of 10 years.
In other words, 1/5th of such expenditure is allowable as a
deduction for each of the five successive previous years beginning with the previous year in which the business commences
or, the previous year in which the extension of the industrial
undertaking is completed, as the case may be.
Eligible Expenses

The kinds of expenditures that are amortizable are the following:

1. Expenditure in connection with - (a) the preparation of
feasibility report (b) the preparation of project report; (c)
conducting market surveyor any other survey necessary for
the business of the assessee; (d) engineering services relating
to the assessees business; (e) legal charges for drafting any
agreement between the assessee and any other person for any
purpose relating to the setting up to conduct the business of
assessee.
2. Where the assessee is a company, in addition to the above,
expenditure incurred (f) by way of legal charges for drafting
the Memorandum and Articles of Association of the
company; (g) on printing the Memorandum and Articles of
Association; (h) by way of fees for registering the company
under the Companies Act; (i) in connection with the issue,
for public subscription, of the shares in or debentures of the
company, being underwriting commission, brokerage and

130

charges for -drafting, printing and advertisement of the

prospectus; and
3. Such other items of expenditure (not being expenditure
qualifying for any allowance or deduction under any other
provision of the Act) as may be prescribed by the Board for
the purpose of amortisation. However, the Board, so far,
has not prescribed any specific item of expense as qualifying
for amortization under this clause. In the case of
expenditure specified in items (a) to (e) above, the work in
connection with the preparation of the feasibility report or
the project report or the conducting of market surveyor any
other surveyor the engineering services referred to must be
carried out by the assessee himself or by a concern which is
for the time being approved in this behalf by the Board.
Overall Limits - The maximum aggregate amount of the
qualifying expenses that can be amortised has been fixed at
2.5% of the cost of the project or in the case of an Indian
company, or, at the option of the company, 2.5% of the capital
employed in the business of the company, whichever is higher.
The excess, if any, of the qualifying expenses shall be ignored.
The assessee is entitled to a deduction of an amount equal to
one-tenth of the qualifying amount of the expenditure for each
of the ten successive accounting years beginning with the year in
which the business commences, or as the case may be, the
previous year in which the business commences or as the case
may be, the previous year in which extension of the industrial
undertakings is completed or the new industrial unit commences production or operation.
In case of expenditure incurred after 31-3-1998, the rate of 2.5%
has been increased to 5%. The deduction will be an amount
equal to one-fifth of such expenditure for each of the five
successive previous years starting with the previous year in
which the business commences etc.
For purpose of amortization, the expression, cost of the
project means
i. In the case of expenses incurred before the commencement
of business the actual cost of the fixed assets, being land,
buildings, leaseholds, plant, machinery, furniture, fittings,
railway sidings (including expenditure on the development
of land, buildings) which are shown in the books of the
assessee as on the last day of the previous year in which the
business of the assessee commences;
ii. In case of extension of the business or setting up of a new
industrial unit, the cost of the fixed assets being land,
buildings, leaseholds, plant, machinery, furniture. fittings,
and railway sidings (including expenditure on the
development of land and buildings) which are shown in the
books of the assessee as on the last day of the previous year
in which the extension of the industrial undertaking is
completed or, as the case may be the new industrial unit
commences production or operation. insofar as such assets
have been acquired or developed in connection with the
extension of the industrial undertaking or the setting up of
the new industrial unit.
The expression capital employed in the business of the
company must be taken to mean

i. In the case of new company. the aggregate of the issued

share capital, debentures and long-term borrowings as on
the last day of the previous year in which the business of the
company commences;
ii. In the case of extension of the business or the setting up of
a new unit, the aggregate of the issued share capital,
debentures, and long-term borrowings as on the last day of
the accounting year in which the extension of the industrial
undertaking is completed or. as the case may be. the
industrial unit commences production or operation insofar
as such capital. debentures and long-term borrowings have
been issued or obtained in connection with the extension of
the industrial undertaking or the setting up of the new
industrial undertaking or the setting up of the new
industrial unit of the company.
The expression long-term borrowing, mentioned above,
means any moneys borrowed in India by the company from the
Government or the Industrial Finance Corporation of India or
the Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India or
any other financial institution eligible for deduction under
section 36(1 )(iii) or any banking institution, or any moneys
borrowed or debt incurred by it in a foreign country in respect
of the purchase outside India of plant and machinery where the
terms under which such moneys are borrowed or the debt is
incurred provide for the repayment thereof during a period of
not less than seven years.
In cases where the assessee is a person other than a company or
a co-operative society, the deduction would be allowable only if
the accounts of the assessee for the year or years in which the
expenditure is incurred have been audited by a Chartered
Accountant and the assessee furnishes. along with his return of
income for the first year in respect of which the deduction is
claimed. the report of such audit in the prescribed form duly
signed and verified by the auditor and setting forth such other
particulars as may be prescribed. For further details reference
may be made to Rule 6AB and Form No. 3B and the Annexure
thereto.
Special Provisions for Amalgamation and Demerger

Where the undertaking of an Indian company is transferred,

before the expiry of the period of ten years, to another Indian
company under a scheme of amalgamation as defined in section
2(IA) the aforesaid provisions will apply to the amalgamated
company as if the amalgamation had not taken place. But no
deduction will be admissible in the case of the amalgamating
company for the previous year in which the amalgamation takes
place.
Sub-section (5A) provides similar provisions for the scheme of
demerger where the resulting company will be able to claim
amortization of preliminary expenses as if demerger had not
taken place, and no deduction shall be allowed to the demerged
company in the year of demerger.
It has been clarified that in case where a deduction under this
section is claimed and allowed for any assessment year in respect
of any item of expenditure, the expenditure in respect of which
deduction is so allowed shall not qualify for deduction under

any other provision of the Act for the same or any other
assessment year.
Amortization of Expenses for Amalgamation/Demerger
[Section 35DD]

i. Where an assessee, being an Indian company, incurs

expenditure on or after 1st April, 1999. wholly and
exclusively for the purpose of amalgamation or demerger,
the assessee shall be allowed a deduction equal to one-fifth
of such expenditure for five successive previous years
beginning with the previous year in which amalgamation or
demerger takes place.
ii. No deduction shall be allowed in respect of the above
expenditure under any other provisions of the Act.
Amortization of expenditure incurred under voluntary
retirement scheme [Section 35DDA]- This section applies to an
assessee who has incurred expenditure in any previous year in
the form of payment to any employee at the time of his
voluntary retirement.
The amount of deduction allowable is one-fifth of the amount
paid for that previous year, and the balance in four equal
instalments in the four immediately succeeding previous years.
The Finance Act, 2002 provides with retrospective effect from
1.4.2001 that in case of amalgamation, demerger, reorganisation
or succession of business during the intervening period of the
said 5 years, the benefit of deduction will be available to the
new company for the balance period including the year in
which such amalgamation/demerger/reorganisation or
succession takes place.
This will be applicable in the following situations:
i. Where an Indian company is transferred to another Indian
company in a scheme of amalgamation;
ii. Where the undertaking of an Indian company is transferred
to another company in a scheme of demerger;
iii. Where due to a re-organisation of business. a firm is
succeeded by a company fulfilling the conditions in section
47(xiii) or a proprietary concern is succeeded by a company
fulfilling the conditions in section 47(xiv).
In the above cases, the deduction shall be available to the
successor company as such deduction would have applied to the
original entity if such transfer had not taken place at all.
It is further provided that no deduction shall be available to the
original entity being the amalgamating company. or the
demerged company or the firm or proprietary concern (as the
case may be) for the previous year in which the amalgamation,
demerger or succession takes place.
No deduction shall be allowed in respect of the above expenditure under any other provision of the Act.
Amortization of expenses for prospecting and development of
certain minerals [Section 35E] - This provision applies only to
expenditure incurred by an Indian company or any other person
who is resident in India. Thus. foreign companies or foreign
concerns and non-resident assessees are not entitled for the
benefits of deduction under section 35E. In order to qualify for
amortization, the assessee should be engaged in any operations

131

relating to prospecting for or the extraction or production of

any mineral and the expenditure qualifying for amortization
should have been incurred at any time after 31st March, 1970.
Eligible Expenses

The nature and kind of expenditure qualifying for amortization

are (i) It must have been incurred by the assessee after 31-31970; (ii) It must have been incurred during the year of
commercial production or anyone or more of the four years
immediately preceding that year, (iii) It must be an expenditure
incurred wholly and exclusively on any operations relating to the
prospecting for or extraction of any of the 27 minerals of 16
groups of associated minerals or the development of a mine or
other natural deposit of any such mineral or group of associated minerals specified in Part A or Part B to the Seventh
Schedule of the Income-tax Act.
Expenditure not allowed for deduction - However, any
portion of the expenditure which is met directly or indirectly by
any other persons or authority and the sale, salvage, compensation or insurance moneys realised by the assessee in respect of
any property or rights brought into existence as a result of the
expenditure should be excluded from the amount of expenditure qualifying for amortization. Further, specific provision has
been made to the effect that the following items of expenses do
not qualify for amortization at all viz.:
i. Expenditure incurred on the acquisition of the site of the
source of any minerals or group of associated minerals
stated above or of any right in or over such site;

any material or one or more of the minerals in a group of

associated minerals specified in Part A or Part B, respectively, of
the Seventh Schedule to Act actually commences. The relevant
previous year in which the deduction would be allowed to the
assessee are those ten previous years beginning with the year of
commercial production.
In the case of amalgamation, such deduction would continue
to be admissible to the amalgamated company as if the
amalgamation had not taken place.
Sub-section (7 A) provides for similar provisions in cases of
demerger where such deduction can be availed of by the
resulting company as if the demerger had not taken place. .
Further, no deduction will be admissible to the amalgamating/
demerged company in the year of amalgamation/demergers.
Where a deduction is claimed and allowed on account of
amortization of the expenses under section 35E in any year in
respect of any expenditure, the expenditure in respect of which
deduction is so allowed shall not again qualify for deduction
from the profits and gains under any other provisions of the
Act for the same or any other assessment year. The provisions
with regard to audit of accounts relating to the qualifying
expenditure are similar to those applicable for amortization of
preliminary expenses discussed earlier.
Let us now go through some useful exercise to strengthen our
knowledge.
1. Give the detail requirement of section 35D to get the benefit
of deduction under the section.

ii. Expenditure on the acquisition of the deposits of minerals

or group of associated minerals referred to above or to any
rights in or over such deposits; or

2. What is the maximum limit of deduction under section 35

.Also explain how to calculate the maximum deduction.

iii. Expenditure of a capital nature in respect of any building,

machinery, plant or furniture for which depreciation
allowance is permissible under section 32 of the Act.

4. Write short note on Expenditure on Scientific Research

[Section 35].

Amount of Deduction
The assessee will be allowed for each of ten relevant previous
years, a deduction of an amount equal to one-tenth of the
aggregate amount of the qualifying expenditure. Thus, the
deduction to be allowed for any relevant previous year is (i) onetenth of the expenditure or (ii) such amount as will reduce to
nil the income of the previous year arising from the commercial
exploration of any minerals or other natural deposit of the
mineral or minerals in a group of associated minerals in respect
of which the expenditure was incurred, whichever figure is less.
The amount of the deduction admissible in respect of any
relevant previous year to the extent to which it remains unallowed, shall be carried forward and added to the instalment
relating to the previous year next following and shall be deemed
to be a part of the instalment and so on, for ten previous years
beginning from the year of commercial production.
For purposes of this amortization, the expression operation
relating to prospecting means any operation undertaken for
the purpose of exploiting, locating or proving deposits of any
minerals and includes any such operation which proves to be
infructuous or abortive. The expression year of commercial
production means the previous year in which as a result of any
operation relating to prospecting or commercial production of

132

3. Give list of all eligible expenses under section 35D.

5. What is quantum of deduction u/s 35.

LESSON 16:
DEDUCTIONS UNDER CHAPTER VI-A
Lesson Objective

A.

Donations Made to Following are Eligible for 100%

Deduction without any Qualifying Limit

To know different type of deductions under Chapter VI-A.

To know how to calculate eligible amounts for different

sections.

1. National Defense Fund set up by the Central Government.

To know deduction for political parties.

3. Prime Ministers Armenia Earthquake Relief Fund;

To know solutions for practical problems.

4. Africa (Public Contributions India) Fund;

Good morning everybody, I hope you have came prepared for

the discussions. This is important as these deductions reduce
taxable income and so tax liability. Deduction is an amount that
is deducted from gross total income. Remember there is a
difference between exemption and deduction.

Deductions Under Chapter VI-A

It very important to know about the deduction that are
available from Taxable Income. Deduction refers to amount
that is deducted directly from taxable income on satisfaction of
certain specified conditions. As rebate reduces tax liability, a
deduction reduces Taxable Income.

2. Prime Ministers National Relief Fund;

5. National Foundation for Communal Harmony;

6. University, Educational Institution of National Eminence
approved by the prescribed authority;
7. Maharashtra Chief Ministers Earthquake Relief Fund;
8. any fund set up by the State Government of Gujarat,
exclusively for providing relief to the victims of earthquake
in Gujarat;
9. Zila Saksharta Samiti constituted in any district;
10. The National Blood Transfusion Councilor any State Blood
Transfusion Council;

Deduction in respect of donations to certain funds, charitable

institutions, etc. (Section 80G)

11. Any fund set up by a State Government to provide medical

relief to the poor;

Essential conditions for claiming deduction under this

section:

12. The Army Central Welfare Fund or the Indian Naval

Benevolent Fund or the Air Force Central Welfare Fund;
(xiii) The Andhra Pradesh Chief Ministers Cyclone Relief
Fund,1996.

1. Deduction under this section is allowed to all assessees,

whether company or non-company, whether having income
under the head profits and gains of business or profession
or not.
2. The donation should be of a sum of money. Donations in
kind do not qualify for deduction. [Rama Verma (Sri H.H.) v CIT
(1991) 187 ITR 308 (SC)].
3. The donation should be made only to specified funds/
institutions.
4. For availing deduction under this section it is obligatory on
the part of the assessee to produce proper proof of
payment. Where the payment is not proved by production
of proper receipt, etc., the deduction under section 80G is
not available. [Golecha Properties (P) Ltd. v CIT(1988) 171
ITR47 (Raj)].
Where a deduction is allowed in respect of any donation for any
assessment year, no other deduction shall be allowed in respect
of such sum for the same or any other assessment year.
Deduction u/s 80G is available on account of any donation
made by the assessee to specified funds or institutions. In some
cases, deduction is available after applying a qualifying limit
while in others, it is allowed without applying any qualifying
limit. Again in some cases, deduction is allowed to the extent
of 100% of the donation and in some cases it is allowed to the
extent of 50% of the donation.

13. National illness Assistance Fund;

14. The Chief Ministers Relief Fund or the Lieutenant
Governors Relief Fund in respect of any State or Union
Territory, as the case may be;
15. National Sports Fund set up by the Central Government;
16. National Cultural Fund set up by the Central Government;
Fund for Technology Development and Application, set up
by the Central Government (w.e.f. Assessment Year 20002001);
17. National Trust for Welfare of persons with Autism,
Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities;
18. Any trust, institution or fund covered under section 80G, for
providing relief to the victims of earthquake in Gujarat, provided
such donation is made between 26-1-2001to30-9-2001.
B.

Donations Made to the Following are Eligible for 50%

Deduction without any Qualifying Limit

i. Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund;

ii. Prime Ministers Drought Relief Fund;
iii. National Childrens Fund;
iv. Indira Gandhi Memorial Trust;
v. Rajiv Gandhi Foundation.

The quantum of deduction in respect of various kinds of

donations is given as under:
133

C.

Donations to the Following are Eligible for 100%

Deduction Subject to Qualifying Limit

i. Donation to Government or any approved local authority,

institution or association to be utilised for promoting family
planning.
ii. (any sums paid by the assessee, being a company, in the
previous year as donations to Indian Olympic Association or
to any other association or institution established in India
and notified by the Central Government for
a.

the development of infrastructure for sports and

games; or

b.

the sponsorship of sports and games, in India.

D.

Donations to the Following are Eligible for 50%

Deduction Subject to Qualifying Limit

i. Donation to Government or any approved local authority,

institution or association to be utilised for any charitable
purpose other than promoting family planning.

Quantum of Deduction
The quantum of deduction shall be the aggregate of the
deductions permissible under clauses (A), (B), (C) and (D).
Illustration

A, whose Gross Total Income for assessment year 2004-05 is

Rs. 2,00,000 (which includes long-term capital gains of Rs.
40,000 and short-term capital gains of Rs. 20,000) submits the
following information:
1. Contribution towards PPF

10,000

2. LIP paid for married son not dependant on him.

5,000

3. Mediclaim Premium paid by cheque for:

a. Himself

2,000

b. For married son not dependent on him

3,000

5,000

4. He has made the following donations:

a. National Defense Fund

5,000

b. PMs National Relief Fund

4,000

ii. Any other fund or institution which satisfies the conditions

of section 80G(5).

c. Indira Gandhi Memorial Trust

5,000

d. Delhi University

2,000

iii. To any authority constituted in India by or under any law for

satisfying the need for housing accommodation or for the
purpose of planning development or improvement of
cities, towns and villages or for both.

(declared as an institution of national eminence)

iv. To any corporation established by the Central or any State

Government specified under section l0(26BB) for promoting
interests of the members of a minority community.
v. Any notified temple, mosque, gurdwara, church or other
place notified by the Central Government to be of historic,
archaeological or artistic importance, for renovation or repair
of such place.
For applying qualifying limit, all donations made to funds/
institutions covered under (C) and (D) above shall be aggregated and the aggregate amount shall be limited to 10% of
Adjusted Gross Total Income.

e. Zila Saksharta Samiti

f. An approved charitable institution

12,000

g. Government for Family Planning.

10,000

h. Donations of blankets to an orphanage

4,000

i. Donations to National Blood Transfusion Council

2,000

Compute:
A. Total Income for the assessment year 2004-05
B. Tax Payable for the assessment year 2004-05
Solution:
(A)
Particulars

Rs.

Gross Total Income

Where an assessee makes the donation to an approved institution and claimed as deduction, the subsequent withdrawal of
the approval of such institution would not entitle the department to reopen the case and disallow the deduction. [Jai Kumar
Kankaria v. CIT (2002) 120 Taxman 810 (Cal)].

(Includes L TCG but while claiming deduction

Adjusted Gross Total Income

Adjusted Gross Total Income for this purpose means the
Gross Total Income as reduced by
i. Long-term capital gains, if any, which have been included in
the Gross Total Income;
ii. All deductions permissible u/s 80CCC to 80U excepting
deduction under this section i.e. section 80G;
iii. such income on which income-tax is not payable i.e., share
from AOP;
iv. Income referred to in section 115A, 115AB, 115AC, 115ACA
or 115AD. These sections relate to incomes of NRIs and
foreign companies etc. which are taxable at special rate of tax

for son not dependent

2,00,000

U/S 80CCC to 80U, L TCG is to be excluded).

Less: Deduction u/s 80CCC to 80U:
1. 80D - for himself

2,000

2. 800 - Donations
A. Donations to which qualifying limit
does not apply.
a. Allowed @ 100%
i. PMs National Relief Fund.

4,000

ii. Delhi University.

2,000

iii. Zila Saksharta Samiti

4,000

iv. National Blood Transfusion Council

2,000

v. National Defense Fund (as per Ordinance)

5,000

b. Allowed @ 50%
Indira Gandhi Memorial Trust (5,000)

134

4,000

2,500

B.

Donations Which are Subject to Qualifying Limit

Deduction in respect of contribution given by any person

to political parties [Section 80GGC]

Actual donations made to:

[Inserted by the Election and other Related Laws (Amendment) Act, 2003, w.e.f. 11-9-2003]

Government for Family Planning

10,000

Approved Institutions

12,000

But limited to 10% of Adjusted

22,000

Total Income of Rs. 1,58,000.

15,800

Any amount of contribution made by an assessee being any

person, except local authority and every artificial juridical person
wholly or partly funded by the Government shall be allowed as
deduction which computing the total income of such person.

12,900

For the purposes of section 80GGB and 80GGC, political

party means a political party registered under section 29A of the
Representation of the People Act, 1951.Deductions in respect
of certain incomes

Out of Rs. 15,800 Donation of Rs. 10,000

For Family Planning @ 100% 10,000
Balance Rs. 5,800 @ 50% 2,900
Total Income

34,400
1,65,600

(B)

At the outset, it may be noted that sections relating to deduction in respect of certain incomes may be classified into two
main categories

Tax on Rs. 1,65,600

Long-term capital gain Rs. 40,000 @ 20%

8,000

Balance Income of Rs. 1,25,600 at slab rate

4,120 22,120

Less: Rebate u/s 88

PPF

10,000

LIP

5,000 @15%

Tax Payable
Add surcharge

2,250
19870
Nil

Tax Payable
19870
Deduction in respect of contributions given by companies
to political parties [Section 80GGB]
[Inserted by the Election and other Related Laws (Amendment) Act, 2003, w.e.f.11-9-2003]
Any sum contributed by an Indian company in the previous year
to any political party shall be allowed as deduction while
computing its total income.
For the purpose of this section, the word contribute with its
grammatical variations has the meaning assigned to it under
section 293A of the Companies Act, 1956. As per section 293A
of the Companies Act, 1956:
a. A donation or subscription or payment caused to be given
by a company on its behalf or on its account to a person
who, to its knowledge, is carrying on any activity which, at the
time at which such donation or subscription or payment was
given or made, can reasonably be regarded as likely to effect
public support for a political party shall also be deemed to be
contribution of the amount of such donation, subscription
or payment to such person for a political purpose;
b. The amount of expenditure incurred, directly or indirectly, by
a company on advertisement in any publication (being a
publication in the nature of a souvenir, brochure, tract,
pamphlet or the like) by or on behalf of a political party or
for its advantage shall also be deemed,
1.

2.

Where such publication is by or on behalf of a political

party, to be a contribution of such amount to such
political party, and
Where such publication is not by or on behalf of but
for the advantage of a political party, to be a
contribution for a political purpose to the person
publishing it.

1. Sections which start with where the gross total income of an

assessee . includes any profits and gains from
business/income a deduction from such profit and gains
shall be allowed. Sections of this category are:-80HH, 80HHA,
80HHB, 801, 801A, 80m, 80JJA, 80JJAA, 80L, 800, 80P, 80R,
80RR and 80RRA.
2. Sections which start with where an assessee,is engaged
in the business of .there shall in accordance with and
subject to the provisions of that section, be allowed in computing
the total income of the assessee, a deduction of the profit of
such business. Sections of this category are:-80HHC, 80HHD,
80HHE and 80HHF.
Deduction uls 80U does not fall under any of the above 2
categories as it is not a deduction of any specific income
included in Gross Total Income, but is allowed as a deduction
while computing total income of the assessee.

The Effect of the Above Classification is as Under

i. Deduction in case of category (1): These deductions are
allowed from the Gross Total Income which is to be arrived at
by computing the Total Income in accordance with the provisions of the Act. In other words, the income has to be
computed in accordance with the other provisions of the Act to
arrive at the Gross Total Income and from that Gross Total
Income, deductions permissible under these sections are to be
allowed. Thus the incomes will be first computed under five
heads and then the current year losses, the brought forward
losses and unabsorbed depreciation would have to be deducted
before arriving of the figures which would be eligible for the
purpose of deduction under these sections.
Further, section 80AB allows deduction under this chapter only
to the extent of income included in the gross total income i.e.
income computed after set off current year and brought
forward loss.
This view was also held by the Gujarat High Court in the case
of Pushak Ltd. v CIT (1994) 210 ITR 535.
However, the Orissa High Court in CIT v TarunUdyog (1991)
191 ITR 688 differed from this view.
ii. Deduction in case of category (2): The language used in
sections of category (2) is entirely different. It states that in

135

computing Total Income of the assessee, deduction on account

of the profit derived by the assessee are to be allowed in
accordance with and subject to the provisions of that particular
section. It does not state that the deduction is to be allowed
from the Gross Total Income which is computed as per
provisions of the deduction, there will be neither set off of
current, year loss nor of brought forward business loss or
unabsorbed depreciation. Section case decided by the Andhra
Pradesh High 80AB shall not be applicable in case of such
sections. The above view has been expressed in a Court in the
case of CIT v Gogineni Tobacco Ltd.(1999) 238 ITR 970. The
Bombay High Court has considered this issue more elaborately
in ClT v Shirke Construction Equipl1lents Ltd. (2000) 246 ITR 429
and was in agreement with the above decision. The Supreme
Court has granted SLP in the case of CIT v Gogineni Tobacco Ltd.
(2002) 122 Taxman 116 (SC).
After having discussed the provisions the following cases will
help us to understand their practical importance .

Problems
Prob1: One of the objects of a religious trust is the establishment and maintenance of public places of worship and prayer
halls open to all communities. The Assessing Officer allows
exemption in respect of the income of the religious trust under
section 1 I, but declines to grant deduction under section 80G
in the hands of the donors in respect of donations made to the
trust. Comment on the seeming contradiction in the two
decisions of the Assessing Officer.
Ans: In Upper Ganges Sugar Mills Ltd. v. CIT [1998] 227 ITR 578
(SC), it was held that section 80G sets out the deductions to be
made, in accordance with and subject to its provisions, in
computing the total income of an assessee in respect of
donations to certain funds, charitable institutions, etc. It applies
to any other fund or any institution to which the section applies
if it is established in India for a charitable purpose and fulfils
the condition, inter alia, that it is not expressed to be for the
benefit of any particular religious community or caste.
According to Explanation 3 to section 80G charitable purpose
does not include any purpose the whole or substantially the
whole of which is of a religious nature. This Explanation takes
note of the fact that an institution or fund established for a
charitable purpose may have a number of objects. If any one of
these objects is wholly, or substantially wholly, of a religious
character, the institution or fund falls outside the scope of
section 80G and a donation to it does not secure the advantage
of the deduction that it gives. To reiterate, Explanation 3
requires ascertainment of whether there is one purpose within
the institution or funds overall charitable purpose which is
wholly, or substantially wholly, of a religious nature. In the
present problem, in view of the aforesaid case, one of the
objects of the religious trust is the establishment and maintenance of public place of worship and prayer halls open to all
communities. This object of trust is of a religious nature.
Although section 11 exempts from tax the income derived
from property held on trust for charitable or religious nature,
yet the distinction between a charitable purpose and religious
purpose is implicit in Explanation 3 to section 80G, which
provides that for claiming deduction under section 80G,
136

charitable purpose does not include any purpose the whole or

substantially the whole of which is of a religious nature.
Therefore, the Assessing Officer is justified in disallowing the
deduction under section 80G.
Prob 2: X, an Indian citizen, gives the following particulars of
his income and expenditure for the previous year 2003-04:

Particulars
Business income
Long term capital gain
Short-term capital gain
Income from other sources (including interest from
a bank deposit of Rs. 16,000)
Donation to the National Defence Fund
Donation to the Government of India for
promotion of family planning
Donation to Prime Minister's National Relief Fund
Donation to Africa (Public Contributions - India)
Fund
Donation to National Trust for Welfare of Persons
with Autism
Donation to an approved charitable trust
Donation in kind to an approved charitable trust
Donation to an approved university
Payment of mediclaim insurance premium

Rs.
3,00,000
130000
20000
28700
24000
27700
18000
5000
7000
22000
3000
7500
6000

Determine the net income of X for the assessment year 2004-05.

Ans: Computation of net income of X for the assessment
year 2004-05.
Particulars
Business income
Capital gains
Income from other sources
Gross total income
Less: Deductions
Under section 80D
Under section 80G [see Note 1]
Under section 80L
Net income (rounded off )

Rs.
3,00,000
150000
28700
478700
6,000
91,885
12000
368820

Note:
1. Computation of deduction under section 80G:
Particulars

National Defence Fund

Africa (Public Contributions - India)
Fund
Prime Minister's National Relief Fund
National Trust for Welfare of Persons
with Autism
Approved university
Charitable trust (given in kind)
Charitable trust (in cash)
Government of India for promoting
family planning
Total

Gross
Qualifying
amount
Rs.
24,000
5000

Net
Qualifying
amount Rs.

Rate of
deduction
Rs.

Amt. Of
deduction
Rs.

24000
5000

100%
100%

24000
5000

18000
7000

18000
7000

100%
100%

18000
7000

7500
Nil
22000
27700

7500
Nil
5370
27700

100%
NA
50%
100%

7500
Nil
2685
27700

111200

94870

91885

2. In respect of donation for family planning and approved

charitable trust, amount to be included in net qualifying
amount is the lower of (a) Rs. 49,700 (being amount of
donation) or (b) Rs. 33,070 (being 1096 of adjusted gross
total income computed under Note 3). Rs. 33,070 (being the
lower sum) is to be included. As the amount of Rs. 33,070
represents aggregate amount of net qualifying donations in
respect of family planning and to charitable trust, separate
amounts in respect of these will be as under:
Particulars
Donation to the government for promoting family planning
Donation to approved charitable institution (i.e.Rs.33070-Rs.27700)
Total

Rs.
27700
5370
33070

3. Adjusted gross total income:

Particulars
Gross Total Income

Rs.
478700

Less: Long term capital gain

130000

Balance

348700

Less: Amount of deduction u/s 80CCC to

80U (except sec.80 G)
Adjusted gross total income

18000
330700

137

LESSON 17:
DEDUCTIONS UNDER CHAPTER VI-A (PART 2.)
Lesson Objective

To know deduction in respect of Profits and gains from

projects outside India.

To know deduction in respect of profits and gains from

housing projects in certain cases.

To know deduction in respect of export profits.

I hope yesterdays discussion has helped you a lot because

todays topic is an extension of it.Without understanding that
you cant proceed further.
First we will discuss - Deduction in respect of Profits and
gains from projects outside India (Section 80HHB)
Deduction under this section is permissible to an assessee being
an Indian company or a person other than company, who is
resident in India.Where the Gross Total Income of the above
assessee includes any profits from projects undertaken outside
India, deduction under this section will be allowed subject to
certain conditions, being satisfied.

Essential Conditions for Claiming Deduction U/s

80HHB:
i. The assessee must derive profits from the business of
A. Execution of a foreign project undertaken by him in
pursuance of a contract entered into by him; or
B.
Execution of any work undertaken by him, which
forms part of a foreign Project undertaken by another
person in pursuance of contract, entered into by such
other person.
ii. Such contract must be undertaken with the Government of a
foreign state or any statutory or other public authority or
agency in a foreign state or a foreign enterprise. The contract
should not be with a resident in India even if it is in respect
of a foreign project;
iii. The consideration for the execution of such projects should
be payable in Convertible foreign exchange;
iv. The assessee should maintain separate accounts in respect of
the profits and Gains derived from the business of the
execution of each project or, as the case may be, of the work
forming part of the foreign project undertaken by him;
v. Where the assessee is a person other than an Indian
company or a co-operative society, such accounts must be
audited by a Chartered Accountant and the assessee should
furnish along with his return of income a report of such
audit in Form No. 10 CCA (Rule 18BBA) duly signed and
verified by a Chartered Accountant;
vi. A certificate from a chartered accountant in Form No. 10
CCAH (Rule 18BBA), certifying that the deduction has been
correctly claimed must also be obtained and filed with the
return of income;

138

vii. An amount equal to 10% of the profits from the execution

of foreign projects or work forming part thereof, should be
credited to the Foreign Projects Reserve Account by
debiting the Profit and Loss A/c. of the previous year in
respect of which the deduction is to be allowed; a period of
next five years for the purposes of his business, other than
for distribution by way of dividends or profits;
viii. An amount equal to 10% of the profits from the execution
of such projects or work forming part thereof, should be
brought by the assessee in convertible foreign exchange into
India within six months from the end of the relevant
previous year or within such further period as the competent
authority may allow in this behalf. For this purpose, the
competent authority means the RBI or such other authority
as is authorized under any law for the time being in force for
regulating payments and dealings in foreign exchange. As the
approval of competent authority is to be obtained for
claiming the deduction under section 80HHB if the money is
brought into India in convertible foreign exchange beyond
the period of 6 months, sub-section (13) of section 155 has
been inserted by which the Assessing Officer is, empowered
to amend the assessment order within a period of 4 years in
such cases.

Quantum of Deduction
10% of the profits of such foreign project already included
under the head Profit and gains of business or profession is
allowed as a deduction from Gross Total Income provided the
above conditions are satisfied. In case the assessee has brought
less than 10% of the profits into India within the requisite time
or transferred less than 10% of the profits to the Foreign
Projects Reserve Account then the deduction will be the
minimum of the following amounts:
i. 10% of the profits from the foreign projects;
ii. The amount credited to the Foreign Projects Reserve
Account;
iii. The amount brought into India in convertible foreign
exchange within six months of the end of the relevant
previous year, or such extended time as may be permitted by
the competent authority, as the case may be. According to
Guidance Note of Institute of Chartered Accountants of
India, the profit is to be taken as per books of accounts and
not as per income-tax.
Withdrawal of Deduction
If at any time before the expiry of five years from the end of a
previous year in which a deduction is allowed, the assessee
utilizes. the amount credited to the Foreign Projects Reserve
Account for distribution by way. of dividends or profits or for
any purpose which is not a purpose of the business of the
assessee, the deduction originally allowed shall be deemed to
have been wrongly allowed and the assessing officer shall

recompute the total income of the assessee of the relevant

previous year in which the deduction was earlier allowed and
make the necessary amendments. In this case the provisions of
section 154 shall apply and the period of 4 years shall be
reckoned from the end of the previous year in which the money
was so utilized.
1. A foreign company, whose entire control and management is
in India, is though resident in India but shall not be eligible
for deduction under this section as it is not an Indian
company.
2. The RBI/ECGC bonds issued to project exporters who
have executed projects. in Iraq by way of settlement of
claims will be treated as convertible foreign exchange brought
into India. The Chief Commissioners may liberally allow the
request for extension of period of six months for bringing
in convertible foreign exchange into India in this respect.
[Circular No. 711, dated 24-7-1995].
3. The expression convertible foreign exchange also includes the
amounts received in non convertible rupees from bilateral
account countries and receipts in Indian rupees under
Government to Government credit but does not include
remittances from Nepal and Bhutan. [Circular No. 575, dated
31st August, 1990].
4. For the purposes of section BOHHB, the receipt of
consideration for execution of foreign projects received in
non-convertible rupees from bilateral countries would be
treated at par with consideration received in any other
convertible foreign exchange. [Circular No. 563, Dated 23rd
May, 1990].
5. For the purpose of computing deduction under section
80HHB, each project must be considered separately. [Som
Datt Builders Pvt. Ltd. v. ITO (1989) 29 ITD 495 (CaI)].
The profits and gains earned from one project cannot be
reduced by the loss suffered from another project carried on
by the assessee even if, the loss making project is also a
project eligible for deduction, e.g., if X Limited undertakes
one project in Dubai and another in Muscat and it earns a
profit of Rs. 10,00,000 from lt., the Dubai project but incurs
a loss of Rs. 4,00,000 in the Muscat project. The company
shall be eligible for deduction u/s 80HHB on Rs. 10,00,000
although while computing business income of X Limited,
the loss of Rs. 4,00,000 will be set off.
6. Where deduction under section 80HHB is allowed, such
consideration/income shall not qualify for deduction for any
assessment year under any other provision of the Incometax Act.

Meaning of Foreign Project

Foreign Project means a project for
i. The construction of any building, road, dam, bridge or other
structure outside India;
ii. The assembling or installation of any machinery or plant
outside India;
iii. The execution of such other work (of whatever nature) as
may be prescribed.

Any project for execution of work of exploration, exploitation,

development and production of hydrocarbons outside India
shall be a foreign project. [Rule 17D inserted by Notification
No. 10949, dated 2-6-1999].

Meaning of Convertible Foreign Exchange

Convertible foreign exchange means the foreign exchange which
is for the time being treated by the Reserve Bank of India as
convertible foreign exchange for the purposes of Foreign
Exchange Regulation Act, 1973 and any rules made thereunder.
Illustration
Sehgal Builders LTD, an Indian Company has undertaken a
project for construction of a Bridge in Dubai with a foreign
enterprise. The consideration is receivable in US dollars. The
Company submits the following particulars of the said project
for the year ending 31-3-2004.
Foreign Project Account
Material sent to site
Labour Charges
Other expenses
Donation to National Children Fund
Depreciation on plant
Net Profit c/f
Total
Advance Income Tax
Foreign Project Reserve A/c
Proposed Dividend
Net Profit
Total

25,00,000
9,00,000
5,00,000
1,00,000
2,00,000
35,00,000
77,00,000
10,00,000
15,00,000
4,00,000
6,00,000
35,00,000

Value of work Certified

Cost of work Uncertified
Material at site

60,00,000
12,00,000
5,00,000

Total
Net Profit b/f

77,00,000
35,00,000

Total

35,00,000

Additional Information

1. Convertible Foreign Exchange received in India was as under

a. 28-02-2004

2,00,000

b. 31-07-2004

5,00,000

c. 30-09-2004

17,00,000

d. 31-10-2004

5,00,000

e. 30-11-2004

6,00,000

2. The Competent Authority ranted extension of time by one

month for the remittance of the profit in Convertible
Foreign Exchange.
3. Depreciation allowed as per income-tax is Rs. 4,00,000.
4. The company has earned a long-term capital gain of Rs.
50,000 during the previous year.
Compute the taxable income of the company for the assessment year 2004-05.
Solution: In the aforesaid illustration we have been given the
Net Profit as per Profit and Loss Account. We shall first, have to
calculate the Profit under the head profits and gains of
business or profession to be included in Gross Total Income.
1. Computation of Income Under the Head Profits and
Gains of Business or Profession.
Particulars

Rs.

Net Profit as per P & L A/c

Add: (a) Appropriation of profits
i. Foreign Project Reserve A/c

15,00,000

ii. Advance Income-tax

10,00,000

iii. Proposed dividend

Rs.
6,00,000

4,00,000 29,00,000

139

b. Expenses disallowed
(i) Donation to National Children Fund
(allowable as deduction from Gross Total
Income but not under business head)

1,00,000

(ii) Depreciation for separate consideration 2,00,000 3,00,000

38,00,000
Less: Depreciation as per Income-tax Act

4,00,000
34,00,000

Income from Business :

2. Computation of Total Income:
Income from Business:

34,00,000

Long-term capital gains:

50,000

Gross Total Income :

34,50,000

Less: Deductions U/S 80CCC to 80U

i. Section 80G - 50% of Rs. 1,00,000
ii. Section 80HHB

50,000
3,50,000
4,00,000

Total Income

30,50,000

iv. Where the assessee is a person other than an Indian

company or a Co-operative society, its accounts should have
been audited by a Chartered Accountant and the assessee
should furnish, along with his return of income, the report
of such audit in the prescribed form (Form No. 1O CCAA),
duly signed and verified by such Chartered Accountant.
v. An amount equal to 10% of the profits or gains from the
execution of such housing projects should be debited to the
Profit & Loss Alc of the previous year in respect of which
deduction under this section is to be allowed and credited to
a Reserve Alc called Housing Project Reserve Ale.
vi. Such reserve can be utilized by the assessee during a period
of 5 years next following for any purpose of his business,
other than for distribution by way of dividends or profit.

Quantum of Deduction
a. 10% of the profits and gains derived from the execution of
such housing project;
or
b. amount transferred by the assessee to the Housing Project
Reserve Ale, whichever is less.

Where the Gross Total Income of the above assessee includes

any profits and gains from certain housing projects, deduction
under this section shall be allowed subject to certain conditions
being satisfied.

Withdrawal of Deduction
If at any time before the expiry of five years from the end of a
previous year in which a deduction is allowed, the assessee
utilizes the amount credited to the Housing Projects Reserve
Account for distribution by way of dividends or profits or for
any purpose which is not a purpose of the business of the
assessee, the deduction originally allowed shall be deemed to
have been wrongly allowed and the Assessing Officer shall
recompute the total income of the assessee of the relevant
previous year in which the deduction was earlier allowed and
make the necessary amendments. In this case the provisions of
section 154 shall apply and the period of 4 years shall be
reckoned from the end of the previous year in which the money
was so utilized.
Housing project means a project for
I. the construction of any building, road, bridge or other
structure in any part of India;
II. the execution of such other work (of whatever nature) as
may be prescribed.
World Bank means the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development Bank referred to in the International
Monetary Fund and Bank Act, 1945.
Where deduction u/s 80HHBA is allowed, such income shall
not qualify for deduction for any assessment year under any
other provision.

Essential Conditions for Claiming Deduction U/S

80HHBA
i. The assessee must derive profit from the execution of a
housing project awarded To the assessee on the basis of
global tender.
ii. Such project is aided by the World Bank.
iii. The assessee should maintain separate accounts in respect of
the profits and gains derived from the business of the
execution of the housing project undertaken by him.

Deduction in Respect of Export Profits (Section

80HHC)
i. The deduction under this section is available to an Indian
company or to a person other than company, who is resident
in India;
ii. While computing the total income of above assessee a
deduction of the profits derived by the assessee from the
business of exports of goods or merchandise, shall be
allowed if certain conditions are satisfied.

1. Money brought to India in convertible foreign exchange will

be considered upto 31-10-2004, calculated as under:
Close of previous year

31-03-2004

6 months from close of previous year

30-09-2004

Extended time - 1 month

31-10-2004

Deduction uls 80HHB shall be the minimum of the following

three amounts:
Rs.
a. Amount remitted to India upto 31-10-2004
b. Amount transferred to Foreign Project
Reserve Account
c. 10% of the Profit of the Foreign
Project i.e.10% of 35,00,000

29,00,000
15,00,000
3,50,000

(as per books of accounts)

Therefore, the deduction shall be As. 3,50,000.
Deduction in respect of profits and gains from housing
projects in certain cases (Section 80HHBA)
Deduction under this section is permissible to an assessee being
an Indian company or a person other than a company, who is a
resident in India.

140

Essential Conditions for Claiming Deductions U/S

80HHC
a. there must be export out of India;
b. export must be of any goods or merchandise other than
(i) Mineral oil and (ii) mineral and ores (other than processed
minerals and ores specified in the Twelfth Schedule) of the
Income-tax Act. (see Appendix 5)
c. The sale proceeds of the goods or merchandise exported
should have been received in or brought into India by the
exporter in convertible foreign exchange. Convertible foreign
exchange shall have the same meaning as given under section
80HHB.
d. The sale proceeds should have been received in or brought
into India within a period of six months from the end of
the financial year in which the export was made or within
such further period as the competent authority may allow in
this behalf. For this purpose the competent authority means
the RBI or such other authority as is authorized under any
law for the time being in force for regulating payments and
dealings in foreign exchange.
e. The assessee should furnish a report in the prescribed form
(Form No. 10CCAC) from a Chartered Accountant, certifying
that the deduction has been correctly claimed. The report
must be attached along with the return of income. It is not
mandatory that such report should be filed alongwith the
return of income and it can be submitted even during the
assessment proceedings. [Murau Export House v CIT (1999)
238 ITR 257 (Cal). See also CIT v G. Krishnan Nair (2003)
259 ITR 727 (Ker)].
Although for claiming deduction under section 80HHC, the
report and certificate of Chartered Accountant in Form No. 1O
CCAC is compulsory, but the figures mentioned in the
certificate are not binding on the Assessing Officers.
1. Meaning of convertible foreign exchange: Convertible
foreign exchange means the foreign Exchange which is for
the time being treated by the Reserve Bank of India as
convertible foreign exchange for the purposes of Foreign
Exchange Regulation Act, 1973 and any rules made there
under.
In Boards Circular No. 575, dated 31-8-1990, it has been
clarified that the expressionConvertible foreign exchange..
Include the .e..lp In Indlun .up under G<>v..rnm..nt
.<> Government credit. However, It does not Include
remittances from Nepal and Bhutan. Thus, protocol
exports i.e. goods or merchandise exported under
Government to Government credit, are also eligible for
deduction under section 80HHC.
The Board has also further clarified that the expression
convertible foreign exchange also includes the amount
received in non-convertible rupees from bilateral account
countries.
2. A foreign company, whose entire control and management is
in India, is though resident in India but shall not be eligible
for deduction under this section as it is not an Indian
company.

Clarifications on Goods or Merchandise

a. Section 80HHC does not apply to (i) Mineral oil, and (ii)
Minerals and ores. In construing the meaning of the word
minerals the doctrine of noscitur a sociis is applicable. The
word minerals in section 80HHC(2)(b) must be read in
context of mineral oil and ores with which it is associated.
These three words taken together are intended to encompass
all that may be extracted from the earth. All minerals
extracted from earth, granite included, must be held to be
covered by the provisions of section 80HHC(2)(b) [Stone
Craft Enterprises v CIT (1999) 237 ITR 131 (SC)].
b. Computer software is neither goods nor merchandise and
therefore export of computer software is not covered u/s
80HHC. It is covered u/s 80HHE.
c. Export of cut and polished diamonds and gemstones will
not amount to export of minerals and ores and hence will
qualify for relief under section 80HHC.
[Letter No. 178/206/83, dated 22-5-1984].
d. The deduction under this section is not available in respect
of export of granite or other rocks that are cut and exported
as raw blocks after being washed and cleaned. The entry in
the Twelfth Schedule is very clear and unambiguous and uses
the term cut and polished. [Circular No. 693, dated 17-121994. CIT Circular No. 729, dated 1-11-1995].
e. When rough granite is cut to dimensional blocks of uniform
colour and size, it not only undergoes mechanical process of
cutting but also certain amount of dressing and polishing is
involved to remove various natural flaws such as colour
variations, grain variations, joints, fissures, moles, patches,
hair line cracks, etc. The profits derived from the export of
such granite dimensional blocks would, accordingly, be
eligible for deduction under this section. [Circular No. 729,
dated 1-11-1995].

Computation of Deduction
For the purpose of deduction under this section, assessees have
been divided into two categories:
Direct Exporter

A Direct exporter can be of three types:

a. Manufacturer exporter i.e. an exporter who exports the
goods/merchandise manufactured or processed by him.
b. Trading exporter Le. an exporter who exports the goods/
merchandise manufactured or processed by others.
c. Manufacturer as well as trading exporter Le. an exporter who
exports goods manufactured or processed by him as well as
goods manufactured or processed by others.
Supporting Manufacturer

Supporting manufacturer is a person who manufactures or

processes goods/merchandise, but does not export such
goods/ merchandise himself and sells them to any person who
is holding Export house certificate or Trading house certificate
and such Export house or Trading house has issued a certificate
to the supporting manufacturer to enable him to claim a
deduction under this section.
(I)(a) Manufacturer Exporter

141

The quantum of deduction u/s 80HHC in the case of manufacturer exporter is determined in the following manner.

bank outside India with the approval of the Reserve Bank

of India.

30%of (profits of business*export turnover/total turnover +

90%of export incentive*Export Turnover/Total turnover

2. It has been clarified that where any goods or merchandise are

transferred by an assessee to a branch, office, warehouse or
any other establishment of the assessee situate outside India
and such goods or merchandise are sold from such branch, office,
warehouse or establishment, then, such transfer shall be
deemed to be export out of India of such goods and
merchandise and the value of such goods or merchandise
declared in the shipping bill or bill of export shall be deemed
to be the sale proceeds thereof. [Explanation 2 to section
80HHC(2)].

Profits of the Business

The term profits of the business referred to in this section, is

diffenmt from the term profits of business referred to under
the head Profits and gains of business or profession. Under
the Chapter on Business Income, the profit of the export
business will be computed after claiming deductions available
under that Chapter. Such profits, after deductions, must have
been included in the Gross Total Income. If we claim the
following three deductions from the profit already included
under business head, it wiII be called Profits of the business
for the purpose of this section.
No deduction shall be allowed from assessment year 2005-06
and onwards.
a. 90% of export incentives;*
b. 90% of any receipts by way of brokerage, commission,
interest, rent, charges or any other receipt of a similar nature
assessable under the head profits and gains of business or
profession; and
c. The profits of any branch, office, warehouse or any other
establishment of the assessee situated outside India.
Export Incentives are

3. Export turnover here does not mean the actual value of the
goods/merchandise exported. It refers only to the proceeds
brought to India within the prescribed time.
4. Export out of India shall not include any transaction by
way of sale or otherwise, in a shop, emporium or other
establishments in India, not involving clearance at any customs
station (as defined in the Customs Act. [Explanation (aa) to
section 80HHC]. Hence even if convertible foreign exchange
is received against sale of such goods in shops, etc. in India,
it will not form part of export turnover. However, the
Allahabad High Court in the case of Ram Haba & Sons v
Union of India (1996) 222 ITR 606 held that, what
Explanation (aa) means is that it will not be an export out of
India if two conditions are satisfied:

i. Profits* on sale of a license granted under the Imports

(Control) Order, 1955, made under the Imports and
Exports (Control) Act, 1947;

i.

It should be a transaction by way of sale or otherwise

in a shop, emporium or an establishment situate in
India , and

ii. Cash assistance (by whatever name called) received or

receivable by any person against exports under any scheme of
the Government of India;

ii.

it should not involve clearance at the customs as

defined in the customs Act. Thus, according to the
Allahabad High Court, both these conditions must be
satisfied if the transaction is to be held to be not an
export out of India and, therefore, if either of these
two conditions is not satisfied, it should be treated as
an export out of India and if the transaction involves
clearance of customs, it would be an export out of
India within the meaning f Explanation (aa).

iii. Any duty of customs or excise re-paid or re-payable as

drawback to any person against exports under the Customs
and Central Excise Duties Drawback Rules, 1971.
* While deducting 90% of export incentives for the purpose of
computation of profits of business, export incentives will also
include profit on sale of licenses acquired from any person other
than the Government. However for claiming deduction under
section 80HHC, 90% of export incentives given in the formula
above will not include profit on sale of licenses acquired from
any person other than the Government.
Export turnover means the sale proceeds received in or
brought into India by the assessee in convertible foreign
exchange within the prescribed time (i.e. within 6 months of
the end of the previous year or the extended time) of any
eligible goods or merchandise. It does not include freight or
insurance attributable to the transportation of goods or
merchandise beyond the customs station of India.
Clarifications on export turnover
1. The sale proceeds are deemed to have been received in India,
where these are credited within six months of the end of the
previous year or within the extended time, to a separate
account maintained by the exporter for this purpose with any

142

Similarly, where the assessee effected sales to foreigners against

convertible foreign exchange and in as much the sale transaction
in question did involve clearance at the customs it was held that
such sales could be treated as an export out of India.

Meaning of Total Turnover

The term Total Turnover has not been defined and therefore it
should be understood in a commercial sense. Thus Total
Turnover means the aggregate of exports sale and domestic
sale total turnover of the business. However, acording to
Explanation (ba) to section 80 HHC, total turnover shall not
include
1. Freight or insurance attributable to the transportation of the
goods or merchandise beyond the customs station of India
2. Export incentives.
Now we will have a look at some questions, which will us in
revising the whole lesson.

1. Discuss - Deduction in respect of Profits and gains from

projects outside India (Section 80HHB).
2. What are the Essential conditions for claiming deduction u/
s 80HHBA
3. How will you calculate deduction under section 80HHC.
4. Write short note on Export turnover under section 80HHC.

143

LESSON 18:
AGRICULTURE INCOME AND ITS TAX TREATMENT
Lesson Objective

To know Meaning of agriculture income.

To know Income derived from agricultural land by

agricultural operations.

To know Non-agricultural income:

To know Tax treatment of income, which is partially

agricultural, and partially from business

Hello students , How are you this morning .Are you upto the
discussions we are about to have. Today we have agriculture
income and its tax treatment to discuss.

Meaning of Agriculture Income and its

Tax Treatment
Section 10(1) exempts agricultural income from tax and also
provides for its exclusion in computing the total of the
assessee. The reason of exemption of agricultural income from
Central taxation is that the Constitution gives exclusive power
to make laws with respect to taxes on agricultural income to the
State Legislatures. From the assessment year 1974-75, agricultural income is, however, taken into account to determine tax
on non-agricultural income in certain cases. This Chapter
explains the meaning of agricultural income and mode of
aggregation of agricultural income with non-agricultural income
to determine tax incidence on the latter.
Now let us see what is meant by agricultural income.
Section 10(1) exempt agricultural income from income-tax. By
virtue of section 2(1A) the expression agricultural income
means:
a. Any rent or revenue derived from land which is situated in
India and is used for agricultural proposes [sec. 2(1A)(a)].
b. Any income derived from such kind by agricultural
operations including processing of the agricultural produce,
raised or received as rent-in-kind so as to render it fit for the
market or sale of such produce [sec. 2(1A)(b)].
c. Income attributable to a farm house subject it certain
conditions [sec 2(1A)(c)].
Rent or revenue derived from land [Sec.2(1A)(a)]-According to
section 2(1A)(a), if the following three condition are satisfied,
income derived from land can be termed as agricultural
income:

Land Used for Agricultural Purposes

The primary condition to claim exemption as agricultural
income is that the land in question should be used for
agricultural purpose whether exemption is sought under sub
clause (a) or (b) or (c) of section 2(1A).
The terms agriculture and agricultural purposes have not
been defined in the Act; one has, therefore, to depend upon
ordinary meaning and decided cases.
Basic Operations

Prior to germination, some basic operations are essential to

constitute agriculture. The basic operations would involve
expenditure of human skill and labour upon the land itself and
not merely on the growth from the land.
Subsequent Operations

Besides the basic operations, there are certain subsequent

operations which are performed after the produce sprouts from
the land. Illustrative instances of subsequent operations are
weeding, digging the soil around the growth, removal of
undesirable undergrowths and all operations which foster the
growth and preserve the same, not only from insects and pests
but also from degradation from outside tending, pruning,
cutting harvesting and rendering the produce fit for the market.
Agricultural not Merely Includes Food and Grains

Agriculture does not merely imply raising of food and grains

for the consumption of men and animals; it also includes all
products from the performance of basic as well as subsequent
operations on land. These products, for instance, may be grain
or vegetable or fruits including plantation and groves or grass or
pasture for consumption of beasts or articles of luxury such as
betel, coffee, tea, spices, tobacco, etc., or commercial crops like
cotton, flax, jute, hemp, indigo, etc.
Some Connection with Land not Sufficient

The mere fact that an activity has some connection with or is in

some way dependent on land is not sufficient to bring it within
the scope of the term agriculture. For instance, breeding and
rearing of livestock, dairy farming, cheese and buttermaking
and poultry farming would not by themselves be agricultural
purposes.
Now we will see Income derived from agricultural land by
agricultural operations [Sec. 2(1A)(b)]

1. Rent or revenue should be derived from land (may be in cash

or kind);

Section 2(1A)(b) gives the following three instances of agricultural income:

2. The land is one which is situated in India (if the land is

situated in a foreign country, this condition is not satisfied);
and

1. Any income derived by agriculture from land situated in

India and used for agricultural purposes;

3. The land is used for agricultural purposes.

144

2. Any income derived by a cultivator or received of rentin

kind of any process ordinarily employed to render the
produce raised or received by him to make it fit to be taken
to market; or

3. Any income derived by such land by the sale by a cultivator

or receiver of rentinkind of the produce raised or received
by him in respect of which no process has been performed
other than a process of the nature described (b).

c. Profit on sale of standing crop or the produce after harvest

by a cultivating owner or tenant of land.

Any surplus arising on sale or transfer of agricultural land is not

treated as rent or revenue derived from land.

e. Compensation received from an insurance company for

damage cause by hail storm to the green leaf forming part of
assessees tea garden (moreover no part of such
compensation consists of manufacturing income, as such
compensation cannot be apportioned under the rule 8
between manufacturing income and agricultural income).

Income Derieved from Marketing Process

Sometimes it becomes difficult to find ready market of the crop
as harvested. In order to make the produce a commodity, which
is saleable, it becomes necessary to perform some kind of
process on the produce. The income, arising by way of enhancement of value of such produce, by performing such process to
make the raw produce fit for market, is also agricultural income.
However the following conditions must be satisfied:
1. The process must be one which is ordinarily employed by a
cultivator or receiver of rent-in-kind; and
2. The process must be applied to render the produce fit to be
taken to market.
For instance, tobacco leaves are ordinarily dried to make them
suitable for sale.
Now we will see the income derived from farm building
[Sec. 2(1A)(c)] Bona fide annual value of house property is
taxable under section 22. However, income from a house
property which satisfies the following cumulative conditions
would be treated as agricultural income and consequently, it
would be exempt from tax by virtue of section 10(1):
1. The building should be occupied by the cultivator(as a
landlord or as a tenant) or receiver of rent-in-kind(as a
landlord);
2. It should be on or in the immediate vicinity of land, situated
in India and used for agricultural purposes;
3. The cultivator or receiver of rent-in-kind should by reason of
his connection with the agricultural land require the building
as a dwelling house or as a store house or other outbuilding;
and
4. The land is assessed to land revenue or local rate or,
alternatively, the land(though no assessed to land revenue or
local rate), is situated outside urban areas, i.e., any area
which is comprised within the jurisdiction of any
municipality/cantonment board having a population not
less than 10,000 persons or within notified distance (up to a
maximum of 8 kilometers) from the limits of any such
municipality or cantonment board.
If all the aforesaid conditions are met, income from a farm
building is exempt from tax under section 2(1A)(c).
Following are the instances of the income under which the
income is considered as agricultural income/ non
agricultural income:
a. If denuded parts of the forest are replanted and subsequent
operations in forestry are carried out, the income arising from
the sale of replanted trees.
b. The fees collected form owners of cattle(normally used for
agricultural purposes), for allowing them to graze on forest
lands covered by jungle and grass grown spontaneously.

d. Rent for agricultural land received from sub-tenants by

mortgagee-in-possession.

f. Income from growing flowers and creepers.

g. Salary received by a partner for rendering services to a firm
which is engaged in agricultural operations is agricultural
income as payment of salary is only a mode of adjustment
of the firms income [it may be noted that share of profit
from such firm is not taken as agricultural income as such
share is exempt under section 10(2A)].
h. Interest on capital received by a partner from the firm
engaged in agricultural operations.
Following are the instances of non-agricultural income:
1. Annual annuity received by a person in consideration of
transfer of agricultural land even if it is charged on land, as
source of annuity is covenant and not land.
2. Interest on arrears if rent in respect of agricultural land as it
is neither rent nor revenue derived from land
3. Interest accrued on promissory notes obtained by a zamindar
from defaulting tenants.
4. Income from sale of forest trees, fruits and flowers growing
on land naturally, spontaneously and without intervention
of human agency.
5. Income from sale of wild grass and reeds of spontaneous
growth.
6. Income from salt produced by flooding the land with sea
water as it is not derived from land used for agricultural
income.
7. Profit accruing from the purchase of a standing crop and
resale of it after harvest by a merchant, having no interest
inland except a mere license to enter upon the land and
gather upon the produce, as land is not the direct, immediate
or effective source of income
8. Remuneration received by managing agent at a fixed
percentage of net profit from a company having agricultural
income.
9. Interest received by a money-lender in the form of
agricultural produce.
10. Income of sale of agricultural produce received by way of
price for water supplied to land.
11. Commission earned by the land lord for selling agricultural
produce of his tenant.
12. Dividend paid by a company out of its agricultural income.
13. Income derived from a land let out for storing crops.
14. Income from fisheries.
15. Maintenance allowance charged on agricultural land.

145

16. If the assessee takes loan on hypothecation of agricultural

produce cultivated by him and advances the same to its sister
concerns, interest earned thereupon (is not agricultural
income).
17. Royalty income of mines.
18. Income from butter and cheese making.
19. Income from poultry farming.
20. Income from sale of trees of forest which are of
spontaneous growth and in relation to which forestry
operations alone are performed.

For disintegrating a composite business income which is partly

agricultural and partly non-agricultural, the following rules are
applicable:

Growing and manufacturing tea in India

Non-agricultural
income
40 %

Agricultural
income
60%

Income
tax Rules
Rule 8

(Rs. in lakh)
Sales turnover of tea

45

Less:
Expenses on growing tea leaves

20

Manufacturing expenses

15
10

Sale of centrifuged latex or cenex or latex based crepes

(such as pale latex crepe) or brown crepes (such as estate
brown crepe, remilled crepe, smoked blanket crepe or flat
bark crepe) or technically specified block rubbers
manufactured or processed from field latex or coagulum
obtained from rubber plants grown by the seller in India

35%

65%

Rule 7A

Sale of coffee grown and cured by seller

25%

75%

Rule
7B(1)

Sale of coffee grown, cured, roasted and grounded by

seller with or without mixing chicory or other flavoring
ingredients.

40%

60%

Income[60 per cent of Rs. 10 lakh will be agricultural income

and 40 percent of Rs. 10 lakh (i.e., Rs. 4 lakh), will be taken as
non agricultural income]
3. Assume in the above case, Y Ltd. is engaged in the
cultivation, manufacture and sale of coffee. As per rule 7B, 40
per cent of the income from growing and manufacturing
coffee in India with or without mixing of chicory or other
flavoring ingredients is taken as non-agricultural income.

Rule
7B(1A)

*Income in respect of the business given above is, in the first

instance, computed under the Act as if it were derived from
business after making permissible deduction.40 or 35 or 25 per
cent if the income so arrived at is treated as business income
and the balance is treated as agricultural income. Salary and
interest received by a partner from a firm (growing leaves and
manufacturing tea or any other activity mentioned in the table)
is taxable only to the extent of 40 or 35 or 25 per cent and the
balance is treated as agricultural income.

Any other ca se [R ule 7] For disintegrating a composite

business income, which is partly agricultural and partly nonagricultural, the market value of any agricultural produce, raised
by the assessee or received by him as rent-in-kind and utilized as
raw material in his business, is deducted. No further deduction
is permissible in respect of any expenditure incurred by the
assessee as a cultivator or receiver of rent-in-kind.
Provisions Illustrated

The following examples are given to illustrate the aforesaid

provisions1. X Ltd. grows sugarcane to manufacture sugar. Data of 200304 is as follows:
(Rs. in lakh)
Cost of cultivation of sugarcane

Market value of sugarcane when sugarcane is transferred to factory

Other manufacturing cost

Sales turn over of sugar.

22

146

Income from Agricultural

manufacturing income
Rs. in lakh Rs. in lakh
Sales turnover/market value of sugarcane
22
9
Less: Expenses
Manufacturing Expenses
6

Market value of raw material (i.e., sugarcane) 9

Cultivation expenses

4
Income
7
5

2. Y Ltd. is engaged in the business of growing and

manufacturing tea in India. The following data is available
for the previous year 2003-04

Tax treatment of income, which is partially agricultural,

and partially from business [Rules 7, 7A, 7B and 8]

Income

Income in this case will be determined as follows -

Some questions for discussions.

1. Give examples of agricultural and non agricultural income.
2. What is Tax treatment of income, which is partially
agricultural, and partially from business.
3. Do you think that the department should continue with the
exemption of agricultural income or no. Give reasons for
your answer.

LESSON 19:
DIRECTORS REMUNERATION
Lesson Objective

To know Relationship of employer and employee

To know Managing directors remuneration

To know Difference between the powers of an agent and a

servant

Introduction
A very crucial question in respect of remuneration paid to
directors is whether it is taxable under the head salaries or
whether it is taxable under section 28 of the Income-tax Act
1961, as business or professional income. The head under
which the remuneration would be taxable depends on the
nature of the contract and the services to be performed by the
director.
If the amount of remuneration is taxable under the head
salaries, the amount of tax payable in most cases would be
much higher than what would have been paid, had such
amount been taxable under section 28 as business income. This
is so because when income is taxable under the head salaries,
only the standard deduction is available under section 16;
whereas if income is taxable under section 28, the director
would be entitled to claim deductions under sections 30 to 37
in respect of all the expenses which he has incurred in the course
of carrying on his duties as a director.

Relationship of Employer and Employee

The one cardinal principle to be borne in mind is that the
payment would be taxable under the head salaries only if the
relationship of employer and employee exists between the
company and the director C.I.T. v. Mills Store Company 9 I.T.R.
642; C.I.T..v. Johnstone 2 I.T.R. 390; David Mitchell v. C.I.T. 30
I.T.R. 701; C.I.T. v. Lakshmipat Singhania 92 I.T.R. 598; Cowan v.
Seymour 7 T.C. 372; Sciandra v. C.I.T. 118 I.T.R 6.75.
Every servant is an employee but an agent mayor may not be an
employee. Chagla J., said in C.I.T. v. Lady Navajbai Tata 15 I.T.R.
8:
The fact that a person may hold an office and that he should
receive a remuneration by virtue of that office does not
necessarily bring about a relationship of master and servant
between him and the person who pays him the remuneration,
or the relationship of an employer and an employee.
The same view has been taken by the Kolkata High Court in
Satya Paul v. C.!. T. 116 I. T.R. 335.
In C.I.T. v. Dr. Mrs. Usha Verma (254 I.T.R. 404), the Punjab
and Haryana High Court held that according to Corpus Juris
Secundum the word salary is usually applied to the reward
paid to a public officer for the performance of his official
duties... It is paid at stated intervals. Under the Act, it is not
merely defined to mean the compensation for services rendered
but by providing an inclusive definition the scope of the
provision has been widened. The legislation does not confine

salary within the narrow limit of compensation for services

rendered during the subsistence of a relationship of employer
and employee but even includes the benefits which may become
available at the end of that relationship. In section 17(iv) of the
Act, it has been provided that even fees, commissions, perquisites or profits which are paid to a person in lieu of or in
addition to any salary or wages shall be included in income
taxable under section 15.
According to Corpus Juris Secundum fee in a generic sense,
implies compensation or salary; but if used in its narrow,
distinctive sense it signifies the compensation for particular acts
or services rendered in the line of official duties. It has been
defined as a charge fixed by law for the services of a public
officer, or for the use of a privilege under the control of the
Government; a charge for services; a charge or emolument...
This meaning conforms to the provisions of section 17 of the
Act and it is in consonance with the broad concept of salary as
compensation for services rendered.
The assessee in this case was employed by the Government
Medical College. Doctors working in Government hospitals
used to examine patients at their residence. The Government
wanted to stop this practice and so it started a scheme of paying
clinic within the official premises. The paramedical and other
staff were provided by the employer. The rate of fees and the
share therein were also prescribed. The assessee claimed that the
income received from the paying clinic was business income.
The Tribunal accepted the claim.
On a reference, the Punjab and Haryana High Court held that
the assessee was serving in the Government Medical College. By
virtue of his employment with the Government, he was
permitted to work in the paying clinics run in the college. Those
who chose to work were given a share in the fees. The permission to work in the paying clinic, the rate of fees, the share
therein were given by the Government. This share as paid by
the Government to its employees fell within the expression
fees paid in addition to the salary. The Court held that there
was relationship of employee and employer in the paying clinic
run by the Government.
In C.I.T. v. Govindaswaminathan (233 I.T.R. 264), the assessee was
appointed as Advocate-General of the State of Tamil Nadu.
The Government Standing Order relating to his appointment
and the terms and conditions relating to his tenure as AdvocateGeneral stated that the Advocate-General was the principal law
officer and legal adviser to the Government and his appointment was made under Article 165 of the Constitution of India
to hold the office during the pleasure of the Governor of the
State. The AdvocateGeneral was debarred from advising or
holding briefs against the Government, defending accused
persons and giving advice to private parties in which he was
likely to be called upon to advise the Government. The assessee
was paid monthly salary of Rs. 1,500 and he was also paid fees
147

for his appearance on behalf of the Government in various

Courts of law.
For the assessment years 1971-72, 1972-73, 1976-77 and 197778, the Assessing Officer held that the salary paid to the assessee
by the State Government was only a retainer fee to retain the
services of the assessee as an Advocate-General of the State and
the same should be assessed under the head Income from
business or profession. The effect of assessing the salary as
professional income was that the standard deduction available
under section 16(1) of the Income-tax Act, 1961, was not
granted in respect of the salary income of the assessee. On
appeal, the Appellate Assistant Commissioner found that the
salary was paid every month in respect of the office held by the
assessee during the pleasure of the Governor and the salary was
to be assessed under section 15 of the Act. Consequently, the
assessee was entitled to standard deduction under section 16(1)
in respect of the salary received. On further appeal, the Tribunal
affirmed the order of the Appellate Assistant Commissioner.
On a reference, the Madras High Court held, reversing the
decision of the Appellate Tribunal, that the relationship
between the assessee (Advocate General) and the State Government was not that of a master and servant or
employer-employee, and the relationship was purely that of an
advocate and a client. The assessee was not holding the post
under the State. The amount was paid to the assessee only as a
retainer fee by the State Government to retain his services in the
discharge of his multifarious duties as Advocate-General of the
State.
The assessee was not given the post for any particular service
but the amount was paid only for services to be rendered as a
professional advocate. The assessee had not, at any point of his
professional career, exchanged his profession for his service and
he continued to be a professional person. He received his salary
in the capacity of a professional person. Therefore, the Court
held that the retainer fee received by the assessee had to be
assessed under the head Profits and gains of business or
profession under section 28 of the Act and was not to be
assessed under the head Salaries under section 15 of the Act.
A director of a company holds an office of the company as an
agent of the company and his fees cannot be made taxable
under the head salaries because he is not a servant or an
employee of the company. However, where there are special
terms in the Articles of Association or there is an independent
contract which brings about a contractual relationship between
the company and the director, the remuneration received would
be taxable under the head salaries.

proportionate part of the expenses which he actually incurs

on the aforesaid items;
2. Repairs and insurance of any machinery, plant and furniture
which he uses in the, course of the employment. For
example, the Director can claim repairs and insurance charges
of any air-conditioner used for the purposes of his business.
Likewise, if he owns a motor-car which is also used by him
for carrying on his duties as Director, he would be entitled to
claim repairs and insurance on such car. Insurance and repair
expenses of furniture used by him for carrying on his work
as a Director would also qualify for deduction under section
31;
3. The Director would also be entitled to claim depreciation on
buildings, machinery, plant or furniture owned by him and
used for the purposes of his business. If the machinery,
plant or furniture is exclusively used for the purposes of the
business, depreciation can be claimed at the full rates
permissible. On the other hand, if such assets are used only
for a part of the time for business purposes, only a
proportionate amount of the depreciation would be
allowable;
4. If the Director makes a gift or a contribution to a Scientific
Research Association which is
approved by the
Government, such amount would also be deductible;
5. If the business assets of the Director have been purchased
from capital borrowed, interest would also be deductible;
6. Any expenditure incurred by a Director on entertainment for
the purposes of his business would be deductible.
It must be reiterated that all the aforesaid expenses can be
claimed only to the extent they are borne by the Director from
his own pocket and depreciation can be claimed in respect of
assets owned by him which are used for his business.

Managing Directors Remuneration

It would now be appropriate to turn to the test for determining
whether a Managing Directors remuneration would be taxable
as salary income or business income. This was considered by the
Supreme Court in Ram Prashad v. G.I. T. 86 I. T.R. 122. In this
case, the assessee was appointed as the Managing Director of a
company for a period of 20 years. Such appointment was made
by the Articles of Association of the company.
Under the Articles, the general management of the business of
the company was in the hands of the Managing Director. He
was further given the power to sign cheques and receipts on
behalf of the company. He was also put in charge and custody
of all the property, books of account, papers, documents, etc.

Before considering to the test to determine whether a Director is

an employee of a company or not, it would be necessary to
point out that the only amount deductible from salary earned
by a director is under section 16. On the other hand, if the
Directors remuneration is taxable as business income, he would
be entitled to claim the following deductions:

The Court found on a perusal of the Articles of Association

and the terms and conditions set out in an agreement that the
assessee was appointed to manage the affairs of the company
and that a certain control was imposed by the company upon
the Managing Director. He was bound to execute the decisions
arrived at by the Board of Directors from time to time.

1. Any rent, rates, taxes, repairs and insurance of premises

which he uses for the purposes of his business. Therefore, if
he uses a part of his residence for carrying on his duties of
office as a Director, he would be entitled to claim a

Moreover, the Board had the power to remove him before the
expiry of the period of 20 years for not discharging his work
diligently and if he was found not to be acting in the interest of
the company as Managing Director. The Court further held that

148

it was not necessary for the company to exercise control over the
Managing Director on a day to day basis, nor did supervision
of the Board imply that it should be a continuous exercise of
the power of oversee or superintend the work to be done.

respect of the manner he should do the work not in respect of

the day to day work he is required to do, he may nonetheless be
a servant if his employment creates a relationship of master
and servant.

Since the powers of the Managing Director were to be exercised

within the terms and limitations prescribed in the Articles and
the contract of employment and since he was subject to the
control and supervision of the Directors, it was clear that he
was employed as the servant of the company.

A person who is engaged to manage a business may be a

servant or an agent according to the nature of his service and
the authority of his employment. Generally it may be possible
to say that the greater the amount of direct control over the
person employed, the stronger the conclusion in favour of his
being a servant.

Before coming to this conclusion, the Court considered two

decisions one of the Supreme Court itself in Lakshminarayan
Ram Gopal & Son Limited v. Government of Hyderabad 25 I.T.R.
449 and the decision of the Bombay High Court in G.I.T. v.
Armstrong Smith 14 I.T.R. 606. The first case related to a
Managing agent where it was held that the remuneration
received by them was taxable as business income. Explanation 1
to section 28 now expressly provides that such remuneration of
managing agents would be taxable as business income.
In the second case, the assessee was appointed the Chairman
and Managing Director of the company by its Articles of
Association. The appointment was to continue until he
resigned or died or ceased to hold at least one share in the
company. In this case, since the appointment was made under
the Articles it was held that the remuneration was taxable under
the head salaries. The Chief Justice, whilst -so- deciding,
observed as follows:
We have been referred to quite a large number of English cases
the effect of which can, I think, be summarised by saying that a
director of a company as such is not a servant of the company
and that the fees he receives are by way of gratuity, but that does
not prevent a director or a managing director from entering into
a contractual relationship with the company, so that, quite apart
from his office of director he becomes entitled to remuneration
as an employee of the company.
Further, that relationship may be created either by a service
agreement or by the Articles themselves. Now, in this case there
is no question of any service agreement outside the Articles
and, therefore, the relationship between the company and the
assessee, Mr. Smith, depends upon the Articles.
The same view was taken by the Madras High Court in C.I. T. v.
Nagi Reddy 51 I.T.R. 178. After considering these cases, the
Supreme Court held in Ram Prashads case that a rough and ready
test to determine whether a person was a servant or an agent
was whether under the terms of employment, the employer
exercised a supervisory control in respect of the work entrusted
to him.
A servant acts under the direct control and supervision of his
master. An agent, on the other hand, in the exercise of his
work, is not subject to the direct control or supervision of the
principal, though he is bound to exercise his authority in
accordance with all lawful orders and instructions which may be
given to him from time to time by his principal.
This test is not universal in its application and does not
determine in every case, having regard to the nature of employment, that he is a servant. A doctor may be employed as a
medical officer and though no control is exercised over him in

Similarly, the greater the degree of independence. the greater the

possibility of the services rendered being in the nature of
principal and agent. It is not possible to lay down any precise
rule of law to distinguish one kind of employment from the
other.
The nature of the particular business and the nature of the
duties of the employee will require to be considered in each case
in order to arrive at a conclusion as to whether the person
employed is a servant or an agent. In each case the principle for
ascertainment remains the same.
Though an agent as such is not a servant, a servant is generally
for some purposes his masters implied agent, the extent of the
agency depending upon the duties or position of the servant. It
is again true that a director of a company is not a servant but an
agent in as much as the company cannot act in its own person
but has only to act through directors who qua the company
have the relationship of an agent to its principal.
A Managing Director may have a dual capacity. He may both be
a director as well as an employee. It is therefore, evident that in
the capacity of a Managing Director he may be regarded as
having not only the capacity as persona of a director but also as
the persona of an employee. of an agent depending upon the
nature of his work and the terms of his employment.
Where he is so employed, the relationship between him as the
Managing Director and the company may be similar to a person
who is employed as a servant or an agent, for the term employee is facile enough to cover any of these relationships.
The nature of his employment may be determined by the
Articles of Association of a company and/or the agreement. if
any, under which a contractual relationship between the director
and the company has been brought about, whereunder the
director is constituted an employee of the company, if such be
the case, his remuneration will be assessable as salary under
section 7.
In other words. whether or not a Managing Director is a servant
of the Company, apart from his being a director, can only be
determined by the Articles of Association and the terms of his
employment. A similar view has been expressed by the Scottish
Court of Session in Anderson v. James Sutherland (Peterhead) Ltd.
1941 S.C. 203 Where Lord Normand. at page 218 said:
. The Managing Director has two functions and two capacities.
As a Managing Director he is a party to a contract with the
company, and this contract is a contract of employment; more
specifically I am of the opinion that it is a contract of service
and not a contract for service.

149

Following the ratio of the aforesaid cases, the Supreme Court

had no hesitation in holding that the remuneration paid to Mr.
Ram Prasad was taxable under the head salary and could not
be treated as business income.

assessee, their rights and privileges, the terms and conditions

governing them and the nature of the power and the control of
management exercisable in regard to the affairs and business of
the company.

In C.I. T. v. D. R. Sondhi (248 I. T.R. 695), the Delhi High Court

held that section 28(ii)(a) of the Act deals with a case where any
compensation or other payment is due to or received by any
person, by whatever name called, who was managing the whole
or substantially the whole of the affairs of an Indian company,
or in connection with the termination of his agreement or the
modification of the terms and conditions relating thereto. Such
income would be chargeable to income-tax under the head
Profits and gains of business or profession. The primary
significance of the word compensation is equivalence and
the secondary or more common meaning is something given
or obtained as an equivalent.

From the following facts which were gathered from the Articles
of Association of the company, the Court held that the
Managing Directors were the agents of the company and not its
servants:

In this case, the assessee was one of the founder-directors of a

company, J. He was originally appointed as a general manager of
the company under a resolution of the board dated December
26, 1949. In terms of that resolution, he was allowed a
remuneration of Rs. 900 per month in addition to a commission at 10 percent of net profits with effect from January 1,
1960. By resolution dated December 31, 1959, the assessees
designation was changed to managing director.
For the assessment year 1968-69, relating to the previous year
ended on March 31, 1968, the assessee received an amount of
Rs. 95,000 as compensation. The Assessing Officer held that the
payment was for the services rendered by the assessee as an
employee-director and not for the services rendered in his
capacity as a person controlling the majority shares of the
company, who managed its affairs through such shareholding.
It was held that the payment was nothing but profit in lieu of
salary within the meaning of section 17(3)(i). The Appellate
Assistant Commissioner and the Tribunal held that the
amount was assessable under section 28(ii)(a).
On a reference, the Delhi High Court held that on the facts and
in the circumstances of the case, the Tribunal was correct in law
in holding that the amount of Rs. 95.000 received by the
assessee was to be assessed only under section 28(ii)(a).
In the case of the Assam and Nagaland High Court, it was held
that a Managing Director was the agent of a company and not
an employee and, therefore, his remuneration was taxable as
business income under section 28. This is the case of Dwijendra
Chandra Chowdhury and Subodh Chandra Dutta v. C.I. T. 61 I. T.R.
97.
In this case, the two asses sees were Joint Managing Directors
of a Private Limited Company and were, under the Articles of
Association of the company. each entitled to remuneration of
Rs. 1,000 per month and commission of 5% on sales. The
Department treated the assessees as
J employees and, therefore, their remuneration was sought to
be charged under the head salaries. This view was confirmed
by the Appellate Assistant Commissioner and the Tribunal.
In order to decide this issue, the High Court thought it
necessary to look into the Articles of Association of the
company which dealt with the nature of the duties of the

150

1. The object of appointing the Joint Managing Directors was

to secure better management and direct control and
supervision of the affairs of the company.
2. The Joint Managing Directors were to hold office till their
death, although they were given the option to resign by
giving a notice in writing.
3. The Joint Managing Directors had the right to nominate any
other person as Managing Director in case of early retirement
or permanent disability or incapacity of anyone of them..
4. All the executive functions and all powers and duties of the
Board of Directors under the Articles of Association vested
in the Joint Managing Directors, excepting those which had
to be performed by the Board of Directorii themselves.
5. The Joint Managing Directors had the power of appointing
and dismissing the Managers, engineers, assistants, clerks
and labourers, and to do all acts, matters and things deemed
necessary, proper or expedient for carrying on the business of
the company.
6. The Joint Managing Directors had the power to make such
investments of the companys funds, as they thought fit.
7. The Joint Managing Directors had the power to make and
sign all contracts and to draw, sign, accept, endorse and
negotiate bills of exchange, promissory notes, hundies,
cheques, drafts, government promissory notes and other
government securities and other instruments, on behalf of
the company.
8. The Joint Managing Directors could delegate any or all of the
powers vested in them to such other directors, managers,
agents or other persons as they thought fit and could grant
such persons such powers of attorney deemed expedient and
could revoke those powers at their pleasure.
9. The Joint Managing Directors could, with the approval of
the Board of Directors from time to time raise or borrow
any sums of money for and on behalf of the company or
themselves advance money to the company and secure the
payment of such money in such manner and upon such
terms and conditions in all respects as they thought fit,
particularly by the issue of debentures or bonds of the
company or by mortgaging or charging all or part of the
properties of the company.
10. The Joint Managing Director could only be removed if he
was declared insolvent by a competent Court or was found
guilty of misappropriation of the funds of the company by
a competent Court.

Difference Between the Powers of an

Agent and a Servant
In differentiating between the powers of an agent and a
servant, the Court relied on the following statement in Vol. 25
of Simonds Edition of Halsburys Laws of England.
Paragraph 874: Principal and Agent. - The difference between
the relationship of master and servant and of principal and
agent is, in general, that a principal has the right to direct what
work the agent has to do, but a master has the further right to
direct how the work is to be done. A person who is subject to
no directions as to the time he is to devote to the work of
another is an agent and not a servant; but a person who is
required to give a definite amount of his time thereto, although
allowed to exercise his discretion as to the place and manner of
his work, is a servant and not an agent.
In Bowstead on Agency, 12th edition (1959), at page 2, it is
stated that a servant is a person employed by another to do
work for him on the terms that he, the servant, is to be subject
to the control and directions of his employer in respect of the
manner in which his work is to be done. A general agent is an
agent who has authority:
a. To act for his principal in all matters, or in all matters
concerning a particular trade or business, or of a particular
nature; or
b. To do some act in the ordinary course of his trade,
profession or business as an agent, on behalf of his
principal, for example where a solicitor, factor or broker is
employed as such.
In article 2 of the same publication. agency has been defined as
the relationship that exists between two persons one of
whom, the principal, expressly or impliedly consents that the
other, the agent, similarly consenting should represent him or
act on his behalf. The relationship of principal and agent exists,
and can only exist. by virtue of the express or implied assent of
both principal and agent. except in certain cases of necessity in
which the relationship is imposed by operation of law. The
agents privilege or right to act for the principal so as to affect his
legal relations with third parties is known as his authority which
may be expressed or implied.
In Buckley on the Companies Act. 13th edition (1957). at page
643. the position of a Managing Director has been
contradistinguished from a clerk or a servant. It is observed
that. although the expression clerk or servant has been given
a wide interpretation. that expression could not be held to cover
a Managing Director. Reliance was placed by Buckly also on the
decision in In re Newspaper Proprietary Syndicate Ltd.:
Hopkinson v. Newspaper Proprietary Syndicate (1900) 2 Ch. 349.
In that case, it was contended that a clerk or servant of a
company was entitled to payment, in priority to other
creditors, in respect of wages or salary in the winding-up of his
company, and it was claimed that the Managing Director was
also entitled to the same benefit. In that connection, the
question came to be considered whether a Managing Director
could be held to be a clerk or servant.
The following observations are material and may be quoted:

I think the claim to be supported. A Managing Director is

certainly not a clerk of the company. Is he a servant of the
company? This proposition was negatived by the Court of
Kings Bench in Dunston v. Imperial Gas Light and Coke Co.
1833 3 B & Ad. 125, where it was pointed out that a Director is
not a servant, but a manager; and in Hutton v. West Cork
Railway Co. (1883) 23 Ch. D. 654, Bowen 1. J. dealing with a
case of Managing Director says:
A director is not a servant. He is a person who is doing
business for the Company, but not upon or ordinal} terms.
A Managing Director is only an ordinal} Director entrusted
with some special powers. It is not relevant to say that he is
entitled to remuneration by virtue of a special bargain or that
his remuneration is described as a salal}. It is sufficient for me
to say that he is not, within the meaning of the statute, a
servant of the company. So far as I am aware, no such claim
has ever been brought forward by a director.
Applying the above principles enunciated in well-recognised
books on Jurisprudence to the terms of employment in the
instant case as embodied in the Articles of Association, the
Court had no hesitation in taking the view that the assessees
were serving the company as its agents and that they could not
be treated as the servants of the company as the relationship of
an employer and employee did not exist. this case of the Assam
and Nagaland High Court has not been referred to or discussed
by the Supreme Court.In any event, the principle which emerges
from all these cases is that unless the relationship of employer
and employee, of master and servant is established by the
Department between the company and the Managing Director,
the remuneration received would not be taxable under the head
salaries but should be treated as business in:come.
In Extrusion Process Pvt. Ltd. v. G.I.T. 119 I.T.R. 287, in the
relevant Assessment Year the Managing Director of the
assessee-company was paid a salary of Rs. 1,500 per month and
commission at the rate of 1% on sales, amounting to 9,792.
The Managing Director was originally paid a salary of Rs. 1,000
per month plus a commission of 1% on sales.
Out of 1,100 shares of the assessee-company, the Managing
Director held 605 ordinary shares in his own name and some
shares were owned by his wife and other relatives. The increase
in remuneration of Rs. 500 per month was disallowed by the
Income-tax Officer on the ground that the increase was made
solely out of considerations other than commercial ones.
On appeal, the Appellate Assistant Commissioner held that the
increment of Rs. 500 per month given to the Managing
Director was unreasonable under section 10(4A) of the Indian
Income-tax Act, 1922, and also because he was working as a
Managing Director of another company on a salary of Rs. 1,200
per month. On further appeal, both by the Revenue and the
assessee, the Tribunal held that the Managing Director deserved
some increment since he was not paid any increment for the
earlier three years and that half of the increase of Rs. 6,000 now
granted to him would be reasonable allowance and directed the
Income-tax Officer to allow Rs. 3,000 by way of increased
remuneration.

151

On a reference at the instance of the assessee in respect of the

disallowance of a part of the increased remuneration of the
Managing Director, the Bombay High Court held, that once the
Tribunal had found that an increase in the remuneration paid to
the Managing Director was called for in view of the large
increase in the volume of work, turnover and gross profit, it
could not adopt a subjective standard of reasonableness of the
increase in the remuneration and disallow a part of the increase
in the Managing Directors remuneration on the ground that it
was unreasonably large.
The Court further held that the reasonableness of the remuneration had to be considered from the point of view of a
businessman and it was not open to the Tribunal to adopt a
subjective standard with regard to the proper remuneration
which should be paid to the Managing Director.
The Court therefore concluded that the Tribunal was not right
in holding that only a part of the increased remuneration of the
Managing Director, namely, Rs. 3,000 for the relevant Assessment Year should be allowed.
In Ishwar Dass v. C.I.T. 123 I.T.R. 379, the assessee was appointed the Managing Director of a private company for a
period of ten years from January, 1954, on a salary of Rs. 350
plus a percentage of profits. By a resolution passed in December, 1961, the company terminated his services with effect from
the end of December, 1961. The assessee claimed that he had
been put to loss as otherwise he would have continued in
service upto January, 1964.
The Board of Directors allowed him a consolidated amount of
Rs. 15,200 by way of compensation for estimated loss due to
his premature retirement. The Income-tax Officer assessed this
amount to tax as profits in lieu of salary within the meaning
of section 17(3)(i) of the Income-tax Act, 1961, and his
decision was upheld by the Appellate Assistant Commissioner
and the Tribunal.
On a reference, the Delhi High Court held that the amount was
assessable to tax in the hands of the assessee as profits in lieu
of salary within the meaning of section 17(3)(i) because
section 17(3) made it abundantly clear that any amount of
compensation received from an employer in connection with
the termination of employment had to be treated as profits in
lieu of salary.

Remuneration to Non-whole Time

Directors
In Shervani Sugar Syndicate (P) Ltd. v. C.I.T. 125 I.T.R. 158,
during the Assessment Years 1970-71 and 1973-74, the
assessee-company paid annual remuneration to its directors
other than the Managing Director. The Directors of the
company were also paid separate fees for attending the meetings
of the Board of Directors and the amounts paid by the
company were deducted in computing the assessees income.
In addition, a sum of Rs. 1,000 was paid to each of the six
directors of the company for the Assessment Year 1970-71, by a
resolution of the company. Further, a sum of Rs. 1,500 was
paid to each of the nine directors of the company for the
Assessment Year 1973-74, as authorised by the resolution of
the company.

152

The assessee claimed that the amount of annual remuneration

paid to the directors should be deducted while computing its
income under the head profits and gains of business or
profession, on the ground that under the Articles of Association of the company, the entire responsibility of the working
of the company rested on the members of the Board of
Directors who were to discharge those functions not merely
when they assembled in the directors meeting for which they
were separately paid but also beyond such meetings, that the
directors thus guided the running of the company, passed
resolutions by circulation, attended to any other work assigned
to the individual directors outside the board meeting like
execution of documents, operation of bank account etc., and
that having regard to the amount of profits earned by the
company in the relevant years, the total remuneration paid to
the directors could not be said to be unreasonable.
The Revenue contended that the business of the assessees was
looked after by the Managing Director alone and that there was
no evidence to indicate that other members of the Board of
Directors did anything more than attend the Boards meetings,
that the assessee did not claim that the remuneration paid to
the members of the Board of Directors for attending the
meetings of the Board was inadequate that there was no
material to indicate that the members of the Board of Directors
did anything for the benefit of the assessee to justify the
payment of the additional remuneration to the directors, that
the remuneration not being justified by the legitimate business
needs of the assessee or the benefit derived by the assessee, was
not eligible for deduction in computing the assessees income.
The Tribunal held that even though, according to the Articles of
Association it was possible for the directors of the company to
render services for the benefit of the company on occasions
other than at the time of the meeting of the Board of Directors, there was no material to show that the directors in fact
rendered any such service to the company outside the boards
meetings and that the payment of annual remuneration was
not in consideration of any benefit that the company derived
from any service rendered by the directors of the company.
On a reference, the Allahabad High Court held that the assessee
had failed to adduce any evidence to link the payment of the
annual remuneration to its directors with any specific activity
which had been beneficial to the assessee, that the resolution
authorising payment of annual remuneration to the members
of the Board of Directors had not been passed in consideration
of any activity of the members of the Board of Directors which
was expected to be beneficial to the assessee-company and that
the finding of the Income-tax Authorities that the remuneration had been sanctioned for extra commercial considerations
was not unreasonable or unjustified.
The Court further held that the assessee had, before the
Income-tax Authorities, accepted that the remuneration paid by
it to its directors for attending the meetings of the Board was
not inadequate. Therefore, in the opinion of the Court, the
annual remuneration paid by the assessee to its directors could
not be linked with the responsibility undertaken by the
members of the Board either under the Articles of Association
or under the provisions of the Companies Act and was not

eligible for deduction from the income of the assesseecompany.

Now let us see some questions on the topic.
1. What are the provisions given in the act in respect of
directors remuneration.
2. Write short note on Remuneration to non-whole time
directors.
3. State the difference between the powers of an agent and a
servant.

153

LESSON 20:
TAX ON BOOK PROFITS
Lesson Objectives

To know meaning o Tax on book profits.

Statutory enactment

Scope and ambit of section 115-J

Adjustments to book profits

Here we are going to discuss about tax on book profits.

Introduction
Section 115 J which was enacted to tax book profits has been
primarily hurting companies which have had a dynamic track
record of growth. At present, such companies have fallen in the
line with the Governments objective of expanding their
industrial base and buying new plant and machinery every year.
This provision was in force for the Assessment Years 1988-89
to 1990-91. Section 115-JA was brought into force with effect
from the Assessment Year 1997-98. Section 115-JB was inserted
with effect from Assessment Year 2001-02.
As a result of the high amount of depreciation given under the
Income-tax Rules, 1962, tax liability has been brought down to
zero in the years in which heavy investment was made in plant
and machinery. In fact, under ~e Income-tax Law, a company
has no choice but to claim depreciation at the rates prescribed in
the Income-tax Rules, and the full amount thereof even if the
plant and machinery have been installed and put to use for only
one day in an accounting year.
Therefore, companies which have fallen in line with Government policy and added substantially to their block of assets,
have not been liable to pay income-tax primarily on account of
the high rates of depreciation given by the Government itself.
At the same time, as permitted under section 250 of the
Companies Act, 1956, such companies have been providing for
depreciation on the straight line method and, thereby. showing
a book profit while, for tax purposes, the depreciation has
converted the book profit into a loss.

Statutory Enactment
In recent years, as the number of zero tax companies and
companies paying marginal tax have grown, minimum alternate
tax was levied under section 115-JA of the Act from the
assessment year 1997-98. The efficacy of this existing provision,
however, declined in view of the exclusions of various sectors
from the operation of MAT and the credit system. The Finance
Act, 2000 therefore, modified the scheme of MAT and section
115-JA was made inoperative with effect from 1st April, 2001.
In its place, the Act inserted section 115- JB.
The new provision provides that all companies having book
profits under the Companies Act, prepared in accordance with
Part II and Part III of Schedule VI to the Companies Act,
would be liable to pay a minimum alternate tax at a lower rate
of 7.5 percent as against the earlier effective rate of 10.5 percent,
of the book profits under section 115-JA. This provision
154

would be applicable to all corporate entities without any

exception.
The new provision further provides that for purposes of MAT,
the company must follow the same accounting policies and
standards as are followed for preparing its statutory accounts.
The amended provision discontinues the system of allowing
credit for MAT in future. However, the taxes paid under the
provisions of section 115-JA will secure the credit under section
115-JAA.
Export profits under sections 10-A, 10-B, 80-HHC, 80-HHE
and 80-HHF are kept out of the purview of this provision as
these are being phased out. The new provision also exempts
companies registered under section 25 of the Companies Act.
Certificate from an auditor has been prescribed with a view to
ascertaining the extent of book profits.
These amendments have taken effect from 1st April, 2001, and
accordingly apply in relation to the assessment year 2001-02 and
subsequent years.
Under this section, a company is required to pay atleast 7.5% of
its book profit as corporate tax. In case the tax liability of a
company under regular provisions is more than this amount,
the provisions of MAT will not apply and. the company will
pay corporate tax under the regular scheme. The Finance Act
2002 has amended the section so as to provide that in case the
tax liability of a company is less than 7.5% of the book profits,
such book profits will be deemed to be the total income
chargeable to tax at the rate of seven and one-half percent.
Under the provisions of section 115-JA, amounts withdrawn
from reserves created before the pt day of April, 1997, and not
out of profits, if credited to the profit and loss account, will
not be reduced from the book profit. Any amount withdrawn
from a reserve or a provision created on or after the 1st day of
April, 1997, and which is credited to the profit and loss account
will not be reduced from the book profit, unless the book
profits in the year of creation of such reserves or provisions
were increased by the amount transferred to such reserves or
provisions at that time.
It is also clarified that where the value of the amount of either
loss brought forward or unabsorbed depreciation is nil, no
amount on account of such loss brought forward or unabsorbed depreciation would be reduced from the book profit.
This clarification has been made in section 115-JA of the Act,
with retrospective effect from the pt day of April, 1997.
Sections 115J and 115-JA of the Act provide that. Notwithstanding anything contained in any other provision, where the
taxable income of a company computed in accordance with
other provisions of the Act is less than 30% of its book profit,
its total income chargeable to tax shall be deemed. to be equal to
30% of its book profit. The effect of this provision is that a

company which shows book profit has to pay a minimum

amount of tax even where its taxable income is nil or negative.
Thus section 115J restricts the benefits accruing to a company
from the various deductions and incentives provided in the Act.
The Finance Act, 2000, inserted section 115-JB of the Act with
effect from 1st April, 2001, i.e., from the assessment year 200102 providing for levy of Minimum Alternate Tax on
companies. Section 115-JB conceptually differs from section
115-JA, which provided for MAT on companies, so far as it
does not deem any part or the whole of book profit as total
income. However, section 115-JB provides that if tax payable
on total income is less than 7.5% of book profit, the tax
payable under this provision shall be 7.5% of book profit.
The Government has clarified the law in view of the fact that a
large number of companies liable to tax under the MAT
provisions of section 115-JB were not making advance tax
payments. Section 115-JB(I) lays down the manner in which
income-tax payable is to be computed. Sub-section (2) provides
for computation of book profit. Sub-section (5) specifies that
save as otherwise provided in this section, all other provisions
of the Act would apply to every assessee, being a company
mentioned in that section.
In other words, except for substitution of tax payable under
the provision and the manner of computation of book profits,
all the provisions of the Act including the provision relating to
charge, definitions, recoveries, payment, assessment, etc., would
apply in respect of the provisions of this section.
The scheme of the Act also needs to be referred to. Section 4 of
the Act charges to tax the income at any rate or rates which may
be prescribed by the Finance Act every year. Section 207 deals
with the liability for payment of advance tax, and section 209
deals with its computation based on the rates in force for the
financial year, as are contained in the Finance Act.
The third proviso to section 2(8) of the Finance Act, 2001,
provided that tax payable by way of advance tax in respect of
income chargeable under section 115-JB, would be increased by
a surcharge of 2%. The Finance Act, 2000, also contained similar
provisions.
It has, therefore, been clarified that all companies are liable for
payment of advance tax having regard to the provisions
contained in section 11S-JB. Consequently, the provisions of
sections 234-B and 234-C for interest on defaults in payment of
advance tax and deferment of advance tax would also be
applicable where facts of the case warrant.

Scope and Ambit of Section 115-J

The Madhya Pradesh High Court in Bhilai Wires Ltd. v. C.I. T.
(231 I.T.R. 288) held that section 11S-J is a special provision
relating to certain companies and it lays down that where in the
case of an assessee being a company, other than a company
engaged in the business of generation or distribution of
electricity, the total income, as computed under the Act in
respect of any previous year relevant to the assessment year
commencing on or after April 1, 1988, is less than thirty percent
of its book profit, the total income of such assessee chargeable
to tax for the relevant previous year would be deemed to be an
amount equal to thirty percent of such book profit.

Clause (b) of the first proviso to section 205(1) of the Companies Act, 1956, has been bodily lifted and incorporated in the
Act for determining the profit or loss of the company to
ascertain the book profit. The idea is that in any previous year if
its book profit is to be worked out, then the deduction of the
loss or depreciation has to be given. However, it is further
qualified that both cannot be given simultaneously.
In a case where the income is less than thirty percent of the
book profit, in order to get the benefit of section 115-1. the
company has to prepare the profit and loss account in terms of
clause (b) of the first proviso to section 205(1) of the Companies Act, and on that basis, the assessee will be entitled to
deduct depreciation or loss, whichever is less, only when in a
given year there is a loss as well as depreciation. The assessee will
not be entitled to both the benefits simultaneously. The
provisions of the Act will come into play for such exercise and it
has to be worked out in terms of the Act. So far as depreciation
is concerned, under section 32(1) of the Act, it can be permitted
in the previous year till it is exhausted, but the same is not
applicable in the case of loss which has to be worked out in
terms of sections 70 to 72.
Section 115J applies to all companies, both Indian and foreign.
Book profit for minimum tax is defined as the profit computed
as per Parts II and III of the Companies Act, 1956. Nondomestic companies not covered by the provisions of the
Companies Act, draw up accounts in accordance with the
requirements of their own domestic legislation.
In fact, in many cases, foreign companies earning technical
services fees, royalty and other service fee may not draw up any
accounts in respect of their Indian Income, particularly when
such income is taxable in India on a gross basis. Section 115J
does not make it clear as to how the
provisions of Parts II and III of Schedule VI will be applied in
such cases.
According to clause (iv) of the Explanation to section 115J(1A), the profits with reference to which minimum taxes are to be
calculated, are the profits before transfer to any reserves. Section
205, read with section 350 of the Companies Act, requires
provision of a MINIMUM amount of depreciation before
dividend can be distributed without laying down any ceiling on
the maximum amount of depreciation provision.
When depreciation is provided under a straight-line basis, the
Board of Directors of a company may decide to provide
depreciation in excess of the minimum requirement of the
Companies Act as a measure of prudence and simplicity. This
may also be done when a company wishes to set aside funds for
faster replacement and modernisation of assets.
Such depreciation provision is often of the nature of an asset
replacement reserve. Whether depreciation provision over and
above the minimum requirement under sections 205 and 350
of the Companies Act can be deemed to be a reserve for the
purposes of section 115 J, is a moot point.
Capital gains are to be included in computing book profits. In
C.LT. v. Veekaylal Investment Co. P. Ltd. (249 LT.R. 597), the
assessee was a company carrying on the business of investment.
For the assessment year 1989-90, the assessee filed its return of

155

income declaring a net loss. During the previous year relevant to

the assessment year, the assessee sold land, the gains from
which were treated as long-term capital gains. The Assessing
Officer treated the profits arising from the transfer as capital
gains and rejected the assessees contention that book profits
under section 115-J of the Act, would not include capital gains.
On appeal, the Commissioner of Income-tax (Appeals) upheld
the view of the Assessing Officer. On further appeal, the
Tribunal held that what was deemed to be income under
section 45 was not income to be treated as part of book profits
and held in favour of. the assessee.
On appeal by the Department, the Bombay High Court held
that according to section 115 - J of the Act, in the case of an
assessee being a company, if the total income is less than 30
percent of its book profits, then the total income of such
company shall be deemed to be an amount equal to 30 percent
of such book profit and such income shall be chargeable to tax.
The important thing to be noted is that while calculating the
total income under the Act, the assessee is required to take into
account income by way of capital gains under section 45 of the
Act.
In the circumstances, while computing the book profits under
the Companies Act, the assessee has to include capital gains for
computing the book profits under section 115-J. Even under
clause 3(xii)(b) of Part II of Schedule VI to the Companies Act,
1956, profits or losses in respect of transactions of an exceptional or non-recurring nature are to be disclosed. Therefore, the
Court held that capital gains should be included for the
purposes of computing book profits.
The concept of linking distributable profits under the Companies Act and minimum tax under section 115J makes one
assumption which may not hold good, that is, distributable
profits are in -fact distributed. At the time of introduction of
section 115], the point was made by the Government that if
dividend could be distributed to shareholders out of profits,
the Government could ask for a share prior to that and
minimum tax was supposed to achieve this object.
While this may be true of many large companies, there could be
number of medium-sized companies whose depreciation policy
may have nothing to do with the quantum of dividends,
particularly in those cases which are closely-held companies. In
situations where the entire earnings are ploughed back into the
business because of limited capacity of such medium-sized
enterprises to borrow funds, ,they will get penalised by the
operation of section 115J which is against. the spirit of what
was stated at the time of introduction of section 115J.

the Assessing Officer. In the absence of the same and on the

language of section 115-J, the Court held that the view taken by
the Tribunal was correct and the High Court had erred in
reversing the said view of Tribunal.
Therefore, the Assessing Officer while computing the income
under section 115-J has only the power of examining whether
the books of account are certified by the authorities under the
Companies Act as having been properly maintained in accordance with the Companies Act. The Assessing Officer thereafter
has limited power of making additions and reductions as
provided for in the Explanation to the said section. To put it
differently, the Assessing Officer does not have the jurisdiction
to, go behind the net profit shown in the profit and loss
account, except to the extent provided in the Explanation to
section 115-J CIT v Brite Automotives and Plastics Ltd. (237 ITR
778) (S.C.)).
In C.I.T. v. Echjay Forgjngs Pvt. Ltd. (251 I.T.R. 15), in computing the book profits of the assessee-company under section
115-J of the Act, the Assessing Officer disallowed the deductions claimed by the assessee on account of payment of
wealth-tax, provisions for doubtful debts, gratuity, bonus and
amounts debited to the profit and loss account in respect of
foreign exchange rate difference, on the ground that the above
items were to be added back to the net profit as shown in the
profit and loss account under the Explanation to section 115J(1-A). The Tribunal held that the disallowances made by the
Department under section 115-J were impermissible.
On appeal under section 260-A, the Bombay High Court held
that since clause (a) of the Explanation does not contemplate
wealth-tax, the net profits could not be increased by the amount
of wealth-tax paid by the assessee. The Court also held that
there was no material before the Court in support of the
conclusions drawn by the Assessing Officer that the provision
for doubtful debts made by the assessee was in respect of an
unascertained liability, nor had the Department disputed the
assessees claim that it was an ascertained liability. The amount
could not therefore be included in the net profits. While taking
this view, the Court distinguished the judgment in the case of
Deputy G.1. T. v. Beardsell Ltd. (244 1. T.R. 256).
Since the provision for gratuity was made on the basis of
actuarial calculations, it was an ascertained liability and the said
amounts could not be added to the net profits.

Adjustments to Book Profits

The provision for payment of bonus to the employees in

accordance with the payment of Bonus Act was an ascertained
liability and, therefore, the Tribunal was justified in holding that
the same was not liable for inclusion while working out the
book profits under section 115-J.

The Supreme Court in Apollo Tyres Ltd. v. C.l. T. [(2002) 122

Taxmon 562J held that if the statute mandates that income
prepared in accordance with the Companies Act shall be deemed
income for the purpose of section 115-J, then it should be that
income under the Companies Act which should be acceptable to
the authorities. There cannot be two incomes, one for the
purpose of the Companies Act and another for the purpose of
the Income-tax Act. If the Legislature intended the Assessing
Officer to reassess the companys income, then it would have
stated in section 115-J income of the company as accepted by

Although normally, under the provisions of the Act, the

increase in the liability for purchase price of plant and machinery
due to fluctuations in the foreign exchange rates is taken as on
capital account, the same is debited to the profit and loss
account under the Companies Act. While applying section 115-J,
the Assessing Officer had to go by the computation of book
profits as permitted under the Companies Act. Book profits
were the net profits as shown in the profit and loss account
prepared in accordance with Schedule VI to the Companies Act
subject to certain adjustments. Since the amount on account of

156

foreign exchange fluctuations had been debited to the profit

and loss account in accordance with the Companies Act. the
same could not be added back to the net profit of the assessee.

this case were that the assessee was a private company engaged
in the business of manufacturing oil from oil seeds, etc. it
declared nil income in its return filed on December 26, 1989.

Clause (c) of the Explanation to section 115J(1-A) requires

upward adjustment of the book profits with provisions for
liabilities other than

While completing the assessment, the Assessing Officer

invoked section 115-J of the Income-tax Act, 1961, and
determined the income of the assessee-company at Rs. 5,19,150
under the said provision of law. In computing the said income,
he disallowed the assessees claims for deduction of prior
period expenses of Rs. 3,24,495 and prior period depreciation
allowance amounting to Rs. 13,42,477. These disallowances
were affirmed by the Commissioner of Income-tax (Appeals).
On further appeal, the Appellate Tribunal allowed the assessees
claim for prior period depreciation under section 115-J(1-A) of
the Act.

The expression is unknown also to the Companies Act. A

Provision by definition in part III of Schedule VI of the
Companies Act. 1956, is an amount retained by Way of
providingforany known liability, the amount of which
cannot be determined with substantial accuracy. Thus,
provision envisages that though existence of the liability is
known. the amount is not determinable.
The expression ascertained liability could have two possible
interpretations depending on whether the factum or quantum of the liability is unknown viz.(a) that factum and
quantum are both unknown; or (b) that factum is known but
the quantum is unknown.
If liability other than an ascertained liability covers cases where
quantification of the liability is not available, though the factum
of liability is not in doubt. then this expression would be
synonymous with the definition of provision under the
Companies Act. In other words, in such an event clause (c) of
the Explanation to section 115J(1-A) would call for exclusion
of ALL provisions set up in the accounts.
There would be no necessity in such a case for section 115J to
state that adjustment is necessary only in respect of such
provisions as are made for meeting liabilities other than
ascertained liabilities.
The said clause of the Explanation to section 115J(1-A),
therefore. goes beyond mere indeterminate quantum and
deals with such situations where provisions made in the
accounts were uncertain even on factum of the liability besides
being of indeterminate quantum.
It should be made abundantly clear that add-back of all
provisions, where merely the quantum is unknown. is not the
intention of section 115J.
Clause (c) of the Explanation requires premature provisions for
liabilities set up in the books to be added back to the profits.
but does not levy any scope for adjustment of actual payment
of such liabilities in the year of its payment.
Having already set up a provision in respect of a liability in its
so-called unascertained/premature stage. the profit and loss
account would not take ascertained liabilities. Ascertained
liabilities is a new expression is not defined under the
provisions of this section or anywhere in the Income-tax Act. a
further debit/charge in a subsequent year when the liability
actually becomes ascertained and is discharged, with the result
that the taxpayer will pay the minimum tax with reference to the
profit which ignores the liability in the year of its setting up as
well as in the year when it is finally discharged with no corresponding debit to the revenue account.

TheMadhyaPradeshHighCourtinC.!. T. v. Krishna Oil

Extraction Ltd. 232 1. T. R. 928 held that depreciation or loss
whichever is less as computed under the Companies Act should
be allowed as a deduction from the book profit. The facts in

On a reference at the instance of the Revenue, the Madhya

Pradesh High Court held, reversing the order of the Appellate
Tribunal, that the provisions of clause (b) of the first proviso
to section 205(1) of the Companies Act, stand statutory
incorporated under the Income-tax Act and that, therefore, in
order to work out the book profit, the loss and depreciation has
to be worked out in terms of the Companies Act and, thereafter, a setoff has to be made of whichever is less.

Provision Read with Section 43B

While on the subject of provision for liabilities it is essential to
read section 115J in the background of section 43B and the
compulsions of the Companies Act. All these factors taken
together may have a deleterious effect on the taxable profits and
tax liability of a company.
By operation of section 43B, the provision in respect of unpaid
duty will be disallowable and will enhance the taxable profits of
the assessee computed under the normal provisions of the
Income-tax Act. Tax in such a year may, therefore, be much in
excess of 30% of the book profits.
With effect from 1st April, 1988 section 43B ensures full tax
allowance in respect of Government duties and taxes paid on
any day prior to the due date of furnishing the tax return under
section 139(1).
Thus, a liability/provision in respect of sales-tax/excise duty for
the year ended on 3.1st March, 1988 provided in the books in
the relevant year, will be allowable under section 43B while
computing the taxable income of the assessee for the Assessment Year 1988-89, if such liability is discharged before 31st
July, 1988.
The Explanation to section 115J(1-A) provides for downward
adjustment of the book profits under certain situations. The
book profits are to be reduced by the amount withdrawn from
reserves or provisions, if any such amount is credited to the
profit and loss account.
A situation can arise when a provision for ascertained liability
has already been allowed as a deduction against profits. If such
liability is later written back to the accounts in a subsequent year
by reason of a favourable Court decision or otherwise, such
write-back of provision may again be deductible under clause (i)
of the Explanation.

157

Provision Read with Section 205 of the Companies

Act, 1956
Clause (iv) of the Explanation to section 115J(1-A) establishes
a linkage between section 115J of the Income-tax Act and
section 205 of the Companies Act. Clause(iv) permits deduction of carried forward losses of earlier years to the extent
provided in clause (b) of the first proviso to section 205(1) of
the Companies Act, 1956.
For the purposes of payment of minimum tax under section
115J, setoff of past losses will also be allowed only with
reference to the carry forward of book losses as per proviso (b)
of section 205(1) of the Companies Act.
The said proviso of section 205(1) of the Companies Act
requires that where a company has both business losses and
unabsorbed depreciation carried forward, it is only the lower of
the two amounts that need to be set-off before declaring a
dividend. Thus, if a company has a total carryforward of book
loss of 100 which includes unabsorbed depreciation of 60, it is
the lower of 100 and 60 which may be set-off against current
profits of the company before dividend can be declared by the
company.
Once the depreciation of 60 has been off-set fully, section 205
permits payment of dividend without absorption of other
portion of the carried forward loss of 40 which represents the
cash losses of the business.
Section 115 J, borrowing the same principle of section 205 of
the Companies Act, makes provision for adjustment of only
the lower of depreciation or book loss carried forward from
earlier years in working out the taxable profits under section
115J. A literal application of section 205 would, thus, mean that
an assessee would pay taxes on an aggregate total income after
allowing set off of the lower of the book depreciation charge
and cash loss only and not both.
The benefit of the carried forward losses being thus lost, the
effective tax rate on the assessees real taxable income could work
out to much above the applicable tax rate prescribed by the
Finance Act.Section 115J which imposes minimum tax on book
profit has caused unintended and undue hardship to the sick
companies which are on the verge of revival inasmuch as it is
only the unabsorbed depreciation or loss, whichever is less, as
provided under section 205 of the Companies Act, 1956, to be
adjusted against the book profit. In order to alleviate the
financial hardship of such companies, the following suggestions are made:
a. Adjustment of both, depreciation and loss, should be
allowed against the book profit and not the loss or
depreciation, whichever is less, as provided under section 205
of the Companies Act, 1956.
b. The tax paid under the section should be treated as a deposit
to be adjusted against the future tax liability under normal
scheme of computation of profit under the Income-tax Act.
c. In view of the amendment to the Companies Act, delinking
the rates of depreciation from the Income-tax Act, it is
suggested that book profit for the purpose of section 115J
should be calculated after providing depreciation under
section 32(1) of the Incometax Act.

158

Provision Applicable to Foreign Companies

The Authority for Advance Rulings has held that the provisions
of section 115-JA introduced with effect from the assessment
year 1997-98 are applicable to foreign companies which are
governed by an appropriate Double Tax Avoidance Agreement.
In Advance Rulings P. No. 14 of 1997 (1998) 100 Taxman 1),
the assessee, a Dutch company, had a project office in India for
executing contract works. The management and control of the
company was located in the Netherlands i.e., wholly outside
India, and it was also a non-resident company for Indian tax
purposes. The assessee had been filing its return of income
annually in compliance with statutory requirements. However,
due to exorbitant depreciation, it had huge carried forward
losses to be set-off against future profits.
However, with the introduction of section 115-JA, if the
taxable income of a company was less than 30 percent of the
book profits, the company would be deemed to have a taxable
income amounting to 30 percent of the book profits and taxed
accordingly. The assessee contended that section 115-JA could
not be applied in its case, since it had its head-quarters in the
Netherlands and the control and management over the Indian
business was exercised from the foreign country and all financial
records were kept there.
The Authority for Advance Rulings held that the purpose
behind the introduction of section 115-JA was to tax Zero tax
companies. Applicability of section 115-JA would not depend
on whether a company, Indian or foreign, has been given
depreciation allowance or not nor will non-payment of
dividend make any difference. For the purpose of application
of this section, it is not necessary that each and every provision
for calculation of book profit as given in the Explanation to
section 115-JA should apply.
Some of the provisions may not, apply even to an Indian
company. Book profit will have to be calculated by adding back
all or any of the amounts referred to in clauses (a) to (f),
provided that such amounts were deducted in the profit and
loss account. What is important to bear in mind is the object of
introduction of section 115-JA. A number of companies. with
huge profits were avoiding payment of tax by adjusting their
profits against various allowances which are permitted under
the Act.
To circumvent this strategy, section 115-JA was inserted. The
simple method adopted by section 115-JA is to find out
whether the total income of a company after all the deductions
and allowances was less than 30 percent of its book profit. In
such a situation, the total income chargeable to tax is deemed to
be 30 percent of such book profit.
There is no reason to confine this section to Indian companies
alone. If a foreign company is avoiding tax lawfully by similar
devices, this section will be applicable also to such companies.
This section has been made applicable to companies generally
and not to Indian companies or foreign companies only.
The fact that the applicant-company was tax resident of the
Netherlands and had only got a Permanent Establishment in
India, did not make any difference to the position in law. It had
to make the calculation of profit attributable to its Indian
business separately and independently.

Therefore, it was held that section 115-JA would be applicable

in computing the total income of a foreign company and in
computing the profit attributable to the permanent Establishment of the assessee.
The Authority for Advance Rulings has ruled that section 115JA is applicable to foreign companies in P. No. 14 of 1997, In re.
(234 I.T.R. 335). The same view has been taken in Niko
Resources Limited v. C.I. T. (234 I.T.R. 828).

The object of enacting the aforesaid tax credit provision is to

take the sting out of the minimum alternate tax.
Here are some questions for homework.
1. State the provision applicable to foreign companies
2. State provisions for Credit in respect of tax paid
3. What are the adjustments to book profits.

Credit in Respect of Tax Paid

Section 115-JAA has been in force with effect from the Assessment Year 1997-98. The effect of this provision is to allow the
tax credit to be setoff in a year when tax becomes payable which
is computed in accordance with the provisions of the Act other
than section 115-JA. The set-off in respect of the tax credit
which is brought forward is allowed for any assessment year to
the extent of the difference between the tax on the total income
and the tax which would be payable under section 115-JA(1) for
that assessment year.
The tax credit for this purpose is computed under section 115JAA(2). Interest is not payable on such tax credit.
Section 115-JAA is reproduced below for ready reference:
115-JAA. (1) Where any amount of tax is paid under
subsection (1) of section 115-JA by an assessee being a
company for any assessment year, then, credit in respect of
tax so paid shall be allowed to him in accordance with the
provisions of this section.
2. The tax credit to be allowed under sub. section (1) shall be
the difference of the tax paid for any assessment year under
subsection (1) of section 115-JA and the amount of tax
payable by the assessee on his total income computed in
accordance with the other provisions of this Act;
Provided that no interest shall be payable on the tax credit
allowed under sub-section (1).
3. The amount of tax credit determined under subsection (2)
shall be carried forward and set off in accordance with the
provisions of subsection (4) and sub-section (5) but such
carry forward shall not be allowed beyond the fifth
assessment year immediately succeeding the assessment year
in which tax credit becomes allowable under sub-section (1).
4. The tax credit shall be allowed set-off in a year when tax
becomes payable on the total income computed in accordance
with the provisions of this Act other than section 115-JA.
5. Set off in respect of brought forward tax credit shall be
allowed for any assessment year to the extent of the
difference between the tax on his total income and the tax
which would have been payable under the provisions of
sub-section (1) of section 115-JA for that assessment year.
6. Where as a result of an order under subsectipn (1) or subsection (3) of section 143, section 144, section 147, section
154, section 155, sub-section (4) of section 245-D, section
250, section 254, section 260, section 262, section 263 or
section 264, the amount of tax payable under this Act is
reduced or increased, as the case may be, the amount of tax
credit allowed under this section shall also be increased or
reduced accordingly.

159

LESSON 21:
COMPANIES - COMPUTATION OF TAXABLE INCOME
Lesson Objective

To know what we mean by Company for the purpose of

Income Tax.

To know how to calculate Taxable income and tax liability.

To know what are the specific provisions of carry forward

and set off of losses in the cases of certain companies

Every assessee has to pay tax if its income above taxable

income. In case of a company it has to pay tax at the rates
prescribed in the Finance Act 2003 for the assessment year 200405.
At the end of this course pack table showing Tax rates and
depreciation rates is given.
Companies are required to pay tax as a separate entity.
Here we will deal with computation of total income and tax
liability of companies.
Before going further we should know the nature and definitions of different kinds of companies as given by the Act.
For the purpose of assessment of companies the following
definitions are important:

Company [Sec. 2(17)]

Under section 2(17) the expression company is defined to
mean the following:
a. Any Indian company; or
b. Any body corporate incorporated under the laws of a foreign
country, or
c. Any institution, association or body which is assessed or was
assessable/assessed as a company for any assessment year
commencing on or before April 1, 1970, or
d. Any institution, association or body, whether incorporated or
not and whether Indian or non-Indian, which is declared by
general or special order of the Central Board of Direct Taxes
to be a company.

Indian Company [Sec. 2(26)]

An Indian company means a company formed and registered
under the Companies Act, 1956. Besides, it includes the
following:
a. A company formed and registered under any law relating to
companies formerly in force in any part of India other than
the State of Jammu and Kashmir and the Union territories
specified in (e) intra ;
b. A corporation established by or under a Central, State or
Provincial Act;
c. Any institution, association or body which is declared by the
Board to be a company under section 2(17) ;
d. A company formed. and registered under any law in force in
the State of Jammu and Kashmir; and

160

e. A company formed and registered under any law for the time
being in force in the Union territories of Dadra and Nagar
Haveli, Goa, Daman and Diu and Pondicherry.
In the aforesaid cases, a company, corporation, institution,
association or body will be treated as an Indian company only if
its registered office is in India.

Domestic Company
Domestic company means an Indian company or any other
company which, in respect of its-income liable to tax under the
Act, has made prescribed arrangements for the declaration and
payment of dividends within India in accordance with section
194.
Foreign Company
Foreign company means a company which is not a domestic
company.
Industrial Company [Sec. 2(8)(c) of the Finance Act, 1985]

Industrial company means a company which is mainly engaged

in the business of generation or distribution of electricity, or
any other form of power or in the construction of ships or in
the manufacture or processing of goods or in mining. By virtue
of the Explanation to section 2(8)(c), a company is deemed to
be mainly engaged in the business of generation or distribution
of electricity or any other form of power or in construction of
ships or in the manufacture or processing of goods or in
mining if the income attributable to anyone or more of the
aforesaid activities, included in its total income of the previous
year (before allowing deductions under sections 80CCC to 80U)
is not less than 51 per cent of such total income. However, the
Board, in its Circular No. 103, dated February 17, 1973, while
clarifying the meaning of a similar Explanation to section 2(7)(d)
of the Finance Act, 1966, defines industrial company as :
a. A company which is mainly engaged in the business of
generation or distribution of electricity or any other form of
power or in the construction of ships or in the manufacture
or processing of goods or in mining even if its total income
from such activities is less than 51 per cent of its total
income; and
b. A company which even though not mainly so engaged,
derives in any year 51 per cent or more of its income from
such activities.
Company in Which the Public are Substantially Interested
[Sec. 2(18)]

For the purpose of the Act, a company is regarded as company

in which the public are substantially interested in the following
cases :
1. Owned by Government / RBI- A company owned by the
Government or the Reserve Bank or, in which not less than
40 per cent shares are held by the Government or the Reserve
Bank or a corporation owned by the Reserve Bank.

2. Section 25 companies- A company registered under section

25 of the Companies Act, 1956 namely companies for
promotion of commerce, art, science, religion, charity and
prohibiting the payment of any dividends to its members.
3. Company without share capital - A company having no
share capital and it is declared by the Central Board of Direct
Taxes to be a company in which the public are substantially
interested.
4. Nidhi / Mutual Benefit Society A company which carries
on, as its principal business, the business of acceptance of
deposits from its members and which is declared by the
Central Government under section 620A of the Companies
Act to be a Nidhi or a Mutual Benefit Society.
5. Company owned by a co-operative society -A company
where shares carrying not less than 50 per cent of the voting
power have been allotted unconditionally to, or acquired
unconditionally by, and are throughout the relevant previous
year held by one or more co-operative societies.
6. Listed company -A company which is not a private company
and its equity shares are, as on the last day of the previous
year, listed in a recognised stock exchange in India.
7. Public limited company owned by Government and/or a
widely held company -A company which is not a private
company and whose equity shares, carrying not less than 50
per cent (40 per cent in the case of industrial companies) of
the voting power, are held by the Government, a statutory
corporation, or another widely-held company or a whollyowned subsidiary of such company.

Widely-held Company
A company in which the public are substantially interested is
known as a widely-held company.
Closely-held Company
A company in which the public are not substantially interested
is known as a closely-held company.
As we have already discussed that residential status of a person
plays a very important role in deciding the tax incidence. We also
studied the conditions specified by the Act with respect to the
residential status of the Company. So we will directly go to
Computation of Taxable income and Tax liability.
Taxable Income and Tax Liability
It is determined as under :
1. First ascertain income under the different heads of income.
2. Income of other persons may be included in the income of
the company under sections 60 and61.
3. Current and brought forward losses should be adjusted
according to the provisions of sections 70 to 80. See
Provisions of section 79 regarding set off and carry forward
of losses of closing held companies.
4. The total of income so computed under different heads is
Gross Total Income.
5. From the gross total income so computed, the following
deductions are permissible under Chapter VI-A :

Section
80G
80GGA
80HHB
80HHBA
80HHC
80HHD
80HHE
80HHF
80-IA
80-IB
80JJA
80JJAA
80M
80-0

Nature of deduction
Donations to charitable institutions and funds.
Donations for scientific research for rural
development.
Profits and gains from projects outside India.
Profits and gains from housing projects.
Profits and gains from export turnover.
Earnings in convertible foreign exchange.
Profits from export of computer software.
Profits from export of film software.
Profits and gains from industrial undertakings
engaged in infrastructure, etc.
Profits and gains from certain industrial
undertakings other than infrastructure
development undertakings.
Profits from the business of collecting and
processing of bio-degradable waste.
Employment of new workmen.
Inter-corporate dividends.
Royalty received from foreign enterprises.

6. The resulting sum is net income.

7. Compute the tax liability on income chargeable to tax. It may
be noted that there is no exemption limit. Generally, the
following tax rates are applicable for the assessment year
2004-05.
Particulars

Long term Capital Gain

Winnings from lotteries
Other Income

Domestic Companies
Tax Rate (1) Surcharge(2
)
20%
0.5%
30%
0.75%
35%
0.875%

Total (3)
[1+2]
20.5%
30.75%
35.875%

Foreign Companies
Tax
Surcharge(5)
Rate(4)
20%
0.5%
30%
0.75%
40%
1%

Total(6)
[4+5]
20.5%
30.75%
41%

8. From the tax so computed, tax rebates or tax credit under

section 86, 90, 91 and 115JAA should be deducted.
9. The tax liability so computed cannot be lower than the
following by virtue of section 115JB

Domestic company
Foreign company

Income-tax
7.596 of
book profit
7.5% of
book profit

Surcharge
0.187596 of
book profit
0.1875% of
book profit

Total
7.687596 of
book profit
7.6875% of
book profit

Specific Provisions of Carry Forward and Set Off of Losses

in the Cases of Certain Companies [Sec. 79]

In the case of companies in which the public are not substantially interested, loss will not be carried forward and set off
unless the shares of the company carrying not less than 51 per
cent of the voting power were beneficially held by the same
person(s) both on the last day of the previous year in which
loss occurred and on the last day of the previous year in which
brought forward loss is sought to be set off.
Where a change in voting power of more than 51 per cent of
the shareholding of a closely held company has taken place
between two relevant dates (viz., the last day of the year in
which the loss incurred and the last day of previous year in

161

which set off is claimed), the assessee will not be entitled to the
benefit of set off.

Exceptions
The aforesaid rule is not applicable in the following two cases :
1. Where a change in the voting power takes place in a previous
year consequent upon the death of a shareholder or on
account of transfer of shares by way of gift to any relative of
the shareholder making such gift, the aforesaid restriction
contained under section 79 will not apply.
2. Provisions of section 79, are applicable only in the case of
carry forward of losses. As carry forward of unabsorbed
depreciation allowance, capital expenditure on scientific
research or family planning stands on altogether different
footings, their carry forward and set off are not governed by
section 79-CIT v. Concord Industries Ltd. [1979] 119 ITR 458
(Mad.).
3. Section 79 has been amended with effect from the
assessment year 2000-01. After the amendment, section 79
shall not apply to any change in the shareholding of an
Indian company which is a subsidiary of a foreign company
arising as a result of amalgamation or demerger of a foreign
company subject to the condition that fifty-one per cent of
the shareholders of the amalgamating or demerged foreign
company continue to remain the shareholders of the
amalgamated or the resulting foreign company.
For Instance: Say, X and Y are two shareholders of Z Ltd., a
closely held company. X holds 55 per cent share capital. On
January 30, 2004, X transfers his shares to A. Z Ltd. wants to
set off brought forward loss of Rs. 4,00,000 (business loss: Rs.
1,00,000; unadjusted depreciation: Rs. 3,00,000) of the previous
year 2002-03 against the income of the previous year 2003.04
(i.e., Rs. 9Iakh). Can it do so?
Ans: Z Ltd. is a closely-held company in which shareholders
having 51 per cent voting right on March 31, 2003 and March
31,2004 are not the same. Consequently, section 79 is applicable.
Unadjusted depreciation can be set off but not brought
forward loss. Income of the previous year 2003-04 will be Rs. 6
lakh (i.e., Rs, 9 lakh - Rs. 3 lakh).
Students you might have heard a lot of VAT, CENVAT and
MAT. But do you know what they stand for ? whether they all
have any connection between them? Are you eager to know
about it .
Ok VAT means Value Added Tax and CENVAT means
Central Value Added.
But what about MAT? Here we will discuss only about MAT.
Minimum Alternate Tax [Sec.115JB]
Section 115JA is applicable for the assessment years 1997-98 to
2000-01. It provides that in the case of a company, where the
total income as computed under the Act is less than 30 per cent
of the book profit, the total income of such assessee shall be
deemed to be 30 per cent of the book profit. Section 115JB is
applicable from the assessment year 2001-02.
Bookprofit - How to determine [Sec. 115JB] - Net profit as
per profit and loss account (after 13 adjustments) is book
profit.

162

Assessing officers power to alter net profit: Only in the

following two cases the Assessing Officer can rewrite the profit
and loss account :

If profit and loss account is not prepared according to

the Companies Act - If it is discovered that the profit and
loss account is not drawn up in accordance with the
provisions of Parts II and III of the Sixth Schedule to the
Companies Act, the Assessing Officer can recalculate the net
profit.

If accounting policies, accounting standards or rates/

method of depreciation are different - According to the
first proviso to section 115JB(2) the accounting policies, the
accounting standards adopted for preparing such accounts,
the method and rates of depreciation which have been
adopted for preparation of the profit and loss account laid
before the annual general meeting should be followed while
preparing profit and loss account for the purpose of
computing book profit under section 1I5JB.

Some companies follow an accounting year under the Companies Act which is different from financial year (i.e., previous year
ending March 31) under the Income-tax Act. These companies
generally prepare two sets of accounts - one for the Companies
Act and another for the Income-tax Act. Different accounting
policies/standards, and method or rate of depreciation are
adopted in two sets of account so that higher profit is reported
to shareholders and lower profit is disclosed to tax authorities.
To curb the aforesaid practice, second proviso to section
115JB(2) has been incorporated to ensure that accounting
policies, accounting standards, depreciation method and rates
of depreciation for two sets of account shall be the same. In
case it is not so, the Assessing Officer can recalculate net profit
after adopting the same accounting policies, accounting
standards and depreciation method and rates which have been
adopted for reporting profit to shareholders.
Thirteen adjustments to net profit to convert it into book
profit:
Net profit as shown in profit and loss account (prepared in
accordance with the provisions of Parts II and III of the Sixth
Schedule to the Companies Act) is to be increased by the
following amounts if debited to the profit and loss account:
a. The amount of income-tax paid or payable, and the
provision therefore; or
b. The amounts carried to any reserves, by whatever name called
(other than reserve created under section 33AC from the
assessment year 2003-04); or
c. The amount or amounts set aside to provisions made for
meeting liabilities, other than ascertained liabilities; or
d. The amount by way of provision for losses of subsidiary
companies; or
e. The amount or amounts of dividends paid or proposed; or
f. The amount or amounts of expenditure relatable to any
income to which section 10 or 10A or 10B or 11 or 12 apply.
Statutory deductions to be made to ascertain book profit Net profit as shown by the profit and loss account (prepared in
accordance with the provisions of Parts II and III of the Sixth

Schedule to the Companies Act) is to be reduced by the

following amounts:
a. the amount withdrawn from reserves or provisions, if any
such amount is credited to the profit and loss account.
However, (a.) the amount withdrawn from any reserve
created before April 1, 1997 otherwise than by way of a debit
to the profit and loss account, shall not be reduced from the
book profits; and (b) the amount withdrawn from any
reserves or provisions created on or after April 1, 1997, which
are credited to the profit and loss account, shall not be
reduced from the book profits, unless the book profits were
increased by the amount transferred to such reserves or
provisions in the year of creation of such reserves (out of
which the said amount was withdrawn);
b. The amount of income to which any of the provisions of
section 10 or 10A or 10B or 11 or 12 apply, if any such
amount is credited to the profit and loss account; or
c. The amount of loss brought forward or unabsorbed
depreciation, whichever is less, as per books of account
[loss for this purpose does not include depreciation and,
therefore, in a case where the assessee has shown profit in a
year, but after adjustment of depreciation, it results in loss,
no adjustment in book profit is allowed; where the value of
the amount of either loss brought forward or unabsorbed
depreciation is nil, no amount on account of such loss
brought forward or unabsorbed depreciation would be
reduced from net profit] ; or
d. The amount of profit eligible for deduction under section
80HRC ; or
e. The amount of profit eligible for deduction under section
80HHE ; or
f. The amount of profit eligible for deduction under section
80HHF ; or
g. The amount of profits of sick industrial company for the
assessment year commencing from the assessment year
relevant to the previous year in which the said company has
become a sick industrial company under section 17(1) of the
Sick Industrial Companies (Special Provisions) Act, 1985 and
ending with the assessment year during which the entire net
worth (i.e., paid-up capital plus free reserves) of such
company becomes equal to or exceeds the accumulated losses
[free reserves for this purpose means all reserves credited
out of the profits and share premium account but does not
include reserves credited out of re-evaluation of assets, write
back of depreciation provisions and amalgamation).

Report from a Chartered Accountant

Every company to which section 115JB applies, shall furnish a
report (in Form No. 29B) from a chartered accountant certifying
that the book profit has been computed in accordance with the
provisions of section 115JB along with the return of income
filed under section 139(1) or along with the return of income
furnished in response to a notice under section 142(1)(1).
Loss Which can be Carried Forward
In respect of the relevant previous year, the amount determined
under the provisions of sub-section (2) of section 32 or subsection (3) of section 32A or clause (ii) of sub-section (1) of
section 73 or section 73 or section 74 or subsection (3) of
section 74A, shall be allowed to be carried forward to the
subsequent year or years.
Tax credit - Section 115JAA is applicable for the assessment
years 1997-98 to 2000-01 which provides a tax credit scheme by
which minimum alternate tax (MAT) paid can be carried
forward for set off against regular tax payable during the
subsequent five-year period subject to certain conditions, as
under :
1. When a company pays tax under MAT, the tax credit earned
by it shall be an amount which is the difference between the
amount payable under MAT and the regular tax. Regular tax
in this case means the tax payable on the basis of normal
computation of total income of the company.
2. MAT credit will be allowed carry forward facility for a period
of five assessment years immediately succeeding the
assessment year in which MAT is paid. Unabsorbed MAT
credit will be allowed to be accumulated subject to the fiveyear carry forward limit.
3. In the assessment year when regular tax becomes payable, the
difference between the regular tax and the tax computed
under MAT for that year will be set off against the MAT
credit available.
4. The credit allowed will not bear any interest.The rationale for
allowing credit in respect of taxes paid under MAT in the
aforesaid manner is that a company should always pay a
minimum tax. The above method will ensure that the
company will always pay a minimum tax even while
offsetting the MAT credit against regular tax.
It may be noted that tax credit in respect of MAT under section
115JB is not available.
The following case study is given to have a better understanding
of the provisions of section 115JAA discussed above.

Minimum Tax
In the case of a company if tax payable as computed under
other provisions (i.e., all provisions ignoring section 115JB) is
lower than the amount given below, then (a) book profit is
deemed as taxable income, and (b) the amount given below is
taken as tax payable by the company :
Particulars

Domestic Company
Non- domestic company

Income tax
as % of
book profit
7.50
7.50

Surcharge for the

assessment year 2004-05 (
as a % of book Profit)
0.1875
0.1875

Total for the assessment

year 2004-05 (as a
percentage of book profit)
7.6875
7.6875

163

Sr. No.
1
2

Book Profit

667

1000

Assessment Year
(Rs. in ooo)
1467
267
1662.5

30% of book Profit

200

300

440

80

3
4

Taxable income(ignoring sec. 115JA

Tax on (2) up ot the assessment year 2000-01.
From the assessment year 2001-02 onwards tax
on (1) @ 7.5% plus surcharge
Tax on (3)

105

280

480

(-)20

400

220

86

105

154

30.8

140.90

73.98

131.28

45.15

98

168

Nil

158.2

78.54

330.75

Yes
(200203)

Yes
(200304)

No

Yes
(200506)

No

No

40.85

Nil

30.80

N.A.

N.A.

N.A.

40.85

47.85

47.85

64.65

64.65

47.35

37.80

NA

NA

Yes

NA

Yes

Yes

NA

NA

14

NA

17.3

4.56

37.8

NA
40.85
86

NA
47.85
105

Nil
33.85
154

NA
64.65
30.8

NIL
47.35
140.9

4.99
37.8
73.98

NIL
NIL
292.95

5
6

Particulars

Whether tax credit is

Available (up to which
Assessment year it can be
carried forward for
being set off)

7
8
9

10

11
12
13

Amount of credit which

is available [i.e., (4)-(5)]
Cumulative credit for being
set off
Whether brought forward
tax credit can be set ofld uring
the current year [only if (5) is
more than (4)]
Maximun amt. Whch can be set off during the
current year [i.e. the excess of (5) over (4)
subject to maximum of (8)
Credit which is lapsed
How much can be carried forward i.e. (8-9-11)
Tax payable for the current year

967

1667
900

No

Yes

Note: Tax under steps (4) and (5) has been calculated at the rate
of 43 per cent for the assessment year 1997-98,35 per cent for
the assessment years 1998-99 and 1999-2000,38.5 per cent for
the assessment year 2000-01, 39.55 per cent for the assessment
year 2001-02, 35.70 per cent for the assessment year 200203 and
36.75 per cent for the assessment year 2003-04.

For tax purposes the company wants to claim the following:

Practical Problems
Prob.1: X Ltd. is engaged in the business of manufacture of
garments. Profit and Loss account for the year ending March 31,
2004 is as follows:

He company wants to set off the following losses/allowances:

Particulars
Sale proceeds of goods (domestic sale)
Sale proceeds of goods (Export sale)
Amount withdrawn from general reserve(reserve was
created in 1994-95 by dr. to P& L A/c.)
Total
Less: Expenses
Depreciation
Salary and Wages
Income Tax
Outstanding customs duty ( not paid as yet )
Proposed dividend
Consultation fees paid to a tax expert
Other Expenses
Net Profit

164

Rs.
2223900
576100
200000
3000000
616000
210000
350000
17500
60000
21000
139000
1586500

Deduction u/s 80HHC, foreign exchange remittance :

Rs.500000.00
Deduction u/s 80IB(30% of Rs. 1586500)
Depreciation u/s 32 (Rs.536000)
Particulars

For tax
purpose
Rs.

For accounting
purpose
Rs.

Brought forward loss of 1998-99

14,80,000

4,00,000

Nil

70,000

Unabsorbed depreciation

Compute the net income and tax liability of X Ltd. for the
assessment year 2004-05 assuming that X Ltd. gets a long-term
capital gain of Rs. 60,000 which is not credited in profit and loss
account.
Ans:
Computation of net Income and Tax liability:

Particulars
Net Profit as per P & L A/c.
Add:
Excess depreciation ( i.e.Rs.616000- Rs.536000)
Income Tax
Customs duty which is not paid
Proposed dividend
Total
Less: Amt. Withdrawn from Reserve
Business Income
Less: Unabsorbed loss
Business Income
Long term capital gain
Gross total Income
Less: Deductions unde chapter VI A.
1. U/s 80HHC 30% of ( Rs.1894000* Rs.500000/Rs.2800000)
2. U/s 80 IB 30% of Rs. 414000/Net Income rounded off
Tax Liability (under normal provisions ) (20% of Rs.60000 +
35% of Rs.188340+2.5% of Tax as surcharge)
Book Profit
Net Profit
Add:
Income Tax
Proposed Dividend
Less: Amt. Withdrawn from Reserve
Unabsorbed depreciation
Amt. Deductible u/s 80HHC
Book Profit
Tax Liability (7.6875% of book profit)

Rs.
1586500
80000
350000
17500
60000
2094000
200000
1894000
1480000
414000
60000
474000
101464
124200
248340
79867
1586500
350000
60000
200000
70000
101464
1625036
124925

X Ltd. will pay Rs. 124925.00 as Tax for the A.Y.2004-2005. As

per section 115JB no tax credit is available in respect of MAT
u/s 115JB.
Special Provisions Relating to Tax on Distributed Profits
of Domestic Companies

Sections 115-O, 115-P and 115-Q are applicable for the period
from June I, 1997 to March 31,2002 and for the period
commencing from April 1, 2003. The provisions of these
sections are given below :
1. The amount declared, distributed or paid by a domestic
company by way of dividend is chargeable to dividend tax
during June 1, 1997 and March 31, 2002 and from April 1,
2003 onwards. The recipient of dividend is exempt from tax
under section 10. The amount of dividend tax from the
financial year 2001-02 is as follows :
Particulars

April 1,2001 to May 31, 2001

June 1,2001 to March 31, 2002
April 1, 2002 to March 31, 2003
April 1, 2003 onwards

Dividend
tax (as a
% of
Dividend)
20
10
NA
12.5

Surcharge
(as a % of
Dividend)
0.40
0.20
NA
0.3125

Total (as
a % of
Dividend
)
20.40
10.20
NA
12.8125

2. Tax on dividend shall be payable even if no tax is payable on

income.
3. The principal officer of the company and the company shall
be liable to pay income-tax to the credit of the Central

Government within fourteen days from the date of

declaration, distribution or payment of dividend (whichever
is earliest). If the principal officer and the company fail to so
pay the income-tax to the credit of the Central Government,
he or it shall be liable to pay simple interest at the rate of 1 %
per cent every month or the part thereof on such amount of
tax which he failed to pay to the credit of the Central
Government and such principal officer and the company
who does not pay the income-tax within fourteen days shall
be deemed to be an assessee in default in respect of the
amount of tax payable by him.
4. No deduction under any of the provisions of the Act shall
be allowed to the company or shareholder in respect of the
dividend income or tax thereon. The additional income-tax
so paid by the company shall be treated as the final payment
of tax in respect of the amount distributed and no further
credit for such tax shall be claimed either by the company or
by any other assessee.
5. The expression dividend in the above paras shall have the
same meaning as is given to dividend in section 2(22) but
shall not include sub-clause (e) to section 2(22).
Tax on Distributed Income to Unit Holders [Sec. 115R,
115S and 115T]

Sections 115R, 115S and 115T are applicable from June 1, 1999
to March 31,2002 and from April 1, 2003.
The provisions of these sections and section 10(33) are given
below:
1. The income distributed to a unit holder of the Unit Trust of
India or a Mutual Fund shall be chargeable to tax under
section IISR at a flat rate of 12.S per cent (plus surcharge
@2.5% of tax) from April 1, 2003 payable by the Unit Trust
of India or the Mutual Fund, as the case may be. This tax
liability of the Unit Trust of India or Mutual Funds is
notwithstanding the existing provisions of the Unit Trust
of India Act, 1963, which states that the Unit Trust of India
is not liable to tax on its income, profits or gains, or section
10(23D) which exempts the income of a Mutual Fund from
income-tax.
2. The tax under section 115R shall not be chargeable in respect
of any income distributed to the unit holders of the Unit
Scheme, 1964 of the Unit Trust of India or any other openended equity oriented fund in respect of income distributed
under such schemes for a period of one financial year
commencing from the April 1, 2003. For this purpose an
open ended equity oriented fund is such a fund where the
investible funds are invested by way of equity shares in
domestic companies to the extent of more than 50 per cent
of the total proceeds of such fund.
The percentage of equity share holding of the fund shall be
computed with reference to the annual average of the
monthly averages of the opening and closing figures.
3. The recipient of income will not be chargeable to tax whether
the income comes under (1) or (2) supra.
4. The person responsible for making the payment of income
distributed by the UTI or a Mutual Fund and the UTI or the
Mutual Fund itself, as the case may be, shall be liable to pay
165

the tax to the credit of the Central Government within 14

days from the date of distribution or payment of such
income, whichever is earlier.
5. No deduction under any other provision of the Act shall be
allowed to the Unit Trust of India or to a Mutual Fund in
respect of the income which has been charged to the
aforesaid tax.
6. If the person or UTI or Mutual Fund liable to make the
payment fails to so pay the tax to the credit of the Central
Government, he or it shall be liable to pay simple interest at
the rate of 1 per cent every month or part thereof on such
amount of tax which has not been paid or was not paid in
time.
7. If the person or UTI or Mutual Fund liable to make the
payment fails to so pay the tax to the credit of the Central
Government, he or it shall be deemed to be an assessee in
default in respect of the amount of tax payable and all the
provisions of the Act for the collection and recovery of
income-tax shall apply.
8. The person responsible for making payment of the income
distributed by the Unit Trust of India or the Mutual Fund
and the Unit Trust of India or the Mutual Fund, as the case
may be, shall be liable to file a statement in Form No. 63 (in
case of UTI) or Form No. 63A (in case of a mutual fund).
The statement should be submitted on or before September
15 giving details of amount distributed during the
immediately preceding previous year.
Tax on Income Received from Venture Capital Companies
and Venture Capital Funds [Sec. 115U]

Section 115U has been introduced with effect from the assessment year 2001-02. The provisions of this section are given
below :
1. Any income received by a person out of investments made
in a venture capital company or venture capital fund shall be
chargeable to income-tax in the same manner as if it were the
income received by such person had he made investments
directly in the venture capital undertaking. .
2. The person responsible for making payment of the income
on behalf of a venture capital company or a venture capital
fund and the venture capital company or venture capital fund
shall furnish Form No. 64. It shall be furnished by
November 30 of the financial year following the previous
year during which income is distributed. It shall be furnished
to the person receiving such income and to the prescribed
income-tax authority (i.e., the Chief Commissioner or
Commissioner of Income-tax, within whose jurisdiction,
the principal office of the Venture Capital Company or the
Venture Capital Fund, as the case may be is situated).
3. The income paid by the venture capital company and the
venture capital fund shall be deemed to be of the same
nature and in the same proportion in the hands of the
person receiving such income as it had been received by, or
had accrued to, the venture capital company or the venture
capital fund, as the case may be, during the previous year.

166

4. The provisions of Chapter XII-D or Chapter XII-E or

Chapter XVII-B shall not apply to the income paid by a
venture capital company or venture capital fund.
Now we will see objective type of questions.

Objective Type Problems

A. The tax rate applicable in case of domestic company is - (1)
35 per cent; (2) 35.7 per cent; (3) 48 per cent; (4) 35.875 per
cent; or (5) 41 per cent.
Ans: 35.875 per cent.
B. As per the provisions of section 115JB, the tax liability of a
domestic company cannot be lower than - (1) 30 per cent of
book profit; (2) 30 per cent of net profit as per Profit and
Loss A/c; (3) 40 per cent of book profit; (4) 7.6875 per cent
of book profit; or (5) 8.25 per cent of book profit.
Ans: 7.6875% of book profit.
Self Study Questions
Here are some questions for self study.
1. What are the salient features of assessment of companies
under the Income-tax Act, 1961 ? Discuss in this connection
the companies in which the public are substantially
interested and their tax liability.
2. What do you mean by a company in which public are
substantially interested? Describe the concessions that are
available to such companies under the Income-tax Act, 1961.
3. How would you determine tax incidence in the following
cases:
a.
Dividend received by a domestic company from a
domestic company.
b.
Dividend received by a foreign company from a
domestic company.
c.
Dividend received by a domestic company from a
foreign company.
4. How would you tax long-term capital gains in the case of a
company?

LESSON 22:
ADVANCE PAYMENT OF TAX
Lesson Objective

To know Liability for payment of Advance Tax.

To know Conditions of Liability to pay Advance Tax.

To know Computation and Payment of Advance Tax where

the calculation is made by the assessee himself.

To know Payment of advance tax.

To know Net agricultural income to be taken into account for

computing advance tax.

Hello, today I like to introduce you to the concept of advance

tax. We will study what are the legal provisions as specified by
the Act. When one has to pay advance tax? How is advance tax
calculated? But before we start do you know - what is advance
tax?
Very simple advance tax ,as the name itself suggests, is an tax
that is paid in advance.
Advance payment of tax is another method of collection of tax
by the Central Government in the form of pre-paid taxes. Such
advance tax is in addition to deduction of tax at source or
collection of tax at source. Scheme of advance payment of tax is
alsoknownasPayasyouEarnschemei.e., the assessee is
required to pay tax during the course of earning of income in
the previous year itself, though such income is chargeable to tax
during the assessment year. Advance tax is payable on current
income in instalments during the previous year.
But now the question arises who should pay advance tax? The
liability for payment of advance tax is given in section 207 of
the Act.

Liability for Payment of Advance Tax

(Section 207)
As per the various provisions of advance tax (sections 208 to
219), tax shall be payable in advance during the financial year in
respect of the total income of the assessee which would be
chargeable to tax for the assessment year immediately following
that financial year. Such total income shall be referred to as
Current income in this Chapter. We know that income earned
during the financial year 2002-03 shall be charged to tax in the
assessment year 2003-04. But the assessee is required to pay tax,
in advance, on the taxable income of financial year 2002-03
during the financial year 2002-03 itself.
What are the conditions on whoses satisfaction one is required
to pay advance tax?

Conditions of Liability to Pay Advance Tax

(Section 208)
Advance Tax, as computed in accordance with the provisions of
this Chapter, shall be payable during a financial year, only when
the amount of such advance tax payable by the assessee during
that year is Rs. 5,000 or more.

Now the obvious question you will ask is how to calculate the
amount payable by wayof advance tax. For this section 209 will
help us.

Computation and Payment of Advance Tax Where

the Calculation is Made by the Assessee Himself
(Section 209)
The amount of advance tax payable by an assessee in the
financial year on his own accord shall be computed as follows:
Step I - Estimate the current income of the financial year for
which the advance tax is payable.
Step II - Compute tax on such estimated current income at the
rate(s) of tax given under Part III of the First Schedule of the
relevant Finance Act.
Step III -From tax so computed, deduct the rebate, if any, likely
to be allowed under sections 88, 88B and 88C.
Step IV - On the net tax computed at Step III, add surcharge as
applicable and allow relief, if any, under section 89.
Step V - Deduct the tax deductible or collectable at source
during the financial year from any income (as computed before
allowing deduction admissible under the Act) which has been
taken into account in computing the current income.
Step VI - The balance amount is the advance tax payable
provided it is Rs. 5,000 or more. However, it will be payable in
certain instalments.
Estimated current income means estimate of income likely to
be earned during the current previous year under five heads of
income. Thereafter, set off brought forward losses. From such
estimated gross total income deductions likely to be claimed
under sections 80CCC to 80U will be deducted.
What Constitutes Current Income?
Current income will include all items of income. It includes
capital gains (both long-term and short-term), winnings from
lotteries, crossword puzzles, etc. For computation of advance
tax on the current non-agricultural income, even agricultural
income will be included for rate purposes, wherever as per
provisions of the Income-tax Act, it is required to be so
included

Payment of Advance Tax

A. By the Assessee on His Own Accord Under
Section 210(1)
Every person who is liable to pay advance tax under section 208
(whether or not he has been previously assessed by way of
regular assessment) shall, of his own accord, pay, on or before
each of the due dates specified in section 211, the appropriate
percentage, specified in that section, of the advance tax on his
current income, calculated in the manner laid down in section
209.

167

A person who pays any instalment or instalments of advance

tax under sub-section (1), may increase or reduce the amount of
advance tax payable in the remaining instalment or instalments
to accord with his estimate of his current income and the
advance tax payable thereon, and make payment of the said
amount in the remaining instalment or instalments accordingly.

revised order, the assessee will have to pay advance tax accordingly. Such sum shall be payable at the appropriate percentages
on or before the due dates specified in section 211 falling after
the date of amended order.

B. Payment of Advance Tax in Pursuance of an

Order/amended Order of Assessing Officer Under
Sections 210(3) & 210(4)
Although it is mandatory for the assessee to calculate and pay
advance tax, the Assessing Officer may pass an order under
section 210(3) or amended order under section 210(4) and issue
a notice of demand under section 156 requiring the assessee to
pay advance tax. Such order can be passed by Assessing Officer
on the assessee, only when the following conditions are
satisfied:
i. The assessee has already been assessed by way of a regular
assessment in respect of the Total Income of any previous
year;
ii. Such notice can be issued whether the assessee has paid any
instalment of advance tax or not;
iii. The Assessing Officer is of the opinion that such person is
liable to pay advance tax;
iv. Such order can be passed at any time during the financial year,
but not later than the last day of February.
v. Such order must be made in writing.
vi. The notice of demand should specify the amount of
advance tax and the instalment or instalments in which such
advance tax is to be paid.

On receipt of the order/amended order to pay advance tax

from the Assessing Officer, the assessee, if in his estimation,
the advance tax payable on his current income would be less
than the amount of the advance tax specified in such order/
amended order, can submit his own estimate of lower current
income and pay advance tax on the basis of his estimation at
appropriate percentages on or before the due dates specified in
section 211 falling after the date of order/amended order. In
such a case, the assessee will have to send an intimation in Form
No. 28A to the Assessing Officer on or before the due date of
last instalment specified in section 211. Further, if the assessee
estimates that current income is likely to be higher than the
amount estimated by the Assessing Officer in the order/
amended order or in the intimation sent by him under section
210(5), the assessee shall pay whole of such higher tax according
to his own estimate on or before the due date of each instalment specified in section 211. In this case, there is no need to
send an intimation on Form No. 28A to the Assessing Officer.

Computation of Tax by Assessing Officer [Section

209(l)(b) Read with Section 209(2)(a)]

The Assessing Officer, for determining the advance tax payable

by the assessee, shall take the current income of the assessee to
be the higher of the following two:
a. The Total Income of the latest previous year in respect of
which the assessee has been assessed by way of regular
assessment; or
b. The Total Income returned by the assessee for any previous
year subsequent to the previous year for which regular
assessment has been made.

Assessee can Submit his Own Estimate [Section 210(5)

and (6) and Rule 39]:

Where the assessee has paid the advance tax as per the order
made by the Assessing Officer under section 210. the assessee
shall still be liable to pay the interest under section 2348 & 234C,
if the advance tax is not paid as per the requirements of section
211.
If the estimate made by the assessee in Form No. 28A is not
correct, then the assessee shall be deemed to be an assessee in
default and shall be liable to pay interest and penalty under
sections 220 and 221 respectively.
Net Agricultural Income to be Taken Into Account for
Computing Advance Tax [Section 209(2)]

The amount of advance tax payable by an assessee in the

financial year calculated by:
i. The assessee on his own accord by estimate in current
income; or
ii. The Assessing Officer in pursuance of order under section
210(3) or revised order under section 210(4).

Tax on current income at the rate in force during the financial

year will be calculated by the Assessing Officer. From such tax
calculated, the amount of income-tax which would be deductible or collectable at source during the said financial year shall be
reduced and the amount of income-tax as so reduced shall be
the advance tax payable.

is subject to the provisions of section 209(2), which states

that the net agricultural income is to be taken in to account for
the purpose of computation of advance tax.

Amendment of Order for Payment of Advance Tax

[Section 210(4)]

In the case of non-company assessees, advance tax has to be

paid in three instalments. However, in the case of a company
assessee, advance tax is payable in four instalments. The relevant
due dates of instalments are given below

If, after making the above order, by the Assessing Officer, but
before 1st March, (a) a return of income is furnished by the
assessee under section 139 or in response to a notice under
section 142(1), or (b) a regular assessment of the assessee is
made, in respect of a previous year later than referred to in subsection (3), for any higher figure, the Assessing Officer may
make an amended order to pay advance tax. On receipt of the
168

In order to know the due dates for payment of advance tax we

will go to section 211 of the Act.
Instalments of Advance Tax and Due Dates (Section 211)

Table 1
For Company Assessees
Due date of instalments Amount Payable
1. On or before the
15th June

Not less than 15% of

advance tax liability

2. On or before the
15th September.

Not less than 45% of advance tax

liability, as reduced by the amount,
if any, paid in the earlier instalment.

3. On or before the
15th December

Not less than 75% of advance tax

liability, as reduced by the
amount(s) if any, paid in the earlier
instalment(s)

4. On or before the
15th March

The whole amount of advance tax

liability as reduced by the
amount(s) if any, paid in the earlier
instalment(s)
TABLE 2

For Non-company Assessees

Due date of instalments Amount Payable
1. On or before the
15th September.

Not less than 30% of advance tax

liability;

2. On or before the
15th December

Not less than 60% of advance tax

liability, as reduced by the amount,
if any, paid in the earlier instalment

3. On or before the
15th March

The whole amount of advance tax

liability as reduced by the mount(s)
if any, paid in the earlier
instalments

We should also keep the following important points in mind:

1. Although, last date of payment of whole amount of
advance tax is 15th March of the relevant financial year, but
any amount paid by way of advance tax on or before the 31
st March shall also be treated as Advance Tax paid for that
financial year. The assessee will, however, be liable to pay
interest on the late payment.
2. If the advance tax is payable on the basis of order/amended
order passed by the Assessing Officer which is served after
any of the due dates specified above, the appropriate
amount or the whole amount of the advance tax, as the case
may be, specified in such order, shall be payable on or before
each of such of those dates as fall after the date of service of
the order.
3. After making the payment of 1st/2nd instalment of advance
tax, the assessee can increase/decrease the amount of
remaining instalments of advance tax in accordance with his
revised estimates of Current income. In this case, he will
have to pay interest for short-payment of earlier instalments.
4. If the last day for payment of any instalments of advance
tax is a day on which receiving bank is closed, the assessee can
make the payment on the next immediately following
working day, and in such cases, the mandatory interest
leviable under sections 2348 and 234C would not be charged.
[Circular No. 676, dated 14 January, 1994]

Problem
Compute the Advance Tax payable by R from the following
estimated income submitted for the financial year 2003-04:
1. Income from Salary before standard deduction
96,000
2. Rent from house property(per annum)
41,000
3. Interest on Government securities
5,000
4. Interest on bank deposits
3,000
5. Income from horse race
14,000
6. Agricultural Income
40,000
Tax deducted at source by the employer on salary is Rs. 2,200
Solution: Computation of Estimated Total Income
(For the financial year 2003-04)
Rs.
Rs.
Income from Salary
Gross Salary
96,000
Less: Standard deduction 40% or
Rs. 30,000 whichever is less
30,000
66,000
Income from House Property
Rent received
41,000
Less: (Statutory deduction under
section 24(1) @ 30%)
12,300
28,700
Income from Other Sources
Interest on Government securities
5,000
Interest on Bank Deposit
3,000
Horse Races (Gross)
20,000
28,000
Estimated Gross Total Income
1,22,700
Less: Deduction under section 80L
8,000
1,14,700
Estimated Tax
Step-I: Add (Agricultural income
+ Non-Agricultural income)
(40,000 + 1,14,700) = 1,54,700
Tax on: Income from Horse Race
of Rs. 20,000 @ 30%
Balance income ofRs. 1,34,700

6,000
15,940
21,940

Step-2: Add Maximum exemption

limit to agricultural income
(50,000 + 40,000) = 90,000
Tax on Rs. 90,000

7,000

Step-3: Tax on non-agricultural income

Tax under step-l - Tax under step-2
(21,940 - 7,000)
Estimated tax payable
Add: Surcharge

14,940
14,940
Nil
14,940
169

Less: Estimated TDS

on salary
on horse races

2,200

Tax payable on 1st instalment i.e.

by 15-6-2003 - 15% of Rs. 60,750

6,000

Tax payable on 2nd instalment i.e. by 15-9-2003

8,200

Advance tax payable

6,740

First instalment payable by 1-5-9-2003 (30%)

2,022

Second instalment payable by 15-12-2003 (30%)

2,022

Third instalment payable by 15-3-2004 (balance 40%)

2,696

Working notes:

Grossing up 14,000 x 100/70

20,000

6,000

Payment of Advance Tax in Case of Capital Gains/Casual

Income [Proviso to Section 234C]

As already discussed, advance tax is payable on all types of

income, including capital gains and winnings of lotteries,
crossword puzzles, etc. However, it is not normally possible for
an assessee to estimate his capital gains or winnings from
lotteries, etc. which are generally unexpected. Therefore, in such
cases, it is provided that if any such income arises after the due
date of any instalment, then, the entire amount of tax payable
(after deduction of tax at source, if any) on such capital gain or
casual income should be paid in remaining instalments of
advance tax which are due or where no such instalment is due,
by 31 st March of the relevant Financial Year. If the entire
amount of tax payable is so paid, then no interest on late
payment will be leviable.
Problem

The estimated Gross Total Income of X Co. Ltd. is Rs.

3,00,000, which includes Rs. 1,00,000 on account of LTCG
earned on 16-9-2003. Compute the Advance Tax Payable by the
company, assuming Rs. 11,000 has been deducted at source
during the financial year 2003-04
Solution

Estimated Tax Liability with LTCG

on Rs. 2,00,000 @ 35%

70,000

on L TCG of Rs. 1,00,000 @ 20%

20,000
90,000

Add: Surcharge @ 2.5%

2,250
92,250

Less: TDS

11,000
81,250

Estimated Tax Liability without LTCG

Tax on Rs. 2,00,000 @ 35% + 2.5% surcharge

71,750

Less: TDS

11,000
60,750

170

75% of Rs. 81,250 = 60,938 - [Rs. 9,113 + 18,225]

33,560

Tax payable on 4th instalment i.e. by 15-3-2003

20,352

Assessee Deemed to be in Default (Section 218)

If any assessee does not pay on the specified dates, any
instalment of the advance tax that he is required to pay, he shall
be deemed to be an assessee in default in respect-of such
instalment or instalments and shall be liable to interest and
penalty under sections 220 and 221.

14,000

Tax deducted at source

(Gross amount Rs. 20,000 - Amount
received Rs. 14,000)

18,225

Tax payable on 3rd instalment i.e. by 15-12-2003 (by including

LTCG)

100% of Rs. 81.250 - [Rs. 9,113 + 18,225 + 33,560]

Computation of gross winnings from horse races:

Net Amount

45% of Rs. 60,750 = 27,338 - 9,113

(paid on 1st installment)

9,113

Credit for Advance Tax (Section 219)

Any sum, other than a penalty or interest, paid by or recovered
from an assessee as advance tax, shall be treated as a payment of
tax in respect of the income of the previous year and credit
thereof shall be given to the assessee the regular assessment.
Consequences if Advance Tax is not paid or paid less or if
there is deferment of payment of Advance Tax.
If advance tax is not paid or the amount of advance tax paid is
less than 90% of the assessed tax, the assessee shall be liable to
pay simple interest @ 1 %1 per month from first day of April
following the financial year, under section 234B.
Similarly, if the payment of advance tax is deferred beyond the
due dates, interest @ I % per month, for a period of 3 months,
will be payable for every deferment, except for the last instalment of 15th March where it will be 1% for one month, under
section 234C.
We will discuss in detail interest payment by the assessee due to
non payment of advance tax or late payment of advance tax in
later part of the course pack.
Now its time to do the homework and revise the whole thing.
Practical Questions
1. The following are the particulars of estimated income of Mr.
Gurcharan for the previous year 2003-04
Rs.
a. Income from salary @Rs. 7,500 p.m.
90,000
b. Income from house property @Rs. 2,000 p.m.
24,000
c. Income from interest on Government securities
8,000
d. Winnings from lotteries (25-8-2003) (Gross)
40,000
Calculate the amount of advance tax payable by him in various
instalments. Tax of Rs. 12,000 has been deducted at source out
of the lottery income and Rs. 1,000 on salary income.
Ans: As the tax payable is Rs. 4,360; which is less than Rs.
5,000; no advance tax is payable.
2. X Company Ltd. estimates its income for the previous year
2003-04 at Rs. 1,20,000. It has also earned long-term capital
gain of Rs. 80,000 on transfer of gold on 1-12-2003.

Compute the advance tax payable by the company in various

instalments.
Ans: 1st instalment (up to 15-6-2002) Rs. 6,458; 2nd instalment
(up to 15-9-2002) Rs. 12,915; 3rd instalment (up to 15-12-2002)
Rs. 25,215 and last instalment Rs. 14,862.

Self Study Questions

1. Discuss the provisions of Income-tax Act relating to advance
payment of income-tax
2. Write short notes on the following:
a. Payment of advance tax on income estimated by the assessee
himself;
b. Payment of advance tax as per order of the Assessing
Officer.

171

LESSON 23:
DEDUCTION AND COLLECTION OF TAX AT SOURCE
Lesson Objective

National Bank out of his interest earning. The bank will issue a
certificate to X in Form No. 16A. The certificate in Form No.
16A will state the following

To know meaning of TDS.

To know how to deduct tax at source.

To know when to deduct TDS and deposit it with

government.

To know what is meaning of TCS.

To know provisions of TCS.

Rs.
Gross Interest

To avoid cases of tax evasion, the Income-tax Act has made

provisions to collect tax at source on accrual of income. Cases
included in the scheme are, generally, those where income can be
computed at the time of accrual of income. Under this scheme,
persons responsible for making payment of income covered by
the scheme are responsible to deduct tax at source and deposit
the same to the Governments treasury within the stipulated
time. The recipient of incomethough he gets only the net
amount (after deduction tax at source) is liable to tax on the
gross amount and the amount deducted at source is adjusted
against his final tax liability.
To understand the scheme of tax deduction at source, let us
consider the following example X is a businessman. For the financial year 2003-04, his business
income is Rs.3,86,000. Besides, he has received Rs. 90,000 as
interest on fixed deposit from Punjab National Bank on
January 31, 2003 (gross interest earning on fixed deposit:
Rs.1,00,000, less tax deducted at source by bank: Rs. 10,000). He
has deposited Rs 60,000 in public provident fund.
At the time of assessment, the tax computation shall be made
on the following line Rs.
Business income
Bank interest
Net interest received from the bank
Add: Tax deducted at source by bank
Gross interest

Rs.
3,86,000

90,000
10,000
1,00,000

Gross total income

Less: Deduction under section 80L

4,74,000
12,000

Net income
Tax on net income
Less: Rebate under section 88 (15% of Rs. 60,000)

4,74,000
1,16,200
9,000

Balance
Add: Surcharge(not applicable if net income does not exceed
Rs. 8.50 lakhs)

1,07,200

Tax liability

1,07,200

1,00,000

Less: Tax deducted at source by Punjab National Bank

10,000

Net Interest paid to X

90,000

The certificate in Form No. 16A will also indicate the date on
which the tax deducted at source is paid by the Punajb National
Bank to the Government of India. The original copy of the
certificate in Form No. 16A will be attached by X with his return
of income and on the basis of that certificate he will get a tax
credit of Rs. 10,000. Consequently x will pay only Rs.97,200
(i.e., Rs. 1,07,200 Rs.10,000)
To conclude one can say that the scheme of tax deduction at
source is only payment of tax on ad hoc basis by the payer of
income on behalf of recipient.
When and How Tax is to be Deducted at Source from
Salary [Sec. 192]

Following are the summarized provisions of section 192 The payer is:
The recipient is:
Payment covered is:
Time at which tax has to be deducted at
source:
Maximum amount which can be paid
without tax deduction:
Rate of tax deduction at source is:
When provisions are not applicable:
Possibility to get the payment without
tax deduction or with lower tax
deduction:

Employer
Employee
Taxable salary of the employee
At the time of payment
Rs. 50,000 (i.e. amount of
exemption limit)
Normal rates applicable to an
individual

The employee can make an

application in form No.13 to
the Assessing Officer to get a
certificate of lower tax
deduction or no tax deduction

The person responsible for paying salary may, at the time of

deducting tax at source, increase or decrease the amount to be
deducted for the purpose of adjusting any previous deficiency
or excess deduction.
Tax Deduction Under Some Special Cases Under Sec.192

It may be noted that net interest received from bank is Rs.

90,000, whereas amount included in gross total income is Rs
1,00,000. Rs. 10,000 that is deducted by way of tax at source by
the Punjab National Bank is included in the gross interest,
although it is not actually received by X. The final tax liability
according to the above computation is Rs. 1,07,200. However,
X is not supposed to pay Rs. 1,07,200. He is entitled for a tax
credit of Rs. 10,000, which has been deducted by the Punjab
172

The following special cases are covered by section 192.

1. How to deduct tax when a person is employed by more than
one employer Section 192(2) provides for deduction of tax at source by an
employer (as the taxpayer may choose) from the aggregate
salary of an employee who is, or has been, in receipt of salary
from more than one employer in the same year.

2. Relief under Section 89 If the employee furnishes the information in Form No. 10E
to the employer, relief under section 89 should be given to
the concerned employee while deducting tax at source under
section 192. However, this facility is available only if the
employer is Government or public sector undertaking or
company, co-operative society, local authority, university,
institution or association or body.
3. Can the Employer deduct tax in respect of other Incomes of
the employee -

The payer is:

The recipient is:

Payment covered is:

Time at which tax has to be
deducted at source:
Maximum amount which can be
paid without tax deduction:
Rate of tax deduction at source is:

The provisions are given below:

a The employee may (or may not) declare his other incomes to
the employer.
b. If the employee wants to declare his other income to the
employer, then such information should be given on a plain
paper to the employer.
c. The employee may declare details of his other incomes
(including loss under the head Income from house
property but not any other loss) and tax deducted thereon
by others. If such information is not submitted by the
employee to the employer, then employer cannot take into
consideration other incomes of the employee (even if the
quantum of other income is otherwise known to the
employer).
d. After receipt of such information, the employer should
deduct (out of salary payment) tax due on total income is as
follows
Computation one [on the basis of other
incomes declared by the employee]
a. Find out salary income
b. Add: Other incomes declared by the
employee: (in case of loss, only house
property loss would be considered; no
other loss would be taken into
consideration)
c. Find out aggregate of (a) and (b)
d. Find out tax on (c)
e. Less: Rebate under sections 88, 88B
and 88C
f. Add: Surcharge
g. Less: Tax deducted by other as per
information given by the employee
h. Find out tax liability [(d)-(e)+(f)-(g)]

Computation two [ignoring the other

incomes declared by the employee]
i. Find out salary income
j. Less: Loss under the head Income
from house property declared by the
employee.
k. Find out (i)-(j)
l. Find out tax on (k)
m. Less: Rebate under sections 88, 88B
and 88C
n. Add: Surcharge
o. Tax deducted from rent by others (if
there is loss of house property) as per
information given by the employee
p. Find out tax liability [(l)(m) + (n)(o)]

*Only house property loss declared by the employee would be

considered.
Income declared by the employee will not be considered except
house property loss.
The tax deductible at source from salary payment is amount
determined at (h) or (p) whichever is higher
Salary Payment without Tax Deduction or with Lower
Tax Deduction -

The recipient can apply in Form No.13 to the Assessing Officer

to get a certificate authorizing the payer to deduct tax at lower or
deduct no tax as may be appropriate.
Tax Deduction at Source from Interest on Securities
[Sec. 193]

When provisions are not

applicable:

Payer of interest on securities

A resident person (up to May 31, 2003, it
also includes non resident person)
holding securities
Interest on securities
At the time of payment or at the time of
accrual whichever is earlier

10% + surcharge* in the case of listed

debentures and 20% + surcharge* in the
case of non-listed debentures, if the
recipient is resident, non-corporate
assessee. 20% + surcharge* if the
recipient is a domestic company.
Interest on Central/State Government
securities.

Securities Interest on Which is not Subject to Tax

Deduction -

No tax is deductible from at source from the amount of

interest payable on:
1. 4.25 per cent National Defence Bond, 1972, where the bonds
are held by any resident individual;
2. 4.25 per cent National Defence Loan, 1968 or 4.75 per cent
National Defence Loan, 1972 held by an individual;
3. National Development Bonds;
4. National Savings Certificates (First Issue) (including National
Savings Certificates, First Issue Banking Series);
5. 7year National Savings Certificates (IV Issue);
6. Debentures issued by any co-operative society (including a
co-operative land mortgage bank or a co-operative land
development bank) or any other institution or authority
(including a public sector company from June 1, 1986)
notified by the Central Government;
7. 6.5 per cent Gold Bonds, 1977 or 7 per cent Gold Bonds,
1980 held by a resident individual provided conditions
specified in section 193 are fulfilled.
8. Any security of the Central/State Governments; and
9. Securities beneficially owned by the Life Insurance
Corporation of India or the General Insurance Corporation
of India or to any of the four companies formed by the
virtue of the schemes framed under section 16(1) of the
General Insurance Business (Nationalization) Act, 1972 or
any other insurer (applicable from June 1, 2002)
Cases When Tax is not Deductible at Regular Rates -

1. Application To Assessing Officer In Form No. 13: The

recipient can make an application in Form no. 13 to the
concerned Assessing Officer and obtain a certificate
authorizing the payer to deduct tax at lower rates or deduct
no tax, as may appropriate.
2. Declaration to the Payer in Form No. 15 G: Form No.
15G can be submitted if the following conditions are
satisfied
a.

The recipient is a person other than a company or firm.

Following are the provisions of section 193 -

173

b.

Tax on the estimated income of the recipient of the

financial year will be nil.

c.

The amount of interest on securities, dividends,

interest other than interest on securities, payments in
respect of deposits under National Saving Scheme and
income in respect of units credited or paid during the
previous year does not exceed the maximum amount
which is not chargeable to income tax (i.e., Rs. 50,000).

If the aforesaid conditions are met, the

recipient of income can submit Form No.
15G in duplicate to the payer and no tax will
be deducted at source.
Condition 3 is not applicable up to May 31,
2002. Condition 3 is not applicable even
from June 1, 2002 if the income of the
recipient is exempt under section 10(20),
(23AA), (23AAB), (23BB), (23BBA),
(23BBC), (23BBD), (23BBE), (23C), (23EB),
(25), (25 A), (26BB) and (29A)Circular No.
4/2002, dated July, 16, 2002. In other words,
if income of the recipient is exempt under
these clauses of section 10, then the recipient
(other than a company or firm) can give a
declaration in Form No. 15G to the payer of
the income to the effect that tax on his
income will be nil. In such a case no tax will
be deducted at source
Moreover, condition no. 3 is not applicable
from June 1, 2003, if the recipient is the
resident individual being a senior citizen (i.e.,
65 years or more at any time during the
financial year) [declaration in case of a senior
citizen should be submitted in Form No.
15H]

3. Debenture Interest Up To Rs. 2,500: It is not necessary to

deduct tax at source from any interest on debentures paid to
an individual who is resident in India if the following
conditions are fulfilled:
a.

The debentures have been issued by a company in

which the public are substantially interested;

b.

The debentures are listed in a recognized stock

exchange in India;

c.

The interest is paid by the company by an account

payee cheque; and

d.

The aggregate amount of interest paid or likely to be

paid by the company to the holder of debentures
during the financial year does not exceed Rs. 2500.

4. Regimental Fund: The matter with regard to regimental fund

or non-public fund established by Armed Forces has been
examined in the Board. Since the income of these
organizations is exempt under section 10(23AA), it has been
decided that no tax may be deducted at source under sections
193 and 194-I from the income of such Fund Circular No.
735, dated January 30, 1996.

174

5. Interest To Certain Institution Whose Income Is

Exempt Under Section 10(23C): In the following cases tax
is not deductible in respect of interest on securities payable
to the following :
Recipient
Ramakrishna Math and
Ramakrishna Mission
Shri Ram Chandra Mission,
Chennai
World Renewal Spiritual
Trust, Mumbai

Circular No.
11/2002, dated
November 11,2002
2/2003, dated
March 11,2003
3/2003, dated
March 11,2003

Period
Any
Financial Years
2002-03 and 200304
Financial Years
2002-03 and 200304

Tax to be Deducted at Source from Dividends [Sec. 194]

The provisions of section 194 are as follows:

The payer is:
The recipient is:
Payment covered is:
Time at which tax has to be
deducted at source:
Maximum amount which can be
paid without tax deduction:
Rate of tax deduction at source is:
When provisions are not applicable:

Domestic company
Resident shareholder
Deemed dividend under section
2(22)(e)
At the time of payment

20% + surcharge*
Dividends covered by section 115-O

Cases When Tax is not Deductible at Regular Rates:

1. Dividends covered by section 115-O: No tax is deductible

from June 1, 1997 to March 31, 2002 and from April 1, 2003
in the case of dividend referred to in section 115-O
2. Application in Form No. 13: A shareholder may apply in
Form No. 13 to the concerned Assessing Officer and obtain a
certificate authorizing the payer to pay dividend without
deduction of tax at source or with lower tax deduction.
3. Declaration to the Payer in Form No. 15G: Form No.
15G can be submitted if the following conditions are met:
a.

The recipient is an individual who is resident in India.

b.

Tax on the estimated income of the recipient of the

financial year will be nil.

c.

The amount of interest on securities, dividends,

interest other than interest on securities, payments in
respect of deposits under National Saving Scheme and
income in respect of units paid during the previous
year does not exceed the maximum amount which is
not chargeable to income tax (i.e., Rs. 50,000).

If the aforesaid conditions are met, the

recipient of income can submit Form No.
15G in duplicate to the payer and no tax will
be deducted at source.

Condition 3 is not applicable up to May 31,

2002. Moreover, condition no. 3 is not
applicable from June 1, 2003, if the recipient
is the resident individual being a senior
citizen (i.e., 65 years or more at any time
during the financial year) [declaration in case
of a senior citizen should be submitted in
Form No. 15H].

4) Dividend Up To Rs. 2,500: No tax shall be deductible from

April 1, 2002, in the case of a shareholder, being an
individual, if the following conditions are met:
a.

The dividend is paid by the company by an account

payee cheque; and

b.

The amount of such dividend, or as the case may be,

the aggregate of the amounts of such dividends
distributed (or paid or likely to be distributed or paid)
during the financial year by the company to the
shareholder, does not exceed Rs. 2,500.

5. Dividend to LIC/GIC: With effect from June 1, 2002, no

deduction of tax at source shall be made in respect of any
dividend payable to the Life Insurance Corporation of India
or the General Insurance Corporation of India or to any of
the four companies formed by the virtue of the schemes
framed under section 16 of the General Insurance Business
(Nationalization) Act, 1972 or any other insurer in respect of
any shares owned by them or in which they have full
beneficial interest.
6. Dividend to Shri Ram Chandra Mission: During 2002-03,
dividend can be paid to Shri Ram Chandra Mission, Chennai,
without tax deduction Circular No. 2/2003, dated March
11,2003.

Tax Deduction at Source from Payments to Contractors

or Sub-contractors [Sec. 194C]

Following are the provisions of section 194C:

The payer is:

The recipient is:

Payment covered is:
Time at which tax has to be
deducted at source:
Maximum amount which can be
paid without tax deduction:
Rate of tax deduction at source is:

When provisions are not

applicable:
Possibility to get the payment
without tax deduction or with
lower tax deduction:

A specified person
A resident contractor (not being an
individual or a Hindu undivided
family whose books of account are
not required to be audited under
section 44AB in the immediately
preceding financial year)

A resident person

A resident sub-contractor
Consideration of any work contract
At the time of payment or at the time of
accrual, whichever is earlier
If the consideration for a contract is
Rs.20,000 or less than Rs. 20,000

2% + surcharge*(payment for the

contract other than advertising
contract) or 1% + surcharge*
(advertising contract)

1% + surcharge*(payment to a subcontractor)

The recipient can make an application in

form No.13 to the Assessing Officer to
get a certificate of lower tax deduction or
no tax deduction

Deduction of Tax at Source from Interest Other Than

Interest on Securities [Sec. 194A]

The provisions of section 194A are follows:

The payer is:

The recipient is:

Payment covered is:
Time at which tax has to be
deducted at source:
Maximum amount which can be
paid without tax deduction:
Rate of tax deduction at source is:

When provisions are not

applicable:

Any person paying interest other than

interest on securities (not being an
individual or a Hindu undivided family
whose books of account are not required
to be audited under section 44AB in the
immediately preceding financial year)
A resident person
Interest other than interest on securities
At the time of payment or at the time of
accrual, whichever is earlier
If the amount of payment is Rs. 50,000 or
less than Rs. 5000
10% + surcharge*, if the recipient is
resident non-corporate assessee and 20%
+ surcharge, if the recipient is resident
corporate assessee
For a few cases

Cases When Section 194C is Applicable

1. When Payment is made by a Specified Person to a
Resident Contractor: Any person responsible for paying
any sum to any resident contractor for carrying out any work
(including supply of labour for carrying out any work) in
pursuance of a contract between a specified person and the
resident contractor is required to deduct tax at source. For
this purpose, payer himself is treated as person responsible
for paying any sum to the contractor.

Specified person - Meaning of Tax is deductible

under section 194C(1) only if payment is made in
pursuance of a contract between a specified person and
a resident contractor. The specified persons for this
purpose are:
a.
The Central Government or any State
Government; or
b.
Any local authority; or
c.
Any corporation established by or under a
Central, State or Provincial Act; or
d.
Any company; or
e.
Any co-operative society; or
f.
Any authority constituted in India by or
under any law, engaged either for the purpose
of dealing with and satisfying the need for
housing accommodation or for the purpose
of planning, development or improvement
of cities, towns, villages , or for both; or
g.
Any society registered under the Societies
Registration Act, 1860 or under any law

175

corresponding to that Act in force in any part

of India; or
h.

Any trust; or

i.

Any University established or incorporated

by or under a Central, State or Provincial Act
and an institution declared to be a University
under section 3 of the University Grants
Commission Act, 1956; or

j.

Any firm.

It may be noted that the list does not include an individual or a

Hindu undivided family
2. When Payment is made by a Resident Contractor to a
Resident Sub-Contractor: The above stated rule is also
applicable in case payment is made by a resident contractor
(not being an individual or a Hindu undivided family whose
books of account are not required to be audited under
section 44AB in the immediately preceding financial year) to a
resident sub-contractor for carrying out ( or for the supply of
labour for carrying out) the whole (or any part) of the work
undertaken by the contractor, or for supplying, whether
wholly or partly, any labour which the contractor has
undertaken to supply
When Tax has to be Deducted at Source

Tax is to be deducted either at the time of credit of such sum to

the account of the payee, or at the time of payment thereof in
cash by issue of cheque or by any other mode, whichever is
earlier.
For this purpose, any sum credited to any account, whether
called Suspense account or by any other name, in the books
of account of the payer, is treated credit of such income to the
account of the payee.
Consideration in Excess of Rs.20,000 is Subject to Tax
Deduction

No tax is to be deducted at source in respect of a contract, the

consideration for which does not exceed Rs. 20,000. Where
payments are made under several contracts during a financial
year and the consideration for any individual contract does not
exceed Rs.20,000, no deduction is required to be made under
this section though the total payments exceed Rs. 20,000.
Who is Contractor/sub-contractor

A contractor is one who makes an agreement with another to

do a piece of work. Sub-contractor is one who takes portion of
contract from principal contractor or another sub-contractor.
The expression contractor shall also include a contractor who
is carrying out any work (including supply of labour for carrying
out any work) in pursuance of a contract between the contractor
and the Government of a foreign State, or a foreign enterprise,
or any association or body established outside India.
Meaning of Work Contract

Provisions of section 194C relating to tax deduction from

payment to contractors/sub-contractors are applicable only
where contract is either a work contract or a contract for
supply of labour for works contract. These provisions are,
therefore, not applicable for payments made under a contract for
sale of goods.
176

Work as defined in section 194C - The expression

work, shall also include (a) advertising, (b) broadcasting
and telecasting including production of programmes for
such broadcasting or telecasting, (c) carriage of goods and
passengers by any mode of transport other than by railways,
and (d) catering.

Rate of Tax Deduction

The person responsible for making payments to contractors/

sub-contractors is required to deduct tax at source at the
following rates during the financial year 2003-04.

Payment to contractor
Payment to sub-contractor

Advertising contracts

Other contracts

Income-tax
1%

Income tax
2%

1%

1%

Payment not comprised therein, is subject to deduction The deduction at the aforesaid rate is with reference to the
amount of payment itself and not income comprised in the
payment. The person responsible for payment, is therefore,
not required to estimate the income comprised in the payment
at all Circular No. 93, dated September 26, 1972.
Clarifications from the Board The board has issued a few
declarations on section 194C.
When tax is not deducted or deducted at lower rate- It is
open to the recipient to make an application in Form No. 13 to
the concerned Assessing Officer and obtain a certificate authorizing the payer to deduct tax at lower rates or deduct no tax, as
may be appropriate in his case.
When and How Tax is to be Deducted at Source from
Insurance Commission [Sec. 194D]

Who is the payer

Any person paying insurance commission

Who is the recipient

A resident person

Payment covered
At what time tax has to be
deducted at source
Maximum amount which
can be paid without
tax deduction

Insurance commission
At the time of payment or at the time of accrual,
whichever is earlier

Rate of tax deduction at

source

If the amount of payment is Rs.5,000 or less than Rs.

5,000
1096 + surcharge' if the recipient is resident noncorporate assessee and 2096 + surcharge' if the
recipient is resident corporate assessee

When the provisions are

not applicable
Is it possible to get the
The recipient can make an application in Form No.
payment without tax
13 to the Assessing Officer to get a certificate of
deduction or with lower tax
lower tax deduction or no tax deduction.
deduction

Time of tax deduction - Tax shall be deducted at the time of

credit of such income to the account of the payee or the
payment thereof (by whatever mode), whichever is earlier.
Adjustment not possible- At the time of deducting tax from
the insurance commission credited to an agents account,
adjustment for any debits made in his account in respect of
excess commission credited or paid to him earlier is not
permissible and income-tax must be deducted from the full

amount of commission credited to this account-Circular No.

277, dated July 21, 1980.
When tax is not deductible or deductible at lower rate - In
the cases given below, tax is not deductible or deductible at
lower rate1. No tax is required to be deducted at source if the insurance
commission credited or paid (or likely to be credited or paid)
during the financial year does not exceed Rs. 5,000.
2. The person receiving insurance commission can make an
application in Form No. 13 to the concerned Assessing
Officer and obtain a certificate authorizing the person
responsible for making payments, by way of insurance
commission, to deduct tax at a lower rate or to deduct no
tax, as may be appropriate.
When and How Tax is Deductible on Payments on
Account of Repurchase of Units of Mutual Funds or Uti
[Sec. 194.f]

The provisions of section 194F are given belowWho is the payer

Mutual fund or UTI

Who is the recipient

Unit holder under section 80CCB

Payment on account of repurchase of
units referred to section 80CCB

Payment covered
At what time tax has to be deducted at
source
Maximum amount which can be paid
without tax deduction
Rate of tax deduction at source
When the provisions are not applicable
Is it possible to get the payment
without tax deduction or with lower tax
deduction

At the time of payment

2096 + surcharge
-

If an authorised lottery ticket agent purchases lottery tickets in

bulk at a discount from the State Government and sells the
same at a price of his choice, section 194G is not applicable.
Time of tax deduction - Tax shall be deducted at the time of credit
of income to the account of payee, or at the time of payment
thereof in cash or by the issue of cheque/draft or at the time of
transfer to suspense account or any other account, whichever is
earlier.
When tax is not deductible or deductible at lower rate Where the Assessing Officer is satisfied that the total income of
a person who is or has been stocking, distributing, purchasing
or selling lottery tickets justifies the deduction of income-tax at
any lower rate or no deduction of tax, as the case may be, the
Assessing Officer shall, on an application made by such person
in Form No. 13 in this behalf give to him such certificate as may
be appropriate. Where any such certificate is given, the person
responsible for paying the income by way of commission,
remuneration or prize (by whatever name called) on lottery
tickets shall, until such certificate is cancelled by the Assessing
Officer, deduct income-tax at the rate specified in such certificate
or deduct no tax, as the case may be.)
When and How to Deduct Tax at Source from
Commission or Brokerage [Sec. 1948]

The provisions of section 194H are given below-

No provision

The person responsible for paying to any person an amount

referred to in section 80CCB shall, at the time of payment
thereof, deduct income-tax thereon at the rate of 20 per cent
(plus surcharge* for the financial year 2003-04*.
It may be noted that section 80CCB is applicable if investment
was made during the previous years 1990-91 and 1991-92 in the
notified units of Equity Linked Saving Scheme of UTI or a
mutual fund)
When Tax is Deductible from Commission, etc., on Sale of
Lottery Tickets [Sec. 194G]

The provisions of section 194G are given belowAny person paying commission on
sale of lottery tickets
Who is the recipient
Any person
Payment covered
Commission on sale of lottery tickets
At what time tax has to be deducted at At the time of payment or at the time
source
of accrual, whichever is earlier
Maximum amount which can be paid
If the amount of payment is Rs. 1,000
without tax deduction
or less than Rs. 1,000
Rate of tax deduction at source
10% + surcharge'
When the provisions are not applicable The recipient can make an application
Is it possible to get the payment
in Form No. 13 to the Assessing
without tax deduction or with lower tax
Officer to get a certificate of lower tax
deduction
deduction or no tax deduction.
Who is the payer

The person responsible for paying any income by way of

commission, remuneration or prize (by whatever name called)
on lottery tickets in an amount exceeding Rs. 1,000 shall deduct
income-tax thereon at the rate of 10 per cent (plus surcharge*).

Who is the payer

Who is the recipient

Any person paying commission or

brokerage (not being an individual or a
Hindu undivided family whose books
of account are not required
to be audited under section 44AB in
the immediately preceding financial
year)
Any resident person

Payment covered

Commission or brokerage
At the time of payment or at the time
At what time tax has to be deducted at
of accrual,
source
whichever is earlier
Maximum amount which can be
If the amount of payment Rs. 2,500
paid by tax deduction
or less than Rs. 2,500
Rate of tax deduction at source
5% + surcharge*
When the provisions are not
applicable
Is it possible to get the payment
without tax deduction or with lower
tax deduction

The recipient can make an

application in Form No.13 to the
Assessing Officer to get a
certificate of lower tax deduction or
no tax deduction.

Who is responsible for tax deduction - Any person (other

than an individual or Hindu undivided family) who is responsible for paying commission or brokerage to a resident shall
deduct tax at source.
When tax has to be deducted - Tax shall be deducted at the
time of credit of such income to the account of the payee or at
the time of payment of such income in cash or by the issue of

177

a cheque or draft or by any other mode, whichever is earlier.

Where any income is credited to any account, whether called
Suspense account or by any other name, in the books of
account of the person liable to pay such income, such crediting
shall be deemed to be credit of such income to the account of
the payee.
Payment In Excess of Rs. 2,500 is Subject to Tax Deduction

No tax is deductible if the amount of commission or brokerage paid/ credited during the financial year does not exceed Rs.
2,500.
Commission or Brokerage as Defined in Section I 94H

Commission or brokerage for this purpose includes any

payment (not being insurance commission referred to in section
196D) received or receivable, directly or indirectly, by a person
acting on behalf of another person for services rendered (not
being professional services) or for any services in the course of
buying or selling of goods or in relation to any transaction
relating to any asset, valuable article or thing, not being
securities. The expression professional services means services
rendered by a person in the course of carrying on a legal,
medical, engineering or architectural profession or the profession
of accountancy or technical consultancy or interior decoration or
such other profession as is notified by the Board for the
purposes of section 44AA (i.e., authorised representative, film
artist, company secretary and information technology). .
Rate of tax deduction - Tax shall be deducted at the rate of 5
per cent plus surcharge. 282.4 When tax is deducted at lower rate The person receiving commission or brokerage can make an
application in Form No. 13 to the concerned Assessing Officer
and obtain a certificate authorising the payer to deduct tax at
lower rate, or deduct no tax, as may be appropriate.
When commission is retained by agent - A question may
arise whether there would be deduction of tax under section
194H where commission or brokerage is retained by the
consignee/agent and not remitted to the consignor/principal
while remitting the sale consideration. Since the retention of
commission by the consignee/agent amounts to constructive
payment of the same to him by the consignor/principal,
deduction of tax at source is required to be made from the
amount of commission. Therefore, the consignor/ principal
will have to deposit the tax deductible on the amount of
commission income Circular No. 619, dated December 4, 1991

When and How Tax is Deductible from Rent

[Sec. 194-1]
The provisions of section 194-1 are given below-

Any person paying rent (not being an

individual or a Hindu undivided family
whose books of account are not
Who is the payer
required to be audited under
section 44AB in the immediately
preceding financial year)
A resident person (it also includes a
Who is the recipient
non-resident person up to May 31,
2003)
Payment covered
Rent
At what time tax has to be deducted at At the time of payment or at the time
source
of accrual, whichever is earlier
If the amount of payment during a
Maximum amount which can be paid
financial year is Rs. 1,20,000 or less
without tax deduction
than Rs. 1,20,000
1596 + surcharge* (if the recipient is
Rate of tax deduction at source
an individual or HUF), 2096 +
surcharge' (in any other case)
When the provisions are not applicable The recipient can make an application
Is it possible to get the payment
in Form No. 13 to the Assessing
without tax deduction or with lower
Officer to get a certificate of lower tax
tax deduction
deduction or no tax deduction.

When tax has to be deducted - The person responsible for

paying rent should deduct tax at source. Tax is to be deducted at
source either:
a. At the time of credit of such income to the account of
payee; or
b. At the time of payment thereof in cash or by issue of a
cheque or draft or by any other mode, whichever is earlier:
Where any income by way of rent is credited to any account
(whether called Suspense account or by any other name) in
the books of account of the person liable to pay such rent, such
crediting shall be deemed to be credit of such income to the
account of the payee.
No tax is deductible if payment during a financial year
does not exceed rs. 1,20,000 - No tax is deductible if the
amount of rent credited/paid during the financial year does not
exceed Rs. 1,20,000.
Rent is defined in section 194-I - Explanation (z) to section
194-1 defines rent as follows
Rent means any payment, by whatever name called, under
any lease, sub-lease, tenancy or any other agreement or arrangement for the use of any land or any building (including factory
building), together with furniture, fittings and the land
appurtenant thereto, whether or not such building is owned by
the payee.
As per the aforesaid definition, the following are essential
features of rent
1. Payment is made under any lease; sub-lease, tenancy or any
other agreement or arrangement.
2. Payment is made either for the use of only land or building
(including factory building) or for the use of any land or
building (including factory building) together with furniture,
fittings and the land appurtenant thereto.

178

3. It is immaterial whether or not such building is owned by the

person to whom rent is paid. The Board has issued a few
clarifications in this regard.
Rates of tax - Tax is deductible at source during the financial
year 2003-04' at the following rates:
Payee
Individual/Hindu undivided
family
Domestic company
Foreign company
Any other persons

Income-tax
15%
20%
20%
20%

No tax deduction if payee is Government/local authorities

- There is no requirement to deduct income-tax at source on
income by way of rent if the payee is the Government. In the
case of the local authorities and the statutory authorities referred
to in section 1O(20A)/ 10(20), there will be no requirement to
deduct income-tax at source from income by way of rent if the
person responsible for paying it is satisfied about their taxexempt status under clause (20) or (20A) of section 10 on the
basis of a certificate to this effect given by the said authoritiesCircular No. 699, dated January 30,1995.
Rent to Sathya Sai Trust - During the financial years 2002-03
and 2003-04, rent can be paid to Sri Sathya Sai Central Trust,
Shri Sathya Sai Medical Trust and Shri Sathya Sai Institute of
Higher Learning, Bangalore, without tax deduction at sourceCircular No. 12/ 2002, dated November 22, 2002.
When tax is deducted at lower rate- The person receiving rent
can make an application in Form No. 13 to the concerned
Assessing Officer and obtain a certificate authorizing the person
responsible for making payments by way of rent to deduct tax
at a lower rate, or to deduct no tax, as may be appropriate.
Clarifications from Board - The Board has issued a few
clarifications on section 194-I.
When Tax Is Deductible at Source on Fees for Professional
or Technical Services [Sec. 194j]

The provisions of section 194J are given below-

Any person paying fees for

professional/technical service (not
being an individual or a Hindu
undivided family whose books of
account are not required to be audited
Who is the payer
under section 44AB in the immediately
preceding financial year or not being
an individual or HUF who makes
payments for personal purposes)
Who is the recipient
A resident person
Fees for professional/technical
Payment covered
services
At the time of payment or at the time
At what time tax has to be deducted at
of accrual,
source
whichever is earlier
If the amount of payment during a
Maximum amount which can be paid
financial year is Rs.20,000 or less than
without tax deduction
Rs. 20,000
Rate of tax deduction at source
5% + surcharge"
When the provisions are not
applicable
The recipient can make an application
Is it possible to get the payment
in Form No. 13 to the Assessing
without tax deduction or with lower
Officer to get a certificate of lower tax
tax deduction
deduction or no tax deduction.

When Tax is Deductible from Income or Long-term Capital

Gain from Foreign Currency Bonds/ Global Depository
Receipts [Sec. 196c]

The provisions of section 194C are given belowAny person responsible for paying
income/long-term capital gain from
GDR/bonds
Who is the recipient
A non-resident person
Income/long-term capital gain from
Payment covered
GDR/bonds
At what time tax has to be deducted at At the time of payment or at the time
source
of accrual, whichever is earlier
Maximum amount which can be paid
without tax deduction
Who is the payer

Rate of tax deduction at source

10% + surcharge
When the provisions are not applicable Dividend referred to in section 115-0
Is it possible to get the payment
without tax deduction or with lower tax No provision
deduction

Any person responsible for paying any income payable in

respect of bonds or Global Depository Receiptst referred to in
section 115AC to a non-resident or by way of long-term capital
gain arising from the transfer of such bonds/Global Depository Receiptst shall deduct tax at the rate of 10 per cent of such
income (plus surcharge).
The deduction is required to be made either at the time of credit
of such income to the account of the payee or at the time of
payment thereof in cash or at the time of issue of a cheque or
draft or by any other mode, whichever is earlier.
No tax is deductible from June 1, 1997 to March 31, 2002 and
from April 1, 2003 in the case of dividends referred to in section
115-0.

179

When Tax is Deductible at Source from Income of Foreign

Institutional Investors from Securities [Sec. 196d]

market, without approaching the Income-tax Department.

However, these forms must be in the prescribed proforma.
It may be noted that the recipient of income must be given a
certificate in Form No. 16 or 16A within the stipulated time
even if tax is borne by the payer of the income-Circular No.
785, dated November 24, 1999.

The provisions of section 196D are given below-

Who is the payer

Who is the recipient
Payment covered
At what time tax has to be deducted at
source
Maximum amount which can be paid
without tax deduction
Rate of tax deduction at source

Any person responsible for paying

income in respect of securities referred
to in section 115AD
Foreign Institutional Investor
Income in respect of securities referred
to in
section 115AD

Every person, deducting tax at source, is required to submit a

return of tax so deducted within the time prescribed.

One may file returns on magnetic media such as floppies,

diskettes, etc., as may be specified by the Board. The
computer media must conform to the following
specifications:

At the time of payment or at the time of

accrual, whichever is earlier
20% + surcharge'

When the provisions are not applicable Dividend referred to in section 115-O
Is it possible to get the payment without
tax deduction or with lower tax
No provision
deduction

Any person responsible for paying any income in respect of

securities referred to in section 115AD(1)(a) to a Foreign
Institutional Investor shall deduct tax thereon at the rate of 20
per cent (plus surcharge).
The deduction is required to be made either at the time of credit
of such income to the account of the payee or at the time of
payment thereof in cash or at the time of issue of a cheque or
draft or by any other mode, whichever is earlier.
No tax deduction shall be made from any income by way of
capital gains arising from the transfer of such securities.
No tax is deductible, from June I, 1997 to March 31, 2002 and
from April 1, 2003 in respect of dividends referred to in section
115-O.

What are Other Points for Consideration ?

Apart from what has been said earlier, the following points
merit consideration:
Tax deducted at source under the aforesaid provisions is
deemed as income of the assessee [sec. 198].
Tax deducted at source is required to be paid to the credit of
the Central Government within the time prescribed under
rule 30.
Any tax deducted at source and paid to the Central
Government is treated as payment of tax on behalf of the
person from whose income the deduction was made [section
199].
Every person, making deduction of tax, is required to give a
certificate to the effect that tax has been deducted, specifying
the amount so deducted, at the rate at which tax has been
deducted and such other particulars as may be prescribed.
The certificate should be issued in Form No. 16 (if tax is
deducted under section 192) or Form No. 16A [if tax is
deducted under sections 193, 194,194A, 194B, 194BB, 194C,
194D, 194E,194EE,194F,194G,194-I, 194J, 194K, 195, 196A,
196B, 196C and 196D].
Form Nos. 16 and 16A can be issued on private stationery
of the tax deductor or on the printed forms available in the

180

a.

CD ROM of 650 MB capacity;

b.

4mm 2 GB/4GB (90M/120M) DAT Cartridge; or

c.

3.5" 1.44 MB floppy diskette.

The information in such returns shall be admitted in evidence

in any- proceeding under the Act. Such return is accompanied
with Form No. 27 A and a certificate regarding clear and virus
free data.

Every person, deducting tax at source in respect of any

payment made by him who has not been allotted taxdeduction account number (TAN) shall apply [Form No.
49B] to the income-tax authority for the allotment of a
TAN. The TAN so allotted shall be quoted in all challans for
payment of any tax deducted at source, in all certificates for
tax deducted, in all the prescribed returns filed by persons
paying salary and interest to residents and in all other
documents pertaining to such transactions which the Central
Board of Direct Taxes may prescribe in the rules.

Tax Collection at Source [Sec. 206C]

Under section 206C in some cases tax has to be collected at
source.
Who is responsible to collect tax at source - Every person,
being a seller, shall collect from the buyer of goods specified in
section 206C(1) tax at source.
Seller meaning of- Seller means the Central Government, a
State Government or any local authority or corporation or
authority established by or under a Central, State or Provincial
Act, or any company or firm or co-operative society. It also
includes (with effect from June 1,2003) an individual or a
Hindu undivided family whose books of account are required
to be audited under section 44AB(a)/(b) during the financial
year immediately preceding the financial year in which goods are
sold.
Buyer. - Meaning of - Buyer means a person who obtains in
any sale, by way of auction, tender or any other mode, goods of
the nature specified in the Table in section 206C(1) or the right
to receive any such goods. It, however, does not include the
following:
a. A public sector company, the Central Government, a State
Government, and an embassy, a High Commission,
Legation, Commission, consulate and the trade
representation, of a foreign State and a club, or
b. A buyer in the retail sale of such goods purchased by him for
personal consumption.

If a retailer sells any specified goods to a customer for personal

consumption only (and not for any other purpose), the
purchasing customer will not be treated as a buyer. The
resultant effect will be that the retailer need not collect tax from
the customer, provided he is satisfied that the customer is
purchasing the goods for personal consumption. No mechanism has been provided by which the seller will be able to
satisfy himself that the requirement of personal consumption
is fulfilled, so that he need not collect tax. As a minimum
requirement, a declaration from the purchaser that the goods are
for personal consumption may be taken.
When tax has to be collected at source - Tax has to be
collected by the seller at the time of debiting of the amount
payable by the buyer to the account of the buyer or at the time
of receipt of such amount from the buyer in cash or by issue of
cheque/ draft, or by any other mode, whichever is earlier.
How to compute tax collected at source - The seller shall
collect income-tax of a sum equal to the amount given in the
table (applicable for the financial year 2003-04):

Nature of goods

Percel1lage rate of tax

collection at source (TCS) applicable
1-4-2003 t6 7-9-2D03 From 8-9-2003

Alcoholic liquor for human consumption

(other ,than Indian made foreign liquor)

10

Indian :made foreign liquor

Tendu leaves

Nil
10

1
5

15

2.50
2.50

Timber obtained under a forest lease

Timber obtained by any mode other than
under a forest lease
Any other forest produce not being timber
or tendu leaves
Scrap

5
15

2.50

Nil

ii.

By-products generated from the manufacturing process

are not covered, as the same could be used as such.

It can be inferred that, in case of sale of scrap, the provision

would apply to only those sellers who are engaged in the
business of manufacturing or mechanical working of
materials.
3. Buyer exempt from tax - If income of buyer is exempt
from tax, tax cannot be collected at source.
Percentages are applicable on purchase price- If total
amount payable by a buyer to the seller is Rs. 100, the sum to
be collected at source will be Rs. 5 in the case of timber obtained
by any mode other than under a forest lease by an individual.
Goods utilised for manufacturing/processing is not subject
to tax collection - No tax will be collected at source from a
buyer who purchases goods for the purposes of manufacturing, processing or producing any article or thing and not for
the purpose of trading. If a buyer gives a declaration in Form
No. 27C to the seller that the goods to be purchased are to be
utilised in the carrying on of any of the activities referred to
above, no tax will be collected under section 206C. )
The manufacture and sale of country liquor is controlled and
supervised by the State excise authorities and liquor is retailed in
the same commercial form as purchased originally. There will,
therefore, be no occasion for a liquor contractor to give a
declaration of the type referred to above: However, if a buyer
of timber obtains the same for say, making furniture, the
provisions of section 206C will not apply and no collection of
tax will be required to be made, on his giving the declaration to
the seller. Similarly, if a buyer purchases timber as an actual user
for construction of a house, no collection of tax will be required
to be made under section 206C.

Notes:
1. Surcharge - The above rates are subject to surcharge as
followsa. if the buyer is an individual/HUF /BOI/ AOP(% of TCS)
if the amount which is subject to tax collection at source
does not exceed Rs. 8,50,000
Nil
if the amount which is subject to tax collection at source
exceeds Rs. 8,50,000
10%
b. if the buyer is an artificial juridical person

10%

c. if the buyer is a firm, company, co-operative

society or local authority

2.5%

2. Meaning of scrap - Scrap has been defined as waste and

scrap from the manufacture or mechanical working of
materials which is definitely not usable as such because of
breakage, cutting up, wear and other reasons
It would include only such waste or scrap which arises from
manufacture or mechanical working of materials. Further,
such waste should not be usable as such.
Thus, it can be said that
i.

be said to arise from manufacture are not covered by

the definition, or

Waste or scrap arising from packing materials,

newspapers, old machinery scrapped, etc., which cannot

Tax collection at lower rate - An application can be made by

the buyer to the Assessing Officer in Form No. 27F to get a
certificate of tax collection at lower rate. The person responsible
for collecting tax shall collect the same at the rates specified in
such certificate until such certificate is cancelled by the Assessing
Officer.
Deposit of tax - Tax collected under section 206C shall be
deposited within one week from the last day of the month in
which collection is made to the credit of Central Government.
For non-payment or late payment, interest is payable at the rate
of 1 per cent per month or part thereof.
Issue of certificate: Within 10 days from the date of debit or
receipt of the amount, the person collecting tax should issue a
certificate of tax collected. Such certificate should contain the
amount of tax collected, the rate at which tax is collected, other
particulars as may be prescribed. The certificate shall be issued in
Form No. 270. )
Return to the Government - Every person collecting tax at
source under section 206C is required to send half-yearly return
for the period ending on September 30 and March 31 [Form
No. 27E).

181

The returns of tax collection at source may be filed on computer

media such as floppies, diskettes, magnetic cartridge tapes, CO ROMS or any other computer readable media as may be
specified by the Board [i.e., (a) CO ROM of 650 MB capacity; or
(b) 4mm 2 GB/4GB (90M/120M) OAT Cartridge; or (c) 3.5"
1.44 MB floppy diskette). The information in such returns shall
be admitted as evidence in any other proceedings under the Act.
Such return is accompanied with Form No. 27B.
Time limit- The aforesaid returns shall be submitted within
the time limit given below:
Half yearly Return
For the period ending March 31
For the period ending September 30

Time Limit
By April 30 of the same calendar year
By October 31 of the same calendar year

Tax collection account number - Section 206CA has been

inserted with effect from June 1,2002. It provides that every
person collecting tax at source in accordance with the provisions
of section 206C shall apply to the Assessing Officer in Form
No. 49B for the allotment of a tax collection account number. It
shall be submitted within one month from the end of the
month in which tax is collected or September 30, 2002 whichever is later.
Such tax collection account number shall be quoted in all
challans for payment of any tax collected at source, in all
certificates for tax collected and in all returns to be furnished
under the provisions of section 206C. Such tax collection
account number would also be required to be quoted in all
other documents pertaining to such transactions as may be
prescribed in the interest of revenue
Let us discuss questions on tax deduction at source.
1. Discuss the clarifications issued by the Central Board of
Direct Taxes on section 194C.
2. Dicuss provisions of TCS in details.
3. Discuss provisions of TDS with respect to salary.
4. Write short note on TAN.

182

LESSON 24:
INTEREST PAYMENTS BY ASSESSEE AND DEPARTMENT
Lesson Objective

Note :

To know when interest is payable

To know consequences if an Assessee fails to deduct and pay

tax at source.

To know consequences of default in payment of advance tax

To know how is interest calculated if tax is paid before

regular assessment u/s 140A

1. Self Assessment Tax paid before the due date and return
submitted after the due date: Interest would not be payable
in case where tax has been deposited prior to due date of
filling of Income Tax Return even if the return of income is
filled after the due date of furnishing such return, provided
the return could not be filled for reasons beyond the
assessees control

To know provisions of interest payable to assessee by

department.

To know Powers of CBDT and Settlement Commission to

reduce/waive interest

Students, if any one commits any mistake naturally he has to

pay the cost for it. Similarly if any one delays tax payments, he
has to pay the cost in the form of interest. Either the assessee
or the government ,whoever is in the default, has to pay the
other one interest as per the Act. We will study in this topic
when ,how and at what rate interest is payable.

Conditions as to When Interest is Payable

Interest is payable by the assessee under the Income-tax Act in
the circumstances enumerated below:
1. For defaults in furnishing return of income [Sec. 234A]
2. For default in payment in Advance Tax[ Sec. 234B].
3. For deferment of Advance Tax [Sec.234C].
4. Interest on excess Refund [ Sec.234D].
Let us discuss each of these separately.
1. For defaults in furnishing return of income [Sec. 234A] If the return of income is furnished after the due date or is not
furnished, the assessee is liable to pay interest under section
234A.
Interest is calculated as under:
Particulars
Rate of Interest
Period
for
which
Interest is Payable

Amount on Which
Interest is Payable

Conditions.
1.25 per cent per month or part of month
(simple interest).
Commencing on the date immediately following
the due dale for filing the return of income and
ending on
a. the date of furnishing the return (where return
has been filed after the due date); or
b. the date of completion of assessment under
section144 (where no return has been furnished).
1. Find out the tax on total income as
determined under section 143(1) or on
assessment under section 143(3) or section 147
or 153A (i- the assessment is made for the first
time under section 147 or 153A).
2. From the tax so determined, advance tax paid
and tax deducted or collected at source (but not
tax paid under section 140A) shall be deducted.
1.

2. Assessment u/s 147: A belated return cannot be submitted

after the expiry of one year from the end of the assessment
year. If an assessment is made for the first time under
section 147, the assessee cannot be made liable to pay interest
for period during which it was not possible on part of
assessee to file return till issuance of notice under section 148
(i.e., after the expiry of one year from the end of the
assessment till notice is issued under section I 48)-Priti
Pithawala v. ITO [2003] 129 Taxman 79 (Mag.).
4. Interest on Reassessment u/s 234A(3) provides for charge
and mode of computation of interest where during the
course of reassessment proceedings the return of income is
either filled belatedly or is not filled at all. Interest payable in
this case by the assessee is at the rate of 1.25% (1% w.e.f 8
Sept 2003) simple interest for every month or part of a
month comprised in the period commencing on the day
immediately following the expiry of time allowed by the
notice u/s 148 and ending on the date on furnishing of the
return or where no return has been furnished on the date of
completion of the reassessment or recomputation under
section 147 or 153A. Interest is payable on the amount by
which the tax on the total income determined on the basis
of the earlier assessment.
5. The liability to pay interest u/s234A,234B and 234C is
automatic and the question of granting opportunity of
being heard does not arise.- CIT v. R. Ramalingair[2000] 108
Taxman 1 (Ker).
6. Interest must be charged in the assessment order : While
charging interest under section 234A, 234B and 234C, the
assessing officer is required to pass a specific order to this
effect in its assessment order. When the assessment order is
silent, as to whether any interest is leviable, the notice of
demand under section 156 cannot be beyond the assessment
order and the assessee cannot be served with any such notice
demanding the interest-Ayush Ajay Construction Ltd. v.
ITO [2000] 111 Taxman 261 (Indore) (Mag.), CIT v.
Inchcape India (P.) Ltd. [2002] 124 Taxman 744 (Delhi). As
has been held by the Supreme Court in the decision in CIT v.
Ranchi Club Ltd. [2001] 247 ITR 209/114 Taxman 414 as
also by the Full Bench of the Patna High Court in the
decision in Tej Kumari v. CIT[200 1] 247 ITR 210 /114
Taxman 404, interest cannot be charged by mere observation

183

like charge interest as per law. It has to be by means of a

speaking order. If a speaking order is absent, then following
the judgment of the Supreme Court, the levy of interest
shall be cancelled-Chetan Dass Lachmman Dass v. ITO
[2002] 122 Taxman 263 (Mag.).
If an Assessee Fails to Deduct and Pay Tax at Source
[Sec. 201 (1A)]

If the person responsible for deducting tax at source does not

deduct tax at source (wholly or partly) under sections 192 to 195
[see paras 405 to 427] or after deducting tax fails to pay the same
as required by the Act, he is liable to pay interest. Interest is
calculated at the rate of 15 per cent (12 per cent from September
8, 2003) per annum on the amount of such tax from the date
on which such tax was deductible to the date on which the tax is
actually paid. This period is fixed which can neither be extended
or reduced-Punjab State Electricity Board v. ITO [2002] 121
Taxman 367 (Chd.) (Mag.).
One should keep in view the following points:
In the case of CITv. Rishikesh Apartments Co-op. Housing
Society Ltd. [2001] 119 Taxman 239 (Guj.), the assessee failed to
deduct tax under section 194C. However,it was found that the
contractor on the other hand had paid the advance tax and self.
assessment tax over and above the tax payable, thereby not
causing any loss to the revenue. The High Court held that if the
revenue is permitted to levy interest under section 201(1A) even
in a case where the person liable to tax has paid tax on due date,
the revenue would derive undue benefit by getting interest on
the amount of tax which had already been paid on the due date.
A contrary verdict is given by the Kerala High Court in CITv.
Dhanalakshmy Weaving Works [2000] 109 Taxman 395 (Ker.).
If there is no overall short deduction of tax under section 192
but a few months tax deducted is lower as compared to other
months, interest on the basis of monthly shortage cannot be
charged under section 201. There is an express provision under
section 192(3) authorising the person responsible for deducting
tax to increase or reduce the amount to be deducted under
section 192 for the purpose of adjusting any excess or deficiency
arising out of any previous deduction or failure to deduct
during the financial year-Hero Honda Motors Ltd. v.ITO [2000]
112 Taxman 154 (Delhi) (Mag.).
Section 192 is very categorical to state that tax has to be deducted
from income under the head Salaries computed on the
estimated income of the assessee under this head. What has to
be seen is whether the employer company has acted bona fide or
not while computing the tax liability of its employees for the
purposes of deducting tax at sourceAssociated Cement Co. Ltd.
v. ITO [2000] 74 ITD 369/111 Taxman 251 (Mag.)/68 ITJ
(Mum.) (SMC II) 220. In a step further the Gujarat High Court
in a similar fashion in ClT v. Oil & Natural Gas Corpn. Ltd.
[2002] 125 Taxman 698 held that any addition or disallowance
in the hands of the employee does not reflect in any manner on
the estimate of the employer.
Section 234A talks about interest payments in case of defaults
in furnishing return of income.Whereas section 234B speaks of
defaut in payment of advance tax.

184

For default in payment of advance tax [Sec. 234B] - Under

section 234B(1), interest is payable as follows:

When interest is
payable
An assessee who is
liable to pay
advance tax, has
failed to pay such
tax

An assessee who
had paid advance
tax but the amount
of advance tax
paid by him is less
than 90 cent of
assessed tax

Amount on
which interest
payable
Interest is
payable on
assessed tax

Rate of interest

Period for which

interest is payable.

Simple interest
@ 1 % per cent
for every month
or part of month

Assessed tax
minus advance
tax

Simple interest
@ I% per cent
for every month
or part of month

From April 1 of the

assessment year to the
date of determination
of income under
section 143( I) and
where a regular
assessment is made to
the date of such
regular assessmentt
From April I of the
assessment year to the
date of determination
of income under
section 143(1) and per
where a regular
assessment is made to
the date of such
regular assessmentt

What is Assessed Tax ?

Assessed tax means the tax on total income determined
under section 143(1) (excluding additional tax) or on regular
assessment as reduced by tax deducted or collected at source on
any income which is subject to such deduction or collection and
which is taken into account in computing such total income.
For the purpose of computing interest payable under section
140A, assessed tax means tax on total income as declared in
return as reduced by tax deducted or collected at source.
How is Interest Calculated if Tax is Paid Before Regular
Assessment U/S 140A?

If before the date of completion of a regular assessment tax is

paid on the basis of self-assessment under section 140A, the
interest shall be calculated as under:
a. Up to the date of payment of tax under section 140A,
interest will be calculated as mentioned in the table above;
and
b. From the date of payment of tax under section 140A,
interest will be calculated on the amount by which advance
tax and tax paid under section 140A falls short of assessed
tax.
From the amount of interest computed above, amount paid
under section 140A towards interest chargeable under section
234B shall be deducted.
Adjustment in the Case of Re-assessment/ReComputation Under Section 147 or 153A [Sec. 234B(3)]

If as a result of reassessment/recomputation under section 147

or 153A, the amount on which interest was initially payable is
increased, the taxpayer will be liable to pay additional interest at
the rate of 1:1: per cent per month (or part of month) for the
period starting from the date of regular assessment and ending
on rhe date of reassessment! recomputation. This additional
interest is to be paid on the excess of tax determined on the
basis of reassessment/recomputation over tax payable on the
basis of regular assessment.

Adjustment in the Case of Rectification/ Revision/

Modification. U/s 154, 155, 250, 254, 260, 262, 263, 264
or 245D(4)

If as a result of an order under section 154,

155,250,254,260,262,263,264 or 245D( 4), the amount on which
interest was payable under section 234B(1)/(3) has been
increased/ reduced, the interest shall be increased/reduced,
accordingly. In the case of increase in interest liability, the
Assessing Officer will serve on the assessee a notice of demand
specifying the sum payable. In the case where interest is reduced,
the excess interest shall be refunded.
Interest U/s 234B or 234C in the Case of MAT

All companies are liable for payment of advance tax having

regard to the provisions contained under section 115JB.
Consequently, interest under sections 234B and 234C will be
calculated after taking into consideration section 115JB-Circular
No. 13/2001, dated November 9, 2001.
Shipping Business of Non- Resident

Under the provisions of section 172(7), the non-resident owner

or charterer is allowed an option to be assessed on his total
income of the previous year in accordance with other provisions
of the Act. When such option is exercised and an assessment is
made accurately, the tax already paid under the provisions of
section 172(4) by the non-resident owner or charterer would be
treated as tax paid in advance for that assessment year before
determining the amount of tax finally due.
The question that arose for consideration of the Board at the
time of issue of Circular No. 730 was that when a regular
assessment is made under section 143(3), read with the
provisions of section 172(7), whether such an assessee would
liable to levy of interest under sections 234B and 234C or not.
On the other hand, in case of a refund, the question of
entitlement of interest under section 244A would also rise. The
Board, vide Circular No. 730, dated December 14, 1995 clarified
that the assessee, who exercises his option under section 172(7)
to get his total income assessed in accordance with the other
provisions of the Act, is neither liable to pay interest under
sections 234B and 234C, nor entitled to receive interest under
section 244A.
This issue has subsequently been discussed and decided by the
Supreme Court in the case of A.S. GlittreD/5-I/S Garonne v.
CIT[1997] 225ITR 739. It has been held that the payment of
tax under section 172(3)/(4) is at par with advance tax
instalments. Hence, in case of a regular assessment under
section 172(7) the assessee is entitled to refund, as well as
interest on such refund.
Circular No. 730 issued by the Central Board of Direct Taxes on
this issue is, under the circumstances, no longer legally tenable
and, consequently has been withdrawn by the Board. Further,
the Board has clarified that in case of a regular assessment under
section 172(7), the non-resident assessee is liable to pay interest
under sections 234B and 234C and also entitled to receive
interest under section 244A as the case may be-Circular No. 9/
2001, dated July 9, 2001.
Payment of Cheque - A harmonious reading of provisions of
rule 7 of the Central Government Account (Receipts and

Payment) Rules, 1983 and rules 79 and 80 of the Treasury Rules

of the Central Government, make it clear that Government
dues can be presented in the form of cheque into the accredited
ba,nk. Upon tendering of a cheque, if it is not dishonoured
later, it shall be deemed that payment has been made on the
date when it was handed over to the Governments bankers-K.
Saraswatty v. P.s.s. Somasundram Chettiar [1989] 4 SCC 527 (Se),
CITv. Kumudam Publications (P.) Ltd. [1981] 128ITR 617 (Mad.),
Sahara Airlines Ltd. v .Commissionerof Customs [2000] 110
Taxman 378 (Govt. of India).
Specific Order: In the absence of any specific order of the
assessing authority, interest under sections 234A and 234B
cannot be charged - Tej Kumari v. CIT[2001] 114 Taxman 404
(Pat.), CIT v. Ranchi Club Ltd. [2001] 114 Taxman 414 (SC).
If Returned Income and last years assessed Income is Nil:
- Where the returned income and assessed income of the latest
previous year is nil, and the Assessing Officer has not made his
order under section 210(3), there is no obligation on the
assessee to pay advance tax and no liability to pay interest-Buland
Motor & Land Finance (P.) Ltd. v. CIT[2001] 117 Taxman 116
(All.).

Whether Charge of Interest is Mandatory?

Yes charge of interest is mandatory. Sections 234A, 234B and
234C in clear terms impose a mandate to collect interest at the
rates stipulated therein. The expression shall used in the said
section cannot by any stretch of imagination be construed as
may. There are sufficient indications in the scheme of the Act
to show that the expression shall used in sections 234A, 234B,
and 234C is used by the Legislature deliberately and it has not
left any scope for interpreting the said expression as may-CIT
v. Anjum M.H. Ghaswala [2001] 119 Taxman 352 (SC).
Cash seized during search- Cash seized during search should
be treated as advance tax for purpose of computation of
interest under section 220(2) and sections 234A, 234B and
234C- Vipul D. Doshi v. CIT[2001] 118 Taxman 30 (Mum.)
(Mag.).
For Deferment of Advance Tax [Sec. 234C]
Interest is payable under section 234C if an assessee has not
paid advance tax or underestimated installments of advance tax.
Interest is to be computed on the following basis:
In the case of a non corporate assessee [Sec. 234C(1)(b) ]In the case of a non-corporate assessee, interest under section
234C is payable as follows:
When interest is pa)'able
under section 234C
1
If advance tax paid on or
before September 15 is less
than 3096 (a--b)

Rate of interest

Period of interest

2
Simple interest
@ 1 per cent
per month

3
3 months

Amount On which
interest is payable
4
3096 (a-b}-c

If advance tax paid on or

before December 15 is less
than 6096 (a-b
If advance tax paid on or
before March 15 is less than
10096 (a-b)

Simple interest
@ 1 per cent
per month
Simple interest
@ 1 per cent

3 months

6096 (a-b}-d

---

10096 (a-b}-e

Notes:

185

a. Tax on the total income declared in the return filed by the

assessee.
b. Tax deducted or collected at source.
c. Amount of advance tax paid on or before September 15 of
the financial year immediately preceding the relevant
assessment year.
d. Amount of advance tax paid on or before December 15 of
the financial year immediately preceding the relevant
assessment year.
e. Amount of advance tax paid on or before March 15 of the
financial year immediately preceding the relevant assessment
year.
In the case of a corporate asseessee [Sec. 234C(1)(a)] - A
corporate-assessee will be liable for interest under section 234C
as under:
When interest is payable under
section 234C by a company
1
If advance tax paid on or
before June 15 is less
Than 1296 (a-b)

Rate of interest

If advance tax paid on or

before September 15 is less
than 3696 (a-b)
If advance tax paid on or
before December 15 is less
than 7596 (a-b)
If advance tax paid on or
before March 15 is less than
10096 (a-b)

Simple interest @
1 per cent per
month
Simple interest @
1 per cent per
month
Simple interest @
1 per cent per
month

2
Simple interest @
1 per cent per
month

Period of
interest
3
3 months

Amount on which
interest is payable
4
15%(a-b)-c

3 months

45%(a-b)-c

3 months

75%(a-b)-c

---

100%(a-b)-c

installments of advance tax which are immediately due or if

no installment is due, then such tax is paid before the end of
the financial year
Interest on excess refund [Sec. 234D applicable from June
1, 2003J - Under the provisions of section 143(4), where a
regular assessment under section 143(3) or section 144 is made,
any tax or interest paid under section 143(1) shall be deemed to
have been paid towards such regular assessment and if no
refund is due on regular assessment or the amount refunded
under section 143(1) exceeds the amount refundable on regular
assessment, the whole or the excess amount so refunded is
deemed to be tax payable by the assessee.
In a case where an assessee claims refund of a substantial
portion of advance tax or TDS or TCS treated as paid by him
on the basis of the total income as declared in his return of
income furnished upder section 139, such refund has to be
granted to him at the time of processing of the return under
section 143(1). Subsequently, if regular assessment is made on a
total income much higher than the returned income, the refund
earlier granted to the assessee or a substantial portion of it is
treated as tax payable. But while the assessee pays interest for
shortfall in payment of advance tax with effect from the first
day of the assessment year, nothing is charged from the
assessee for having utilized the refund amount, till the date of
regular assessment.

Notes:

A new section 234D has, therefore, been inserted (with effect

from June 1, 2003) to charge interest on excess refund granted
at the time of summary assessment. .Interest under section 234D(
1) - In any of the following two cases interest is attracted under
section 234 D( 1).

a. Tax on the total income declared in the return filed by the

assessee.

Case one - If any refund is granted under section 143( 1) but

no refund is due on regular assessment.

b. Tax deducted or collected at source.

Case two - If any refund is granted to the assessee under

section 143(1) and the refund so granted exceeds the amount
refundable on regular assessment.

c. Amount of advance tax paid on or before June 15 of the

financial year immediately preceding the relevant assessment
year.
d. Amount of advance tax paid on or before September 15 of
the financial year immediately preceding the relevant
assessment year.
e. Amount of advance tax paid on or before December 15 of
the financial year immediately preceding the relevant
assessment year.
f. Amount of advance tax paid on or before March 15 of the
financial year immediately preceding the relevant assessment
year.
Short Payment of Advance Tax in Case of Capital Gains /
Casual Income ( First Proviso to Sec. 234C(1))

No interest will be levied in respect of any shortfall in the

payment of advance tax due on the returned income if
a. The shortfall is on account of underestimate or failure to
estimate the amount of capital gains (short-term or longterm) or income of the nature referred to in section
2(24)(ix) (i.e., lottery income, gambling income, etc.); and
b. The assessee has paid the whole of the amount of tax
payable in respect of such income, as part of the remaining

186

For the aforesaid purpose, regular assessment means assessment under section 143(3) or 144. If an assessment is made for
the first time under section 147 or section 153A, the assessment
so made shall be regarded as a regular assessment.
Computation of interest -In any of the above two cases
interest is payable under section 234D(1) as follows:
Rate of Interest
Period
for
which
interest is payable
Amount on which
interest is payable

2/3 per cent (\2 per cent from September 8, 2003)

per month or part of a month.
The period commencing from the date of grant of
refund under section 143( I) to date of regular
assessment.
In Case One on whole of the amount refunded; in
Case Two on the excess of amount refunded under
section 143(1) over the amount refundable on
regular assessment.

Adjustment under section 234D(2) - Where, as a result of an

order under section 154 or 155 or 250 or 254 or 260 or 262 or
263 or 264 or an order of the Settlement Commission under
section 254 D( 4) the amount of refund granted under section
143( 1) is held to be correctly allowed, either in whole or in part,
as the case may be, then the interest chargeable under section
234D(I), shall be reduced accordingly.

For making late payment of income-tax[Sec. 220(2)] - If

any assessee fails to pay any tax (other than advance tax)
specified in a demand notice within 30 days of the service of
notice of demand, he is liable to pay interest at the rate of 1.25
per cent (1 per cent from September 8, 2003) for every month or
part of month from the expiry of 30 days of the service of
demand notice.
The Chief Commissioner or Commissioner may reduce or
waive the amount of interest payable by an assessee under
section 220(2), if he is satisfied that payment of such interest
would cause genuine hardship to the assessee; the default in the
payment of the amount on which interest was payable was due
to circumstances beyond the control of the assessee; and the
assessee has co-operated in any inquiry relating to the assessment or in any proceeding for the recovery of any amount due
from him.
Where an assessment order is cancelled under section 146 or
cancelled/ set aside by an appellate/ revisional authority and the
cancellation/ setting aside becomes final (ie., it is not varied as a
result of further appeals/ revisions), no interest under section
220(2) can be charged pursuant to the original demand notice.
The necessary corollary of this point will be that even when the
assessment is reframed, interest can be charged only after the
expiry of 30 days from the date of service of demand notice
pursuant to such fresh assessment order-Circular No. 334, dated
April 3, 1982.
Where the assessment made originally by the Assessing Officer
is either varied or even set aside by one appellate authority but
on further appeal, the original order of the ITO is restored
either in part or wholly, the interest payable under section 220(2)
will be computed with reference to the due date reckoned from
the original demand notice and with reference to the tax finally
determined. The fact that during an intervening period,there
was no tax payable by the assessee under any operative order
would make no difference to this position-Circular No. 334,
dated April 3, 1982.
The observation given in Circular No. 334 does not find
support in the judicial pronouncement given by the Apex Court
in Vikrant Tyres Ltd. v.First lTO[2001] 115 Taxman 202. In this
case the assessee deposits the demand made by the Assessing
Officer and goes in appeal. The appellate authority decides the
issue in favour of the assessee and the tax collected is refunded.
In further appeal by the revenue before the High Court, the
assessee looses the case. Fresh demand notices are issued to the
assessee demanding interest under section 220(2) for the period
commencing from the refund of tax consequent upon the first
appellate order. The assessee disputes the charge of interest
from back date when he has satisfied with all the demands
raised from time to time. The Supreme Court held that for
invoking section 220 one of the conditions is that if there is a
default in payment of amount demanded under a notice by the
revenue within the time stipulated therein and if such a
demand is not satisfied, interest is leviable under section 220(2).
The Court held that the section cannot be invoked to revive a
demand notice, which has already been fully satisfied. The
landmark ruling of the Supreme Court is a clear pointer to

taxpayers to pay tax demands in full (and not in part) as and

when they arise to save the burden of interest in the ultimate.
Appellate Tribunal has power to grant stay of recovery of
interest demanded under section 220(2)-Bhoja Reddyv. crr [1998]
231 ITR 47/100 Taxman 44 (AP)
Now let us disscuss abou tinterest payable by the department.

Interest Payable to Assessee [Sec. 244A]

Interest is payable where any refund arises due to any excess
payment of tax. There is no need for making claim for refund.
When refund is of any advance tax (including tax deducted or
collected at source), the interest is payable at the rate of 0.5 per
cent I per month or part of month from the first day of the
assessment year to the date of grant of refund. No interest is,
however, payable if the excess payment is less than 10 per cent
of tax determined under section 143(1) or on regular assessment.
Where refund is of tax other than advance tax or tax deducted
or collected at source, interest is payable from the date of
payment of such tax or penalty up to the date on which the
refund is granted The following points shall also be kept in
view:
Date of payment of tax or penalty. means the date on and
from which the amount of tax/penalty specified in the
notice of demand is paid in excess of such demand.
If as a result of an order under section 143(1), 143(3), 147,
154, 155,250,254,260,262, 263,264 or 245D(4), the amount
on which interest was payable has been increased/ reduced,
the interest shall be increased/reduced accordingly. If interest
is reduced, the Assessing Officer will send a notice of
demand in the prescribed form specifying the amount of the
excess interest paid and requiring him to pay such amount.
If money is retained in the hands of the revenue only by way
of deposit as security for meeting tax liability, section 244A is
not applicable-Kurumber Betta Estate v. lTO [2002] 124 Taxman
161 (Kar.).
The right to receive interest on the amount of refund does
not depend on the submission of an application by the
assessee. Rather, it follows as a natural corollary to the
assessees right to receive fund. Therefore, the mere fact that
the application filed by the petitioner is decided expeditiously
cannot be made a ground for declining its prayer for award
of interest-National Horticulture Board v. Union of India [2002]
125 Taxman 922 (Punj. & Har.).
Procedure to be Followed in Calculation of Interest
[Rule 119A]
In calculating interest payable by the assessee or interest payable
by the Central Government to the assessee, the amount of tax,
penalty or other sum in respect of which interest is to be
calculated will be rounded off to the nearest multiple of Rs. 100
ignoring any fraction of Rs. 100. Where interest is to be
calculated on annual basis, the period for which such interest is
to be calculated shall be rounded off to a whole month/
months and for this purpose any fraction of a month shall be
ignored. Where, however, the interest is to be calculated for

187

every month or part of a month comprised in a period, any

fraction of a month shall be deemed to be a full month.
Waiver or Reduction of Interest Under Sections 234A,
234B and 234C

In exercise of the powers conferred under section 119(2)( a), the

Central Board of Direct Taxes have directed (vide order dated
June 2, 1994) that in cases where any income accrues or arises for
any previous year due to the operation of any order of a Court,
statutory authority or of the Government (other than an order
of assessment, appeal, reference or revision passed under the
provisions of the Income-tax Act) passed after the close of the
said previous year (such income and the order hereinafter
referred to as the relevant income and the relevant order
respectively) interest under sections 234A, 234B and 234C shall
be reduced or waived by the Chief Commissioner/Director.
General subject to certain conditions.
Conditions - The following conditions shall be satisfied
a. The relevant income is disclosed in a return of income
furnished for the said previous year or is otherwise disclosed
to the Assessing Officer; and
b. The tax attributable to such income has been paid.
Period - Reduction/waiver of interest is given in respect of the
following period:
a. In respect of interest under section 234A from the date
immediately following the due date for furnishing the return
of income for the relevant assessment year till the end of the
month in which the relevant order giving rise to the relevant
income is passed;
b. In respect of the interest under section 234B, from the first
day of April of the relevant assessment year till the end of
the month in which the relevant order giving rise to the
relevant income is passed;
c. In respect of interest under section 234C, for the period
mentioned in that section. 388.
Extent of interest to be reduced or waived - The quantum
of interest to be reduced or waived shall be the difference
between:
a. the interest computed for the period mentioned in para 388.2
above with reference to the tax on the total income inclusive
of the relevant income; and
b. The interest computed for the same period with reference to
the tax on the total income as reduced by the relevant
income.
Waiver or reduction under this order shall be allowed with
reference to the relevant orders passed on or after April 1, 1989.
Discretion should be exercised in judicial manner - It is
true that the waiver of interest is at the discretion of the
concerned official. But the discretion must be exercised in a
judicial manner and cannot be ipse dixit of the officer and the
result of any whim J.D. Properties Ltd. v. Chief CIT[2001] 118
Taxman 592 (Delhi).
Chief Commissioner / Director General (Investigation) to
reduce penal interest in certain cases.

The Central Board of Direct Taxes (vide press release issued by

Pill, dated May 21, 1996) has decided to authorise Chief
Commissioners and Directors General (Investigation) to reduce
or waive penal interest under sections 234A, 234B and 234C
with reference to the assessment year 1989-90 and any subsequent assessment year subject to certain specified conditions.
This step has been taken to mitigate the unintended hardships
faced by several taxpayers. Penal interest charged under the
aforesaid sections may be reduced or waived in the following
circumstances, namely:
1. Where, in the course of search and seizure operation, books
of account have been taken over by the Department and were
not available to the taxpayer to prepare his return of income.
2. Where, in the course of search and seizure operation, cash
had been seized which was not permitted to be adjusted
against arrears of tax or payment of advance tax instalments
falling due after the date of the search.
3. Any income other than capital gains which was received or
accrued after the date of first or subsequent instalment of
advance tax, which was neither anticipated nor contemplated
by the taxpayer and on which advance tax was paid by the
taxpayer after the receipt of such income.
4. Where, as a result of any retrospective amendment of law or
the decisions of the Supreme Court, certain receipts which
were hitherto treated as exempt, become taxable. Since no
advance tax would normally be paid in respect of such
receipts during the relevant financial year, penal interest is
levied for the default in payment of advance tax.
5. Where return of income is filed voluntarily without
detection by the Income-tax Department and due to
circumstances beyond control of the taxpayer such return of
income was not filed within the stipulated time-limit or
advance tax was not paid at the relevant time.
The above guidelines were issued for waiver of interest under
sections 234A, 234B and 234C and it will not govern interest
leviable under section 158BF A-New Punjab Skin Co. v. Union of
India [2000] 242 ITR 401/110 Taxman 431 (Punj. & Har.).

Power of CBDT and Settlement Commission to

Reduce/Waive Interest
CBDT has power to make relaxation in cases covered by
sections 234A, 234B and 234C and where assessee makes an
application for waiver of interest under said sections, the Board
cannot decline assessees request by a cryptic order that it was
unable to interfere in matter-Sant Lalv. UOI[1996] 89 Taxman
272/222 ITR 375 (Punj. & Ha..). . Settlement Commission - The
Settlement Commission in exercise of its power under section
245(4) and (6) does not have the power to reduce or waive
interest statutorily payable under sections 234A, 234B and 234C
except to the extent of granting relief under the Circulars issued
by the Board under section 119-CIT v. Anjum M.B. Ghaswala
[200 I] 119 Taxman 352 (SC).
Other Points
The following proposition one should also note
Notice of Demand

Interest under sections 234A, 234B and 234C cannot be levied

through notice of demand where there is no order to levy such
188

interest in assessment order-Uday Mistanna Bhandar and Complex v.

Tej Kumari Devi [1996] 222 ITR 44 (Pat.).

Business Income

190000

Writ Petition

Long term capital gain

100000

Since no appeal is provided by statute against levy of interest

under sections 234A, 234B and 234C, writ petition is maintainable against such levy-Uday Mistanna Bhandar & Complexv. Tej
Kumari Devi[1996] 222 ITR 44 (Pat.).

Lottery winning
Net Income

50000
340000

Tax i.e., 3596 of Rs.1,90,000 + 2096 of Rs. 1,00,000 + 3096 of

Rs. 50,000]
Add: Surcharge (2.596 of Rs. 1,01,500)

101500

Let us have a look at the practical aspect.

Tax Payable

104038

Less: Tax deducted at source

15375

Balance
Fourth instalment on March 15,2004 [i.e., Rs. 88,663-Rs. 8,180Rs. 16,359Rs.41,958)

88663
22166

Practical Problems
Prob.1: X Ltd., an Indian company, submits the following
information for the previous year 2003-04
Business income
1,90,000
Long-term capital gain on sale of debentures
on September 20, 2003
1,00,000
Winning from lottery on December 20, 2003
(out of which tax deducted is Rs. 15,375)
50,000
Ascertain the minimum amount of advance
tax payable by way of different instalments to
ensure that interest liability under section 234C
is not attracted. First instalment on June 15, 2003
and second instalment on September 15,2003
Business income
1,90,000
Tax @ 3596
66,500
Add: Surcharge (2.596 of Rs. 66,500)
~
Tax payable
68,163
At least 1296 of Rs. 68,163 (i.e., Rs. 8,180) should be paid on
before June 15,2003 to avoid interest under section 234C.
Assume the company pays Rs. 8,180 as advance tax on June
15,2003, then the second instalment shall be determined as
follows

2538

Prob.2: X Ltd., an Indian company, files return of income on

January 10,2005, though the due date is October 31, 2U04 for
the aS5~ssment year 2004-05. On the same day, it deposits Rs.
48,171 (being self-assessment tax) under section 140A computed as follows:
Tax on Income o Rs. 200000 declared in the return
Less:
Advance Tax Paid during 2003-2004
Tax deducted at source
Balance
Add: Interest
U/s 234A for late submission of return @ 1% pm
on Rs.41700 for 3 months
U/s 234B for short deposit of advance tax on Rs.
41700 from April 1,2004 to Jan 10,2005 @ 1% pm
for 10 months.
U/s 234C Rs. 1000 is correctly computed u/s 234C
Total

71750
20000
10000
41750
1251
4170

1000
48171

Assessment is completed u/s 143(3) on April 20, 2005 on

income of Rs. 220000. Find out the amount of Tax Payable.
Particulars
Tax
36% of Tax
Less: First Installment
Second Installment( which is paid on Sept. 15,2003)
Third Installment on December 15, 2003
Business Income
Long term capital income
Net Income
Tax (i.e.,35% of Rs.190000 + 20% of Rs.100000)
Add: Surcharge(2.5% of Rs.86500)
Tax Payable
Minimum amount of advance tax payment to avoid
tax under section 234C [i.e., 7596 of
Rs. 88,663-Rs. 8,180, being the tax paid on June 15,
2003-Rs. 16,359 (being tax paid on
September 15,2002)]

Rs.
68163
24539
8180
16359
190000
100000
290000
86500
2163
88663
41958

Ans: Calculation of Liability under section 234A:

Date of filling of Return
Due date o Return
Period of default (a part of month is taken as full month)
Income
Tax on income [i.e., 35% of Rs. 2,20,000 plus 2.5% surcharge]
Less: Advance payment of tax
Tax deducted at source
Assessed tax
Interest on assessed tax @ 1 % per month for 3 months

January 10,2005
October 31, 2004
3 months
220000
78925
20000
10000
48925
1467

Interest liability under section 234B :

Assume that the company pays Rs. 41,958 as advance tax on

December 15,2003, then the fourth instalment shall be
determined as under:

189

Assessed tax (i.e., tax minus tax deducted at source, as

computed above)
90% of assessed tax
Advance tax paid during 2003-04
It is liable to pay interest under section 234B as
advance tax paid is shorter than Rs. 62,033
Shortfall from April 1, 2004 to January 10,2005
Period of default (April 1, 2004 to January 10, 2005)
Interest @ 1 % per month for 10 months on shortfall
Shortfall from January 10,2005 to April 20, 2005 [i.e.,
Rs. 48,925 - Rs. 41,750 being self-assessment tax under
section 140A paid on January 10,2005 - see Note 1]
Period of default
February 1, 2005 to April 20, 2005 (in the shortfall of
10 months period up to January 31, 2005 is included)
Interest on Rs. 7,100 for 3 months @ 1% per month
Interest under section 234B

68925
62033
20000
-----48925
10 Months
4890
7175

3 months
213
5103

Notes:
1. In this example, X Ltd. has paid Rs. 48,171 on January
10,2005 under section 140A. As per calculation given in the
problem, Rs. 6,421 is adjusted towards payment of interest
and the balance Rs. 41,750 is adjusted towards tax payable. If
tax paid under section 140A (i.e., self-assessment tax) is less
than Rs. 48,171, then the amount paid under section 140A,
shall be first adjusted towards interest payable and the
balance if any, shall be adjusted towards tax payable.
2. Net tax and interest payable is to be computed as under:
Tax on Rs.220000
Add: Interest
U/s 234A
U/s 234B
U/s 234C
Total
Less: Pre-paid Tax
Tax deduction at source
Advance Tax
Self assessment Tax u/s 140A
Balance Payable

190

78925
1467
5103
1000
86495
10000
20000
48171
8324

LESSON 25:
SETTING-OFF LOSSES AND DEPRECIATION
Lesson Objective

To know meaning of set off of losses.

To know provisions of set off of inter head incomes.

To know provisions for set off of intra head income.

To know special provisions in case of depreciation.

To know provisions in respect of closely held companies.

We will discuss here provisions of set off of losses and

conditions to set of depreciation this topic is important as set
off provisions allow an assessee to avail benefit of loss with
profits.

Introduction
While in commercial accounting depreciation is shown in the
accounts like any other expenditure, for tax purposes the loss
before depreciation and the amount of depreciation would have
to be shown separately.
The reason for making a specific distinction between loss and
depreciation is that different considerations apply for the
treatment of these two items. Section 32(2) deals with the carry
forward of unabsorbed depreciation while section 72(1) deals
with the carry forward of business loss.
There are four features which distinguish the two:
a. In a year in which the income is insufficient to absorb the full
depreciation, the total income is taken as nil; while if there is
a loss to be carried forward, the assessment order must show
the figure of the loss (section 157).
b. The unabsorbed depreciation is deemed to be part of the
depreciation allowance for a subsequent year and will enter
into the computation of the income of such subsequent
year. Carried forward loss does not enter into such
computation but after the subsequent years income is
determined, the carried forward loss is deducted therefrom.
c. The unabsorbed depreciation, as stated above, can be set off
against any income of a subsequent year under any head;
whereas the carried forward loss can be set off only against
the profits of any business or profession.
d. Section 32(2) allows the carry-forward of depreciation
allowance to any subsequent year without any time limit;
while; under section 72 a loss can be carried forward only for
a period of eight years.
In C.I. T. v. 5ingla Tea and Agriculture Industries Ltd.
(250I.T.R.274) the assessee, who was running a tea garden,
suffered a loss before the tea garden was taken over by the
Government. Thereafter, it received income on account of
services rendered to other companies in the matter of tea
cultivation. The assessee claimed set off of the business losses
incurred while it was running the tea gardens against the income
by way of service charges received in the assessment years 198485 and 1985-86. The Assessing Officer rejected the claim of the

assessee under section 72(1)(i) of the Income Tax Act,1961. on

the ground that the loss could not be set off against the income
of the assessment years 1984-85 and 1985-86, as it had not
carried on the same business.
The Commissioner of Income-tax (Appeals) allowed the claim
of the assessee on the ground that when there was a common
management and control of the business, the unabsorbed loss
of earlier years should be allowed to be set off against the
income from the business of the current assessment year. The
Tribunal confirmed the view taken by the Commissioner o
Incometax (Appeals).
On a reference, the Calcutta High Court held that, in the present
case, the management was common and running the tea garden
and rendering, services for tea gardens could be treated as the
same business for the purpose of section 72. Therefore, the
allowance of carry forward and set-off of t.li1e earlier years
losses from tea growing and manufacturing business against
the income from service charges received during the current
assessment year was justified.
Section 72(2) requires that the losses which have been carried
forward should first be set off against the profits of a business
in a subsequent year under section 72(1), and it is only if any
balance of profits still remains that the depreciation allowance
of past years should be set off against such balance of profits
[See C.I.T. v. Jaipuria China Clay Mines Limited 59 I.T.R.555(SC
; Re Laxmichand Jaipuria Spg. & Wvg. Mills 18 I.T.R.
919919,924].
This ensures to the benefit of the assessee for the right of
carry-forward given by section 32(2) in respect of depreciation
allowance can be availed of in later years when losses can no
longer be carried forward under section 72 [G.I.T. v. Ravi
Industries Limited 49 I.T.R. 145, 151; C.I.T. v. Girdharlal
Harivallabhadas MWs Co. Ltd. 51 1. T.R. 693, 698]. However this
provision applies only to unabsorbed depreciation and not to
current depreciation.

Current Years Depreciation

If there is a carried forward loss from an earlier year, with or
without unabsorbed depreciation, the current depreciation for
the accounting year should first be deducted from the business
profits and it is only if there is a balance of profit left that the
carried forward loss should be set off against it [Aluminium
Corporation of India Ltd. v. C.I. T. 33 I. T.R. 367; C.I..T. v.
Gujarat State Warehousing Corpn. 104 I.T.R. 1; C.I.T. v. Andhra
Printers Ltd. 117 I. T.R. 555; Vegetable Oil Mfg. Co. P. Ltd. v. C.I.
T. 147 /.T.R. 544]. The decision in Mother India Refrigeration
Industries Limited v. C.I..T. 80 I.T.R. 510 that in a case where
there are both carried forward losses and unabsorbed depreciation, the losses should be set off even before deducting the
current depreciation, is, it is submitted, incorrect.

191

The Supreme Court laid down in C./. T. v. Mother India

Refrigeration Industries P. Ltd. 155 I. T.R. 711 that in computing the profits and gains of a business for the current year,
depreciation for the current year must be deducted first before
deducting the unabsorbed carried forward business losss of
earlier years. The Court held as follows:
The avowed purpose of the legal fiction created by the
deeming. provision contained in provision (b) to section
10(2)(vi} of the Indian Income-tax Act, 1922, and in section
32(2) of the Income-tax Act, 1961, is to make the unabsorbed
carried forward depreciation partake of the same character as the
current depreciation in the following year so that it is available,
unlike unabsorbed carried forward business loss, for being set
off against other heads of income of that year. Such being the
purpose for which the legal fiction is created, the fiction cannot
be extended beyond its legitimate field and will have to be
confined to that purpose. It cannot be said that because of the
legal fiction, the unabsorbed carried forward losses should be
given preference not merely over the unabsorbed carried forward
depreciation but also over the current years depreciation.
The tax is chargeable under section 28 on the aggregate of
profits of . the businesses carried on by the assessee. Therefore,
if the profits of a particular business are insufficient to absorb
to the depreciation allowance permitted by section 32(2), the
allowance (like any other business loss) ,can be set off under
section 70 against the profits of any other business [See Suppan
Chettiar v. C.I.T. 4 I.T.C. 211; Ballarpur Collieries v. C.l. T. 4 I.
T.C. 255].
If, however, there are no profits chargeable under this head or if
the profits chargeable under this head are insufficient to cover
the depreciation allowance, the amount of the allowance may be
set off under section 71 against profits chargeable under any
other head for that year [Suppan Claceiltiar v. C.I. T. 4 I. T. C.
211; Re Laxmichand Jaipuria Spg. & Wvg. Mills18 I.T.R.919;
Ambika Silk Mills Co. Ltd. v. C./. T. 22 I. T.R. 58] - unabsorbed
depreciation allowance set off against capital gains.
If still some part of the depreciation allowance remains
unabsorbed, it may be carried forward under sub-section (2) of
section 32 to the following year and set off against that years
profits, and so on for succeeding years. The carried forward
depreciation allowance is deemed to be part of, and stands on
exactly the same footing as the current depreciation for the
Assessment Year; therefore the unabsorbed depreciation of
past years can (unlike a carried forward business loss) be set off
against income chargeable under any head [C.I.T. v. ]aipuria
China Clay Mines Ltd. 59 I.T.R. 555 (SC); C.I.T. v. Ravi
Industries Ltd. 491.T.R. 145; C.1.T. v. Girdharlal
Harivallabhadas Mjlls Co. Ltd. 51 I.T.R. 693; Raj Narain
Agarwala v. C.I.T. 75 I.T.R. 1; C.I.T. v. Ahmedabad Electricity
Co. Ltd. 89 I.T.R. 77; See also C.I.T. v. Sivan pillai 77 I.T.R. 354,
358-9 (SC); Hukumchand Mjlls Ltd v. C./.T. 44 I.T.R. 411].
In Mysore Paper Mjlls Ltd. v. C.1. T. 117 I.T.R. 132, the Court
held that section 32(2) of the Income-tax Act, 1961, by a legal
fiction treats the unabsorbed depreciation allowance of the
previous year as forming part of the current years depreciation
allowance and it requires the authorities functioning under the

192

Act deal with it as such subject only to section 72(2) and section
73(3) of the Act.
But for section 32(2) being made subject to section 72(2), by
reason of the legal fiction enacted in section 32(2), the entire
unabsorbed depreciation allowance would have to be treated as
current years depreciation and deducted even before the carried
forward loss is deducted. Therefore, the unabsorbed depreciation of an earlier year carried forward must be taken as part of
the current years depreciation allowance and should be set off
to the extent possible against the income of the current year.

Carry Forward and Set-off

Under the provisions of section 32(2) of the Act, carried
forward unabsorbed depreciation was allowed to be set-off
against profits and gains of business or profession of the
subsequent year, subject to the condition that the business or
profession for which depreciation allowance was originally
computed continued to be carried on in that year. A similar
condition in section 72 for the purpose of carry forward and
set-off of unabsorbed business loss was removed with effect
from Assessment Year 2000-01.
With a view to harmonise the provisions relating to carry
forward and set-off of unabsorbed depreciation and unabsorbed loss, the Act has dispensed with the condition of
continuance of same business for the purposes of carry forward
and set-off of unabsorbed depreciation.
This amendment has taken effect from 1st April, 2001, and,
accordingly, applies in relation to the assessment year 2001-02
and subsequent years.
Under the provisions of section 32 of the Income-tax Act, carry
forward and set-off of unabsorbed depreciation was allowed
for eight assessment years.With a view to enable the industry to
conserve sufficient funds to replace plant and machinery,
specially in an era where obsolescence takes place so rapidly, the
Act has dispensed with the restriction of eight years for carry
forward and set off of unabsorbed depreciation. It has also
been clarified that in computing the profits and gains of
business or profession for any previous year, deduction of
depreciation under section 32 would be mandatory.
Earlier, no deduction for depreciation was allowed on any
motor car manufactured outside India unless it was used in the
business of running it on hire for tourists, or. outside India in
the assessees business or profession in another country.
The Act now permits depreciation allowance on all imported
motor cars acquired on or after 1st April 2001.These amendments have taken effect from the 1st April, 2002, and,
accordingly, apply in relation to the assessment year 2002-03 and
subsequent years.
In Hyderabad Construction Co. Ltd. v. C.I.T. 129 I.T.R. 81, the
Andhra Pradesh High Court held that for the purpose of
claiming deduction of depreciation on machinery from the
income of the business under section 32(1) of the Income-tax
Act, 1961, the condition precedent was that the assessee should
have used the machinery for the purpose of business. If the
assessee did not carryon business during the relevant Assessment Year, the assessee was not entitled to claim deduction of
depreciation on machinery in the said Assessment Year.

The condition imposed under section 32(2) of the Income-tax

Act in the matter of set off of unabsorbed depreciation was
that it should not have been possible to give full effect to such
depreciation in the previous year owing to the non-availability
of profits or gains during that Assessment Year or because
profits or gains were less than depreciation.

According to the Allahabad and Gujarat High Courts, the

registered firm itself cannot for any purpose carry forward any
part of its unabsorbed depreciation allowance and set it off
against its profits of a subsequent year (K. T. Wire Products v.
Union of India 92 I.T.R. 459; C.I.T. v. Garden Silk. Wvg.
Factory 101 I. T.R. 658).

According to the Court, unlike section 32(1) where the carrying

on of business had been imposed as a condition precedent for
the purpose of deduction of current depreciation from the
income of the relevant Assessment Year, section 32(2) did not
impose any such condition in the case of set off of unabsorbed
depreciation against the income of the succeeding Assessment
Years. In contrast to an express requirement regarding the
continuance of the business or profession as a condition for set
off of loss under the proviso to section 72(I)(i), there was no
such requirement in regard to unabsorbed depreciation under
section 32(2).

The Bombay, Madras and Gauhati High Courts have taken the
more equitable view that in the case of a registered finn, that
part of its unabsorbed depreciation allowance which has not
been adjusted in the hands of the partners against their other
income can be carried forward by the firm to form part of its
depreciation allowance for a subsequent year (Ballarpur Collieries
Co. v. C.I.T. 92 I.T.R. 219; C.I.T. v. Nagapatinam Import 6'
Export Corpn 119 I.T.R. 444; C.I.T. v. Madras Wire Products
119 I.T.R. 454)unabsorbed depreciation and development
rebate; (C-LT. v. Madras Wire Products 123 I.T.R. 722; C-I.T v.
Singh Transport Co. 123 LT.R. 698).

Therefore, the Court concluded that for the purpose of setting

off unabsorbed depreciation carried forward from the previous
year, it was not necessary that the business in respect of which
the depreciation allowance was originally worked out should
have remained in existence in such succeeding year.

If for certain years the Income-tax Officer holds that the

assessees income is not business income but it is income from
other sources, that would not debar the assessee from disputing that finding in a subsequent year and claiming to have the
depreciation of the prior years carried forward and set off
against the business income of the subsequent year (Western
India Oil Distributing Co Ltd v. C.LT. 126 I.T.R.497].

In coming to the above conclusion, the Court followed the

decisions in C.I.T. v. Estate and Finance lid. 111 I.T.R. 119;
C.LT. v. Rampur Tunber & Turnery Co. Ltd. 89 I.T.R. 150;
C.I.T. v. Virmani Industries (P) L.T.D.. 97 I.T.R. 461 and C.I.T.
v. Warangal Industries L.T.D. 110 LT.R. 756.
The Calcutta High Court in C.I. T. v. KishanIaI and Sons
(Udyog) Pvt.. Ltd. 154 I. T.R. 735 explained that section 32(2)
contains an independent provision for setting off unabsorbed
depreciation carried forward from the preceding year. The
deeming provision in the section has to be given full effect for
all purposes of the Act. Hence, it is not necessary that the
business in respect of which depreciation was originally allowed
and carried forward should remain in existence in the succeeding
year when set off is claimed
It is implicit in section 32(2) that in cases where the assessee is a
registered firm, the above principles are to be applied in the
individual assessments of its partners [C. I. T. v. Garden Silk
Wvg. Factory 101 I.T.R. 658, 669]. Any firm, registered or
unregistered, is entitled to set
off its depreciation allowance against its income of the same
year under any head. However, registration makes a difference as
regards the treatment of unabsorbed depreciation allowance.

Unregistered Firm
An unregistered firm can carry forward its unabsorbed depreciation and set it off against its profits of a subsequent year, even
if it gets registered for such subsequent year .K. Hosiery Factory
v. C.LT. 92 1.T.R. 16. However. in the case of a registered firm,
any unabsorbed depreciation allowance should be apportioned
among the partners; and each partners share may be set off
against his other income of the same year, or, if it is not
absorbed by such set-off, it can be carried forward by him in his
own personal assessment and set-off against his income of a
subsequent year (Raj Narain Agarwala 75 I.T.R. ). The same
principles apply to unabsorbed losses of registered firms.

The unabsorbed depreciation allowance cannot be assigned to

the transferee of the business (Indian Iron and Steel Co. Ltd. v.
C.I. T. 11 I. T.R. 328 (PC); United Steel Co. Ltd. v. Cullington 9
I. T.R. Suppl. 20 (HL). In Indian Iron & Steel Co. Ltds case,
the Privy Council held that if a business was acquired by
another, the unabsorbed depreciation allowance of the previous
owner would become a capital loss and could not be carried
forward by the successor in business and set off against such
successors profits in any year subsequent to the change in
ownership (See Re Bengal Flour Mills Co. Ltd. 9 I.T.R. 568;
Kamlapat Motilal v. C.LT. 18 I.T.R. 812).

Succession to Business
Under section 78(2) of the Income-tax Act, 1961, where a
person carrying on a business has been succeeded in such
capacity by another person. such successor is not entitled to carry
forward and set off the loss of his predecessor. However, an
exception is made where the successor has succeeded to the
business of the predecessor by inheritance.
In the case of C.I.T. v. Bai Maniben 38 I.T.R. 80. one Shri H
and his nephew Shri J were partners with equal shares in a
partnership which conducted business in cloth. Shri H died
intestate leaving behind his widow. Immediately after his death,
a new partnership deed was executed between Shri J and the
widow and the partnership. business was continued.
The assessee claimed to set-off against her share of profits for
the AssessmentYear 1955-56, the share of loss incurred in the
earlier years when her husband was a partner.
The Appellate Tribunal came to the conclusion that the assessee
had succeeded by inheritance to her husband in his capacity as a
partner, having regard to the quantum of the interest that her
husband had. the extent of the capital he had brought into

193

partnership and the fact that the assessee became a partner in the
same firm immediately after the death of her husband.
The Bombay High Court held that the assessee had succeeded
by inheritance to her husbands capacity as a partner. Hence, the
assessee was entitled to set-off against her share of the profits
for the Assessment Year 1955-56, the losses suffered by her
husband in the Assessment Years 1953-54 and 1954-55.
Another case on this point is that of the Gujarat High Court in
C.I.T. v. Madhukant Mehta 85 I. T.R. 230. In this case, the
deceased was carrying on the business of speculation in shares
as the sole proprietor: Within one month of his death, his
three legal heirs executed a partnership deed whereby they agreed
to carry on the business of speculation in partnership. The
partnership deed contained recitals to the effect that the three
legal heirs had succeeded to the speculation business carried on
by the deceased and that they had decided to continue to carryon
the business on the terms and conditions agreed upon between
them in the partnership deed whereby they agreed to carry on
the business of speculation in partnership.The partnership deed
contains recitals to the effect that the three legal heirs had
seceded to the speculation business carried on by the deceased
and that they had decided to continue to carry on the business
on the terms and conditions agreed upon between them in the
partnership deed.
The Gujarat High Court held that apart from the express
declaration contained in the partnership deed with regard to the
succession to the business of the deceased, there was ample
material on record to reach the same conclusion on application
of the correct legal test.
In coming to this decision. the Court relied on the facts that the
business was continued with the same name, in the same
premises and the same telephone which was used by the
deceased was continued to be used by the assessee. The
constituents of the assessees business were the same as those
of the business of the deceased. Therefore, it would appear that
substantially the identity and the continuity of the business
were preserved. The Court when considered the argument of
the Departmental Counsel that there was no succession because
the assets and liabilities of the proprietory business were not
taken over, subsisting contracts were also not taken over and
outstanding recoveries too were not taken over.
The Court held that in spite of these facts, the integrity or
identity of the proprietory business continued and, therefore,
the partnership firm could be said to have succeeded to the
proprietory business. If an integrated view of the matter was
taken and if it was appreciated that after the partnership was
formed, the three heirs continued to carry on the same business
of speculation, the inference would be irresistible that the
partnership firm had succeeded to the business carried on by the
deceased.
The Court also held that there was a clear case of succession by
inheritance because the deceased had died intestate and the heirs
would be clearly the son, daughter or widow of the deceased.
In Saroj Aggarwal v. C.l.T. 1561.T.R. 497 (SC), P was a partner
in three firms, two of which had incurred speculation losses
and his share of the unabsorbed speculation loss in the two

194

firms of the Assessment Years 1958-59 to 1960-61 had been

determined by the Income-tax Officer. P died on July 24, 1959.
His widow, the appellant, adopted a son on July 27, 1959, and
on the same date she joined those two firms as a partner and
the adopted son was admitted to the benefits in those firms.
Fresh partnership deeds were executed on August 12, 1959. The
earlier deeds indicated that P was a partner with two others,
who were his brothers and that they all had the same address
indicating that all the three partners were members of the same
family. One of the clauses stated that the partnership was one at
will and that the Partnership Act, 1932, applied. All the
executants of the fresh partnership deed dated August 12, 1959,
were described as residents at the same old address. The fresh
deed recorded the death of P and the adoption by his widow
of the some of another partner in the original firm as a son
three days after the death of P, and stated that the firm would
not be dissolved on the death of a partner. For the Assessment
Year 1962-63, the appellant claimed set-off of her deceased
husbands share of speculation loss from the two firms against
her share of speculation profits in the firm as well as against the
share of her minor son included in her income under section 64
of the Income-tax Act, 1961. The Appellate Tribunal allowed
the appellanfs claim holding that she succeeded to the deceased
in her capacity as partner by inheritance. The High Court, on a
reference, held that the appellant was not entitled to the set-off
claimed. The case went in appeal to the Supreme Court wherein
the Supreme Court reversed the decision of the High Court.
The Court observed that the business originally carried on by
the firms was a family concern of the partners who were
brothers living in the same house. The new firms were constituted with P,s widow and the adopted son with necessary
adjustments in the shares of the parties. The new deeds were
executed within four days of the death of P after adoption of a
son of his brother. The Court further observed that though
there was no term in the original partnership deeds that the
heirs of a deceased partner would be taken in as partner in the
new firm, it was possible to infer from the conduct of the
parties and the constitution of the firms that there was a
binding obligation on the other partners to take the deceased
partners wife or heirs as partner or partners and there was a
right of the deceased partners wife or heirs to join the firms.
According to the Court though there was no formal deed for
four days, there was no vacuum in the succession.
It was held that the appellant was entitled to the set-off of the
deceaseds share of the speculation loss brought forward from
earlier years against the shares of speculation profits of the
appellant and her minor son for the Assessment Year 1962-63.
In Tube Suppliers Ltd. v. C.I.T. 152 I.T.R. 694, the assessed
carried on business in refractory works to manufacture fire
bricks, and also business in lamp factory and collapsible tubes.
In the Assessment Year 1970-71, when the business in lamp
factory and collapsible tubes has ceased to exist, the assessee
claimed set off the loss of the earlier years relating to the
business of collapsible tubes and lamp factory against the
income from the business in the refractory works.
The assessee claimed that unabsorbed depreciation relating to
the collapsible tubes division and factory should be carried

forward and set-off against the income from the refractory

business for the Assessment Year 1970-71.
On a reference, the Madras High Court held that the Tribunal
was justified in holding that the mere fact some spare parts and
finished goods remaining with the assessee had been sold
during the accounting year in question would not lead to the
inference that the assessee canied on the collapsible tubes
business during the accounting period relevant to the Assessment Year 1970-71. The assessee was not. therefore. entitled to
have the unabsorbed losses relating to collapsible tubes factory
for the years 1964-65 to 1967-68, being carried forward and setoff against the income determined in the business of refractory
works for the Assessment Year 1970-71.
The Court observed that the benefit of section 72 amid be
claimed only when the business in respect of which the loss had
occured and which was sought to be carried forward and set-off
was carried on in the previous year relevant to the Assessment
Year in which the benefit to carry forward and set-off was
claimed.
According to the Court, unabsorbed depreciation could be
adjusted under the statute against the income from other heads
but the continuance of the business was an essential prerequisite for allowing the assessee to carry forward the unabsorbed
depreciation and set it off against the income.

2. Avoidance of tax must be the end intended to be achieved

by the assessee in entering into the transaction; it must be a
deliberate act with a set purpose (I. R. v. Brabner 76 /.T.R.
436, 445 (HL)).
There is a divergence of judicial views whether clauses (a) and
(b) of section 79 of the Act are independent or not. One view is
that the two clauses are disjunctive and totally independent and
the other view is that the two clauses are not independent of
each other.
The first view has been taken by the Gujarat High Court in C./.
T. v. Shri. Shublaxmi Mills limited I.T. Ref. Nos. 65 and 98 of
1974, decided on 27th January, 1976. In this case, the Court
observed as follows:

The question that arises is whether the provisions of section

79 are satisfied or the ban put by section 79 is removed when
the case of the assessee does not fall in any of these two
conditions. In short, whether the provisions of clauses (a)
and (b) of section 79 are to be read cumulatively or
alternatively. Mr. Kazi for the Revenue contended that the
word or occurring between clauses (a) and (b) should be
read conjunctively and not disjunctively.

However, on a pure grammatical meaning of the provisions

of section 79 it is obvious that the Legislature has created a
bon, a mandate, against carrying forward and set-off of the
loss of the previous year if a change in the shareholding has
taken place in a particular previous year in the class of
company which is not a company in which the public are
substontially interested.

However, the Legislature says that this ban against carrying

forward of loss from a year prior to the previous year when
the change in share-holding takes place and setting it off
against the income of the relevant previous year in which the
change took place, is not to operate if clause (a) or clause (b)
is satisfied. Clause (a) requires that on the last day of the
previous year in which the change took place the shares of
the company carrying not less than 51 per cent of the voting
power must have been beneficially held by persons who
beneficially held shares of the company carrying not less than
51 per cent of the voting power On the last day of the year
or years in which the loss was incurred.

Secondly, the Legislature says in clause (b) that if the Income

tax Officer is satisfied that the change in the shareholding
was not effected with a view to avoiding or reducing any
liability to tax. the bon set out in the main body of section
79 is not to operate. The word unless according to
grammatical meaning is equivalent to if not and this word
followed by the disjunctive or occurring between clauses (a)
and (b) clearly on a grammatical interpretation goes to show
that clauses (a) and (b) are to be applied disjunctively and if
either of these clauses are satisfied. the ban created by section
79 cannot apply. ..

Closely-held Companies
In the case of closely-head companies. section 79 of the
Income-tax Act may come into operation and a company may
become disentitled to carry forward and set-off the earlier years
losses against the income of the accounting year, if on the last
day of accounting year. the shares carrying at least 51% of the
voting power. that is, 51% of the equity share capital. are not
beneficially held by the same persons who held 51% of the
equity shares on the last day of the year in which the loss was
incurred.
It is important to note that even after 51% of the equity shares
cease to be held by the same group, the section would not apply
if the Income-tax Officer is satisfied that the change in the
shareholding was not effected with a view to avoiding or
reducing any liability to tax. In other words, if the change in the
shareholding is effected not with the object of avoidance or
reduction of tax. but with some other object in view. section 79
would not apply and the company would continue to have the
right to carry forward and set-off the loss for the 8 years period
provided under section 72 of the Act.
The Supreme Court has considered the meaning of the Words avoidance of tax in a leading decision in the case of C.I.T. v.
Sakarlal Balabhai 86 I. T.R. 2 (SC). In this case, it was pointed
out that reductian of tax liability may not amount to avoidance
of tax. For example. a gift made by one person to another on
partition of joint family property may reduce the tax liability but
that does not amount to tax avoidance.
According to the Supreme Court. avoidance involves two
ingredients
1. The assessee must receive the amount which would have
been liable to tax as his income. but on which he avoids tax
by some artifice or device;

The Bombay High Court has taken a contrary view in ltalindia

Cotton Co. Pvt. Ltd. v. C.l.T. 113 I.T.R. 58. In this case. it has
been held that clauses (a) and (b) of section 79 are not independent of each other. The relevant part of the Courts
observations is reproduced below:

195

Clause (b). in our opinion. would apply in a case where a

change in the voting power of more than 51-% of the
shareholding of a company has taken place at the two relevant
dates. namely. the last day of the earlier year or years in which
the loss was incurred and was allowed to be carried forward and
the last date of the previous year relevant to the Assessment
Year in which the set-off is claimed.
When such a change in the voting power of more than 51%
of the shareholding has taken place between these two relevant
dates. then clause (b) further requires the Income-tax Officer to
consider whether he is satisfied that such a change in the
shareholding of more than 51% of the voting power has taken
place with a view to avoiding or reducing any liability to tax. If a
change of more than 51% of the voting power between the
two relevant dates has taken place with a view to avoiding or
reducing any liability to tax. then the assessee will not be entitled
to the benefit of set-off under clause (b) of the section.
Clause (b) is not entirely independent of clause (a). Clause (b)
will apply in a case where benefit under clause (a) is not available
to the assessee. Still in such a case notwithstanding the fact that
a change in the voting power of more than 51% of the
shareholding has taken place between the two relevant dates. he
will be entitled to claim set-off carried forward loss if such
change in the voting power is not with a view to avoiding or
reducing the liability to tax.
In our opinion. the Tribunal was in error in taking the view
that the expression the change in the shareholding used in
clause (b) was only referable back to the substantive provisions
of the section. The Tribunal was also in error in proceeding on
the footing that clauses (a) and (b) are totally disconnected and
have no inter-connection between the two.
In our opinion. clause (b) will only apply to a case- where the
benefit of clause (a) will not be available to an assessee and
notwithstanding a change of more than 51% of the votingpower between the two relevant dates if a claim for set-off has
to be made by the assessee ill is for the assessee to satisfy the
taxing authorities and the tribunal that such change in the
shareholding has not taken place with a view to avoiding any
liability to tax and if the taxing authorities and the tribunal are
so satisfied, then note withstanding a change of more than 51
% of the voting power between two relevant dates, a claim for
set-off will be permissible under a clause (b) of section 79.
The Court then laid down that even where a change in the
voting power of more than 51 % of the equity shares between
the two relevant dates had taken place, unless the change was
effected with a view to avoid or reduce any liability to tax, the
assessee would be entitled to the benefit of set-off under
section 79(b).
It would also be relevant to refer to the decision of the Madras
High Court in C.I.T. v. Concord Industries Limited. 119 I.T.R.
458; C.I.T. vs. Madras Wire products 119 I.T..R. 454 and C.I.T.
vs. Nagapatinam Import and Export Corporation 119 444. in
which it was held that section 79 of the Act only deals with carry
forward of the loss..
In the case of Concord industries Limited. the Income-tax
Officer after adjusting the losses, brought forward from the

196

preceding three years, determined the total income as nil and

also record ed inter alia, the name is also recorded. inter alia,
unabsorbed depreciation for the previous year 1964-65 to 196869 should be carried forward.
The order of the income tax officers was set aside by the
Commissioner on the ground that the; officer has allowed setoff of the earlier years losses against the profits of the year
without considering the question of the applicability of Section
79 of the Act. The Tribunal however, held that section 79 did
not apply to unabsorbed depreciation and development rebate.
Thus, the provisions for carry forward of losses and unabsorbed depreciation is different in their scope and ambit and
need to be clearly understood in order that full advantage can be
taken thereof.
Time to homework now. Answer these very simple questions.
1. Write in detail the provisions as concerned set off of lossess
and carry forward of losses.
2. Explain inter head and intra head adjustments as concerned
set off of lossess.
3. What are the specific provisions as concerned depreciation
and set off of losses and carry forward of losses.
4. Write short note on Set off of losses in respect of Closely
held companies.

LESSON 26:
MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS
Lesson Objective

To know provisions of compulsory purchase of immovable

property

Mode of taking or accepting certain loans and deposits

Mode of repayment of certain deposits

Cognisance of offences and bar of suits in civil courts

To know legal provisions having importance in the Act.

Dear students keep one thing in mind this is a legal subject.You

need to know provisions which have legal implications. Lets
discuss them one by one.

Compulsory Purchase of Immovable

Property
1. Chapter XX-C consisting of Sections 269U - 269UP enables
the Central Government to purchase immovable properties
in certain cases of transfer. This scheme replaces the earlier
scheme of acquisition of immovable properties under
Chapter XXA. The constitutional validity of these
provisions have been upheld by the Supreme Court in C.B.
Gautam v. Union of India (1992) 65 Taxman 440 (SC).
2. No transfer of any immovable property in such area and of
such value exceeding Rs. 5 lakhs as may be prescribed shall be
effected except after an agreement for transfer is entered into
between the transferor and the transferee at least 4 months
before the intended date of transfer. The value of property
for this purpose is prescribed by Rule 48K.
The following table gives the specified areas within which the
appropriate authorities shall perform their functions and the
value of any immovable property for the purposes of Section
269UC (1).
Area
1..

Greater Mumbai

Value
The apparent consideration of the
Property exceeding Rs. 75 lakhs.

2.

Union Territory of Delhi

Consideration exceeding Rs.50 lakhs.

3.

Calcutta Metropolitan area

Consideration exceeding Rs. 25lakhs.

Chennai Metropolitan area

A.

Bangalore Metropolitan Region

Consideration exceeding Rs. 25 lakhs.

Ahmedabad Urban Development

Area
5.

City of Pune

Consideration exceeding Rs. 25lakhs.

6.

Other areas

Consideration exceeding Rs. 20 lakhs.

3. Such agreement shall be reduced to writing in the form of a

statement by each of the parties to such transfer in the
prescribed manner and shall be furnished to the appropriate
authority before the expiry of 15 days from the date on
which the agreement for transfer is entered into. Where a

statement is found to be defective, the appropriate authority

may intimate the defect to the party concerned and give them
an opportunity to rectify the defect within 15 days of such
intimation or within such extended period as may be
allowed by the appropriate authority. Where the defect is
rectified within the period provided in the sub-section the
statement shall be deemed to have been received by the
appropriate authority on the day the defect is rectified. Where
the defect is not rectified, it will be considered as if the
statement was never furnished to the appropriate authority.
4. After receipt of the statement the appropriate authority may
make an order for the purchase of the immovable property
by the Central Government at the price specified in the
agreement for transfer.
5. No such order, however, shall be made after 3 months from
the end of the month in which such statement is received by
the appropriate authority. [Section 269UD]. The period of 3
months shall be reckoned from the date or receipt of the
rectified statement by the appropriate authority.
6. The immovable property shall, on the date of the acquisition
order, vest in the Central Government in terms of the
agreement for transfer. However, where the appropriate
authority, after giving an opportunity of being heard to the
transferor, the transferee or other persons interested in the
said property, is of the opinion that any encumbrance on the
property or leasehold interest specified in the aforesaid
agreement for transfer is so specified with a view to defeat
the provisions of this chapter it may declare such
encumbrance or leasehold interest to be void and thereupon
the aforesaid property shall vest in the Central Government
free from such encumbrance or leasehold interest.
7. The transferor or any other person who may be in
possession of the immovable property, in respect of which
an acquisition order has been made, shall surrender or deliver
possession thereof to the appropriate authority within 15
days of the service of such order.
However, this will not apply where the person in possession
of the immovable property is a bona fide holder of any
encumbrance on such property or a bona fide lessee of such
property, if the said encumbrance or lease has not been
declared void by the prescribed authority and such person is
eligible to continue in possession of such property even after
the transfer in terms of the agreement for transfer.
8. The Central Government has been empowered to issue
general or specific orders constituting as many appropriate
authorities as would be required to perform the functions
under this chapter and also defining the local limitation
within which they will perform their functions. Appropriate
authority shall consist of 3 officers - two being the rank of

197

Commissioner of Income-tax or of higher rank and one

being of the rank of Chief Engineer or of a higher rank.
9. Where an order for the purchase of any immovable property
is made by an appropriate authority the consideration for the
same shall be paid to the entitled persons within one month
from the end of the month in which the concerned property
vests in the Central Government.
10. If the Central Government fails either to tender the
consideration or deposit the same within the specified period
the order to purchase the immovable property by the Central
Government shall stand abrogated and the immovable
property shall stand re-vested in the owner.
11. After the order gets abrogated as above and the immovable
property is reverted to the original position the appropriate
authority shall make a declaration of writing to that effect.
Certain restrictions on transfer of immovable properties
have been placed. Accordingly a person entering into an
agreement for the transfer of an immovable property in
respect of which a statement has been furnished shall not
revoke or alter the agreement or transfer of such property
unless the appropriate authority has not made an order for
purchase of said property by the Central Government or the
period for making such order has expired or the order of the
appropriate authority stands abrogated under the provisions
of this chapter. Any transfer of any immovable property in
contravention of these provisions shall be void.
12. A registering officer under the Registration Act, 1908 cannot
register any document purporting to transfer any immovable
property exceeding the value prescribed (not less than Rs.
5,00,000) unless the appropriate authority certifies that it has
no objection to such a transfer; Further no person shall do
anything or omit to do anything which will have the effect of
transfer of any immovable property unless the appropriate
authority certifies that it has no objection to such transfer.
13. The order of appropriate authority shall be final and
conclusive and shall not be called in question in any
proceeding under this Act or under any other law.
14. The provisions of this chapter will not be applicable in
relation to such immovable properties where the agreement
for transfer is made to the relative of the transferor out of
natural love and. affection and a recital to that effect has been
made in the agreement of transfer.
15. Failure to comply with the requirements of the relevant
section will render any person punishable with rigorous
imprisonment extending upto:- 2years, he will also be liable
to fine. The imprisonment shall not be for a period of less
than 6 months unless special and adequate reasons have
been recorded in the judgement of the Court.
16. The Madras High Court held in K. V. Kishore Vs.
Appropriate authority (1990) 51 Taxman 478 that where the
heirs of a deceased governed by the Hindu Succession Act
agreed under a family arrangement to sell the property, the
monetary limit of Rs. 10 lakhs must be applied to the share
consideration of each of the transferors and not t9 the
aggregate sale consideration in order to determine whether
the provisions of Chapter XX-C are attracted.

198

17. The provisions of this Chapter (Chapter XX-C) shall not

apply to, or in relation the transfer of any immovable
property effected on or after 1.7.2002.
18. Definitions: for the purposes of this chapter,

i. Immovable Property Means

a. Any land or building and includes machinery, plant,
furniture, fittings etc. where land or building transferred;
include such things and
b. Any rights with respect to any land or building (whether
constructed or yet to be constructed) accruing or arising from
any transaction whether by way of becoming a member or
acquiring shares in co-operative society, company or other
association of persons or by way of agreement or
arrangement of whatever nature.
ii. Transfer means
a. In relation to an immovable property referred to in (a) above
the/transfer by way of sale or exchange or lease for not less
than 12 years and includes allowing the possession of such
property in part performance of contract referred to in
Section 53A of the Transfer of Property Act, 1882; and
b. In relation to an immovable property referred to in (b) above
by way of doing anything like admitting as a member or
transfer of shares in a co-operative society or company etc.
which will have the effect of transfer or enabling the
enjoyment of such property.
The Madras High Court held in A. Harikrishnan Vs. Registrar
(1991) 1921TR 391 that provisions of Chapter XXC are not
applicable to a Court auction sale.
iii. Apparent consideration means
In relation to an immovable property of type (a) as defined
1. If the immovable property is to be transferred by sale - the
consideration for such transfer as specified in the agreement
for transfer;
2. If the immovable property is to be transferred by way of
exchange

Where the consideration consists of things only - the

price that such things would ordinarily fetch on sale in
the open market on the date of the agreement for
transfer;

Where the consideration includes both things and a

sum of money - the aggregate of the market value of
such things on the date of the agreement and the sum
of money;
3. If the immovable property is to be transferred by way of
lease

Where the consideration consists of premium only the amount of premium specified in the agreement for
transfer;

Where the consideration consists of rent only - the

aggregate of the money payable as rent and the
amounts for the service or things forming part of the
rent as specified in the agreement;

Where the consideration consists of both premium

and rent - the aggregate of all such sums as specified in
the agreement.

In relation to an immovable property of type (b) as defined

1. Where the consideration is of money only - such sum;
2. Where the consideration is of things only - the market value
of such things on the date of the agreement of transfer;
3. Where the consideration consists of both money and things
- the aggregate of such money and the market value of such
things on the date of the agreement.
Further, where the whole or any part of the consideration is
payable at a future date or dates, the value of the consideration
payable at such date(s) shall be discounted at the interest rate of
8% p.a. to arrive at the present value of such consideration.

Mode of Taking or Accepting Certain Loans and

Deposits [Section 269SS]
Section 26955 provides that no person shall accept any loan of
Rs. 20,000 or more from any other person except by account
payee cheque or account payee bank draft. This requirement also
applies in cases where on the date of taking or accepting a loan
or deposit from a person, any earlier loan or deposit taken or
accepted from the same person and remaining unpaid on that
date, is twenty thousand rupees or more. The requirement also
applies if the aggregate amount of such earlier loan or deposit
and to amount of loan or deposit proposed to be taken or
accepted from that person is twenty thousand rupees or more.
The requirement will not however, apply to loan or deposit
taken or accepted from, or any loan or deposit taken from or
accepted by Government, any banking company, post office
saving bank or any cooperative bank, any corporation established by a Central, State or Provincial Act: or any Government
company as defined in Section 617 of the Companies Act, 1956.
The provisions of the new Section will also not apply to any
loan or deposit taken, or accepted from, or any loan or deposit
taken from or accepted by, any institution, association or body
which the Central Government may, for reasons to be recorded
in writing in this behalf notify in the Official Gazette. This
requirement will not apply to those cases where the persons
involved in the transaction derive income only from agriculture
or where neither of them has any income chargeable to tax
under the Act.
The expression loan or deposit in this section will mean any
loan or deposit of money.
Section 271 D provides for penalty for failure to comply with
the provisions of section 269SS - If a person takes or accepts
any loan or deposit in contravention of the provisions of
Section 269SS, he shall be liable to pay; by way of penalty, a sum
of equal to the amount of the loan or deposit taken or
accepted. Such penalty shall be imposed by the Joint Commissioner.
Mode of Repayment of Certain Deposits [Sec. 269T]
Section 269T provides that no branch of the banking company
or a co-operative bank or any other company or co-operative
society or a firm or other person, shall repay any loan or deposit
made with it otherwise than by account payee cheque or account

payee bank draft, drawn in the name of the person who has
made the loan or deposit if the amount of loan or deposit
together with interest, if any, payable thereon or the aggregate
amount of such loans or deposits held by such person with the
branch or the banking company or cooperative bank or as the
case may be, the other company or cooperative society or the
firm, or any other person either-in his own name or jointly with
any other person on the date of such repayment, together with
the interest if any payable on such loan or deposit is Rs. 20,000
or more. However, if the repayment is made by a branch of
bank or a cooperative bank, such repayment could be made by
crediting the amount of such loan or deposit to the saving
bank account or the current account, if any, with such branch of
the person to whom such loan or deposit has to be repaid.
For the purposes of this section and 269 SS the expression
banking company will mean a company to which the Banking
Regulation Act, 1949 applies and includes any bank or banking
institution referred to in Section 51 of that Act. The expression
cooperative bank will have the meaning assigned to it in Part
V of the Banking Regulation Act. 1949.
Loan or Deposit means any loan or deposit of money, which
is repayable after notice or repayable after a period. In the case of
any person other than a company, loan or deposit of any nature
will be covered by this section.

Special Bearer Bonds [Section 269TT]

Section 269TT similarly provides that the amount payable on
redemption of Special Bearer Bonds, 1991 shall be paid only by
an account payee cheque or account payee bank draft drawn in
the name of the person to whom such repayment is to be
made.
Transfers to Defraud Revenue Void [Section 281]
As a safeguard against non-realization of revenue due to
fraudulent transference of assets by a defaulting assessee it is
provided under this Section that, certain transfers specified
therein are deemed to be void for purpose of income tax.
Accordingly, in cases where, during the pendency of any
proceeding under the Income-tax Act or after the completion
thereof, but before the service of notice by the Tax Recovery
Officer any assessee creates a charge on, or parts with, the
property by way of sale, mortgage, gift, exchange, or any other
mode of transfer whatsoever of any of his assets in favour of
any other person such a charge or transfer must be deemed to
be void as against any claim in respect of any tax, penalty,
interest or fine payable by the assessee as a result of the
completion of the proceedings or otherwise. However, the
charge or transfer made by the assessee would not be void in
case where it is made.
a. For adequate consideration and without any notice of the
pendency of such proceeding or, as the case may be, without
any notice of such tax or other monies remaining payable by
the assessee; or
b. With the previous permission of the Assessing Officer.
This new provision applies to all cases where the amount of tax
or other sum of money which is payable or likely to be payable
exceeds Rs. 5,000 and the assets which are charged or transferred
by the assessee exceeds Rs. 10,000 in value, in the aggregate.

199

For this purpose, the term assets should be taken to mean

land, buildings, machinery, plant, shares, securities and fixed
deposits in bank to the extent to which any of these assets do
not form part of the stock-in-trade of the business carried on
by the assessee. In other words, if these items of Properties
represent the stock-in-trade of the assessees business, their
transfer would not be treated as void.

9. A deceased,mentally

The legal heir, executor, guardian

incapacitated, or

receiver or administ

Provisional Attachment to Protect the Interest of the

Revenue [Section 281 B]
According to this section, cases where, during the pendency of
any proceeding for the assessment of any income or for the
assessment or reassessment of any income which has escaped
assessment, the Assessing Officer is of the opinion that, for the
purpose of protecting the interest of the Revenue, it is
necessary to do so, he may, by an order in writing, attach
provisionally any property belonging to the assessee. However,
before passing an order, the Assessing Officer is required to take
the prior permission of the Chief Commissioner, Commissioner, Director General or Director of Income tax. The
attachment in all such cases should be in the same manner as is
provided under the rules laid down in the Second Schedule in
the Income-tax Act. Every provisional attachment would cease
to be effective after the expiry of a period of six months from
the date on which order for the attachment is passed by the
Assessing Officer. However, the Chief Commissioner or
Commissioner is entitled, for reasons to be recorded in writing,
to extend the validity of the period during which the order for
attachment would be operative by such further period or
periods as he deems fit. But, in no case shall the total period of
provisional attachment of the property exceed two years from
the date of the original order of the Assessing Officer.
Director General and Director are also empowered to sanction
provisional attachment to protect revenue interest.

11. A dissolved association Any person who was a member

Service of Notice [Section 282 To 284]

Notice or requisitions under the Act may be served on the
person concerned by post or as if it were a summons issued by
a Court under the Civil Procedure Code. Following is a list of
persons on whom notice should be served and such a notice
will be notice to the corresponding assessee mentioned.
Assessee

Addressee

1. An existing firm

Any member

2. An existing H.U.F

Karta or manager or any adult

member.

3. A Company

Principal Officer

4. Local Authority

Principal Officer

5. An existing association

Principal Officer or any member

6. An individual

The individual himself

7. Any other person

The person incharge of the

management and control of
his affairs.

8. A dissolved firm

Any adult person who was a

partner immidietely before
dissolution.

200

insolvent individual
10. A partitioned H.U.F.

of persons

Last manager or Karta ; if he is

dead,all adults who were members
immediately before the partition.
immediately before dissolution.

12. A discontinued business The assessee or in case of a firm or

an association of persons, any
persons who was member oat the
time of discontinuance or in the
case of a company, its Principal
officer.

Submission of Statements by Producers of Films

[Section 285B]
This section provides that any person who carries on the
production of a cinematograph film during the whole or any
part of any financial year is under a statutory obligation, in
respect of the period during which such production is carried
on by him during the financial year to prepare and deliver or
caused to be delivered to the Assessing Officer within 30 days
from the end of the financial year or within 30 days from the
date of completion of the production of the film, whichever is
earlier, a detailed statement in the prescribed form containing
the particulars of all the payments exceeding Rs. 50,000 in the
aggregate made by him or due from him to each person who
is/ was engaged in the production of the firm.
Publication of Information [Section 287]
The Central Government is empowered to publish the name
and address of any assessee and other particular relating to
them, if it considers it necessary or expedient in the public
interest to do so. But no such publication relating to any penalty
or prosecution shall be made until the time for presenting
appeal to the Commissioner (Appeals) has expired without an
appeal having been presented or until the appeal, if presented,
has been disposed of. In the case of a firm, company or other
association of persons the names of the partners of the firm,
directors or manager of the company or
Appearance by Registered Valuers [Section 287A]
Any tax payer who is entitled to or required to attend before any
income tax authority or the Appellate Tribunal in connection
with any matter relating to the valuation of any asset, otherwise
than he is required under Section 131 to attend personally for
examination on oath or affirmation, may attend by a registered
valuer. For this purpose, a registered value means a person who
is registered as a valuer (Section 34AB of the Wealth Tax Act).
Members of the associations, as the case may be may also be
published if, in the opinion of the Central Government, the
circumstances of the case justify the same.
Appearance by Authorised Representative
Section 288 deals with appearance by authorised representative.
Accordingly, any assessee who is entitled or required to attend
before any income-tax authority of the Appellate Tribunal in
connection with any proceeding under this Act otherwise than

when required under section 131 to attend personally for

examination on oath or affirmation, may attend by an
authorised representative.

v. Irish Universities: The Universities of Dublin {Trinity

College}, the Queens University, Belfast and the National
University of Dublin

For the purpose of this section, authorised representative

means, a person authorised by the assessee in writing to appear
on his behalf. The following persons can be authorised
representatives:

vi. Pakistan Universities: Any Pakistan University incorporated

by any law for the time being in force.

a. A person related to the assessee in any manner by a person

regularly employed by the assessee
b. Any officer of a Scheduled Bank with which the assessee
maintains a current account or has other regular dealings
c. any legal practitioner who is entitled to practice in any Civil
Court in India
d. an Accountant
e. Any person who has passed any accountancy examination
recognised in this behalf by the Board. Rule 50 prescribes the
accountancy examination recognised for this purpose. They
are as follows:
i.

The National Diploma in Commerce awarded by the

All India Council for Technical Education under the
Ministry of Education, New Delhi, provided the
diploma-holder has taken Advanced Accountancy and
Auditing as an elective subject for the Diploma
Examination

ii.

Government Diploma in Company Secretaryship

awarded by the Department of Company Affairs under
the Ministry of Industrial Development and Company
Affairs, New Delhi

iii.

Final Examination of the Institute of Company

Secretaries of India, New

iv.

The Final Examination of the Institute of Cost and

Work Accountants of India constituted under the Cost
and Works Accountants Act, 1959

v.

The Departmental Examination conducted by or on

behalf of the Central Board of Direct Taxes for
promotion Delhi

vi.

The Revenue Audit Examination for Section Officers

conducted by the office of the Comptroller and
Auditor General of India

f. Any person who has acquired such education qualifications

as the Board may, prescribe for this purpose. Rule 51
prescribes the concerned educational qualifications as follows:
A degree in Commerce or Law conferred by any of the following Universities:
i. Indian Universities: Any Indian University incorporated by
any law for the time being in force.
ii. Rangoon University
iii. English and Welsh Universities: The Universities of
Birmingham, Bristol, Cambridge, Durham, Leeds,
Liverpool, London, Manchester, Oxford, Reading, Sheffield
and Wales
iv. Scottish Universities: The Universities of Aberdeen,
Edinburgh, Glasgow and St. Andrews

Accountant
Accountant means a Chartered Accountant within the meaning
of Chartered Accountants Act, 1949 and includes in relation to
any State any person, who, by virtue of the provisions of subsection 2 of section 226 of the Companies Act, 1956 is entitled
to be appointed to act as an Auditor of Companies registered
in that State.
The follwing persons shall not be qualified to represent an
assessee:
i. A person who has been dismissed or removed from
government service after the first day of April 1938. In this
case, he will be disqualified for all times.
ii. A person who has been convicted of an offence connected
with any income-tax proceeding or on whom a penalty has
been imposed under this Act other than a penalty imposed
on him under Section27(10)(ii)- in this case, the person will
be disqualified for such time as the chief commissioner or
the commissioner may, by order,determine.
Indemnity [section 290]
Every person deducting, retaining or paying any tax in pursuance of this Act in respect of income belonging to another
person is entitled to be indemnified for the deduction, retention or payment thereof.
Power to Tender Immunity from Prosecution
[section 291]
The Central Government is empowered by Section 291 to
tender any person immunity from prosecution for any offence
under this Act if it is of the opinion that it is necessary or
expedient in the public interest to do so for the purpose of
obtaining the evidence directly or indirectly concerned in or privy
to the concealment of the income or to the evasion of payment
to tax on any income taxable under the Act. A tender of
immunity made to or accepted by the person concerned shall, to
the extend, renders him immune from prosecution for any
offence in respect of which tender was made or from ,the
imposition of any penalty under the Act.
Cognisance of Offences and Bar of Suits in Civil
Courts [Sections 292 and 293]
No suit can be brought in any Civil Court to set aside or modify
any order and no prosecution, suit or other proceedings shall lie
against any Government Officer for any thing done or intended
to be done by him in good faith under the Act. No Court
inferior to that of a Presidency Magistrate or a Magistrate of the
first class shall try any offence under this Act.
Certain Laws not to Apply [Section 292A]
This section provides that the provisions of Section 360 of the
Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 or the Probation of
Offenders Act, 1958 shall not be applicable to any person who
is convicted of an offence under the Income tax Act, unless that
person is below 18 years of age.

201

Return of Income etc. not to Become Invalid

[Section 292 B)
Section 2928 provides that no return of income, order of
assessment, notice, summons or other proceedings furnished
or made or taken or purported to have been furnished or made
in pursuance of any of the provisions of the income tax act,
shall be invalid or shall be deemed to be invalid merely by
reason of any mistake, or omission in such return of income,
assessment order of notice, etc., if they are in substance and
effect in conformity with or according to the intent and
purposes of the Income tax Act. The provision thus enables
tax authorities to accept returns and other documents and
also,makes it applicable for tax payers to accept orders,notice,etc.
received from tax authorities even in case where a few
typographical,arithmetical or other mistakes which do not
materially affect the objects with which the Document was
submitted by the assessee or order was isssued by the department.
At the end of the class how are you feeling now about the act whether it is very soft or harsh.
Let it be - First lets solve these questions.
1. Write short note on
1.
Compulsory purchase of immovable property
2.
Mode of taking or accepting certain loans and deposits
[Section 269SS]
3.
Mode of repayment of certain deposits [Sec. 269T]
2. State the provisional attachment to protect the interest of the
revenue [Section 281 B]
3. State provisions of section 292 B.

202

LESSON 27:
RETURN OF INCOME AND PROCEDURE OF ASSESSMENT
Lesson Objective

To know about submission of return of income

b. A public limited company though incorporated but has not

received certificate of commencement of business.

To know essential conditions for obligatory filing of return

c. A defunct company, which is not yet liquidated

To know requirement for Bulk filing of returns of the

employees by the employer on computer readable media

d. A private limited company, which is incorporated but is in

the process of setting up the business.

To know about various Forms for filing returns

To know Time and manner in which these persons shall

intimate the details of transaction to the Director of
Income-tax (Investigation)

e. A foreign company, if it has some business connection in

India or is operating in India whether such company is
having income or not.

To know different types of assessment.

You must be familiar with the word ITR or return. What is this
return, who has to fill it, whether it is compulsory for every one
to file the Income Tax Return. Lets see what does section
139(10 has to say about it.

Return of Income
Submission of Return of Income [Section 139(1)]
Section 139(1) requires that every person 1. Being a company; or
2. Being a person other than a company, if (i) his total income
or (ii) the total income of any other person in respect of
which he is assessable under the Income-tax Act, during the
previous year, exceeds the maximum amount which is not
chargeable to income-tax.
shall, furnish a return of his income or the income of such
other person.
Such return of income must be furnished on or before the due
date, in the prescribed form and verified in the prescribed
manner and setting forth such other particulars as may be
prescribed.
Any Other Person for the Above Purpose
An assessee, in addition to filing return of his own total
income, is under an obligation to file a return of il180me of
another person in respect of whom he is assessable. These
words are perhaps intended to cover cases of representative
asses sees and legal representatives who are under a liability to
be assessed on income beneficially belonging to other persons
under sections 159 to 168 e.g. guardian of a minor (if minor is
separately assessed) lunatic or idiot, trustee of a trust, executor
of an estate of a deceased person, liquidator of a company in
liquidation.
W.e.f. assessment year 2001-02, every company has to file a
return in respect of its income or loss in every assessment year.
Hence, the following companies are also required to file return
of income even if there is no income/loss:
a. A company whose entire income is exempt from tax e.g.
company engaged in agriculture business.

1.

Although it is mandatory to file a return of income

only when the total income exceeds the maximum
exemption limit but the law does not prohibit the
assessee to file a return of income even if his total
income does not exceed the maximum exemption
limit.

a. Obligatory Filing of Return [First Proviso to

Section 139(1)]:
A person, other than a company, who is not required to furnish
a return under section /39(/) and residing in such area as may
be specified by the Board in this behalf by notification, and
fulfilling anyone of the following six economic indicators at any
time during the previous year shall furnish return of his
income. The six economic indicators are:
i. Occupation of an immovable property exceeding a specified
floor area as may be specified by the Board, whether by way
of ownership, tenancy or otherwise in any of specified areas;
ii. Owner or the lessee of a motor vehicle. However, motor
vehicle will not include a two wheeled motor vehicle, whether
having any detachable side car having extra wheel attached to
such two-wheeled motor vehicle or not;
iii. Subscriber to a cellular telephone, not being a wireless in local
loop telephone;
iv. Incurring expenditure for himself or for any other person on
travel to any foreign country;
v. Holder of the credit card, not being an add-on card, issued
by a bank or institution Kisan Credit Cards are not included
(Circular No. 795, dated 1-9-2000)];
vi. Member of a club where entrance fee charged is twenty five
thousand rupees or more.
Return of income of the above assessee must be furnished in
Form No. 2C on or before the due date, verified in a prescribed
manner and setting forth such particulars as may be prescribed.
Persons to Whom the First Proviso to Section 139(1)
will not Apply (Second Proviso to Section 139(1)
The Central Government may by notification in the Official
Gazette specify the class or classes of persons to whom the
provisions of the first proviso shall not apply. The Central
Government has since issued the following notifications.

203

Non-residents have been exempted from filing return under

one by six scheme. (Notification No. 146/2001, dated 11-62001).

Senior citizens (persons of the age of 65 years or more), not

engaged in any business or profession, are exempted from
filing return under this scheme, if they qualify only under the
condition of occupying immovable property given under
clause (i) or being subscriber to a telephone given under
clause (iii) above. (Notification No. 146/2001, dated 11-62001) However, if they satisfy anyone of the other four
economic indicators they will be required to file the return
under this proviso.

Clarifications from CBDT

It has been clarified that travel to any foreign country does not
include travel to Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan
and Sri Lanka. (Notification No. 148/2001, dated 11-6-2001)
Similarly travel to Saudi Arabia on Haj pilgrimage organized by
Central Haj Committee, Mumbai constituted under Haj
Committee Act, 1959 and that to China on pilgrimage to
Kailash Mansarover organised by Ministry of External Affairs,
Government of India are not to be regarded as travel to any
foreign country for the purpose of section 139. (Notification
No. 147/2001 dated 11-6-2001).
Essential Conditions for Obligatory Filing of Return
a. The total income of the assessee, other than a company,
should not exceed maximum exemption limit [if it exceeds
the maximum exemption limit he will be covered under
section 139(1)];
b. The assessee should reside in a specified area;
c. The assessee should satisfy at least one of the six economic
indicators;
d. The assessee should be resident in India.
Residing in a Specified Area is Necessary
It may be noted that this proviso of filing obligatory return will
be applicable only when the assessee resides in any of the
specified areas. Secondly he should satisfy anyone of the six
economic indicators. The floor area will be relevant for the first
economic indicator to be satisfied.
Therefore, if a person resides in Delhi in a flat not exceeding
600 sq. ft. but satisfies one of the other five indicators, he will
be under an obligation to file a return of income. On the other
hand, if a person does not reside in a specified area he is under
no obligation to file a return of income under this proviso even
if he satisfies one or more economic indicators.
a. Bulk Filing of Returns of the Employees by the
Employer on Computer Readable Media [Section 139(1a)]
[W.e.f. Assessment Year 2002-2003]

In order to enable salaried assessees to fulfill their tax obligations and receive refunds, if any, within a very short period
without any interfere with the Income-tax Department, the Act
has amended section 139 by inserting sub-section (1A) to
provide that any person being an individual, who is in receipt
of income chargeable under the head Salaries, may at his
option, furnish the return .of his income for any previous year
to his employer and such employer shall furnish returns

204

received by him on or before the due date in accordance with

such scheme as may be specified by the Board in this behalf by
notification in the Official Gazette, and subject to such conditions as may be specified therein, and in such case, such return
shall be deemed to be a return furnished under section 139(1).
It has also been provided that such return of income may be
furnished by the employer in such form (including on a floppy,
diskette, magnetic cartridge tape, CD-Rom or any other
computer readable media) and manner as may be specified in
such scheme.
b. Return May be Filed on a Specified Computer
Readable Media [Section 139(1B)] [W.r.e.f. A.Y. 2003-CW]

The Finance Act, 2003 has inserted a new sub-section (IB), so as

to provide that any person, who is required to furnish a return
of income under sub-section (1), may, at his option, on or
before the due date furnish a return of his income for any
previous year in accordance with such scheme as may be
specified by the Board in this behalf by notification in the
Official Gazette and subject to such conditions as may be
specified therein, in such form (including on a floppy, diskette,
magnetic cartridge tape, CD-ROM or any other computer
readable media), and in the manner as may be specified in that
scheme, and in such case, the return of income furnished under
such scheme shall be deemed to be a return furnished under
sub-section (1) of section 139, and the provisions of the
Income-tax Act shall apply accordingly.
c.

Due Date of Furnishing Return of Income

The return of income must be filed in a prescribed form/

specified computer readable media and verified in the prescribed
manner, on or before the due date mentioned in Explanation 2
to section 139(1), which is as under:
a. where the assessee is - 31st October of the assessment year
i.

a company; or

ii.

a person (other than a company) whose accounts are

required to be audited under this Act or under any
other law for the time being in force; or

iii.

a working partner of a film whose accounts are

required to be audited under this Act or under any
other law for the time being in force,

b. In case of a person other than a company, referred to in first

proviso to section 139(1) i.e. 1 by 6 scheme. = 31st October
of the assessment year
c. In case of any other assessee. = 31st July of the assessment
year
Other important points you should note are given below:
1. Due date of furnishing return of income in case of a nonworking partner shall be 1st July of the assessment year
whether the accounts of the firm are required to be audited
or not.
2. Where the last day for filing a return of income/loss is a
holiday and the Income-tax office is closed, the assessee can
file the return on the next day when the office is opened
(Circular No. 639, dated 13-11-1992). However, in most of
the cases, the Income-tax Department keeps its office open

to accept the return of income on the last day even if it is a

holiday.

7. For assessees, including companies, claiming exemption

under section 10 or 11 of Income-tax Act. Form No. 3A2

3. Posting of a valid return within the statutory date under

certificate of posting is sufficient evidence of return having
been filed within time. [CITv Kalyani Selection Kargallia
Colliery (1984) 146 ITR 577 (Pat)]. This decision relates to a
case of non-receipt of return by the department. However,
the assessee must ensure that the return is posted well in
advance so as to allow sufficient time for the return to reach
the department within the stipulated time.

In case of a deceased individual, his executor/legal representative will be required to furnish a return of income provided the
income of the deceased individual exceeds the maximum
exemption limit.

4. It may be noted that for claiming deduction under section

80HHC, 80HHD, 80HHE and 80HHF, the audit of
accounts is not compulsory. The assessee, in these cases, has
to obtain report/certificate from a chartered accountant and
not the audit report and as such the last date of furnishing
return of income in such cases, in case of non-corporate
assessee shall be 31st July unless the accounts of such
assessees are required to be audited under this Act (e.g. tax
audit under section 44AB) or under any other law. Similarly
for claiming deduction under sections 80R, 80RR, BORRA
the assessee has to, himself certify and furnish a certificate in
Form 10H and no audit in compulsory unless it is required
under this Act or under any other law and as such the last
date for furnishing the return of income shall be 31st July.
5. 5. A working partner for the also purpose shall mean an
individual who is actively engaged in
conducting the
affairs of the business or profession of the firm of which he
is a partner and is drawing remuneration from the firm.
6. 6. In case of firm whose accounts are not required to be
audited under this Act or any other
law, the last date
for furnishing the return by the firm as well as partners
(whether working or non-working) shall be 31st July of the
assessment year.

Forms for Filing Returns

The return of income has to be submitted on the following
forms, as prescribed under rule 12.
1. All companies other than those claiming exemption under
section 11

Form No. 1

2. Non-corporate assessees, not claiming exemption under

section 11 and having income from business or profession
Form No. 2 (or Saral 2D)
3. In cases of Block Assessment (for search and seizure cases)
Form No. 2B
4. Persons who are not liable to furnish a return of income
under section 139(1) but required to file return of income
under one by six scheme i.e. proviso 1 to section 139(1)
Form No. 2C
5. Individuals or HUF, resident in India, whose total income
does not include income from Business or profession or
Capital gains or agricultural income
Form No. 2E (Naya Saral)
6. Non-corporate assesses not claiming exemption under
section 11 and not having income from business and
profession.
Form No. 3 (or Saral 2D)

Return of Loss [Section 139(3)]

If a person has sustained a loss under the head Profits and
gains of business or profession or under the head Capital
Gains and claims that such loss or any part thereof should be
carried forward under section 72 or section 73 or section 74 or
section 74A then he may furnish a return of loss within the
time prescribed under section 139(1) and all the provisions of
this Act shall apply as if it were a return under section 139(1).
It is not mandatory to file a return of loss (except in case of a
company) as there is no taxable income. However, as already
discussed under section 80 in the chapter on Set off and carry
forward of losses, losses cannot be carried forward unless the
return of loss is submitted on or before the due date3 mentioned under section 139(1) and it is duly assessed. If the return
of loss is not submitted or is submitted after the due date,
losses cannot be carried forward.
As already discussed, all losses are not allowed to be carried
forward. Therefore return of loss should be submitted on or
before due date only in case of business loss, speculation loss,
capital loss or loss on account of owning and maintaining the
horses for running in horse races.
It may be noted that filing a return of loss within the due date
is necessary for carry forward of losses under sections 72(1),
73(2), 74(1), 74(3) and 74A(3). It does not cover section 718 i.e.
carry forward and set off loss of house property. Therefore, loss
on account of house property can be carried forward even if the
return is submitted late. Further, unabsorbed depreciation can
be carried forward even if the return of loss is submitted after
the due date, as it is not covered under Chapter VI of set off or
carry forward of losses but covered under section 32(2). [East
Asiatic Co. v CIT (1986) 161 ITR 135 (Mad)]
Section 139(3) read with section 80, does not prohibit the set off
of losses of the current year while computing the Total Income
even if the return is filed after the due date. It only prohibits the
carry forward of such losses.
If an assessee has submitted a return of loss in response to a
notice under section 142(1), such loss cannot be carried forward
unless it is a loss under the head income from house property.
However, unabsorbed depreciation can be carried forward in
this case.
1. Although the loss of the current year cannot be carried
forward unless the return of loss is submitted before the
due date but the loss of earlier years can be carried forward if
the return of loss of that year(s) was submitted within the
due date and such loss has been assessed.
Belated return [Section 139(4)]
If an assessee has not submitted his return of income:
a. on or before the due date mentioned under section 139(1);
or

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b. within the time allowed under a notice issued by the

Assessing Officer under section 142(1)*, he can still file the
return of income. Such a return is called belated/late return.
Belated return can be filed at any time before the expiry of
one year from the end of the relevant assessment year or
before the completion of the assessment, whichever is
earlier. For example, for a company assessee the last date for
filing the return of income for previous year 2002-03 was 3110-2003; but a late return may be filed at any time on or
before 31-3-2005 (one year from the end of the assessment
year 2003-04) or before the assessment is completed,
whichever is earlier.

Solution:

Completion of the assessment: The word used in section

139(4) will refer only to assessment under section 144 i.e. Best
Judgment Assessment as there can be no other assessment
unless a return of income is furnished. Further, completion of
assessment means the date on which the order of assessment
was passed and not the date of service upon the assessee. Thus
a return of income submitted after the assessment completed
but before the notice of demand is served would be invalid.
[Balchand v ITO (1969) 72 ITR 197 (SC)].

Return of Income of Charitable Trust and

Institutions [Section 139(4A)]
Every person who is in receipt of the following income for
which he is taxable must file a return of income, if such income
(computed before allowing any exemption under sections 11
and 12) exceeds the maximum amount not chargeable to tax:
a. Income derived from property held under trust or other legal
obligation wholly for or charitable purposes or religious
purposes, or in part only for such purposes; or
b. Income by way of voluntary contribution on behalf of such
trust or institution.
The return of income must be furnished in Form No. 3A and
verified in the prescribed manner containing all the prescribed
particulars. Such return of income must be furnished by the
representative assessee within the time prescribed under section
139(1).

Return filed after cancellation of best judgment assessment is a

return filed under section 139(4) It has been held that where a
return is filed after a best judgment assessment is made which
gets cancelled, the return can be considered as one filed under
this section i.e. section 139(4). [Ram Billas Kedar Nath v ITO
(1963) 47 ITR 586 (All)]
If the return of income is not filed under section 139(1), the
Assessing Officer can issue a notice under section 142(1)
requiring the assessee to file the return of income within the
time specified by him. However, the return so filed shall be a
belated return if the assessee was required to file the return of
income under section 139(1) or proviso to section 139(1).
I would like to discuss with you some of the frequently asked
questions.
Problem:
For the assessment year 2003-04, R could not file the return
within the due date. The Assessing Officer passed the order
under section 144 on 31-5-2004 which was received by the
assessee on 5-6-2004. The assessee filed the return on 2-6-2004.
Is the return valid?
Solution:
No. The belated return can be filed within one year of the end
of the relevant assessment year or before the completion of
assessment, whichever is earlier. In the above case, the assessment was completed on 31-5-2004 i.e. the date of passing the
order. (date of service of order is not relevant). As the assessee
has filed the return of income after the completion of assessment i.e. 31-5-2004 this return is not valid. In this case he could
file the return up to 30-5-2004.
Problem:
For the assessment year 2002-03, the return of income has not
been submitted by the assessee. He wishes to submit the same
on 15-5-2004. Can he do so?

206

No, it could be furnished till 31-3-2004.

Problem:
For the previous year 2002-03, the assessee who has not
submitted the return of income, wants to submit the same on
(a) 2-4-2004;

(b) 29-3-2005;

(c) 2-4-2005;

Can he file the return?

Solution:
(a) Yes, (b) Yes, (c) No. The return for previous year 2002-03 can
be filed till 31-3-2005

Consequences of Failure to Furnish Return

If the trust or charitable institute fails to furnish the return of

income or fails to furnish the same within the time allowed,
then, the charitable trust shall be liable to pay a penalty under
section 272A(2), which shall be Rs. 100 for every day during
which the failure continues.
Section 272A(2) provides for specific penalty in case of charitable
or religious trust for not filing of return of income as per
section 139(4A). Hence in this case, penalty of Rs. 5,000 leviable
under section 271 F cannot be levied.
Due Date of Filing Return of Charitable Trust

The due date of filing the return of income of charitable trust

shall be 31 st October of the assessment year as where the
income of a charitable trust, before claiming exemption under
section 11 to 12 exceeds Rs. 50,000, its accounts are required to
be audited. If it does not wish to take exemption under
sections 11 & 12 then the due date shall be 31st July of the
assessment year.

Return of Income of Political Party [Sec. 139( 4B)]

The Chief Executive Officer of every political party, shall, if the
total income of the political party (computed before allowing
exemption under section 13A) exceeds the maximum amount
not chargeable to income-tax, furnish a return of such income.
The return must be submitted in the prescribed form and
verified in the prescribed manner, setting forth such other
particulars as may be prescribed by the CBDT. It must be
submitted within the time period prescribed under section
139(1).

The due date of filing of return of income in case of a political

party is 31st October, if it wants to seek exemption under
section 13A as in that case audit is compulsory. Otherwise the
due date is 31st July.
Although income of a charitable trust or a political party may be
exempt but return of income must be filed if their income
before claiming exemption under sections 11, 12, 13A exceeds
the maximum exemption limit

Return of Income of Certain Associations and

Institutions [Sec. 139(4C)]
W.e.f. assessment year 2003-04. the following associations or
institutions are also required to be furnish a return of income
of the previous year if, before giving effect to the exemption
allowed section 10, their respective income exceeds the maximum amount which is not chargeable to income-tax:
a. scientific research association referred to in section 10(21);
b. news agency referred to in section 10(22B);
c. association or institution referred to in section 10(23A)
which are established inIndia having as its object the control
supervision, regulation or encouragement of the profession
of law, medicine, accountancy, engineering or architecture or
any other notified profession;
d. any institution referred in section 1O(23B) which is existing
solely for thedevelopment of Khadi or Village Industries or
both;
e. fund or institution referred to in sub-clause (iv) or trust or
institution referred to in sub-clause (v) or any university or
other educational institution referred to in sub-clause (vi) or
any hospital or other medical institution referred to in subclause (via) of clause (23C) of section 10;
f. trade union referred to in sub-clause (a) or association of
trade unions referred to in sub-clause (b) of clause (24) of
section 10.
Such assessee shall file the return of income in the prescribed
form and verified in the prescribed manner and setting forth
such other particulars as may be prescribed and an the provisions of the Act shall apply as if it was a return required to be
furnished under section 139(1).
Revised Return [Section 139(5)]
If an assessee, after furnishing the return of income:
i. under section 139(1), or
ii. in pursuance of to a notice under section 142(1),
discovers any omission or any wrong statement in the return
filed, he may furnish a revised return. Such revised return can be
filed at any time before the expiry of one year from the end of
the relevant assessment year or before the completion of the
assessment, whichever is earlier. For example, if a return of income
is filed by the assessee for the assessment year 2003-04 on 1510-2003 and he afterwards discovers some mistake, he can file a
revised return at any time up to 31-3-2005 or before the
completion of the assessment, whichever is earlier.
Completion of Assessment

The word assessment used in section 139(5) will refer to

assessment made under section 143(3) and section 144.

Assessment made under section 143(1) will not be treated as

assessment for this purpose as such return can be revised even
after the intimation under section 143(1) has been served.
Further, the return can be revised before the date of passing the
order under section 143(3) or section 144 and not till the date
of service of such order.
Can a Return Filed Under Section 139(3) or 139(4A) or
139(4B) or 139(4C) be Revised

As already stated that a return of loss submitted under section

139(3) or a return submitted under section 139(4A) or 139(4B)
or 139(4C) is deemed as if it were a return under section 139(1).
Therefore, a return submitted under section 139(3) or 139(4A),
etc. can be revised under section 139(5).
Can a Belated Return Under Section 139(4) be Revised

There was a difference of opinion among various courts

regarding filing of revised return in respect of belated returns.
However, in a recent case of the Supreme Court, it has been
held that a belated return filed under section 139(4) cannot be
revised as section 139(5) provides that only return filed under
section 139(1) or in pursuance to a notice under section 142(1)
can be revised. [Kumar Jagdish Chandra Sinha v ClT (1996) 220
ITR 67 (SC)].
Can a Return Furnished in Response to Notice Under
Section 142(1) be Revised

The notice under section 142(1) to file a return of income can be

issued by the Assessing Officer to the assessee only after the due
date mentioned under section 139(1). Thus return filed in
response to a notice under section 142(1) is though filed after
the due date prescribed under section 139(1) but as per section
139(5), such return can be revised. However, if the return in
response to notice given under section 142(1) is furnished after
the time allowed in the notice, it will be a return submitted
under section 139(4) and such return cannot be revised as per
the decision of the Supreme Court mentioned above.
Hence return submitted in response to notice under section
142(1) can be revised if the assessee was not covered section
139(1) or proviso to section 139(1) but any loss declared in
either the original return filed in response to a notice under
section 142(1) or in the revised return cannot be carried forward
in view of section 80 read with section 139(3) as the original
return has been filed after due date.
Can Revised Return be Further Revised

If the assessee discovers any omission or any wrong statement

in a revised return, it is possible to revise such a revised return
provided it is revised within the same prescribed time. [Niranjan
wi Ram Chandra v ClT (1982) 134 ITR 352 (All); ClT v Shrivastava
(Dr. N.) (1988) 170ITR 556 (MP)].
For example, if the return of income for assessment year 200203 is filed on 15-10-2002 and is revised on 15-4-2003 (before the
assessment is completed), such revised return can still be revised
at any time up to 31-3-2004, or before the completion of the
assessment, whichever is earlier.
Revised Return Substitutes the Original Return

Once a revised return is filed, the originally filed return must be

taken to have been withdrawn and substituted by the revised

207

return. [Dhampur Sugar Mills Ltd. v CIT (1973) 90 ITR 236

(All)].
Problem:
R filed a return of income for assessment year 2003-04 on 31-72003. He later files a revised return on 15-12-2003 declaring a
loss ofRs. 1,00,000. Can the loss be allowed to be carried
forward?
Solution:

i. a return has already been filed under section 139(1) or in

response to a notice under section 142(1) if the assessee was
not covered under section 139(1);
ii. the assessee, after filing the above return, discovers any
omission/wrong statement in the return;
iii. revised return should be filed within one year from the end
of the relevant assessment year or before completion of the
assessment, whichever is earlier.

As per the decision in Dhampur Sugar Mills Ltd., the revised

return substitutes the original return. Since the original return
was filed within the due date, the revised return of loss shall be
deemed to have been filed within the due date and as such the
loss ofRs. 1,00,000 shall be allowed to be carried forward.

Particulars to be Furnished with the Return

[Section 139(6)/139(6A)]
The following particulars are required to be submitted with the
return as per section 139(6) and section 139(6A).

Problem:

1. Income exempt from tax.

Original return for assessment year 2002-03 was submitted by X

on 156-2002. Summary assessment under section 143(1) was
done on 5-7-2002. X wishes to file a revised return. Can he do
so? If yes, up to what time?

2. Assets of the prescribed nature, value and belonging to the

assessee.

What will be your answer in the above case, if the regular

assessment is completed on 31-7-2003.
Solution:
(a) He can file a revised return as summary assessment is not
treated as assessment for this purpose. The revised return can
be filed at any time up to 31-3-2004. (b) In this case revised
return can be filed before 31-7-2003 i.e. up to 30-7-2003.
An Application or Letter to the Assessing Officer Cannot
Constitute Revised Return

There is a distinction between a revised return and a correction

of the return. If the assessee files some application for correcting a return already filed or making amends therein, it would
not mean that he has filed a revised return. It will still retain the
character of an original return but once a revised return is filed,
the original return must be taken to have been withdrawn and
to have been substituted by a fresh return for the purposes of
assessment. [Gopaidas Parshottamdas v ClT (1941) 9 ITR 130
(All)].
A letter addressed to the Assessing Officer informing him that a
certain items of income not mentioned in the original return be
taken to be the income of the assessee would not be a proper
revised return under sub-section (5). [Waman Padmanabh
Dande v CIT(1952) 22 ITR 339 (Nag)].
Can a Return be Revised After Receipt of Notice Under
Section 143(2)/Show Cause Notice Under Section 144

As per the law, a return can be revised at any time before the
expiry of one year from the end of the relevant assessment year
or before the completion of assessment, whichever is earlier.
Issue of notice under section 143(2) or show cause notice under
section 144 means that the assessment is not yet completed.
Therefore, original return, if submitted within the due date can
be revised even after issue of such notice. But the penalty under
section 271(1)(c) for concealment of income may be levied on
the additional income disclosed in the revised return.
To sum up, return of income can be revised if the following
conditions are satisfied:

208

Particulars required to be furnished Under Section 139(6)

3. His bank account and credit card held by him.

4. Expenditure exceeding the prescribed limits incurred by him
under the prescribed heads.
5. Such other out goings as may be prescribed.
Particulars to be Furnished in Case of an Assessee
Engaged in Any Business or Profession [Section 139(6A)]

1. The report of audit referred to in section 44AB (if it is

already furnished, a copy thereof with a proof of furnishing
the same);
2. The particulars of location and style of the principal place
where he carries on the business or profession; and all
branches thereof;
3. Names and addresses of his partners if any in such business
or profession;
4. If assessee is a member of an association or body of
individuals, the names of other members;
5. The extent of assessees share and of other partners/
members of the profits of the business or of the branches.

Defective Return [Section 139(9)]

Where the Assessing Officer considers that the return of
income furnished by the assessee is defective, he may intimate
the defect to the assessee and give him an opportunity to rectify
the defect within a period of 15 days from the date of such
intimation. Such time may be extended by the Assessing Officer
on an application made by the assessee. If the defect is not
rectified within 15 days, or the extended time so allowed, as the
case may be, the return filed by the assessee shall be treated as
invalid return and the consequences of the same will be as if no
return has been filed by the assessee. However, if the assessee
rectifies the defect even after 15 days, or the extended time, but
before the completion of assessment, the Assessing Officer
may condone the delay and treat the return as a valid return.
When a Return of Income shall be Regarded as Defective
[Explanation to section 139]:

A return of income shall be regarded as defective unless all the

following conditions are satisfied:

a. The annexures, statements and columns in the return of

income relating to computation of income chargeable under
each head of income, computation of gross total income
and total income have been duly filled in;
b. The return is accompanied by a statement showing the
computation of the taxpayable on the basis of the return;
bb. the return is accompanied by the report of the audit
referred to in section 44AB, or, where the report has been
furnished prior to the furnishing of the return, with a copy
of such report together with proof of furnishing the report;
c. The return of income is accompanied by proof of the tax ,
if any, claimed to have been deducted at source and the
advance tax and tax on self-assessment, if any, claimed to
have been paid.

j. where regular books of account are not maintained by the

assessee, the return is accompanied by a statement indicating
the amounts of turnover or, as the case may be, gross
receipts, gross profit, expenses and net profit of the business
or profession and the basis on which such amounts have
been computed, and also disclosing the amounts of total
sundry debtors, sundry creditors, stock-in-trade and cash
balance as at the end of the previous year.
Problem:
G submits the return of income for the assessment year 200304 on 31-7-2003 i.e. the due date. As there was some defect in
the return, the Assessing Officer issued a notice on 14-10-2003
requiring the assessee to remove the defect, which was received
by G on 21-10-2003. What will be the consequences if G:

However, w.e.. 1-6-2002, where the return is not

accompanied by proof of the tax, if any, claimed to have
been deducted at source, the return of income shall not be
regarded as defective if

a. rectifies the defect on 1-11-2003;

a.

G did not apply for any extension of time to remove the defect.

b.

A certificate for tax deducted was not furnished under

section 203 to the person furnishing his return of
income; and
Such certificate is produced within a period of 2 years
from the end of the assessment year in, which such
income is assessable.

Thus if the, above certificate is produced within a period of

two years from the end of the assessment year in which such
income is assessable, the Assessing Officer shall amend the
order of assessment or intimation/deemed intimation, as
the case may be, and the provisions of section 154 in that
case shall apply i.e. such assessment can be rectified within a
period of four years from the end of the assessment year in
which such certificate was furnished;
d. Where regular books of account are maintained by the
assessee, the return is accompanied by copies of:
1. Manufacturing account, trading account, profit and loss
account or, as the case may be, income and expenditure account
or any other similar account and balance sheet;
2.
(i) in the case of a proprietary
business or profession,

the personal account of the proprietor;

(ii) in the case of a firm,

(iii) in case of association of persons
or body of individuals,

personal accounts of all the partners;

personal accounts of all the members;

(iv) in the case of a partner of a firm

(v) in case of member of an his
association of persons or
body of individuals,

his personal account in the firm;

personal account in the
association of persons or body of
individuals;

e. where the accounts of the assessee have been audited, the

return is accompanied by copies of the audited profit and
loss account and balance sheet and the auditors report and,
where an audit of cost accounts of the assessee has been
conducted, under section 233B of the Companies Act, 1956,
also the report under that section;

b. rectifies the defect on 15-12-2003;

c. does not rectify the return but files a revised return on 15-122003.
Solution:
a. The return filed on 31-7-2003 will be a valid return as the
defect has been rectified within fifteen days of the receipt of
the notice.
b. As the defect has not been removed within fifteen days of
date of receipt of the notice and the assessee did not apply
for extension of time, such return will be an invalid return.
However, in this case the Assessing Officer has the power to
condone the delay and treat the return as a valid return.
c. As the defect was not rectified, the return filed on 31-7-2003
shall be treated as an invalid return and shall be deemed
never to have been filed. Further, the revised return shall be a
valid return but it will be treated as a belated return filed
under section 139(4) as it cannot substitute the original
return which is void ab-initio.

Permanent Account Number (Sec. 139A and Rule 114)

1. Every person who has not been allotted a permanent account
number shall, within such time, as may be prescribed, apply
in Form No. 49A to the Assessing Officer for the allotment
of a permanent account number in the following cases:
a.

If his total income or the total income of any other

person in respect of which he is assessable under this
Act during any previous year exceeded the maximum
amount which is not chargeable to income-tax; or

b.

If he is carrying on any business or profession whose

total sales, turnover or gross receipts are or is likely to
exceed Rs. 5,00,000 in any previous year; or

c.

He is required to furnish a return of income under

section 139(4A), i.e., return of trust and charitable
institutions.

2. The Assessing Officer may also allot to any other person by

whom tax is payable, a permanent account number.
3. Any person, not falling under clause (I) or clause (2) above.
may apply to the Assessing Officer for the allotment of a
permanent account number and, thereupon, the Assessing
209

Officer shall allot a permanent account number to such

person forthwith.
The application has to be made to the Assessing Officer who
has been assigned the function of allotment of permanent
account number, where no Assessing Officer has been assigned
this function, the application has to be made to the Assessing
Officer having jurisdiction to assess the applicant.
Time Limit for Submitting Application for Allotment of
PAN [Rule 114(3)]

Situation
1. In case clause (1)(a) above

2. In case clause (1)(b) above

3. In case of clause (l)(c)
above

Time limit for a making application

on or before 31st May of the
assessment year in which such
income is assessable
on or before the end of that
accounting year
On or before the end of the relevant
accounting year.

Power delegated to the Central Government to notify class

or classes of persons for whom it will be obligatory to
apply for permanent account number (PAN) [Section
139A(1A)]:
W.e.f. 1-6-2000, with a view to progressively making PAN a
common business identification number for other departments
such as the Central Board of Excise and Customs and the
Director General of Foreign Trade, the Act has delegated the
power to the Central Government to notify class or classes of
persons for whom it will be obligatory to apply for PAN,
provided tax is payable by them under the Income-tax Act or
any tax or duty is payable by them under any other law in force
including importers and exporters whether any tax is payable by
them or not.
Ten digit Permanent Account Number

The CBDT had introduced a new scheme of allotment of

computerized 10 digit permanent account number. Therefore,
everyone was required to apply for a fresh permanent account
number even if he had already been allotted an account number
earlier.
However, the persons to whom permanent account number,
under the new series, had already been allotted, were not
required to apply for such number again.
PAN to be Quoted in Certain Cases [Section 139A(S)]

On allotment of permanent account number, every person

shall:
a. quote such number in all his returns to, or correspondence
with, any income-tax authority;
b. quote such number in all challans for the payment of any
sum due under this Act;
c. quote such number in all documents pertaining to such
transactions as may be prescribed by the Board in the
interests of the revenue, and entered into by him.
Every person shall intimate the Assessing Officer any change in
his address or in the name and nature of his business on the

210

basis of which the permanent account number was allotted to

him.
Transactions Where Quoting of PAN Made Compulsory
(Rule 114B)

W.e.f. 1-11-1998, quoting of PAN is compulsory in the

following transactions:
a. Sale/purchase of any immovable property valued at Rs. 5
lakhs or more;
b. Sale/purchase of motor vehicle (other than two wheeled
vehicles) which requires registration under Motor Vehicles
Act, 1988;
c. Time deposit exceeding Rs. 50,000 with a bank/banking
company/banking institution;
d. Deposits exceeding Rs. 50,000 in Post Office Savings Bank;
e. Contract for sale/purchase of securities exceeding Rs.
1,00,000;
f. Opening an account with a bank/banking company/banking
institution. Where the person opening a bank account is a
minor and does not have any income chargeable to incometax, he shall quote the PAN/GIR number of his father or
mother or guardian as the case may be;
g. Application for installation of a telephone connection
including cellular connection;
h. Payment to hotels/restaurants of bills exceeding Rs. 25,000
at any time.
A person shall quote General Index Register number (GIR)
till such time the permanent account number is allotted to
such person;
i. payment in cash for purchase of bank draft or pay orders or
bankers cheques from a banking company to which the
Banking Regulation Act, 1949, applies (including any bank or
banking institution referred to in section 51 of that Act) for
an amount aggregating Rs. 50,000 or more during anyone
day;
j. deposit in cash aggregating Rs. 50,000 or more, with a
banking company to which the Banking Regulation Act,
1949, applies (including any bank or banking institution
referred to in section 51 of that Act) during anyone day;
k. payment in cash in connection with travel to any foreign
country of an amount exceeding Rs. 25,000 at anyone time.
Such payment shall include payment in cash towards fare, or
to a travel agent or a tour operator, or for the purchase of
foreign currency. However, travel to any foreign country does
not include travel to the neighbouring countries or to such
places of pilgrimage as may be specified by the Board under
Explanation 3 of section 139(1).
Any person who has not been allotted a permanent account
number or who does not have a GIR number and who enters
into any of the above transactions shall make a declaration in
Form No. 60 giving therein the particulars of such transaction.
Where a person, making an application for opening an account
referred to in clause (c) and clause (f) of this rule, is a minor and
who does not have any income chargeable to income-tax, he
shall quote the permanent account number or General Index

Register Number of his father or mother or guardian, as the

case may be, in the document pertaining to the transaction
referred to in the said clause (c) and clause (f):

iii.

Amount of each transaction,

iv.

PAN or GIR No. quoted in the documents pertaining

to any transaction;

As per Rule 114C(Q, the above provisions shall not apply to:

3. copies of declaration in Form No. 60;

a. persons who have agricultural income and are not in receipt

of any other income chargeable to income-tax. Such person
shall make a declaration in Form No. 61.

4. copies of declaration in Form No. 61.

b. non-residents. They shall furnish a copy of their passport.

c. Central Government, State Government and Consular
Offices in transactions where they are the payers.
The assessee shall intimate the Assessing Officer any change
in his address or in the name and nature of his business on
the basis of which the permanent account number was
allotted to him.
Duty of the Person Receiving any Document Relating to
the Transactions Where Quoting of PAN is Compulsory.
[Section 139A(6) and Rule 114C(2)]:

The following persons receiving any document relating to a

transaction where quoting of PAN is compulsory shall ensure
after verification that the permanent account number (PAN) or
the General Index Register No. (GIR) has been duly and
correctly quoted in the document or declaration in Form No. 60
or Form No. 61 is received by such person:
1. A registering officer appointed under the Registration Act,
1908;
2. A registering authority under the Motor Vehicles Act for
registration of motor vehicle;
3 Any manager or officer of a banking company;
4. Post master;
5. Stock broker, sub-broker, share transfer agent, banker to an
issue, trustee of atrust deed, registrar to issue, merchant
banker, underwriter, portfolio manager, investment adviser
and such other intermediaries registered under section 12 of
the Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992;
6 Any authority or company receiving application for
installation of a telephone by it;
7 Any person raising bills exceeding Rs. 25,000 in a hotel or
restaurant or for travel to any foreign company;
8 Any person who purchases or sells the immovable property
or motor vehicle.

Time and Manner in Which these Persons Shall

Intimate the Details of Transaction to the Director of
Income-tax (Investigation) (Rule 114D)
The above persons shall forward to the concerned Director of
Income-tax (Investigation)/Commissioner of Income Tax
(Central Information Branch) the following documents, viz.:
1. A statement indicating therein details of all documents
pertaining to the above transactions where the payment is
made in cash;
2. The above statement shall contain:
i.
name and address of the person entering into the
transaction,
ii.
nature and date of the transaction,

Provided that copies of declaration furnished in respect of

transactions relating to opening a bank account shall not be
furnished to the Director of Income-tax (Investigation) or
Commissioner of Income Tax (CIB).
All declaration in Form Nos. 60 and 61 received during a
financial year shall be forwarded to the concerned Director of
Income-tax (Investigation) or Commissioner of Income Tax
(CIB) in two instalments, i.e. the forms received upto 30th
September shall be forwarded latest by 31 st October of that
year and the declaration till the 31 st March shall be furnished
latest by 30th April of the same year.
a. Intimation of PAN in Certain Cases and Obligation of the
Person to Whom the PAN is Intimated (Applicable w.e.f. 1-62001)

(i) Obligation of a person receiving any sum/income/

amount from which tax has been deducted at source
[Section 139A(5A)]: Such person shall intimate his PAN to
the person responsible for deducting tax. He shall intimate
General Index Register Number (GIR No.) till such time PAN
is allotted to him.
However, these provisions shall not apply to a non-resident
referred to in section 115AC(4) or 115BBA(2) or to a nonresident Indian referred to in Section 115G.
(ii) Obligation of a person who has deducted the tax at
source [Section .l39A(5B)]: Where any sum or income or
amount has been paid after deducting tax, every such person
deducting tax shall quote the PAN of the person to whom
sum/income/amount has been paid by him in:
a. the statement of perquisites furnished to the employee in
accordance with the newly inserted Section 192(2c);
b. all certificates of TDS furnished under section 203;
c. all returns of TDS under section 206 to any income-tax
authority.
However, the Central Government may notify different dates
from which the provisions of this sub-section shall apply in
respect of any class or classes of persons.
The above sub-sections (SA) & (58) shall not apply in case of a
person.
a. whose total income is not chargeable to tax; or
b. who is not required to obtain PAN under any provisions of
the Income-tax Act
such person will be required to fumish a declaration referred to
in section 197A in the prescribed form to the effect that the tax
on his estimated total income of the previous year will be nil.
iii. Obligation of a buyer/seller of alcoholic liquor,
timber or any other forest products referred to in section
206C :

211

a. Obligation of the buyer [Section 139A(5C)]: Every such

buyer shall intimate his PAN to the seller of such goods.
b. Obligation of the seller of such goods [Section
139A(5D)]: Every seller collecting tax under section 206C
shall quote the PAN of every buyer:
a.

in all certificates furnished to the buyer under section

206C;

b.

in all returns furnished under section 206C to an

income-tax authority.

Return by Whom to be Signed (Section 140)

The return under section 139 shall be signed and verified:
a. In the case of an individual - (i) by the individual himself;
or (ii) where he is absent from India, by the individual
himself or by some person duly authorised by him on his
behalf; or (iii) where he is mentally incapacitated from
attending to his affairs, by his guardian or any other person
competent to act on his behalf and (iv) where, for any other
reason it is not possible for the individual to sign the return,
by any person duly authorised by him in this behalf. In case
of (ii) and (iv) above, the person signing the return should
hold a valid power of attorney from the individual to do so,
which shall be attached to the return.
b. In the case of a Hindu Undivided Family - only by the
Karta. However, in the following two cases it can be signed
by any other adult member of the family:
i.
where the Karta is absent from India; or
ii.
where the Karta is mentally incapacitated from
attending to his affairs.
c. in the case of a company - (i) by the managing director
thereof, or (ii) where for any unavoidable reason such
managing director is not able to sign and verify the return, or
where there is no managing director, by any director thereof
or (iii) in the case of a company being wound up, by the
liquidator or (iv) in case of a company whose management
has been taken over by the Central Government or the State
Government, by the Principal Officer thereof. However, if
the company is non-resident in India, the return may be
signed and verified by a person who holds a valid power of
attorney from such company to do so.
d. in the case of a firm - (i) by the managing partner thereof,
or (ii) where for any unavoidable reason, such managing
partner is not able to sign and verify the return, or where
there is no managing partner as such, by any partner thereof,
not being a minor;
e. in the case of a local authority - by the principal officer
thereof;
f. in the case of a political party - by the chief executive
officer of such party (whether such Chief Executive Officer is
known as Secretary or by any other designation).
g. in the case of any other association - by any member of
the association or the principal officer.
h. in the case of any other person - (i) by that person or (ii)
by some person competent to act on his behalf.

212

Self-assessment (Section 140A)

Every person, before submitting a return of income under
section 139 or section 142(1) or section 148 or section 158BC is
under an obligation to make a self-assessment of his income
and after taking in account the amount of tax, if any, already
paid, pay the self-assessment tax, if due. The assessee shall be
liable to pay such tax together with interest payable for any delay
in furnishing the return or any default or delay in payment of
advance tax. The procedure for making self-assessment and
determination of the tax liability of self-assessment tax is
explained in the following steps:
i. Compute the Total Income;
ii. Calculate the tax payable on the Total Income at the rates in
force;
iii. Allow rebate, if any, under section 88/88B and 88C;
iv. Add surcharge as applicable on tax computed after allowing
rebate under step (iii);
v. Allow relief, if any, under sections 89(1), 90 and 91;
vi. From the balance tax payable, calculated under step (v),
deduct tax deducted/collected at source as well as the advance
tax paid;
vii. Add interest payable for the following to the Net-tax
calculated at step (vi):
a.

Interest for late filing of return under section 234A

computed on the amount of the tax on the total
income as declared in the return as reduced by the
advance tax, if any, paid and any tax deducted or
collected at source;

b.

Interest for default in payment of advance tax under

section 234B computed on amount equal to the
assessed tax or the case may be, on the amount by
which the advance tax paid falls short of assessed tax.
For meaning of assessed tax see point 2 in box;

c.

Interest for deferment of advance tax (under section

234C);

viii. The above tax and interest payable should be paid as selfassessment tax before
ix. filing the return of income.
Note the following;
1. Interest payable under clause (vii)(a) and (b) above shall be
only for the purpose of section 140A i.e. for self-assessment.
However, it is not same as what is payable under section
234A or section 2348. Under section 234A the interest is
chargeable on the amount of tax on total income determined
under section 143(1) or regular assessment under section
143(3)/144 as reduced by TDS and advance tax paid if any.
Whereas under section 140A it is payable on amount of tax
determined on the total income as declared in the return.
Similarly, for the purpose of interest payable under clause
(vii)(b) as per section 2348 above, the meaning of assessee
tax for the purpose of section 140A is different than what is
given for section 234B.
2. For the purpose of this section assessed tax means the tax
on the total income as declared in the return as reduced by

the amount of tax deducted or collected at source, in

accordance with the provisions of Chapter XVII on any
income which is subject to such deduction or collection and
which is taken into account in computing such total income.
3. Proof of payment of self-assessment tax must accompany
the return of income.
4. Where the amount paid by the assessee as self-assessment
tax falls short of the aggregate of the tax and the interest
calculated at step No. (viii) above, the amount so paid as
selfassessment tax by the assessee shall first be adjusted
towards the interest payable and the balance, if any, shall be
adjusted towards the tax payable.
5. The self-assessment tax shall be deemed to have been paid
towards tax due on regular assessment.

Procedure of Assessment
After submission of return of income by the assessee to the
Income-tax Department, the process of assessment commences. In some cases, the assessment may be taken up by the
Assessing Officer, even though the return of income is not
submitted, although the assessee was required to do so. The
Assessing Officer can make the assessment in any of the
following ways:
(i) Summary Assessment
On the basis of the return of
income [u/s 143(1)].
(ii) Scrutiny Assessment
On the basis of return of
income and hearing further
additional evidence [u/s
143(3)].
(iii) Best Judgment Assessment Under section 144.
Inquiry Before Assessment (Section 142)
I. Service of a Notice [Section 142(1)]

For the purpose of making an assessment, the Assessing Officer

may take any/all of the following steps:
i. Serve a notice under section 142(1)(i) to the person requiring
him to furnish a return of his income, or the income of any
other person in respect of which he is assessable under the
Act, in the prescribed form and within the time specified in
the notice, if the person has not filed a return of income and
the time allowed under section 139(1) has expired;
ii. Serve a notice under section 142(1)(ii) to any person who has
filed a return of income or not to produce or cause to be
produced. such accounts or documents as the Assessing
Officer may require. However, the Assessing Officer shall not
require the assessee to produce any accounts relating to a
period more than three years prior to the previous year.
Further, the notice under this clause can be sent only when
the return has been submitted under section 139 [i.e. u/s
139(1) or 139(3) or 139(4) or 139(4A) or 139(5)] or when the
time allowed under section 139(1) for furnishing the return
has expired and the return is not submitted.
Example:
For making an assessment of assessment year 2003-2004 the
Assessing Officer can ask for books of ~ccount for previous

years 1999-2000, 2000-2001 and 2001-2002 besides, of

course, for previous year 2002-2003 which is in question.
Only 3 years books of accounts can be summoned: The
officer, however, may not summon accounts relating to a
period more than three years prior to the accounting year in
question. Should a notice calling for account books for a
period more than three years prior to the accounting year be
issued, the same may be regarded as consisting of two parts,
one for the period of three years for which the books can be
rightly called for, and another for the period beyond three
years for which the books cannot be called for. The latter part
of the notice may be regarded as unauthorised and illegal,
but to the extent to which the former part is legal, the
assessee should projuce books for the three years; and if he
fails to do so, he would be regarded as being in default and
liable to best judgment assessment; [Calcutta Chromotype Pvt.
Ltd. vITO (1974) 95 ITR 595 (Cal)].
iii. serve a notice under section 142(l)(iii), to furnish, in writing
and verified in the prescribed manner information in such
form and on such points and matters as he may require. The
Assessing Officer may also ask for a statement of all assets
and liabilities of the assessee whether included in the
accounts or not. However, prior approval of the Joint
Commissioner of Income-tax will be required, if the
Assessing Officer requires the assessee to furnish a statement
of assets and liabilities not included in the accounts.
Statement of assets and liabilities can be asked for any
number of previous years.
Notice under section 142(1)(i) or (ii) or (iii) can be issued only
for the purpose of making an assessment under the Incometax Act.
Notice under section 142(1)(i) to file a return of income can
be given only after the time allowed under section 139(1) has
expired.
Further, the notice 142(1)(ii) or (iii) can be given whether the
return of income has been submitted or not but it can be
served only after the time allowed under section 139(1) has
expired.
The law does not provide any time limit for issue of notice
under section 142(1)(i) for filing the return but as per general
provision, a return cannot be filed after the expiry of one year
from the end of the relevant assessment year.
If the assessee has not furnished the return of income
within the time allowed under section 139(1), it is not
mandatory for the Assessing Officer to issue notice under
section 142(1)(/) for filing the return of income in case he
wishes to make best judgment assessment under section
144. In that case, he shall have to follow the procedure given
under section 144.
II. Make Inquiry [Section 142(2)]

For the purpose of obtaining full information in respect of

income or loss of any person, the Assessing Officer may make
such inquiry, as he considers necessary. While section 142(1)
empowers the Assessing Officer to collect information from the
assessee himself, section 142(2) on the other hand, empowers
him to collect information from sources other than the assessee.

213

III. Audit of Accounts [Sections 142(2A) to (2D)]

is found due, after adjustment of any TDS, advance tax paid,

any tax paid on self-assessment and any amount paid
otherwise than by way of tax or interest. Such intimation
should specify the sum so payable and it shall be deemed to
be a notice of demand issued under section 156 and all the
provisions of the Income-tax Act shall apply accordingly.

The Assessing Officer may, at any stage of the proceedings before

him, direct the assessee to get the accounts audited by a
Chartered Accountant nominated by the Chief Commissioner/
Commissioner of Income-tax. Such a decision may be taken by
the Assessing Officer, if:
a. Having regard to the nature and complexity of the accounts
of the assessee, and
b. The interest of the revenue, he is of the opinion that it is
necessary so to do. The Assessing Officer can issue such
directions only with prior approval of the Chief
Commissioner/Commissioner of Income tax. [Section
142(2A)].
Direction of audit can be given even if the accounts are already
audited under the
Income-tax Act or under any other law [section 142(2B)].
Form and Time Limit for Submission of Report [Section
142(2C) and Rule 14A]

The Chartered Accountant shall submit the audit report in

Form No. 6B to the assessee who will in turn submit it to the
Assessing Officer within such period as may be specified by the
Assessing Officer. Such period may, however, be extended by
the Assessing Officer 011 the request of the assessee and for any
good and sufficient reasons. The aggregate of the period
originally fixed and the extended period(s) shall not, in any case,
exceed 180 days from the date on which the directions for audit
were received by the assessee.

2. If any refund is due on the basis of such return it shall be

granted to the assessee and an intimation to this effect shall
be sent to the assessee.
Where, either no sum is payable by the assessee or no refund is
due to him, the acknowledgment of the return shall be deemed
to be intimation under section 143(1).
No intimation under section 143( 1) shall be sent after the expiry
of one year from the end of the financial year in which the return
of income is made. If any retum is revised as per section 139(5),
the limitation period of one year shall commence from the end
of the financial year in which such revised return was filed.
It may be noted that the above limitation period of one year is
only for sending the intimation and not for issuing the refund.
No adjustment of whatsoever nature to the income declared in
the return is now permissible under this section. Even an
arithmetical error, in computing the total income, cannot be
corrected by the Assessing Officer in the return of income
submitted by the assessee.

Regular/Scrutiny Assessment - On the Basis of

Return of Income and After Hearing Additional
Evidence [Section 143(3)]

Audit Expenses [Section 142(2D)]

a.

The remuneration and expenses of, and incidental to such audit

shall be determined by the Chief Commissioner/Commissioner of Income-tax and shall be paid by the assessee and in
the event of assessees default in making payment, the amount
payable shall be recovered from the assessee in the manner
provided for collection and recovery of tax.

Where the return has been made under section /39 or in

response to notice under section 142(1), the Assessing Officer
shall if he considers it necessary or expedient to ensure that

The direction to get accounts audited can be issued only in the

course of assessment proceedings and not after the completion
of assessment. Further the assessment also includes reassessment.

c. has not underpaid the tax in any manner,

No appeal is possible against the orders under section 142(2A)

for audit of accounts.
IV. Opportunity of Being Heard [Section 142(3)]:

The Assessing Officer shall give an opportunity to the assessee

of being heard in respect of any information gathered by the
Assessing Officer on the basis of the aforesaid inquiry under
section 142(2) or on the basis of the audit conducted as per
section 142(2A) above, where the Assessing Officer proposes to
utilise such information for the purpose of any assessment.
However, no such opportunity is necessary when the assessment is made under section 144.

Assessment on the Basis of Return [Section 143(1)]

Where a return has been made under section 139 or in response
to a notice under section 142(1), the Assessing Officer shall take
following steps.
1. Without prejudice to the provisions of section /43(2), an
intimation shall be sent to the assessee if any tax or interest
214

Compulsory Issue of Notice [Section 143(2)]

a. the assessee has not understated the income; or

b. has not computed excessive loss; or
serve a notice on the assessee under section 143(2) requiring
him to attend his office or produce or cause to be produced any
evidence on which the assessee may rely in support of the
return on a date to be specified in the notice.
However, no notice shall be served on the assessee after the
expiry of twelve months from the end of the month in which
the return is furnished.
Notice under section 143(2) cannot be issued if no return has
been furnished by the assessee and as such no assessment can
be made under section 143(3) in this case.
If notice under section 143(2) is not issued, an assessment
cannot be made under section 143(3).
No notice under section 143(2) can be served on the assessee
after the expiry of 12 months from the end of the month in
which the return/revised return is furnished e.g. if the return of
income is furnished on 10-7-2003 notice under section 143(2)
can be served upon the assessee up to 31-7-2004 which is 12
months from the expiry of the month of July, 2003. It may be
noted that the notice should be served upon the assessee on/
before the last date. For example, if the notice is issued on 29-7-

2004 but served upon the assessee on 2-8-2004, it will not be a

valid notice as it should have been served by 31-7-2004.

accounts on the following grounds and may make the assessment in the manner provided in section 144:

1. Besides issuing a notice under section 143(2), the Assessing

Officer normally also issues a notice under section 142 for
producing books of accounts, statement of assets and
liabilities, etc.

a. He is not satisfied about the correctness or completeness of

the accounts of the assessee,

Problem:

c. Where the Accounting Standards notified by the Central

Government from time to time have not been regularly
followed by the assessee.

Return of income for previous year 2002-2003 was submitted

by R on 16-7-2003. The Assessing Officer wants to take the case
for scrutiny assessment and issue the notice on (i) 27-7-2004; (ii)
30-8-2004. Is the notice valid?
Solution:
a. Yes.
b. No, Notice can be issued only till 31-7-2004.

Assessment After Evidence [Section 143(3)]

The Assessing Officer, on the day specified in the notice under
section 143(2) or as soon afterwards, as may be, shall., by order
in writing, make an assessment of the Total Income or the loss
of the assessee and determine the sum payable by him on the
basis of such assessment. W.e.f. assessment year 1999-2000, this
section has been amended and the Assessing Officer shall also
now determine the refund due to the assessee on the basis of
scrutiny assessment. The assessment shall be made after taking
into consideration the following:
1. Such evidence as the assessee may produce on the dates
specified, from time to time and such other evidence as the
Assessing Officer may require on specified points;
2. All relevant material gathered by him.
Best Judgment Assessment (Section 144)
The Assessing Officer, after taking into account all relevant
material which he has gathered, is under an obligation to make
an assessment of the total income or loss to the best of his
judgment and determine the sum payable by the assessee in the
following cases:
i. Where any person fails to make the return under section
139(1) or 139(4);
ii. Where any person fails to comply with all the terms of a
notice issued under section 142(1); or fails to comply with
the directions issued under section 142(2A) for getting the
account audited;
iii. Where any person, having made a return, fails to comply
with all the terms of a notice issued under section 143(2).
a. Opportunity Must be Given to the Assessee

The best judgment assessment can only be made after giving

the assessee an opportunity of being heard by giving notice to
the assessee to show cause why the assessment should not be
completed under section 144. However, it will not be necessary
to give such notice where a notice under section 142(1) has
already been issued prior to making assessment under this
section.
b. Assessment on Rejection of Accounts

Section 145(3) empowers the Assessing Officer to reject the

account books which are unreliable, false or incorrect or
incomplete. The Assessing Officer can reject the books of

b. Where the method of accounting adopted by the assessee

has not been regularly followed by him, or

In view of the above the Assessing Officer may reject the books
even if the method of accounting is acceptable to him if the
entries in the books are found to be false or fabricated. Conversely the account books may be accepted as true but the
method of accounting may be rejected by the Assessing Officer
as improper.
The expression method of accounting in the section has
reference to the pattern, system or principles on the basis of
which the accounts of an assessee are maintained and not to its
other aspects, such as, language, currency, etc. The assessee may
keep his accounts in any language he chooses. Accounts in India
are maintained in English, Hindi or other regional languages
and in certain scripts employed by certain communities, such as,
Modi and the like.
Whether the assessment on rejection of accounts is to be
made under section 144 or143(3)1147: Section 144 prescribes
for best judgment assessment only in case of 3 failures
mentioned in. In case, the Assessing Officer rejects the accounts
on any of the grounds mentioned above, the Assessing Officer
has to make the assessment under the relevant section i.e. 143(3)
or 147 in which the assessment proceedings were going on. But
such assessment has to be done in the manner provided under
section 144 i.e. he will have to make the assessment to the best
of his judgment. The assessment in this case is not to be done
under section 144 but in the manner provided in 144.
c. Power of Joint Commissioner to Issue Directions in
Certain Cases (Section 144A)

A Joint Commissioner may:

a. on his own motion;
b. on a reference being made to him by the Assessing Officer;
or
c. on the application of an assessee
call for and examine the record of any proceeding in which an
assessment is pending.
Thereafter, if he considers that:
a. having regard to the nature of the case;
b. the amount involved; or
c. for any other reason,
it is necessary or expedient so to do, he may issue such directions as he thinks fit for the guidance of the Assessing Officer
to enable him to complete the assessment.
The powers of the Joint Commissioner are wide and he can
issue directions to the Assessing Officer for any reasons that he
thinks are necessary. The directions to the Assessing Officer are

215

binding in nature and the assessee has a recourse to agitate in

appeal if the Assessing Officer does not follow the directions.
However, no directions which are prejudicial to the assessee
shall be issued before an opportunity is given to the assessee to
be heard.
No direction as to the lines on which an investigation connected
with the assessment should be made, shall be deemed to be a
direction prejudicial to the assessee.
Section 144A is indeed an effective tool for seeking intervention
of higher authorities on interpretation and resolution of vexed
issues arising during the course of assessment.

Assessment/Reassessment of Income/Recomputation of Loss or Allowance in Certain Cases

There may be cases where certain incomes have escaped assessment or income has been assessed at a low rate or excessive loss
or allowances like depreciation, etc. have been allowed.
In such cases, the Assessing Officer is empowered to assess/
reassess such income or recompute the loss or depreciation
allowance or any other allowance, as the case may be, for the
assessment year concerned, i.e., for the relevant assessment year.
The provisions regarding assessment/reassessment and recomputation are covered under sections 147 to 153.
Income Escaping Assessment (Section 147)
If the Assessing Officer has reason to believe that any income,
chargeable to tax, has escaped assessment for any assessment
year, he may subject to provisions of sections 148 to 153:
a. Assess or reassess such income which has escaped
assessment;
b. Recompute the loss or depreciation allowance or any other
allowance as the case may be, for the relevant assessment year.
During the course of proceedings under section 147, if any
other income chargeable to tax which has escaped assessment
and comes to the notice of the Assessment Officer, he can
assess or reassess that income also.
Normally in the above cases, the Assessing Officer will reassess
the income or recompute the loss, allowance etc. But if no
return of income has been submitted and the assessment has
not been done by the Assessing Officer for that assessment
year, the procedure followed by the Assessing Officer will be
called Assessment instead of Re-assessment or Recomputation.
In an assessment, reassessment or recomputation made under
this section, the tax shall be chargeable at the rate or rates at
which it would have been charged had the income not escaped
assessment. [Section 152(1))]
Deemed cases of escapement: Explanation 2 of Section 147
clarifies that the following are also to be deemed to be cases
where income chargeable to tax has escaped assessment namely:
a. where no return of income has been furnished by the
assessee although
i.
his total income; or
ii.
the total income of any other person in respect of
which he is assessable
under this Act during the previous year exceeded the
maximum amount which is not chargeable to income-tax;
216

b. where a return of income has been furnished by the assessee

but no assessment has been made and it is noticed by the
Assessing Officer that the assessee:
i. has understated the income; or
ii. has claimed excessive loss, deduction, allowance or relief in
the return;
c. where assessment has been made whether return of income
has or has not been furnished but:
i. income chargeable to tax has been under-assessed; or
ii. income chargeable to tax has been assessed at too Iowa rate;
or
iii. income chargeable to tax has been made the subject of
excessive relief under the Income-tax Act; or
iv. excessive loss or depreciation allowance or any other
allowance under the Income-tax Act has been computed.

Issue of Notice Where Income has Escaped

Assessment (Section 148)
Before making the assessment/reassessment or re-computation
under section 147, the Assessing Officer shall serve on the
assessee a notice requiring him to furnish a return of his income
or income of any person in respect of which he is assessable
during the previous year corresponding to the relevant assessment year [even though it has already been furnished earlier
under section 139 or 142(1)] within such period as may be
specified in the notice.
However, before issuing such notice, the Assessing Officer is
required to record his reasons for doing so.
If the return of income is not furnished within the time allowed in
the notice issued under section148, the assessee shall be liable to
pay interest under section 234A(3), for late filing of return or
for not filing the return of income, if the income has already
been determined under section 143(1) or if the assessment
already has been done under section 143(3) or 144 or 147. On
the other hand, if the assessee had not furnished the return of
income in respect of any assessment year and no assessment of
such assessment year was done under section 144, then interest
for late filing of return in response to a notice given under
section 148, shall be leviable under section 234A(1) instead of
section 234(3).
a. Separate notice under section 148 has to be given for each
assessment year for which income has escaped assessment:
b. For making assessment or reassessment under section 147 a
separate notice under section 148 is required to be issued by
the Assessing Officer for each assessment year for which the
income has escaped assessment.
Problem:
Assessing Officer has issued a notice to R under section 148 to
assess the income of assessment year 1998-99 which according
to him has escaped assessment. During the course of such
assessment proceedings he discovers that:
a. There is some other income relating to the same assessment
year which has also escaped assessment.
b. There is some income relating to assessment year 1997-98
which has also escaped assessment.

What action should be taken by Assessing Officer in this

regard?

2 Time Limit for Completion of All Assessments and

Reassessment (Section 153)

Solution:

Section 153 prescribes time limit for completion of various

assessments and reassessment which is as follows:

a. There is no need to give another notice under section 148

and he can assess/re-assess such income along with the
income for which proceedings are going on.
b. The Assessing Officer will have to issue a separate notice
under section 148 in this case.

Situation

Upto 4 years from the end

of relevant assessment year

1. Where an
assessment order has
been passed under
section 143(3) or 147

(i) Notice can be issued for

what ever be the amount of
income which has escaped
assessment.
ii) Notice can be issue only
by an Assessing Officer of
the rank of an Assistant
Commissioner or Deputy
Commissioner. It can be
issued by the Assessing
Officer below the rank of
Assistant Commissioner, if
the Joint Commissioner is
satisfied on the reasons
recorded by the Assessing
Officer, that it is a fit case
for issile of such notice. '

2. Where no
assessment order has
been passed under
section 143(3) or 147

(i) Any Assessing Officer

can issue notice under
section 148 himself.
(ii) Notice can be issued
whatever be the amount of
income which has escaped
assessment.

Beyond 4 years but upto 6

years from the end of the
relevant Assessment year
(i) Notice can be issued
only if the income which
has escaped assessment is
likely to be Rs. 1,00,000 or
more for that year.
(ii) Notice can be issued
only by an Assessing
Officer of the rank of an
Assistant Commissioner or
Deputy Commissioner.
Prior approval of Joint
Commission shall be
required if the notice is to
be issued by an Assessing
Officer below the rank of
Assistant
Commissioner/Deputy
Commissioner.
(iii) Notice can be issued
only if the Chief
Commissioner or
Commissioner is satisfied
on the reasons recorded by
the Assessing Officer
aforesaid that is a fit case
for issue of such notice.
(i) Any Assessing Officer
can issue notice under
section 148
(ii) Notice can be issued
only if the income which
has escaped assessment is
likely to be Rs. 1,00,000 or
more for that year
(iii) Notice can be issued by
Assessing Officer below
the rank of Joint
Commissioner only if the
Joint Commissioner is
satisfied that it is a fit case
for issue of such notice.

Time limit for completion

1.

Assessment u/s 143/144

2.

Assessment/Reassessment u/s 147

3.

Fresh assessment where

original assessment has
been set aside or
cancelled by Appellate
Authority u/s 250, 254,
or by CIT u/s 263 or
264

2 years from the end of relevant

assessment year in which the income was
first assessable
1 year from the end of the Financial Year
in which the notice u/s 148 was served on
the assessee.
1 year from the end of the Financial Year
in which such order of set aside or
canceling the order passed by the appellate
authority u/s 250 or 254 was received by
the CIT/or order u/s 263 or 264 was
passed y the CIT, as the case may be.
W.e.f. 1-6-2001, the Commissioner
(Appeals) cannot cancel/set aside the
assessment and refer back to the Assessing
Officer for fresh assessment. However, it
can be set aside by ITAT or Commissioner
under section 263 or 264.

The order of assessment or reassessment should be made

before the expiry of limitation period, although the order and
demand notice under section 156 can be served even after the
expiry of the period, but it should be prepared before the
expiry.
1. If the assessment is canceled or set aside and a direction is
given to make a fresh assessment, then the Assessing Officer
shall make the fresh assessment under the same section in
which original assessment was made (i.e. under section
143(3)/144/147.
2. Further, for making fresh assessment in the above case, no
notice under section 143(2)/144/148 is required to be issued.
In this case notice on a plain paper shall suffice.
No time limit of assessment/reassessment in certain cases
[Section 153(3)]: There is no time limit for making the
assessment/reassessment, etc. to give effect to any findings or
directions contained in order under sections 250, 254, 260, 262,
263 and 264 or order of a court under any other law. However
if the order is set aside or cancelled the period will be 1 year as
given above.

Assessment of Search Cases

Procedure for assessment of search cases where search is
initiated after 31-5-2003 [Sections 153A, 153B and 153C]
Notes:
1. No notice can be issued under section 148 after the expiry of
six years from the end of the relevant assessment year.
2. The notice under section 148 has to be Issued and not
served within the time period prescribed under section
149(1). If the notice is issued within the time limit but
served upon the assessee after the date it will still be a valid
notice.

a. Notice for Filing Return [Section 153A]

The new section 153A provides that where a search is initiated
under section 132 or books of account, or other documents or
any assets are requisitioned under section 132A after 31-5-2003,
the Assessing Officer shall issue notice to such person requiring
him to furnish, within such period as may be specified in the
notice, return of income in respect of six assessment years
immediately preceding the assessment year relevant to the
previous year in which the search was conducted under section
132 or requisition was made under section 132A.

217

Such return of income shall have to be furnished in the

prescribed form and verified in the prescribed manner and
setting forth such other particulars as may be prescribed.
Further, in the case of such return, all the provision of Act
shall, as for as may be, apply accordingly as if such return were a
return required to be furnished under section 139.

d. in a case where an application made before the Income-tax

Settlement Commission under section 245C is rejected by it
or is not allowed to be proceeded with by it, the period
commencing from the date on which such application is
made and ending with the date on which the order under
section 245D(1) is received by the Commissioner.

Assessment of six assessment years: The Assessing Officer

shall assess or reassess the total income of each of such six
assessment years.

If, after the exclusion of the aforesaid period, the period of

limitation available to the Assessing Officer for making an order
of assessment or reassessment, as the case may be, is less than
sixty days, such remaining period shall be extended to sixty days
and the period of limitation shall be deemed to be extended
accordingly.

Assessment or reassessment, if any, relating to any assessment

year falling within the period of six assessment years pending
on the date of initiation of the search under section 132 or
requisition under section 132A, as the case may be, shall abate.
Save as otherwise provided in section 153A, section 1538 and
section 153C, all other provisions of this Act shall apply to the
assessment or reassessment made under section 153A and as
such the assessee shall be liable to pay tax and interest as per the
provisions of section 140A at the time of filing the return
under section 153A. He shall also be liable to penalty under
section 271(1)(c) for concealment of income and interest under
section 234A, 2348, prosecution under section 276CC and all
othe~ provisions of the Act shall also apply in his case.
In the assessment or reassessment made in respect of an
assessment year under this section, the tax shall be chargeable at
the rate or rates as applicable to such assessment year.

b. Time Limit for Completion of Assessment

[Section 153B]
The Assessing Officer shall make an order of assessment or
reassessment in respect of each assessment year, falling within
six assessment years under section 153A within a period of two
years from the end of the financial year in which the last of the
authorizations for search under section 132 or for requisition
under section 132A was executed.
This section also provides that the time-limit for completion of
assessment in respect of the assessment year relevant to the
previous year in which the search is conducted under section 132
or requisition is made under section 132A shall be a period of
two years from the end of the financial year in which the last of
the authorisations for search under section 132 or for requisition under section 132A, as the case may be, was executed.
Period of limitation to exclude certain period: In computing the period of limitation for the purposes of this section the
following period shall however be excluded:
a. the time taken in reopening the whole or any part of the
proceeding or in giving an opportunity to the assessee to be
reheard under the proviso to section 129 relating to change
of incumbent of an office, or
b. the period during which the assessment proceeding is stayed
by an order or injunction of any court, or
c. the period commencing from the date on which the
Assessing Officer directs the assessee to get his accounts
audited under sub-section (2A) of section 142 and ending
with the last date on which the assessee is required to furnish
a report of such audit under that sub-section, or

c. Assessment of Income of Any Other Person

[Section 153C)
Where an Assessing Officer is satisfied that any money, bullion,
jewellery or other valuable article or thing or books of account
or documents seized or requisitioned belong or belongs to a
person other than the person referred to in section 153A, then
the books of account, or documents or assets seized or
requisitioned shall be handed over to the Assessing Officer
having jurisdiction over such other person and that Assessing
Officer shall proceed against such other person and issue such
other person notice and assess or reassess income of such other
person in accordance with the provisions of section 153A.
d. Appeal Against Assessment Order Passed Under
Section 153A [Section 246A]
An appeal against the order of assessment or reassessment
under section 153A shall lie with the Commissioner of
Income-tax (Appeals).
Procedure for Assessment of Search Cases not Applicable
to Survey Cases

The procedure as laid down under section 153A-153C is to be

followed in a case where any search has been conducted under
section 132 or where section 132A has been invoked to
requisition books of account, documents or assets. This
procedure will not apply to any case where no such action under
section 132 or 132A has been taken. Specifically in any case where
a survey has been done under powers exercised under section
133A, this procedure under section 153A-153C is not applicable.
Rectification of Mistakes (Section 154)

It may be possible that an Income-tax authority may commit a

mistake while passing the order of assessment, appeal, revision,
etc. With a view to rectifying any mistake, apparent from the
record, the income-tax authority is empowered as under:
a. The Assessing Officer is empowered to rectify any order of
assessment or of refund or any other order passed by him.
Further, the Assessing Officer is also empowered to amend
any intimation or deemed intimation under section 143(1).
b. The Commissioner is empowered to rectify any order passed
by him in revision under section 263 or 264.
c. The Commissioner (Appeals) may rectify any order passed by
him under section 250.
d. Other Income-tax Authorities mentioned under section 116
may also amend any order passed by it.
The Income-tax authorities may make the rectification:

218

a. on its own motion; or

b. on application made by the assessee bringing the mistake to
the notice of the authority concerned.
Where the authority concerned is Commissioner (Appeals),
besides the above, such mistake can be brought to his notice by
the Assessing Officer also.
The Appellate Tribunal can rectify its order under section 254(2)
but not under section 154 as it is not an income-tax authority.
Where any matter had been considered and decided in any
proceeding by way of appeal or revision, rectification of such
matter cannot be done under section 154. However, the matter
which has not been considered and decided in the appeal/
revision can be rectified under section 154. [Section 154(1A)].
Note:
1. The power of rectification can be invoked with reference to
the law prevailing at the time of the original order. [CIT v
India Cements Ltd. (2000) 241 ITR 62 (Mad)]
2. It may be noted that if the appeal has been filed but the
matter has not yet been considered and decided in appeal, the
rectification is still possible.
Problem:
The Assessing Officer made the following additions to the
returned income of R Ltd.,
1. Addition under section 43B as proof of payment was not
furnished
24,000
2. Certain expenditure claimed under section 37(1) was not
treated as spent for the purpose of business
56,000
The assessee filed an appeal only against the addition of Rs.
56,000. The appeal has since been decided. As regards the
addition of Rs. 24,000, the assessee filed an application for
rectification under section 154 and furnished the proof of
payment along with the application. The Assessing Officer
rejected the application on the ground that the appeal in this
matter has been decided and thus no rectification is possible.
Comment.
Solution:
According to section 154(1A), the Assessing Officer can amend
an order in relation to any matter other than the matter which
has been considered and decided in appeal. Hence any other
matter which has not been considered and decided in appeal can
be rectified by the Assessing Officer.
Opportunity of being heard is necessary if rectification
results into enhancement, etc. [Section /54(3)]:
If such rectification order has the effect of enhancing an
assessment, or reducing a refund, or otherwise increasing the
liability of the .assessee the authority concerned must give a
notice to the assessee of its intention to do so and an opportunity of being heard must be given to the assessee.
Order of rectification [Section 154(4)]: Where any rectification is made under this section, an order of rectification shall be
passed in writing by the income-tax authority concerned.
Refund to be given in case rectification results into
reduction of assessment [Section154(5)]: Subject to provisions of section 241 (relating to withholding of refund) where

any such amendment has the effect of reducing the assessment,

the Assessing Officer shall make any refund which may be due
to such assessee.
Notice of demand to be issued in case rectification results
in to enhancing the assessment, etc. [Section 154(6)]: Where
any such amendment has the effect of enhancing the assessment or reducing a refund already made, the Assessing Officer
shall serve on the assessee a notice of demand in the prescribed
form specifying the sum payable, and such notice of demand
shall be deemed to be issued under section 156 and the
provisions of the Income-tax Act shall apply accordingly.
Time limit for rectification [Section /54(7)]: Rectification
of an order can be made only within four years from the end of
the financial year in which the order sought to be amended was
passed. However, this time limitation shall not apply to cases
where amendment is made under section 155.
Order sought to be amended does not necessarily mean the
original order. It could be any order including the amended or
rectified order. [Hind Wire Industries Ltd. v CIT (1995) 212 ITR
639 (SC)].
Time limit for passing an order of rectification if application for amendment made by the assessee under section /54
[Section 154(8)]: Without prejudice to the provisions of
section 154(7), where an application for amendment under this
section is made by the assessee on or after 1-6-2001 to an
income-tax authority referred to in section 154(1), the authority
shall pass an order, within a period of six months from the end
of the month in which the application is received by it
a. making the amendment; or
b. refusing to allow the claim.
Now I have something more for students.

Practical Questions
1. For the assessment year 2002-03, the return of income has
not been submitted by the assessee. He wishes to submit
the same on 15-5-2004. Can he do so?
Ans: No.
2. For the previous year 2001-02, the assessee who has not
submitted the return of income, wants to submit the same
on
(a) 2-4-2003
(b) 29-3-2004;
(c) 2-4-2004
Can he file the return?
Ans: (a) Yes; (b) Yes; (c) No.
3. What will be the due date for furnishing the return of
income U/S 139(1) for a company for the previous year
2003-04:
i.
30-11-2003
ii.
31-10-2004
iii. 30-11-2004
iv.
31-12-2004
v.
30-11-2005
Ans: 31-10-2004

219

4. Original return for assessment year 2003-04 was submitted

by X on 15-6-2003. Summary assessment U/S 143(1) was
done on 5-7-2003. X wishes to file a revised return. Can he
do so? If yes, up to what time?
What will be your answer in the above case, if the regular
assessment is completed on 31-7-2004.
Ans:

i. Yes, till 31-3-2005.

ii. till 30-7-2004.

5. Return of income for previous year 2002-03 was submitted

by R on 16-7-2003. The Assessing Officer wants to take the
case for scrutiny assessment and issue the notice on (i) 27-72004; (ii) 30-8-2003. Is the notice valid?
Ans: (i) Yes; (ii) No.sss

Self Study Questions

1. Is it compulsory to file a return of income? If so what is the
time limit for submission of the return of income.
2. Can a return of income be filed after the due date? If so,
what is the time limit allowed under the. Income-tax Act.
3. Can a return submitted by the assessee be revised? If so,
what are the circumstances under which it can be revised?
What is the time limit for submission of such revised
return?
4. What is a defective return? What is the procedure to be
adopted by the Assessing Officer if the return is found to be
defective?
5. Defective return is no return. Discuss.
6. Under what circumstances can the Assessing Officer get the
accounts of the assessee audited? Can the Assessing Officer
order for audit of accounts even if these have already been
audited by a Chartered Accountant?
7. Write short notes on:
i.
Summary Assessment.
ii.
Scrutiny Assessment.
iii. Best Judgment Assessment.
8. Discuss in detail the provisions regarding income escaping
assessment.
9. What is the time limit for completion of assessment and reassessment?
10. Discuss the provisions relating to rectification of mistakes.

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LESSON 28:
INCOME TAX AUTHORITIES
Lesson Objective

To know Different Income Tax Authorities.

To know there powers.

To know about appointments.

To know about Central Board of Direct Taxes

We are always now and then in the subject talking about

Income Tax Department. But now we will study about
different income tax authorities ,their powers etc.
Lets start with :

Authorities Constituted (Section 116)

The Income-tax Act has constituted the following classes of
Income-tax authorities to ensure effective administration and
discharge of executive and administrative functions:
a. The Central Board of Direct Taxes constituted under the
Central Board of Revenue Act, 1963,
b. Directors-General of Income-tax or Chief Commissioners
of Income-tax,
c. Directors of Income-tax or Commissioners of Income-tax
or Commissioners of Income-tax (Appeals),
d. Additional Directors of Income-tax or Additional
Commissioners of Income-tax or Additional
Commissioners of Income-tax (Appeals),
e. Joint Directors of Income-tax and Joint Commissioners of
Income-tax,
f. Deputy Directors of Income-tax or Deputy Commissioners
of Income-tax,
g. Assistant Directors of Income-tax or Assistant
Commissioners of Income-tax,
h. Income-tax Officers,
i. Tax Recovery Officers,
j. Inspectors of Income-tax.
According to section 2(28C) Joint Commissioner means a
person appointed to be a Joint Commissioner of Income-tax
or an Additional Commissioner of Income-tax under section
117(1).
According to section 2(28D) Joint Director means a person
appointed to be a Joint Director of Income-tax or an Additional Director of Income-tax under section 117(1).
According to section 2(9A) Assistant Commissioner means a
person appointed to be an Assistant Commissioner of
Income-tax or a Deputy Commissioner of Income-tax under
section 117(1).

Appointment of Income-tax Authorities

(Section 117)
The Central Government may appoint such persons as it thinks
fit to be Income-tax authorities. However, the Central Govern-

ment may authorize the Board, or any Director General, Chief

Commissioner, Director or Commissioner to appoint Incometax authorities below the rank of an Assistant Commissioner/
Deputy Commissioner. An Income-tax authority authorised by
the Board may appoint such executive or ministerial staff as
may be necessary to assist it in the execution of its functions.
All these appointments can be made subject to the rules and
orders of the Central Government regulating the conditions of
service of persons in public services and posts.

Central Board of Direct Taxes

The CBDT was constituted under the Central Boards of
Revenue Act 1963. The Board works under the Ministry of
Finance. The CBDT has the power of administration, supervision and control in the area of direct taxes levied by the Central
Government. Some of the important powers and functions
assigned to the Board under the Income-tax Act are as under:
1. To declare any institution, association or body to be a
company [Section 2(17)].
2. To declare a company having no share capital to be a
company in which the public is substantially interested
[Section 2(18)].
3. To direct that income from property held under trust will
not be included in the Total Income of the person in receipt
of such income [Section 11(1)(c)].
4. To notify any profession under which it will be compulsory
to maintain accounts and to make rules regarding
maintenance of accounts [Section 44AA].
5. To prescribe the field in which the person may have
specialised knowledge and experience to be called a
technician [Section 80RRA].
6. To make rules and specify the permanent physical disability
for purpose of deduction u/s 80U.
7. To exercise control over Income-tax authorities by issuing
notification that any income-tax authority or authorities
specified in the notification shall be subordinate to such
other income-tax authority or authorities as may be specified
in the said notification [Section 118].
8. To issue orders, instructions and directions to subordinate
authorities as it may deem fit for the proper administration
of this Act [Section 119].
However, in the following two cases, the Board cannot issue
orders, instructions or directions to subordinate authorities:
a.
The Board cannot require any income-tax authority to
make a particular assessment or to dispose of a
particular case in a particular manner; or
b.
The Board cannot interfere with the discretion of the
Commissioner (Appeals) in the exercise of appellate

221

functions. However the Board can issue administrative

instructions.
9. To give directions to Income-tax authorities regarding the
exercise of their powers and functions [Section 120].
10. To specify the income-tax authorities who are empowered to
issue summons for search and seizure [Section 132].
11. To require any authority, body or officer, under any law to
disclose information regarding any assessee [Section 138].
12. To transfer or to authorise the CIT to transfer any appeal
which is pending before the First Appellate Authority under
certain circumstances [Section 246].
13. To prescribe educational qualifications for a person to qualify
to be an authorised representative [Section 288].
14. To condone delay in obtaining approval of the Board,
wherever such approval is required [Section 293B].
15. To make rules, subject to the control of the Central
Government for the whole or any part of India, for carrying
out the purposes of the Act [Section 295].
Besides the above powers the Board has the following special
powers given by section 119(2)(a), (b) and (c).

1. Power to Issue Orders in Certain Cases by Way of

Relaxation or Otherwise [Section II9(2)(a)]
The Board may, if it considers it necessary or expedient so to do
for the purpose of proper and efficient management of the
work of assessment and collection of revenue, issue, from time
to time, general or special order in respect of any class of
income or class of cases subject to the following:
a. The above order may be by way of relaxation of any of the
provisions of sections 139, 143, 144, 147, 148, 154, 155,
201(1A), 210, 211, 234A, 234B, 234C, 271 and 273 or
otherwise;/
b. The above order may set forth directions or instruction as to
the guidelines, principles or proceedings to be followed by
other income-tax authorities in the work relating to (i)
assessment or (ii) collection of revenue or (iii) the initiation
of proceedings for the imposition of penalties. However,
the above direction and instructions shall not be prejudicial
to the assessee;
c. The Board may, if it is of opinion that it is necessary in the
public interest, get such order published and circulated in the
prescribed manner for general information.
2. Power to Extend Time Limit to Admit an
Application or Claim [Section 119(2)(b)]
The Board may, if it considers it desirable or expedient so to do
for avoiding genuine hardship in any case or class of cases, by
general or special order, authorise any income tax authority, not
being a Commissioner (Appeals) to admit an application or
claim for any exemption, deduction, refund or any other relief
under this Act after the expiry of the period specified by or
under this Act for making such application or claim and deal
with the same on merits in accordance with law.

222

3. Power to Relax any Requirement of Chapter IV or

Chapter VIA [Section 119(2)(c)]
The Board may, if it considers it desirable or expedient so to do
for avoiding genuine hardship in any case or class of cases, by
general or special order for reasons to be specified therein, relax
any requirement contained in any of the provisions of Chapter
IV (relating to computation of income) or Chapter VIA
(relating to deductions u/s 80CCC to 80U), where the assessee
has failed to comply with any requirement specified in such
provision for claiming deduction thereunder, subject to the
following conditions, namely:
1. the default in complying with such requirement was due to
circumstances beyond the control of the assessee; and
2. the assessee has complied with such requirement before the
completion of assessment in relation to the previous year in
which such deduction is claimed:
The Central Government shall cause every order issued under
this clause to be laid before each House of Parliament.

Jurisdiction
Jurisdiction of Income-tax Authorities (Section 120)
1. Income-tax authorities shall exercise all or any of the powers
and perform all or any of the functions conferred on or,
assigned to such authorities by or under this Act in
accordance with such directions as the Board may issue.
2. The Board may authorise any other income-tax authority to
issue orders in writing for the exercise of the powers and
performance of the functions by all or any of the other
income-tax authorities who are subordinate to it.
3. In issuing the directions or orders, the Board or other
income-tax authority authorised by it may have regard to
anyone or more of the following criteria, namely:
a.
territorial area;
b.
persons or classes of persons;
c.
incomes or classes of incomes; and
d.
cases or classes of cases.
4. The Board may, by general or special order, and subject to
such conditions, restrictions or limitations as may be
specified therein:
a.
authorise any Director General or Director to perform
such functions of any other income-tax authority as
may be assigned to him by the Board;
b.
empower the Director General or Chief Commissioner
or Commissioner to issue orders in writing that the
powers and functions conferred on, or assigned to, the
Assessing Officer by or under this Act in respect of any
specified area or persons or classes of persons or
incomes or classes of income or cases or classes of
cases, shall be exercised or performed by a Joint
Commissioner.
5. The Board may require two or more Assessing Officers
(whether or not of the same class) to exercise and perform,
concurrently, the powers and functions in respect of any area
or classes of cases.

Change of incumbent of an office [Section 129]

Whenever in respect of any proceeding under this Act an
income-tax authority ceases to exercise jurisdiction and is
succeeded by another who has and exercises jurisdiction, the
income-tax authority so succeeding may continue the proceeding from the stage at which the proceeding was left by his
predecessor:
Provided that the assessee concerned may demand that before
the proceeding is so continued the previous proceeding or any
part thereof be reopened or that before any order of assessment is passed against him, he be reheard.

Powers of Various Income-tax Authorities

Powers of Director-General/Director of Income-tax
The Director-General/Director of Income-tax enjoys the
following powers under the different provisions of the
Income-tax Act:
1. To appoint an Income-tax authority below the rank of
Assistant Commissioner/Deputy Commissioner, if
authorised by the Board [Section 117].
2. To direct the Joint Commissioner to function and assume
the powers of Assessing Officer, if so authorised by the
Board [Section 120].
3. To transfer cases from one or more Assessing Officers
subordinate to him to any other Assessing Officer who is
also subordinate to him [Section 127].
4. To make enquiry, if he has reasons to suspect that any
income has been concealed or is likely to be concealed by any
person or class of persons within his jurisdiction [Section
131(1A)].
5. To authorise any Joint Director/Joint Commissioner,
Deputy Director/Deputy Commissioner/Assistant
Director/Assistant Commissioner or Assessing Officer to
enter and search any building, place, vessel, vehicle or aircraft
where he has reasons to suspect the availability of books of
accounts, documents, and undisclosed money, bullion,
jewellery or other valuables and seize the same [Section
132(1)].
6. To requisition books of accounts etc. [Section 132A].
7. Power of survey [Section 133A].
8. Power to collect information, which is useful/relevant for the
purpose of this Act, by entering any building or place within
its jurisdiction or the building/place of any person within
his jurisdiction.
9. To make enquiry under the Income-tax Act. For this purpose
he has all the powers which are vested in the Assessing
Officer [Section 135].
Powers of Commissioner/Chief Commissioner
All the powers of the Director of Income-tax are being enjoyed
by the Commissioner/Chief Commissioner of Income-tax
also. These are:
1. To appoint an Income-tax authority below the rank of
Assistant Commissioner/ Deputy Commissioner, if
authorised by the Board [Section 117).

2. To direct the Joint Commissioner to function and assume

the powers of Assessing Officer, if so authorised by the
Board [Section 120].
3. To transfer cases from one or more Assessing Officers
subordinate to him to any other Assessing Officer who is
also subordinate to him [Section 127].
4. To make enquiry, if he has reasons to suspect that any
income has been
concealed or is
likely to be concealed by any person or class of persons
within his jurisdiction [Section 131(1A)].
5. To authorise any Joint Director/Joint Commissioner/
Deputy Director/Deputy Commissioner/Assistant
Director/Assistant Commissioner or Assessing Officer to
enter and search any building, place, vessel, vehicle or aircraft
where he has reasons to suspect the availability of books of
accounts, documents, and undisclosed money, bullion,
jewellery or other valuables and seize the same [Section
132(1)].
6. To requisition books of accounts etc. [Section 132A].
7. Power of survey [Section 133A].
8. Power to collect information, which is useful/relevant for the
purpose of this Act, by entering any building or place within
its jurisdiction or the building/place of any person within
his jurisdiction.
9. To make enquiry under the Income-tax Act. For this purpose
he has all the powers, which are vested in the Assessing
Officer [Section 135].
Besides the above powers, the Chief Commissioner/Commissioner enjoys the following additional powers:
1. Power regarding discovery, production of evidence, etc.
[Section 131].
2. To sanction re-opening of assessments after the expiry of
four years [Section 151(1)].
3. To approve withholding of refund in certain cases [Section
241].
4. To set off the refund against arrears of tax [Section 241].
5. To direct the Assessing Officer to prefer appeal to the
Tribunal against the order of First Appellate Authority
[Section 253(2)].
6. Request the Tribunal to file Reference to High Court [Section
256].
7. To revise any order passed by the Assessing Officer, which is
prejudicial to revenue [Section 263].
8. To revise any order passed by a subordinate authority on an
application by the assessee or suo motu when the revision is
in favour of the assessee [Section 264].

Powers of Commissioner (Appeals)

As already discussed under the Chapter on Appeals, the first
Appellate Authority is Commissioner (Appeals). He is vested
with the following powers:
1. Power regarding discovery, production of evidence etc.
[Section 131].

223

2. Power to call for information [Section 133]: The

Commissioner (Appeals) may require various persons to
submit certain information.
3. Power to inspect register of companies [Section 134].
4. Power to set off any refund against arrears of tax.
5. To dispose of an appeal [Section 251]. In disposing of any
appeal he may confirm, reduce, enhance or annul the
assessment.
6. Power to impose a penalty [Section 271]. He is also
authorised to impose a penalty for concealment of
information or for not producing the books of accounts or
other documents.

Powers of Joint Commissioner of Income-tax

The Joint Commissioner of Income-tax enjoys the following
powers under the Income-tax Act:
1. Power regarding discovery, production of evidence, etc.
[Section 131].
2. To make an enquiry, if he has reasons to suspect that any
income has been concealed or is likely to be concealed by any
person or class of persons under his jurisdiction [Section
131A].
3. Power of search and seizure, if authorised [Section 132].
4. Power to call for information [Section 133].
5. Power of survey [Section 133A].
6. Power to collect certain information [Section 133B].
7. Power to inspect register of companies [Section 134].
8. Power to make an enquiry [Section 135].
9. To sanction reopening of assessment after the expiry of 4
years, if the assessment is made under any section other than
sections 143(3) and 147.
Jurisdiction Powers of the Assessing Officer
Assessing Officer means the Assistant Commissioner/the
Deputy Commissioner or the Income-tax Officer who is vested
with the relevant jurisdiction by virtue of directions or orders
issued under sub-section (1) or (2) of Section 120 or any other
provision of this Act, and it also includes Joint Commissioner/Joint Director who is directed under clause (b) of
sub-section (4) of that section to exercise or perform all or any
of the powers and functions conferred on, or assigned to, an
Assessing Officer under this Act.
Jurisdiction of Assessing Officers (Section /24): Where the
Assessing Officer has been vested with jurisdiction over any
area, within the limits of such areas he will have jurisdiction,
1. in respect of any person carrying on a business or profession,
if the place at which he carries on his business or profession
is situated within the area, or where his business or
profession is carried on at more places than one, if the
principal place of his business or profession is situated
within the area, and
2. in respect of any other persons residing within the area.
Powers of Assessing Officer: The Assessing Officer is a very
important functionary under the Income-tax Act. He has a very
important role to play in the administration of the Income-tax

224

laws. He is the first authority with whom the assessee has to

come into contact with. He issues the notice to the assessee to
file a return of income if he has not done so within the
prescribed time. He initiates the assessment proceeding against
the assessee and issues a notice of demand, if any tax is payable
by the assessee. The assessment order passed by him is final
unless an appeal is preferred against it by the assessee or the
Commissioner of Income-tax decides to revise the order on the
ground that it is erroneous in so far as it is prejudicial to the
revenue. He has been vested with various powers under
different provisions of the Act. The important powers are
mentioned below:
1. To determine the proportion of expenses for allowing
deduction in respect of premises used partly for the purpose
of business or profession (Section 38].
2. To grant relief u/s 89(1) where arrears of salary have been
received by an assessee [Section 89].
3. Power regarding discovery, production of evidence, etc.
[Section 131].
4. Power of search and seizure, if authorised [Section 132].
5. Power to requisition books of accounts [Section 132A].
6. To apply the assets seized and retained u/s 132 in
satisfaction of the existing liabilities of the assessee under
Direct Taxes Act [Section 132B].
7. Powers to call for information [Section 133].
8. Power to collect certain information [Section 133B].
9. Powers to inspect register of companies [Section 134].
10. Power to allot permanent account number [Section 139A].
11. Power to impose penalty for non-payment of selfassessment tax [Section 140A].
12. Power to direct an assessee to get his accounts audited
[Section 142].
13. Power to make assessment [Sections 143, 144].
14. Power to reassess income which has escaped assessment
[Section 147].
15. Power to rectify mistakes apparent from the records, either
on his own or on an application made by the assessee
[Section 154].
16. Power to grant a certificate to an assessee to receive a
payment without deduction of tax at source or deduction of
tax at source at a lower rate than prescribed [Sections 194,
195, 197].
17. Power to impose penalty for default in payment of a tax
[Section 221].
18. Power to grant refund [Sections 237, 240].
19. Power to withhold refund in certain cases [Section 241].
20. Power to adjust the refund against any demand of tax etc.
outstanding against the assessee [Section 245].

Inspectors of Income-tax
The Income-tax inspectors are appointed by the Commissioner
of Income-tax and are required to perform such duties/
functions as may be assigned to them from time to time either

by the CIT or by the authority under whom they had been

appointed to work.

Certain Important Powers of Income Tax Authorities

Discussed in Detail
1. Power Regarding Discovery, Production of Evidence, etc.
(Section 131)
a. Same power as of Court: Section 131(1): The Assessing
Officer, Joint Commissioner, Commissioner (Appeals),
Commissioner and Chief Commissioner shall have the same
powers as are vested in a Court under the Code of Civil
Procedure, 1908, (when trying a suit) in respect of the following
matters:
i. Discovery and inspection;
ii. Enforcing the attendance of any person including any officer
of a Banking Company and examining him on oath;
iii. Compelling the production of books of accounts and other
documents; and
iv. Issuing commissions.
b. Power can be exercised whether any proceedings are
pending or not [Section 131(1A)]: If the Director General or
Director or Joint Director or Deputy Director or Assistant
Director or the Authorised Officer referred to in section 132(1),
before he takes action regarding search and seizure, has reason
to suspect that any income has been concealed or is likely to be
concealed by any person within his jurisdiction, then for the
purpose of making an enquiry or investigation relating thereto,
he will be competent to exercise the powers mentioned in
section 131(1) above, whether any proceedings in respect of
such person or class of persons are pending before him or any
income-tax authority or not.
c. Power to impound and retain books of accounts and
documents [Section 131(3)]: The officers mentioned in
sections 131(1) and (1A) above, may impound and retain in its
custody for such period as it thinks fit any books of accounts or
other documents produced before it in any proceedings under
this Act.
However, an Assessing Officer or an Assistant Director/Deputy
Director shall not impound any books of accounts or documents without recording his reasons for doing so. Further, he
cannot retain in his custody such books of accounts and
documents for a period exceeding 15 days (exclusive of
holidays) without obtaining the approval of the Chief Commissioner or Director General or Commissioner/Director.
2. Search and seizure (Section 132).
3. Power to requisition books of accounts, etc. (Section 132A).
4. Power to call for information (Section 133): The Assessing Officer, the Joint Commissioner or the Commissioner
(Appeals) may, for the purpose of this Act,
1. require any firm to furnish him with a return of the names
and addresses of the partners of the firm and their respective
shares;
2. require any Hindu undivided family to furnish him with a
return of the names and addresses of the manager and the
members of the family;

3. require any person whom he has reason to believe to be a

trustee, guardian or agent, to furnish him with a return of
the names of the persons for or of whom he is trustee,
guardian or agent, and of their addresses;
4. require any assessee to furnish a statement of the names and
addresses of all persons to whom he has paid in any
previous year rent, interest, commission, royalty or
brokerage, or any annuity, not being any annuity taxable
under the head Salaries amounting to more than one
thousand rupees, or such higher amount as may be
prescribed, together with particulars of all such payments
made;
5. require any dealer, broker or agent or any person concerned in
the management of a stock or commodity exchange to
furnish a statement of the names and addresses of all
persons to whom he or the exchange has paid any sum in
connection with the transfer, whether by way of sale,
exchange or otherwise, of assets, or on whose behalf or
from whom he or the exchange has received any such sum,
together with particulars of all such payments and receipts;
6. require any person, including a banking company or any
officer thereof, to furnish information in relation to such
points or matters, or to furnish statements of accounts and
affairs verified in the manner specified by the Assessing
Officer, the Joint Commissioner or the Commissioner
(Appeals) giving information in relation to such points or
matters as, in the opinion of the Assessing Officer, the Joint
Commissioner or the Commissioner (Appeals) will be
useful for, or relevant to, any inquiry or proceeding under
this Act:
However, that the powers referred to in clause (6), may also be
exercised by the Director-General, the Chief Commissioner, the
Director and the Commissioner:
However, further that the power in respect of an inquiry, in a
case where no proceeding is pending, shall not be exercised by
any income-tax authority below the rank of Director or
Commissioner without the prior approval of the Director or, as
the case may be, the Commissioner.
5. Power of Survey (Section 133A): An Income-tax authority
may enter:
i. any place within the limits of the area assigned to him; or
ii. any place occupied by any person in respect of whom he
exercises jurisdiction; or
iii. any place in respect of which he is authorised for the
purposes of this section by such income-tax authority, who
is assigned the area within which such place is situated or
who exercises jurisdiction in respect of any person occupying
such place,
at which a business or profession is carried on, whether such
place be the principal place or not of such business or profession, and require any proprietor, employee or any other person
who may at that time and place be attending in any manner to,
or helping in, the carrying on of such business or profession:

225

a. to afford him the necessary facility to inspect such books of

account or other documents as he may require and which
may be available at such place,
b. to afford him the necessary facility to check or verify the cash,
stock or other valuable article or thing which may be found
therein, and
c. to furnish such information as he may require as to any
matter which may be useful for, or relevant to, any
proceeding under this Act.
A place where a business or profession is carried on shall also
include any other place, whether any business or profession is
carried on therein or not, in which the person carrying on the
business or profession states that any of his books of account
or other documents or any part of his cash or stock or other
valuable article or thing relating to his business or profession are
or is kept.
The income-tax authority may conduct the survey only during
the hours at which the place of business or profession is open
for the conduct of such business or profession and in case of
other places only after sunrise and before sunset.
Powers of Income-tax authority: The income-tax authority
conducting the survey may:
i. place marks of identification on the books of accounts or
other documents inspected by him and may take extracts or
copies therefrom;
ii. impound and retain in his custody books of account or
other documents inspected by him after recording his
reasons for so doing. However, such books of account or
other documents shall not be retained for more than ten
days (exclusive of holidays) without obtaining the approval
of the Chief Commissioner of Income-tax or DirectorGeneral;
iii. make an inventory of any cash, stock or other valuable article
or thing checked or verified by him;
iv. record the statement of any person which may be useful for,
or relevant to, any proceedings under the Income-tax Act;
v. the income-tax authorities would also have the power to
collect information and record the statements of any of the
persons concerned at any time after any function, ceremony
or event even before the stage of commencement of
assessment proceedings for the following year for which the
information may be relevant, if they are of the opinion that
having due regard to the nature, scale and extent of the
expenditure incurred, it is necessary to do so.

Restriction on the Income-tax Authority

An income-tax authority conducting a survey shall on no
account, remove or cause to be removed from the place wherein
he has entered, any cash, stock or other valuable article or thing.
Up to 31-5-2002, even the books of account and documents
were not allowed to be removed from the place surveyed.
The place where entry can be made under this section must not
be a place where the assessee does not carry on business.
Business on residential premises of third parties including a
chartered accountant, a pleader or income-tax practitioner of
whom the assessee may be a client are not places which could be

226

entered into for the purpose of section 133A. [Circular No. 7D,
dated 3rd May 1967].
6. Power to collect certain information (Section 133B): An
income-tax authority may, for the purpose of collecting any
information which may be useful for, or relevant to the
purposes of Income-tax Act, enter:
a. any building or place within the limits of the area assigned to
such authority; or
b. any building or place occupied by any person in respect of
whom he exercises jurisdiction,
at which a business or profession is carried on, whether such
place be the principal place or not of such business or profession, and require any proprietor, employee or any other person
who may at that time and place be attending in any manner to,
or helping in, the carrying on of such business or profession to
furnish such information as may be prescribed.
The income-tax authority may enter any place of business or
profession only during the hours at which such place is open
for the conduct of business or profession.
The income-tax authority shall, on no account remove or cause
to be removed from the building or place wherein he has
entered, any books of account or other documents or any cash,
stock or other valuable article or thing.
7. Power to inspect registers of companies (Section 134):
The Assessing Officer, the Joint Commissioner or the Commissioner (Appeals), or any person subordinate to him
authorised in writing in this behalf by the Assessing Officer, the
Joint Commissioner or the Commissioner (Appeals), may
inspect, and if necessary take copies, or cause copies to be taken,
of any register of the members, debenture holders or mortgages of any company or of any entry in such register.
8. Other provisions (Sections 135 and 136): The Director of
Inspection, the Commissioner and the Inspecting Assistant
Commissioner are competent to make any enquiry under
section 135 and for all purposes they shall have the powers
vested in an Assessing Officer in relation to the making of
enquiries.
All the proceedings before Income-tax authorities are judicial
proceedings for purposes of section 196 of the Indian Penal
Code and fall within the meaning of sections 193 and 228 of
the Code. An income-tax authority shall be deemed to be a Civil
Court for the purposes of section 195 of the Criminal Procedure Code. (Section 136)
Let us solve the following questions.

Self Study Questions

1. What are the various authorities constituted under the
Income-tax Act? Discuss the main functions of these
authorities.
2. Discuss the scope of powers of the Commissioner of
Income-tax.
3. Who is an Assessing Officer? Discuss in detail the powers of
an Assessing Officer.

LESSON 29:
APPEALS AND REVISION
Lesson Objectives

To know nature of appeals

To know when appeal can be made.

To know authorities with whom appeal can be filled.

To know time limit for filling appeals.

Appeals ! what is this - are we studying law -. Yes my friends we

are studying a legal subject. Its an Act. It has legal bifurcations
and effects. We need to be very careful while we deal with it.
Many a times either we or the department (i.e. the Income Tax
department )is not satisfied by each others actions and we,
both, look for an other third person , who can give us better
rulings and which will be binding on both of us.
Keeping this in mind the Act has given powers to both the
assessee and he department to go in for Appeals to the Higher
Authority.
The Constitution of India guarantees the citizens of the
country certain fundamental rights. Therefore, under any system
of rule of Law, the right to appeal for redressal of ones
grievances is generally in built. However, there is no inherent
right to appeal. The right to appeal must be given in the law
under the express enactment.
A person can appeal against an order of the authority only if
the right to appeal has been statutorily provided in the statute.
This is because an appeal is a statutory right and, if the concerned law does not specifically provide for an appeal, no one
can prefer an appeal. [CIT v Ashoka Engineering Co. (1992) 194
ITR 645 (SC)].
Just as an appeal being a creature of the statute would not lie
unless it is provided by the statute, the right so conferred
cannot be taken away merely because some other remedy is also
available to the assessee. [Shantibai (Smt.) v CIT(1984) 148 ITR
49 (MP)].
Under the Income-tax Act, following two alternatives are
available to the assessee, if he is not satisfied with the order
passed by the Assessing Officer;
i. Appeal: W.e.f. 1-10-1998, first appeal against the order of
the Assessing Officer shall, in all cases, lie with the
Commissioner (Appeals).
or
ii. Revision: Alternatively, if the appeal is not preferred, or if it
could not be filed within the time limit allowed, the assessee
can apply under section 264 to the CIT for revision of the
order of the Assessing Officer. This is known as revision in
favour of the assessee. The CIT can also take up suo motu
the case for revision u/s 264.
In some cases, the CIT can also take up the case for revision u/s
263. This is known as revision of the order of the Assessing
Officer, which is erroneous and prejudicial to the interest of

revenue.The first appeal can only be made by the assessee. The

Assessing Officer cannot appeal to any higher authority against
his own order.

Remedy Available Against the Order of the

Commissioner (Appeals)/Revision Orders
The assessee can file an appeal against the orders of the
Commissioner (Appeals) or the revision orders of the CIT in
the following cases:
a. Second Appeal: If the assessee is not satisfied with the
order passed by the Commissioner (Appeals), he can appeal
against that order to the Appellate Tribunal. Similarly, the
CIT may also direct the Assessing Officer to file an appeal
against that order with the Appellate Tribunal if the Revenue
is not satisfied with the order of the Commissioner
(Appeals).
b. Appeal against revision: If the revision of the order of
Assessing Officer is done u/s 264, by CIT which is revision
in favour of the assessee, no appeal can be filed against this
order under the Income-tax Act. However, writ under article
226/227 is possible. On the other hand, if the revision order
is passed u/s 263, by CIT which is known as revision of
orders prejudicial to the interest of revenue, the assessee can
file an appeal with the Appellate Tribunal.
Appeal against the revision order under section 263 can only be
preferred by the assessee. The Commissioner of Income-tax
cannot file an appeal against his own order.
Remedy Against Orders of Appellate Tribunal
If the assessee or the CIT is not satisfied with the order of the
Appellate Tribunal, the appeal lies to the High Court, if the
High Court is satisfied that the case involves a substantial
question of law.
Appeal Against Order of High Court to Supreme
Court
If the assessee or the CIT is not satisfied with the order passed
by the High Court, they may file an appeal against the order of
the High Court to the Supreme Court, provided it is treated as a
fit case by the High Court. The Supreme Court is the final
appellate authority.
First Appeal
As already discussed, the first appeal against the order of
Assessing Officer shall lie to the Commissioner (Appeals).
a. Appealable Orders Before Commissioner (Appeals)
[Section 246A]

Any assessee aggrieved by any of the following orders, may

appeal to the Commissioner (Appeals) against a. an order against the assessee, where the assessee denies his
liability to be assessed under this Act; or

227

b. any order of assessment under section 143(3) or 144, where

the assessee objects:

by the Chief Commissioner or the Director General of

Income-tax;

i.

to the income assessed, or

ii. Revision order under section 264;

ii.

to the amount of tax determined, or

iii. Order of Authority for Advance Rulings;

iii.

to the amount of loss computed, or

iv.

to the status under which he is assessed;

iv. Order of Appropriate Authority in case of acquisition of

immovable property;

c. an order of assessment, reassessment or re-computation

under section 147 or section 150;
d. an order of assessment or reassessment under section 153A
(w.e.: 1-6-2003);

v. Order of Settlement Commission

The above procedure of redressal of grievances may be
summarized in the following chart:

e. an order of rectification made under section 154 or order

under section 155 having the effect of:
i.

enhancing the assessment, or

ii.

reducing a refund, or

iii.

order refusing to allow the claim made by the assessee

under either of these sections;

f. an order u/s 163 treating the assessee as the agent of a nonresident;

g. an order under section 170(2) or (3) relating to assessment
on successor when the predecessor cannot be found or
recovery of tax of the predecessor from the successor in case
of succession to business otherwise than on death;
h. an order u/s 171 refusing to recognize partition of a HUF;

A.O's. Order
Revision by CIT

First appeal (Sec. 246A)

1. By assessee
2. F. No. 35
3. Within 30 days

by CIT himself if
Order is erroneous and
prejudicial to the interest
of revenue (Sec. 263)

Commissioner (Appeals)
Second appeal (Sec. 253)
1. By assessee/department
2. Form No. 36;
3. Within 60 days
4. Cross objections in 30 days in Form
No. 36A
ITAT
Direct appeal (Sec. 260A)
within 120 days

i. an order u/s 201 treating the assessee deemed to be assessee

in default for failure to deduct the whole or any part of the
tax or pay tax after deduction;

High Court
Appeal
(Sec. 261)

j. an order u/s 237 relating to refunds;

Supreme Court

Appeal
against
revision
order

on application of
assessee or suo motu
by CIT, provided
revision is in favour
of assessee (Sec. 264)
(No Appeal can be filed
against such order
under Income-tax Act.
However, writ under
Articles 226/227 is possible)

k. an order imposing penalty under sections 221,271, 271A,

271B, 271F, 272AA and 272BB;
l. an order made by Joint Commissioner imposing a penalty
under sections 271C, 271D, 271E and 272AA;
m .an order of Joint Commissioner/Joint Director imposing a
penalty under section 272 A;
n. an order imposing a penalty under Chapter XXI i.e. under
sections 270 to 275;
o. an order of assessment made by an Assessing Officer under
clause (c) of section 158BC i.e. Block Assessment, in respect
of search initiated under section 132 or books of account,
other documents or any asset requisitioned under section
132A, on or after 1.1.1997;
p. an order imposing a penalty under section 158BFA(2) for
concealment of income in case of Block Assessment;
q. an order made by an Assessing Officer other than a Joint
Commissioner under the provisions of this Act in the case
of such person or class of persons, as the Board may, having
regard to the nature of the cases, the complexities involved
and other relevant considerations direct.
It may be noted that no appeal lies under the Income-tax Act
against the following order:
i. Order levying interest under sections 234A, 2348 and 234C.
However in some special cases there can be waiver of interest

228

b. Appeal by Person Denying Liability to Deduct Tax

(Section 248)

Any person having in accordance with the provisions of

sections 195 and 200 deducted and paid tax in respect of any sum
chargeable under this Act, other than interest, who denies his
liability to make such deduction, may appeal to the Commissioner (Appeals) to be declared not liable to make such
deduction.
Illustration 1:
The assessee made an application under section 195(2) stating
that the payment to be made by him to the non-resident is not
chargeable to tax in the hands of such recipient and as such he is
not liable to deduct the tax at source. The Assessing Officer
passed an order under the said section on 5-4-2002 directing the
assessee to deduct T.D.S. @ 21 % on the payment being made
to the non-resident. Discuss what steps the assessee should
take in this case.
Solution:
As per section 248, the assessee, shall have to first deposit the
T.D.S. on such payments. However the assessee in this case,
after depositing the tax, may file an appeal to the Commissioner
(Appeals) within 30 days of the date of payment of such tax
denying his liability to deduct tax.

c. Procedure for Filing Appeal (Section 249 and Rules 45

and 46)

Form of appeal: The appeal is to be filed in Form No. 35,

verified in the prescribed manner
Signing of appeal: Form No. 35, grounds of appeal and the
form of verification appended thereto shall be signed and
verified by the person who is authorised to sign the Return of
Income under section 140.
Time limit for filing appeal [Section 249(2)]: The appeal
should be filed within a period of 30 days of 1. the date of service of notice of demand relating to
assessment or penalty if the appeal relates to assessment or
penalty; or
2. the date of payment of tax, if it relates to any tax deducted
under section 195(1) in respect of payment to non-resident
in certain cases; or
3. the date on which intimation of the order sought to be
appealed against is served if it relates to any other cases.
Exclusion of time for calculating time lima for filing
appeal [Section 268]: For this purpose, the date on which the
order complained of is served is to be excluded. Further, if the
assessee was not furnished with a copy of the order when the
notice of the order (say notice of demand) was served upon
him then the time required for obtaining a copy of the order
should be excluded, i.e. period taken for obtaining the order
shall be added to the time limit of 30 days.
Condonation of delay in filing appeal [Section 249(3)]: The
Commissioner (Appeals) may admit an appeal after the
expiration of the prescribed period, if he is satisfied that the
appellant had sufficient cause for not presenting it within that
period. If the Commissioner (Appeals) refuses to admit appeal
after the prescribed period, then the assessee has a right to file
an appeal against such order.
Amount of tax payable before filing appeal [Section
249(4)]: No appeal shall be admitted unless at the time of
filing of the appeal:
1. where a return has been filed by the assessee, the assessee has
paid the tax due on the income returned by him; or
2. where no return has been filed by the assessee, the assessee
has paid an amount equal to the amount of advance tax
which was payable by him. i.e. tax which is payable on income
assessed under section 144 or 147.
However, in the case mentioned under clause (b) above, on an
application made by the appellant in this behalf, the Commissioner (Appeals) may, for any good and sufficient reason to be
recorded in writing, exempt him from the payment of such tax.
The order passed by the Commissioner (Appeals) rejecting the
application for exemption from payment of tax which resulted
into non-admittance of the appeal amounted to an order
disposing of the appeal under section 250 and, therefore appeal
lies to the Appellate Tribunal. [CIT v Nanhibiai Jaiswal (1988) 171
ITR 646 (MP)].
It may be noted that it is not necessary to pay the assessed tax
demanded in an order against which an appeal is filed. The
assessee is required to pay the tax only on the returned income

Documents to accompany Form No. 35: Appeal is required

to be made in duplicate. The memorandum of appeal,
statement of facts and the grounds of appeal should be
accompanied by a copy of the order appealed against and the
notice of demand in original, if any.
Fee for filing appeal: The memorandum of appeal shall be
accompanied by a fee as under:
1. Where assessed income in a case to which appeal relates is
Rs. 1,00,000 or less
Rs. 250
2. Where assessed income in a case to which appeal relates
exceeds Rs. 1,00,000 but does not exceed Rs. 2,00,000 Rs.500
3. Where assessed income in a case to which appeal relates
exceeds Rs. 2,00,000
Rs.1,000
4) Where the subject matter of appeal relates to any matter
other than specified in clauses (a), (b) and (c) above Rs. 250
The fee should be credited in a branch of the authorised bank
or a branch of the State Bank of India or a branch of the
Reserve Bank of India after obtaining a challan from the
Assessing Officer and a copy of challan sent to the Commissioner of Income-tax (Appeals).
An appeal once filed cannot be withdrawn.
d. Procedure in Hearing Appeal (Section 250)

1. The Commissioner (Appeals) shall fix a day and place for the
hearing of the appeal and shall give notice of the same to the
appellant and to he Assessing Officer against whose order
the appeal is preferred.
2. The following persons shall have a right of being heard at
the hearing of the appeal:
a.

the appellant, either in person or through authorised

representative;

b.

the Assessing Officer, either in person or through a

representative.

3. The appellate authority shall have the power to adjourn the

hearing of the appeal from time to time.
4. The appellate authority may, before disposing off any appeal,
make such further inquiry as he thinks fit and may direct the
Assessing Officer to do so and report the same.
5. The appellate authority may, at the hearing of the appeal,
allow the appellant to go into any ground of appeal not
specified in the grounds of appeal, if he is satisfied that
omission of such ground of appeal was not wilful or
unreasonable.
6. The order of the appellate authority disposing off the appeal
shall be in writing and shall state the points for
determination, the decision thereon and the reason for the
decision.
7. The order passed by the Commissioner (Appeals) shall be
communicated to the assessee and to the Chief
Commissioner/Commissioner.
W.e.f. 1-6-1999 Section 250(6A) has been inserted to provide
that in every appeal, the Commissioner (Appeals), where it is
possible, may hear and decide such appeal within a period of

229

one year from the end of the financi~1 year in which such
appeal is filed before him under subsection (1) of section 246A.
e. Powers of the Commissioner (Appeals) (Section 251)

In disposing off an appeal, the Commissioner (Appeals), shall

have the following powers:
a. In an appeal against an order of assessment,
i.

he may confirm, reduce, enhance or annul the

assessment; or

ii.

he may set aside the assessment and refer the case back
to the Assessing Officer for making a fresh assessment
in accordance with the directions given by the
Commissioner (Appeals) and after making such
further inquiry as may be necessary, and the Assessing
Officer shall thereupon proceed to make such fresh
assessment and determine, where necessary, the
amount of tax payable on the basis of such fresh
assessment;

However, power to set aside the order given under clause (ii)
above has been omitted by the Finance Act, 2001 w.e.f. 1-62001. Now instead of setting aside the order the
Commission (Appeal) may make further enquiry or direct the
Assessing Officer to make further enquiry and report the
result of the same to him, which can be made use of in
appeals needing further enquiry or gathering of additional
facts or evidence;
b. in an appeal against an order imposing a penalty - he may
confirm or cancel such order or vary it so as either to enhance
or to reduce the penalty;
c. in any other case - he may pass such orders in the appeal as
he thinks fit.
The Commissioner (Appeals) shall not enhance an assessment
or a penalty or reduce the amount of refund unless the
appellant has had a reasonable opportunity of showing cause
against such enhancement or reduction.
In disposing of an appeal, the Commissioner (Appeals) may
consider and decide any matter arising out of the proceedings in
which the order appealed against was passed, notwithstanding
that such matter was not raised before the Commissioner
(Appeals) by the appellant.

Appellate Tribunal (Section 252)

The Central Government shall constitute an Appellate Tribunal
consisting of as many judicial and accountant members as it
thinks fit to exercise the powers and discharge the functions
conferred on the Appellate Tribunal by this Act.
A judicial member shall be a person who has for at least ten
years held a judicial office in the territory of India or who has
been a member of the Indian Legal Service and has held a post
in Grade II of that Service or any equivalent or higher post for
at least three years or who has been an advocate for at least ten
years. However, in certain cases, his past experience may also be
considered for computing the period of 3 years\l0 years.
An accountant member shall be a person who had for at least
ten years been in the practice of accountancy as a chartered
accountant under the Chartered Accountants Act, 1949, or as a
registered accountant under any law formerly in force or partly as
230

a registered accountant and partly as a chartered accountant, or

who has been a member of the Indian Income-tax Service,
Group A, and has held the post of Additional Commissioner
of Income-tax or any equivalent or higher post for at least three
years.
The Central Government shall ordinarily appoint a judicial
member of the Appellate Tribunal to be the President thereof.
The Central Government may appoint one or more members
of the Appellate Tribunal to be the Vice-President or, as the case
may be, Vice-Presidents thereof and may also appoint one of
the Vice-Presidents of the Appellate Tribunal to be the Senior
Vice-President thereof.
The senior Vice-President or a Vice-President shall exercise such
of the powers and perform such of the functions of the
President as may be delegated to him by the President by a
general or special order in writing. The Central Government
shall appoint Senior Vice-President or one of the Vice-Presidents of the Tribunal to be the President of the Tribunal.

Appeals to Appellate Tribunal (Section 253(1) & (2))

A. As per section 253(1), any assessee may file an appeal before
the Appellate Tribunal against the following orders:
a. An order passed by Commissioner (Appeals):
i. under section 250 i.e. order passed on the appeal filed before
him;
ii. imposing penalty under sections 271, 271A and 272A;
iii. under section 154 regarding rectification of mistakes in an
order passed under section 250 or in an order imposing
penalty under the above sections, if the rectification has not
been done/satisfactorily done by him.
b. An order passed by a Commissioner:
i. under section 12AA relating to registration of a trust or
institution;
ii. under section 263 relating to revision of erroneous order
passed by Assessing Officer
iii. imposing penalty under section 271 or section 272A; or(iv)
under section 154 amending his order u/s 263 or order of
penalty.
c. order passed by a Chief Commissioner, Director General
or Director u/s 272A imposing penalty.
B. The Commissioner may also, if he objects to any order
passed by the Commissioner (Appeals) u/s 154/250, direct
the Assessing Officer to appeal to the Appellate Tribunal
against the order [Section 253(2)].
1. In case of appeal filed against the order of Commissioner/
Chief Commissioner passed under section 12AA or 263 or
272A or section 154, the appeal can only be filed by the
assessee.
2. No appeal is possible to Appellate Tribunal against an order
passed by CIT under section 264 as it is a final order.
Procedure for Appeal to Appellate Tribunal
[Section 253(3), (4), (5) & (6)]

Time limit for filing appeal: The appeal to the Appellate

Tribunal shall be filed within 60 days of the date on which

the order sought to be appealed against, is communicated to

the assessee or to the CIT, as the case may be. [Section
253(3)]

Filing of cross objections and time limit: The Assessing

Officer or the assessee, as the case may be, on receipt of
notice that an appeal against the order of Commissioner
(Appeals) has been filed by the other party, may,
notwithstanding that he has not appealed against such order
or any pan thereof, file a memorandum of cross objections
with the Appellate Tribunal. The memorandum of cross
objections shall be in Form No. 36A and shall be disposed
of by the Appellate Tribunal as if it were an appeal before it.
The memorandum of cross objections has to be filed within
30 days of the receipt of above said notice. No fees is payable
in case of memorandum of cross objections. [Section
253(4)]

Condonation of delay of time limit: The Appellate

Tribunal may admit an appeal or permit the filing of a
memorandum of cross objections after the expiry of 60/30
days, if it is satisfied that there was sufficient cause for not
presenting it within the specified period. [Section 253(5)]

Prescribed forms and documents to. accompany: The

appeal to the Appellate Tribunal shall be in Form No. 36 and
memorandum of cross objections in Form No. 36A. The
appeal and memorandum etc. are to be filed in triplicate and
shall be accompanied by two copies (atleast one of which
should be a certified copy) of the order appealed against and
two copies of the order of the Assessing Officer. Two copies
of the grounds of appeal and statement of facts before the
first appellate authority are also to be filed. In case the appeal
is against an order levying penalty, two copies of the relevant
assessment order should also be filed. [Section 253(6) Rule
47]

Signing of appeal: Form No. 36, grounds of appeal at the

verification should be signed by the person authorised to
sign the return of income under section 140.

Fee for filing appeal: An appeal to the Appellate Tribunal

shall be accompanied by a fee of

a. where the total income of the assessee as computed

by the Assessing Officer in the case to which the appeal
relates is Rs. 1,00,000 or less

Rs. 500.

b. where the total income of the assessee as

computed aforesaid is more than Rs. 1,00,000
but does not exceed Rs. 2,00,000
c. where it exceeds Rs. 2,00,000

Rs. 1,500.

1 % of the assessed income

(subject to a maximum of
Rs. 10,000)

d. Where the subject matter of the

appeal relates to any matter other than
specified in clauses (a), (b) and (c) above

Rs. 500

However, no such fee shall be payable in case

i. the appeal is filed by the Commissioner, or
ii. where the memorandum of cross objections is filed either by
the assessee or the department. [Section 253(6)]

Orders of Appellate Tribunal (Section 254)

1. The Appellate Tribunal may, after giving both the parties to
the appeal an opportunity of being heard, pass such orders
as it thinks fit [Section 254(1)].
2. In an appeal filed by the assessee, the Appellate Tribunal,
where it is possible, may hear and decide such appeal within a
period of four years from the end of the financial year in
which such appeal is filed under sub-section (1) or (2) of
section 253. [Section 254(2A).
3. Where an order of stay is made in any proceedings relating to
an appeal filed under section 253(1), the Appellate Tribunal
shall dispose of the appeal within a period of 180 days from
the date of such order.
However, if such appeal is not so disposed of within this
period, the stay order shall stand vacated after the expiry of
the said period.
4. The cost of any appeal to the Appellate Tribunal shall be at
the discretion of that Tribunal. [Section 254(2B)]
5. The Appellate Tribunal shall send a copy of any orders
passed by it to the assessee and to the Commissioner.
[Section 254(3)].
6. The order passed by Appellate Tribunal shall be final unless
appeal is made under section 260A.
On a question of fact, the Appellate Tribunal order is a final
order and no appeal can lie to High Court against this order.
However, if the fact finding had not been done properly by the
Appellate Tribunal, the assessee can file a writ petition to the
High Court challenging the fact finding process. If the High
Court is satisfied that the claim of the assessee is correct then it
will direct the Appellate Tribunal to conduct the fact finding as
per the proper procedure.
On a quest of law also, the Appellate Tribunal order should be
final if no appeal is preferred to High Court. The Appellate
Tribunal does not have any power to review its own order.
Mistake apparent from record in the order of Appellate
Tribunal can be rectified by Appellate Tribunal.

Remedy Against the Order of Appellate Tribunal

a. Direct Appeal to High Court (Section 260A): An appeal
shall lie to the High Court for every order passed in appeal by
the Appellate Tribunal on or after 1-10-1998, if the High Court
is satisfied that the case involves a substantial question of law.
The Delhi High Court in the case of Good Year India Ltd. v CIT
(2000) 246 ITR 116 observed that, the scope of an appeal under
section 260A of the Income-tax Act, 1961, is very limited and is
restricted to adjudication of substantial questions of law. The
expression substantial question of law has not been defined
anywhere in the state.
The Supreme Court in Santosh Hazar v Purushottam Tiwari
(2001) 251 ITR 84 pointed out that substantial question of
law has not been defined and inter alia held that in order that a
question may be a substantial question of law, it is not
necessary that it should be matter of general importance, where
the matter involved in one in second appeal. The word
substantial as qualifying question of law means having
substance, essential, real of sound worth, important or
231

considerable. It is to be understood as something in contradiction with technical, of no substance or consequence, or academic

merely.
Procedure for Filing Appeal

1. The Chief Commissioner/Commissioner or assessee

aggreived by any order passed by the Appellate Tribunal may
file an appeal to the High Court.
2. The appeal should be filed within 120 days from the date on
which the order appealed against received by the assessee or
the Chief Commissioner/ Commissioner.
3. It should be accompanied by such fee as may be specified in
the relevant law relating to Court fees for filing appeals to the
High Court.
4. It should be in the form of a memorandum of appeal
precisely stating therein the substantial question of law
involved.
Procedure in Hearing Appeal

1. If the High Court is satisfied that a substantial question of

law is involved in any case, it shall formulate that question.
2. The appeal shall be heard only on the question so
formulated, and the respondents shall, at the hearing of the
appeal, be allowed to argue that the case does not involve
such question.
However the High Court may, for reasons to be recorded,
hear the appeal on any other substantial question of law not
formulated by it, if it is satisfied that the case involves such
question.
3. The High Court shall decide the question of law so
formulated and deliver such judgment thereon containing
the grounds on which such decision is founded and may
award such cost as it deems fit.
4. The High Court may determine any issue which:
a. has not been determined by the Appellate Tribunal; or
b. has been wrongly determined by the Appellate Tribunal on
such substantial question of law.
5. W.e.f. 1-6-1999, the relevant provisions of Code of Civil
Procedure, 1908 shall apply mutatis mutandis to appeals
under section 260A to the High Court.

National Tax Tribunal

National Tax Tribunal Ordinance, 2003 has been promulgated
by the President. As per this Ordinance, an appeal against the
order of the Income-tax Appellate Tribunal involving substantial question of law shall now lie to the National Tax Tribunal
to be constituted by the Central Government, instead of the
High Court.
The provisions of the Ordinance shall be applicable on and
from the appointed date i.e. from the date on which the
National Tax Tribunal is established by the Central Government.
However, the Kolkatta High Court has granted a stay against
the above Ordinance.

Appeal to the Supreme Court (Section 261)

232

The assessee or the Commissioner may prefer an appeal to the

Supreme Court from any judgement of the High Court in an
appeal made to it under section 260A. However, the appeal can
lie to Supreme Court only if the High Court certifies the case to
be a fit case for appeal to the Supreme Court. Thus, this
certificate of fitness is a must for preferring an appeal to the
Supreme Court. If, however, the High Court decides not to give
such a certificate, then the aggrieved party may make an application to the Supreme Court under Article 136 of the
Constitution for Special Leave to Appeal against the decision of
the judgement.
Hearing and Judgment by Supreme Court [Section 262]:
The Supreme Court upon hearing any such case shall decide the
question of law raised therein and shall deliver its judgement
thereon containing the grounds on which such decision is
founded. Where the judgment of the High Court is varied or
reversed in appeal, effect shall be given to the order of the
Supreme Court in the manner provided in section 260A in the
case of a judgment of the High Court.
The cost of the appeal shall be in the discretion of the
Supreme Court.

Revision by the Commissioner

a. Revision of orders prejudicial to Revenue (Section 263):
The Commissioner may call for and examine the record of any
proceedings under the Act, and if he considers that any order
passed therein by the Assessing Officer is erroneous in so far as
it is prejudicial to the interests of the revenue. He may pass such
orders thereon as the circumstances of the case justify.
He may pass an order enhancing or modifying the assessment
or canceling the assessment and directing a fresh assessment.
However, he has to pass an order only after giving the assessee
an opportunity of being heard and after making or causing to
be made such enquiry as he deems necessary. However, the
Commissioner can revise the order passed by the Assessing
Officer only if he considers that the order passed is prejudicial
to the interests of the revenue.
For removal of doubts, it is provided that the Commissioner
can revise the following orders also:
I. An order of assessment made by the Assistant
Commissioner/Deputy Commissioner or the Income-tax
Officer on the basis of directions issued by Joint
Commissioner under section 144A.
II. An order made by the Joint Commissioner in exercise of the
powers or in the performance of the functions of Assessing
Officer conferred on him under the orders or directions
issued by CBDT or Chief Commissioner or Director General
or Commissioner authorised by CBDT under section 120.
Record shall include all records relating to any proceedings
under this Act available at the time of examination by the
Commissioner.It may be noted that under section 263. the CIT
can revise the order of Assessing Officer only.The CIT cannot
revise intimation or deemed intimation under section 143(1) as
such intimation is not an order.

Time Limit for Passing the Revision Order Under

Section 263

The Commissioner cannot revise the order of the Assessing

Officer after the expiry of 2 years from the end of the financial
year in which the order sought to be revised was passed. In
computing the period of limitation of 2 years, the following
period shall be excluded:

On application made by the assessee under this section on or

after 1-10-1998, the Commissioner shall pass an order within
one year from the end of the financial year in which the
application is made by the assessee. In computing the period of
limitation of one year, the following period shall be excluded:

a. the time taken in giving an opportunity to the assessee to be

reheard under the proviso to section 129, and

a. the time taken in giving an opportunity to the assessee to be

re-heard under the proviso to section 129, and

b. any period during which any proceeding under this section is

stayed by an order or injunction of any court.

b. any period during which any proceeding under this section is

stayed by an order or injunction of any court.

No time limit in the following cases: An order of revision

may be passed at any time in the case of an order which has
been passed in consequence of, or to give effect to, any finding
or direction contained in an order of the Appellate Tribunal, the
High Court or the Supreme Court.

No time limit in the following case: However, an order of

revision may be passed at any time in consequence of or to give
effect to any finding or direction contained in an order of the
Appellate Tribunal, High Court or the Supreme Court.

Commissioners power of revision extends to matters not

covered in appeal [Clause (c) of Explanation to Section
263]: Where an order passed by the Assessing Officer has been
subject matter of any appeal, it cannot be revised by the
Commissioner. However, in respect of such matters, which
have not been considered and decided in appeal, the Commissioner has powers under section 263 for revision.
b. Revision of Orders in Favour of Assessee (Section 264)

Revision of orders not covered by Section 263, can be made by

the Commissioner either on his own motion or on an application made by the assessee, provided orders have been passed by
an authority subordinate to him. The application made by the
assessee shall be accompanied by a fee of Rs. 500 (Rs. 25, up to
31-5-2001). The Commissioner may call for the record of any
proceeding under this Act on the basis of which such order has
been passed and may make such inquiry or cause such inquiry to
be made. He may pass such orders thereon as he thinks fit as are
not prejudicial to the assessee. The Commissioner, under this
section can cancel the assessment and direct the Assessing
Officer to make a fresh assessment.
The Commissioner shall not revise any order under this section
in the following cases:
1. where the order has been made more than one year previously,
the Commissioner shall not, on his own motion, revise such
an order; or
2. where the application for revision by the assessee has been
made after one year from the date on which the order in
question was communicated to him or the date on which he
otherwise came to know of it, whichever is earlier. However
if the Commissioner is satisfied that the assessee was
prevented by sufficient cause from making the application
within the prescribed period he may admit an application
made after the expiry of that period.
3. where an appeal against the order lies to the Commissioner
(Appeals) but it has not been made and the time within
which such appeal may be made has not expired; and the
assessee has not waived his right of appeal; or
4. where the order has been made the subject of an appeal to
the Commissioner(Appeals).

Time Limit for Passing the Revision Order Under

Section 264

1. Where application for revision uts 264 is made before 1-101998, then there is no limit for passing the order as the time
limit of one year for passing the order is applicable on
application made on or after 1-10-1998.
2. An order by the Commissioner under this section whereby he
declines to interfere shall not be deemed to be an order
prejudicial to the assessee.

Special Provision for Avoiding Repetitive Appeals

(Section 158A and Rule 16)
Where an assessee claims that any question of law arising in his
case for an assessment year which is pending before the
Assessing Officer or any Appellate authority, is identical with a
question of law arising in his case for another assessment year
which is pending, on a reference/appeal, before the High Court
or appeal before Supreme Court, he may furnish to the
Assessing Officer or the Appellate authority, as the case may be,
a declaration on Form No.8, that if the Assessing Officer or the
Appellate authority, as the case may be, agrees to apply to the
relevant case the final decision on the question of law in the
other case, he shall not raise such question of law in the relevant
case in appeal.
Where such declaration is furnished to any Appellate authority,
it shall call for a report from the Assessing Officer on the
correctness of the claim made by the assessee. Where the
Assessing Officer makes request to the Appellate authority to
give him an opportunity of being heard in the matter, it shall
allow him such opportunity. The Assessing Officer or the
Appellate authority, as the case may be, may by an order in
writing admit the claim of the assessee if he or it is satisfied
that the question of law arising in the relevant case is identical
with the question of law in the other case; or reject the claim if
not satisfied. Any such order shall be final and shall not be
called in question in any proceeding by way of appeal, reference
or revision under this Act.
Where a claim is admitted, the Assessing Officer or the Appellate authority, as the case may be, may make an order disposing
off the relevant case without awaiting the final decision on the
question of law in the other case. The assessee shall not be
entitled to raise in relation to the relevant case, such question of
law in appeal before any Appellate authority or court. When the
decision on the question of law in the other case becomes final,
it shall be applied in the relevant case and the Assessing Officer
or the Appellate authority, as the case may be, shall, if necessary,
233

amend the order passed as above in the relevant case confirming

to such decision.
Appellate Authority means the Commissioner (Appeals) or
the Appellate Tribunal.
The declaration in Form NO.8 shall be:
a. in duplicate: if furnished to Commissioner (Appeals);
b. in triplicate: if furnished to Appellate Tribunal.
Lets now have some self study questions:
1. Who can appeal against the order of the Assessing Officer?
Explain in detail, the procedure of filing the appeal before
the First Appellate Authority.
2. What is the remedy available to the assessee in case he has
not filed the first appeal within the time allowed under the
Income-Tax Act?
3. What do you understand by Revision of an Order? Who can
do such a revision and under what circumstances can revision
of an order be done?
4. The order of the First Appellate Authority has gone against
an assessee. What is the remedy available to the aggrieved
party?
5. What is the new procedure of filing a direct appeal to the
High Court? Can an appeal be made to the High Court
against all orders passed by the IT AT?

234

LESSON 30:
TRANSFER PRICING AND OTHER PROVISIONS TO CHECK AVOIDANCE OF TAX
Lesson Objectives

To know meaning of transfer pricing.

To know transfer pricing regulations.

To know about Computation of income from transaction

with non-resident.

To know International Transactions and transfer pricing.

To know Power of Assessing Officer.

To know Transactions in securities and transfer pricing.

Students here we are going to transactions that are done with

sister concerns or associated enterprises. It is important to know
the tax provisions in this respect.

Transfer Pricing Regulations

Introduction
The Finance Act, 2001, has introduced very complicated
provisions relating to pricing of international transaction
between the assessee and associated enterprises. These provisions are contained in newly inserted sections 92 to 92F of the
Income-tax Act. These provisions apply to international
transactions entered into with effect from 1st April 2001.
Elaborate Rules 10A to10E have been inserted in the Incometax Rules by a notification dated 21st August 2001. These new
sections of the Income-tax Act and the Rules will affect all noncorporate and corporate assesses who have dealings with
non-residents for import or export of goods, properties or
services. In other words, price paid for import of goods,
properties or services and price received for export of goods,
properties or services will now be subject to scrutiny by the
Assessing Officer. Therefore, it is necessary to make a detailed
study of these provisions. All assesses who have such dealings
with non-residents will have to keep detailed records as
prescribed under the new Rules and will have to furnish audit
report every year with the return of income for assessment year
2002-03 and subsequent years about their international
transactions.
Prior to the above amendment, section 92 of the Income-tax
Act provided that where a business was carried on between a
resident and non-resident and it appeared to the Assessing
Officer that, due to close connection between them, the
transactions between them were so arranged that the resident
had no profit or had less than reasonable profit, the assessing
officer could estimate reasonable profit in the hands of the
resident. Rules 10 and 11 explained the manner in which
income from transactions with nonresident should be computed. These provisions were not found to be very effective
and, therefore, they are replaced by the new provisions effective
from 1.4.2002 (Assessment Year 2002-03).
The Finance Minister has observed in his budget speech while
introducing the Finance Bill, 2001 a~ under that the presence of

multinational enterprises in India and their ability to allocate

profits in different jurisdictions by controlling prices in intragroup transactions has made the issue of transfer pricing a
matter of serious concern.
The provisions were framed with a view to provide a statutory
framework which can lead to computation of reasonable, fair
and equitable profits and tax in India, in the case of such
multinational enterprises. These provisions relate to computation of income from international transactions having regard to
the arms length price, meaning of associated enterprise,
meaning of international transaction, determination of arms
length price, keeping and maintaining of information and
documents by persons entering into international transactions,
furnishing of a report from an accountant by persons entering
into such transactions and definitions of certain expressions
occurring in the said sections.

Computation of Income from Transaction with Nonresident [Section 92]

Section 92 provides that any income arising from an international transaction shall be computed having regard to the
arms length price. For this purpose the allowance for any
expense or interest shall be determined on the basis of arms
length price. The section further provides that in an international transaction between two or more associated enterprises
when there is a mutual agreement or arrangement for the
allocation or apportionment of, or any contribution to, any cost
or expenses in connection with a benefit, service or facility
provided to anyone or more of such enterprises, the allocation
of cost, expenses etc. shall be determined having regard to arms
length price of such benefit, service or facility. Similarly, the price
received for exports and amounts received for services rendered
to associated enterprise will be determined on the basis of arms
length price. It will be noticed that in the international transaction, the income or expense will have to be at arms length price
if the transaction is between associated enterprises.
The Finance Act, 2002, has amended Section 92 to clarify that
while determining Arms Length Price under the provisions of
transfer pricing regulations, if the income works
out to a figure lower than the income shown in the books of
accounts, the provision of transfer pricing regulations will not
apply.
The Assessing Officer will have wide powers to determine what
is an arms length price for such transactions and make adjustments for computation of income. The keywords in section 92
are (i)-associated enterprises, (ii) international transactions and
(iii) arms length price. These terms are defined in sections 92A,
928 and 92C.
Associated Enterprises [Section 92A]
The term associated enterprise in relation to another enterprise is defined in section 92A( 1). It means an enterprise
235

a. Which participates, directly or indirectly, or through one or

more intermediaries, in the management or control or capital
of the other enterprise; or
b. in respect of which one or more persons who participate,
directly or indirectly, or through one or more intermediaries,
in its management or control or capital are the same persons
who participate, directly or indirectly, or through one or more
intermediaries, in the management or control of the other
enterprise.
Section 92A(2) provides that two enterprises shall be deemed to
be associated enterprises for the purposes of sub-section (1) if,
at any time during the previous year
i. one enterprise holds, directly or indirectly, shares carrying not
less than twenty-six percent of the voting power in the other
enterprise; or
ii. Any person or enterprise holds, directly or indirectly, shares
carrying not less than twenty-six per cent of the voting
power in each of such enterprises; or
iii. A loan advanced by one enterprise to the other enterprise
constitutes not less than fifty one per cent of the book value
of the total assets of the other enterprise; or
iv. One enterprise guarantees not less than ten per cent of the
total borrowing of the other enterprise; or
v. More than half of the board of directors or members of the
governing board, or one or more executive directors or
executive members of the governing board of one
enterprise, are appointed by the other enterprise; or
vi. More than half of the directors or members of the
governing board, or one or more of the executive directors
or members of the governing board, of each of the two
enterprises are appointed by the same person or persons; or
vii. The manufacture or processing of goods or articles or
business carried out by one enterprise is wholly dependent
on the use of know-how, patent, copyrights, trademarks,
licenses, franchises or any other business or commercial
rights of similar nature, or any data, documentation,
drawing or specification relating to any patent, invention,
model, design, secret formula or process, of which the other
enterprise is the owner or in respect of which the other
enterprise has exclusive rights; or
viii. Ninety per cent, or more of the raw materials and
consumables required for the manufacture or processing of
goods or articles carried out by one enterprise are supplied by
the other enterprise, or by persons specified by the other
enterprise, and the prices and other conditions relating to the
supply are influenced by such other enterprise; or
ix. The goods or articles manufactured or processed by one
enterprise, are sold to the other enterprise or to persons
specified by the other enterprise, and the prices and other
conditions relating thereto are influenced by such other
enterprise; or
x. Where one enterprise is controlled by an individual, the other
enterprise is also controlled by such individual or his relative
or jointly by such individual and relative of such individual;
or

236

xi. Where one enterprise is controlled by a Hindu undivided

family, the other enterprise is controlled by a member of
such Hindu undivided family, or by a relative of a member
of such Hindu undivided family, or jointly by such member
and his relative; or
xii. Where one enterprise is a firm, association of persons or
body of individuals, the other enterprise holds not less than
ten per cent interest in such firm, association of persons or
body of individuals; or
xiii. There exists between the two enterprises, any relationship
of mutual interest, as may be prescribed. It may be noted
that the Rules 10A to 10E do not refer to any relationship of
mutual interest.
Section 92A(1) lays down the circumstances when two enterprises can be considered as associated enterprises. The Finance
Act. 2002, has clarified that the mere fact of participation by one
enterprise in the management, control or capital of the other
enterprise, or participation by one OC more persons in the
management, control or capital of both the enterprises is not
sufficient unless the tests laid down in section 92A(2) are fulfil/
ed. In other words, the deeming tests contained in section
92A(2) are exhaustive and should be applied to determine the
association between two or more enterprises
Enterprise: Theterm enterprise is defined in section 92F to
mean a person (including its certain specified Permanent
Establishment) who is, or has been, or is proposed to be,
engaged in any activity, relating to the production, storage,
supply, distribution, acquisition or control of articles or goods,
or know-how, patents, copy rights, trade-marks, licences,
franchises or any other business or commercial rights of similar
nature or any data, documentation, drawing or specification
relating to any patent, invention, model, design. secret formula
or process, of which the other enterprise is the owner or in
respect of which the other enterprise has exclusive rights, or the
provision of services of any kind, or in carrying out any work in
pursuance of a contract. or in investment, or providing loan or
in the business of acquiring, holding, underwriting or dealing
with shares, debentures or other securities of any other body
corporate, whether such activity or business is carried on, directly
or through one or more of its units or divisions or subsidiaries, or whether such unit or division or subsidiary is located at
the same place where the enterprise is located or at a different
place or places.
Permanent establishment includes a fixed place of
business through which the business of the enterprise is
wholly or partly carried on.

International Transactions (Section 928)

Section 92B defines the term international transaction to
mean a transaction between two or more associated enterprises,
either or both of whom are non-residents, in the nature of
purchase, sale or lease of tangible or intangible property, or
provision of services, or lending or borrowing money, or any
other transaction having a. bearing on the profits, income,
losses or assets of such enterprises. It shall include a mutual
agreement or arrangement between two or more associated
enterprises for the allocation or apportionment of, or any
contribution to, any cost or expenses incurred or to be incurred

in connection with a benefit, service or facility provided or to be

provided to anyone or more of such enterprises.
Sub-Section (2) provides for circumstances where. even a
transaction with an enterprise which is not an associated
enterprise as defined above, may be construed as transaction
with an associated enterprise It provides that a transaction
entered into by an enterprise with a person other than an
associated enterprise $hall be deemed to be a transaction entered
into between two associated enterprises, if there exists a prior
agreement in relation to the relevant transaction between such
other person and the associated enterprise; or the terms of the
relevant transaction are determined in substance between such
other person and the associated enterprise

Transaction
The word transaction has been defined in section 92F is to
include an arrangement, understanding or action in consent
i. Whether or not such arrangement, understanding or action
is formal or in writing;
or
ii. Whether or not such arrangement, understanding or action
is intended to be enforceable by legal proceedings.
It may be noted that one of the parties to the international
transaction should be a nonresident. Therefore, transactions
between a resident assessee (A Ltd.) and its foreign branches
or between its two or more foreign branches will not be
considered as international transactions. This is for the reason
that when A Ltd. is a resident in India Head Office and
branches or between branches inter-se will be considered as
transactions between residents. Even otherwise there can be no
avoidance of income in the transactions between Indian Head
Office and foreign branches.
On the other hand, if an Indian branch of a foreign company
(BLtd.) is having a transaction with the head office the same
will be covered by the definition of international transaction
between associated enterprises. This is because the Indian
branch (permanent establishment of B Ltd.) will be liable to
tax in India in respect of its Indian operations and, therefore,
any transaction between the Indian branches of B Ltd. with
its head office in UK or with any of the branches of B Ltd.
outside India will be considered as an international transaction
and it will have to establish that the transaction is at an arms
length price. This will be the position even in respect of
transactions between a parent company (A Ltd.) and its
foreign subsidiary and, therefore, such transactions will have to
comply with the provisions of transfer pricing regulations.
Arms Length Price (Section 92C) : Arms length price is
defined in section 92F(ii) to mean price which is applied or
proposed to be applied in a transaction between persons other
than associated enterprises in uncontrolled conditions. Section
92C deals with the method for determining arms length price
and the factors, which are to be considered for applicability or
non-applicability of a particular method to a given situation.
The factors as well as methods incorporated in this section are
not exhaustive and the CBOT may prescribe further factors and
methods. Section 92C provides that the arms length price in
relation to an international transaction shall be determined by

any of the following methods, being the most appropriate

method, having regard to the nature of transaction or class of
transaction or class of associated persons or functions performed by such persons or such other relevant factors as the
Board may prescribe.
a. Comparable uncontrolled price method;
b. Resale price method;
c. Cost plus method;
d. Profit split method;
e. Transactional net margin method;
f. Such other method as may be prescribed by the Board. So far
no other method is prescribed.
Out of the above, the most appropriate method shall be
selected in the manner as may be prescribed by the Rules.
However, if under the most appropriate method two prices of
the goods, services or intangibles are possible then the arithmetical mean of such prices shall be taken as Arms Length
Price.
With a view to allow a degree of flexibility in this matter, the
Finance Act, 2002, has amended this section to provide that, in
such circumstances, a price which differs from the arithmetic
mean by an amount not exceeding 5% of such mean may be
taken to be the arms length price at the option of the assessee.
Rule 1O B (1) provides for determination of arms length price
under section 92C. This rule explains how the arms length price
under the five methods stated in (a) to (e) of Para 4.1 above is
to be determined in respect of any goods, property or services
(hereinafter referred to as items) purchased or sold under any
international transaction.

Comparable Uncontrolled Price Method

a. Under this method the price charged or paid for any item
under any comparable uncontrolled transaction or
transactions should be identifiable.
b. Adjustment to account for differences between the
international transaction and comparable uncontrolled
transactions or between the enterprises entering into such
transactions which could materially affect the price in the
open market can be made.
c. The adjusted price as worked out under (b) will be
considered a5 an arms length price for the item.
ii. Resale Price Method
a. Under this method, the price at which the item purchased by
the enterprise from an associated enterprise is resold to an
unrelated enterprise should be identifiable.
b. The following adjustments can be made to such resale price.

For normal gross profit margin

For expenses incurred in connection with the purchase

of the item.

For functional and other differences, including

differences in accounting practices which could affect the
gross profit margin in the open market.
c. The adjusted price as stated in (b) above will be considered as
the arms length price for the item.
237

iii. Cost Plus Method

a. Under this method, the direct and indirect costs of
production incurred by the enterprise for the item should be
determined.
b. The amount of a normal gross profit mark-up to such costs
arising from the same or similar item or by an unrelated
enterprise in comparable uncontrolled transaction should be
determined.
c. The above normal gross profit mark-up can be adjusted to
take into account the functional and other differences which
could materially affect such profit mark-up in the open
market.
d. Costs referred to in (a) above should be increased by the
adjusted profit mark-up as stated in (c) above and the price
so arrived at will be considered as an arms length price of the
item.
iv. Profit Split Method
a. This is a method which may be applicable mainly in
international transactions involving transfer of unique
intangibles or in multiple international transactions which are
so inter-related that they cannot be evaluated separately for
the purpose of determining the arms length price of one
transaction.
b. Under this method, combined net profit of the associated
enterprises arising from the international transactions in
which they are engaged is first determined.
c. The relative contribution of each associated enterprise to the
earning of such combined net profit is then evaluated on the
basis of the functions performed. assets employed and risks
assumed by each enterprise. This evaluation is to be made on
the basis of reliable external market data, which can indicate
how such contribution would be evaluated by unrelated
enterprises performing comparable functions in similar
circumstances.
d. The combined net profit is then split amongst the
enterprises in proportion to their relative contributions. The
profit thus apportioned to the assessee is taken into
consideration to arrive at an arms length price in relation to
the international transaction.
e. In certain cases the combined net profit referred to in (b)
above may. in the first instance, be partially allocated to each
enterprise so as to provide it with a basic return appropriate
for the type of international transaction in which it is
engaged. This has to be determined with reference to market
returns achieved for similar types of transactions by
independent enterprises. Thereafter, the residual net profit
remaining after such allocation may be split amongst the
enterprises as stated in (c) and (d) above. In such a case the
aggregate of net profit allocated in the first instance together
with the residuals profit allocated should be considered for
arriving at the arms length price of the international
transaction.
v. Transactional Net Margin Method
a. In this method, the net profit margin realized by the
enterprise from an international transaction with an
238

associated enterprise is computed having regard to costs

incurred or sales effected or assets employed or having regard
to any other relevant base.
b. The net profit margin realized by the enterprise or by an
unrelated enterprise from a comparable uncontrolled
transaction by applying the same base as in (a) above is
computed. This profit margin is adjusted to take into
account the differences, which could materially affect the net
profit margin in the open market having regard to
international transaction and comparable uncontrolled
transactions or having regard to the enterprise entering into
such transactions.
c. If the net profit margin realized by the enterprise as in (a)
above is established to be the same as the net profit margin
as in (b) above, then the same is taken into consideration to
arrive at an arms length price in relation to the international
transaction.
For applying the above methods, the comparability of the
international transaction with. an uncontrolled transaction is to
be judged with reference to the following factors:
i. The specific characteristics of the property transferred or
services provided in either transaction;
ii. The functions performed, taking into account assets
employer or to be employer and the risks assumed, by the
respective parties to the transactions;
iii. The contractual terms (whether or not such terms are formal
or in writing) of the transactions which lay down explicitly or
implicitly how the responsibilities, risks and benefits are to
be divided between the respective parties to the transactions;
iv. Conditions prevailing in the markets in which the respective
parties to the transactions operate, including the geographical
location and size of the markets, the laws and government
orders in force, costs of labour and capital in the mark6~s;
overall economic development and level of competition and
whether the markets are wholesale or retail.Rule 10B also
provides that an uncontrolled transaction shall be
comparable to an international transaction if none of the
differences between the transactions being comparable or the
enterprises entering into such transactions is likely to
materially affect the price or cost charged or paid in, or the
profit arising from, such transactions in the open market or
reasonably accurate adjustments can be made to eliminate the
material effects of such differences. Further, the date to be
used for the above comparison should relate to the financial
year in which the international transaction has been entered
into. It is also provided that similar date relating to earlier
two years can also be used for the comparison if such data is
relevant for the purpose.

Determination of Most Appropriate

Methods
Rule 10C deals with the determination of most appropriate
method. Under this Rule, the method which is best suited to
the facts and circumstances and which provides the most reliable
measure of an arms length price in relation to the international
transaction will be considered to be the most appropriate
method.

For the purpose of selecting the most appropriate method, the

following factors should be taken into account.
i. The nature and class of the international transaction;
ii. The class or classes of associated enterprises entering into the
transaction and the functions performed by them taking into
account assets employed or to be employed and risks
assumed by such enterprises;
iii. The availability, coverage and reliability of data necessary for
application of the method;
iv. The degree of comparability existing between the
international transaction and the uncontrolled transaction
and between the enterprises entering into such transactions;
v. The extent to which reliable and accurate adjustments can be
made to account for difference, if any, between the
international transaction and the comparable uncontrolled
transaction or between the enterprises entering into such
transactions;
vi. The nature, extent and reliability of assumptions required to
be made in application of a method.
Reference to Transfer Pricing Officer - [Section 92CA]: The
Finance Act, 2002, has inserted this section w.e.f. 1.6.2002. This
section provides for a procedure for reference to a Transfer
Pricing Officer (TPO) of any issue relating to computation of
arms length price in an international transaction. The procedure
is as under :
1. The option to make reference to TPO is given to the
Assessing Officer (AD). He may make this reference if he
considers it necessary or expedient to do so. This option is
not available to the assessee.
2. The A. O. has to take the approval of the CIT before making
such a reference.
3. Any Joint IDeputylAssistant Commissioner of Income Tax,
authorized by CBDT, can be appointed as TPO.
4. When such reference is made, TPO can call upon the assessee
to produce evidence in support of the computation of arms
length price made by him.
5. The TPO has to pass an order determining the arms length
price after considering the evidence, documents, etc.
produced by the assessee and after considering the material
gathered by him. He has to send a copy of his order to A O.
as well as the assessee.
6. On receipt of the above order, the AO. has to proceed to
determine the arms length price on the basis of the above
order.
7. TPO has power to rectify his order uls 154 if any mistake
apparent from the record is noticed. If such rectification is
made the A O. has to rectify the assessment order to bring it
in conformity with the same.
8. TPO can exercise all or any of the powers specified in clause
(a) to (d) of subsection (1) of section 131 or sub-section (6)
of section 133 for determination of arms length price once
the above reference is made to him.
Records to be maintained [Section 92D]: Section 92D
imposes responsibility on every person who enters into an

international transaction to keep and maintain such information

and documents in respect thereof as may be prescribed by
CBDT. The Board is empowered to prescribe the period for
which the information and documents shall be kept and
maintained. Further, the Assessing Officer or the Commissioner (Appeals) may, in the course of any proceedings under
the Income-tax Act, require any person who has entered into an
international transaction to furnish any such prescribed
information or documents within a period of thirty days from
the date of receipt of a notice issued in this regard. The
requisition period may, on request, be extended further for a
period not exceeding thirty days by the Assessing Officer or the
Commissioner (Appeals).
Rule 10D(1) provides for the information and documents to be
kept and maintained by the assessee. Under this Rule following
information and documents have to be maintained:
i. A description of the ownership structure of the assessee
enterprise with details of shares or other ownership interest
held therein by other enterprises;
ii. A profile of the multinational group of which the assessee
enterprise is a part along with the name, address, legal status
and country of tax residence of each of the enterprises
comprised in the group with whom international
transactions have been entered into by the assessee, and
ownership linkages among them;
iii. A broad description of the business of the assessee and the
industry in which the assessee operates, and the business of
the associated enterprises with whom the assessee has
transacted;
iv. The nature and terms (including prices) of international
transactions entered into with each associated enterprise,
details of property transferred or services provided and the
quantum and the value of each such transaction or class of
such transaction;
v. A description of the functions performed, risks assumed and assets
employed or to be employed by the assessee and by the
associated enterprises involved in the international
transactions;
vi. A record of the economic and market analyses, forecasts,
budgets or any other financial estimates prepared by the
assessee for the business as a whole and for each division or
product separately, which may have a bearing on the
international transactions entered into by the assessee;
vii. A record of uncontrolled transactions taken into account for
analyzing their comparability with the international
transactions entered into, including a record of the nature,
terms and conditions relating to any uncontrolled transaction
with third parties which may be of relevance to the pricing of
the international transactions; I
viii. A record of the analysis performed to evaluate
comparability of uncontrolled transactions with the
relevant International transaction;
ix. A description of the methods considered for determining
the arms length price in relation to each international
transaction or class of transaction, the method selected as the
most appropriate method along with explanation as to why
239

such method was so selected, and how such method was

applied in each case;
x. A record of the actual working carried out for determining
the arms length price. including details of the comparable
data and financial information used to apply the most
appropriate method, and adjustments, if any, which were
made to account for differences between the international
transaction and the comparable uncontrolled transactions, or
between the enterprises entering into such transactions;
xi. The assumptions, policies and price negotiations, if any,
which have critically affected the determination of the arms
length price;
xii. Details of the adjustments, if any, made to transfer prices to
align them with arms length prices determined under the
Income-tax Rules and consequent adjustment made to the
total income for tax purposes;
xiii. Any other information, data or documents, including
information or data relating to the associated enterprise,
which may be relevant for determination of the arms length
price.
Rule 10D(2) provides that in a case where the aggregate value of
international transactions does not exceed Rs.1 crore, it will not
be obligatory for the assessee to maintain the above information and documents. Considering the wording of this Rule it
appears that this limit will apply with reference to the aggregate
value of the International transactions with each associated
enterprise and not with reference to the aggregate value of the
international transactions with all associated enterprises during
the financial year put together.
However, it is provided that in the above cases also the assessee
will have to substantiate that the income arising from the
international transactions with associated enterprises, as
disclosed by the accounts, is in accordance with section 92. This
will mean that, even if the aggregate value of the international
transactions is less than RS.1 crore, the assessee will have to
maintain adequate records and evidence to show that the
international transactions with associated enterprises are on the
basis of arms length principles.
The information to be maintained by the assessee, is to be
supported by authentic documents, These documents may
include the following:
i. Official publications, reports, studies and data bases from
the Government of the country of residence of the
associated enterprise, or of any other country;
ii. Reports of market research studies carried out and technical
publications brought out by institutions of national or
international repute;
iii. Price publications including stock exchange and commodity
market quotations;
iv. Published accounts and financial statements relating to the
business affairs of the associated enterprises;
v. Agreements and contracts entered into with associated
enterprises or with unrelated enterprises in respect of
transactions similar to the international transactions;

240

vi. Letters and other correspondence documenting any terms

negotiated between the assessee and the associated enterprise;
vii. Documents normally issued in connection with various
transactions under the accounting practices followed.
It is also provided that the information and documents to I)e
maintained should be contemporaneous and should exist latest
by the date specified for getting the audit report. In the case of
international transactions which continue to have effect over
more than one financial year, fresh documents will not be
required to be maintained for each year if there are no significant
change which may affect the determination of arms length
price. The above information and documents are required to be
maintained for a period of eight years from the end of the
relevant assessment year.

Power of Assessing Officer

Section 92C(3) and (4) gives power to the Assessing Officer to
determine the arms length price under the following circumstances and also empowers the Assessing Officer to recomputed
total income of the assessee having regard to arms length price
determined by him. It also provides that deduction under
section 10A, 10B and Chapter VI-A shall not be allowed from
the additional income computed by him. The circumstances
under which the Assessing Officer may invoke the power to
determine arms length price are as follows:
a. The price charged or paid in an international transaction has
not been determined in accordance with section 92(1) and (2)
or
b. Any information and documents relating to an international
transaction has not been kept and maintained by the assessee
in accordance with the provisions contained insection 920(1)
and the rules made in this behalf (Rule 10D),or
c. The information or data used in computation of the arms
length price is not reliable or correct; or
d. The assessee has failed to furnish within the specified time,
any information or documents, which he was required to
furnish by a notice issued under section 920(3).
However, as this is a new legislation, the CBDT has clarified in
its Circular No.12 of 2001 dated 23.8.2001 that in the initial
years of its implementation, there may be room for different
interpretations leading to uncertainties with regard to determination of arms length price of an international transaction.
While it would be necessary to protect our tax base. there is a
need to ensure that the tax payers are not put to avoidable
hardship in the implementation of these regulations.
In this background the Board have decided the following.
i. The Assessing Officer shall not make any adjustment to the
arms length price determined by the taxpayer, if such price is
upto 5% less or upto 5% more than the price determined by
the Assessing Officer. In such cases the prices declared by the
taxpayer may be accepted.
ii. The provisions of section 92 and 92A to 92F came into force
with effect from 1st April 2002 and are accordingly applicable
to assessment year 2002-03 and subsequent years. The law
requires the associated enterprises to maintain such
documents and information relating to international

transactions as may be prescribed. However. the necessary

rules could be framed by the Board only after the Finance
Bill, received the assent of the President and have very
recently been notified. Therefore, where an assessee has filed
to maintain the prescribed information and documents in
respect of transactions entered into during the period
1.4.2001 to 31.8.2001 the provisions of section 92C(3)
should not be invoked for such failure. Penalty proceedings
under section 271 AA or 271 G should also not be initiated
for such default.
iii. It should be made clear to the concerned Assessing Officers
that where an international transaction has been put to a
scrutiny, the Assessing Officer can have recourse to subsection (3) of section 92C only under the circumstances
enumerated in clause (a) to (d) of that sub-section and in the
event of material information or document in his
possession on the basis of which an opinion can be formed
that any such circumstance exists. In all other cases, the value
of the international transaction should be accepted without
further scrutiny.
Section 92C provides that if the total income of an associated
enterprise is computed under this section on the determination
of arms length price paid to another associated enterprise, from
which tax is deducted at source, the income of the other
associated enterprise shall not be recomputed on this count.
Therefore, if, A Ltd. has paid royalty to B Ltd. (NonResident) @ 10% of sales and tax is deducted at source, B
Ltd. cannot claim refund if the Assessing Officer has determined 8% as arms length price in the case of A Ltd. and
disallowed 2% of the royalty amount.
Audit Report (Section 92E): Under section 92E, every person
who enters into an international transaction during a previous
year is required to obtain a report from a chartered accountant
and furnish such report on or before the specified date on the
prescribed form.
Specified date shall have the same meaning as assigned to due
date in Explanation 2 below sub-section (1) of section 139.
Rule 1OE provides that the auditors report shall be in Form
NO.3CEB. This report is in two parts. The first part requires the
auditor to state that he ha examined the accounts and records
of the assessee relating to the international transactions entered
into by the assessee during the relevant year. He has also to give
his opinion whether the prescribed information and documents
relating to the above transactions have been kept by the
assessee. Further, he has to state that the particulars stated in the
Annexure to his report are true and correct.

price or whether the method adopted by the assessee is the

most appropriate method.
Penalties: Stringent penalties are provided in various sections
w.e.f. assessment year 2002-03 for non-compliance with the
above provisions. These are as under:
Section 271 has been amended to provide for penalty in the
cases where the Assessing Officer adjusts total income by
determining arms length price.
The penalty for such concealment is minimum 100% and
maximum 300% of tax on such concealed income.
Sections 271 AA and 271 G provide for Penalty for failure to
keep and maintain transfer pricing information or documentation or to produce the same during assessment Proceedings. It
is provided that, if any person fails to keep and maintain any
such information and documents as required by section 92D(1)
and (2) or produce the same under section 92D(3), the Assessing Officer or Commissioner (Appeals) may direct that such
person shall pay, by way of penalty, a sum equal to 2 per cent of
the value of each international transaction entered into by such
person.
Further, a new section 271 SA has inserted to provide for
penalty for failure to furnish accountants report. If any person
fails to furnish a report from a chartered accountant as required
by section 92E, the Assessing Officer may direct that such
person shall pay, by way of penalty, a sum of RS.1 Lac.
In all the above cases, if the assessee can show that there was
reasonable cause for the failure, no penalty will be leviable.
Transfer of Income to Non-residents [Section 93]

Section 93 hits at transactions, which are effected with a view to

avoiding liability to taxation. For the purpose, the word nonresident also includes a person who is not ordinarily resident.
In order to attract the provisions of this section, all the
following conditions must be satisfied:
a. There is a transfer of assets - whether movable or
immovable and whether tangible or intangible.
b. The transfer is made by any person in India or outside
irrespective of his residential status or citizenship.
c. The transfer is made either alone or in connection with
associated operations.
d. The assets transferred directly yield income chargeable to tax
under this Act.
e. The transfer of assets is effected in such a manner that the
income becomespayable to a person outside India who is
either a non-resident or a not ordinarily resident in India.

In the second part of the report i.e. Annexure, the particulars

about the international transactions are required to be stated.
Broadly stated these particulars include list of associated
enterprises, particulars and description of transactions relating
to purchase, sales, provisions of service, loans, advances, etc.

f. The transferor acquires any right by virtue of which he gets

the power to enjoy the income whether immediately or in
future.

It may be noted that the auditor is only required to give

particulars about international transactions with associated
enterprises. These particulars have to be classified under the
different heads stated in the form. He is not required to give his
opinion as to whether a particular transaction is at arms length

In particular, this section deems any income of a non-resident

person, which, if it were the income of a resident person,
would be chargeable to tax in India (in the absence of this
Section), as the income of the resident person in India for all
purposes of the Act

g. The Assessing Officer is satisfied that avoidance of liability

to tax in India is the purpose of the transfers.

241

Provided that all the conditions stated above are satisfied. This
Section also covers a variety of transactions constituting a
transfer including cases where assets are transferred to a nonresident person and the transferor indirectly derives income
under the guise of obtaining loans or repayment of loans. If
the aforesaid conditions are fulfilled, the income from the assets
transferred should be treated as the income of the transferor
and would accordingly be taxable in his hands. Therefore, where
assets are transferred to a nonresident limited company, in
consideration of shares allotted by it to the transferor, he (the
transferor), will become assessable under this section in respect
of the income of the company derived by it from those assets.
By holding sufficiently large number of shares the transferor can
be said to have acquired a right by virtue of which be has the
power to enjoy the income of the company whether directly or
indirectly and whether forthwith or in the future [Chidambaram
Chettiar Vs. CIT (1960) 60 ITR 28 (SC)).
This section will not, however, apply to cases where (i) the
transfer is effected bonafide for adequate consideration and (ii) it
is provided to the satisfaction of the Assessing Officer that the
transfer was effected for bonafide commercial purpose and with
no intent to avoid tax.
The income which is deemed to be that of the transferor under
this section may arise either as a result of the transfer in
connection with associated operations. But in both the cases,
the treatment of the income would be the same. The expression associated operation, in relation to a transfer as defined in
sub-section (4)(b) of the section means an operation of any
kind effected by any person in relation to:
i. Any of the assets transferred;
ii. Any assets representing, whether directly or indirectly any of
the assets transferred;
iii. any income arising from such assets;
iv. Any assets representing, whether directly or indirectly, the
accumulation of income arising from such assets.
In order to determine the liability of the assessee in respect of
the deemed income it is immaterial if the income or benefits
from the transfer (i) are actually received or not or (ii) are received
or are receivable in cash or kind or (iii) are receivable directly or
indirectly. For purposes of this section, a person is deemed to
have the power to enjoy the income of a non-resident if:
i. The income, in fact, so dealt with by any person as to be
calculated at some point of time to ensure for the benefit of
the transferor, whether in the same form of the income or
otherwise;
ii. The receipt or accrual of the income operates to increase value
of any assets held by the transferor or for his direct or
indirect benefit;
iii. The transferor receives or is entitled to receive at any time any
benefit out of the income or out of any money available for
the purpose by reason of the effect or successive effects of
the associated operations on that income and the assets
which represent that income;
iv. The transferor is in a position to obtain for himself the
beneficial enjoyment of the income by exercising any power

242

of appointment or power of revocation or otherwise,

whether with or without the consent of any other person, or
v. The transferor is able to control directly or indirectly the
application of the income in any manner whatsoever.
But in determining whether a person has the power to enjoy
the income due regard shall be had to the substantial result and
effect of the transfer and any associated operations must be
taken into consideration irrespective of the nature or form of
the benefits.
However, where an assessee has been charged to tax in respect
of a sum deemed to be his income under this section, the
subsequent receipt of that sum by the assessee, whether as
income or in any other form, shall not be liable to tax in his
hands at the time of receipt.

Transactions in Securities [section 94]

Section 94 aims at preventing avoidance of tax by an assessee by
sale or purchase of securities in devices and under different
circumstances. In all cases where there is a transfer of shares or
securities whereby the transferor avoids tax or shifts the burden
of tax to some other person, the income from the securities
transferred shall be deemed to be that of the owner (being the
transferor) and shall be assessable in his hands accordingly. In
order to attract the provisions of the section, the following
conditions must co-exist as was held in CIT Vs. Sakarfaf
Bafabhi (1986) 69fTR 186:
a. The transfer is of shares or securities;
b. The income arising from the shares or securities is chargeable
to tax as dividend or interest;
c. The transferor is the legal or beneficial owner of or a person
having a beneficial interest in the shares or securities;
d. The income from the shares or securities becomes payable to
a person other than the owner by virtue of the transfer;
e. The transfer mayor may not have been effected for adequate
consideration;
f. The assessee must effect the transfer deliberately with the
intent to avoid tax. In other words, he must receive the
amount which would have been liable to tax as his income
but on which he avoids tax by some article or device.
Bond Washing Transactions

Bond washing transactions and cases of sales of securities and

shares cum-interest or cum-dividend would fall within the
provisions of the section. Income by way of interest on
securities or dividends does not accrue day by day on certain
fixed date or on the date of declaration, as the case may be.
Accordingly, the seller of securities cum-interest or shares cumdividends, on accrual of the interest, is not assessable on the
interest or dividend income on the securities or shares sold by
him since that part of the consideration received would be part
of the capital price realised on sale. As a result, if a person, on
the eve of payment of interest, sells or otherwise transfers his
securities to another and buys back or requires the same after the
interest income had been received by the transfer would escape
tax thereon. This would amount to either total avoidance of tax
or shifting the burden of tax by the transferor indirectly and
transactions of this type are commonly known as bond

washing transaction. In order to prevent this type of avoidance

of tax by the assessee, sub-section (1) pecifically provides that
where the owner of any shares or securities sells or otherwise
transfers them and then buys them back or otherwise reacquires them the interest received by the transferee shall be the
income of the transferor.
Similarly, in cases where shares or securities are sold by the
owner of such shares or securities or by a person having
beneficial interest therein and, as a result of the sale, the
transferor receives either no income or less income from the
securities or shares than that which would have been received by
him, had the income from such securities or shares of such year
shall be deemed to be the income from securities or shares for
such year and shall be deemed to be income of the transferor.
Thus sub-section (2) applies only to cases where
i. the income accrues or falls due periodically and
ii. the income in question is of a recurring nature through the.
interval of time between the two dates of accrual may not
equal (e.g., dividends), However, the notional dividends
specified in Section 2(22) would not be covered by this
section and the assessment of such fictional dividends
should be made only in the hands of the person who is
entitled to the same and not in the hands of the transferor.
There is however, one exception to both the above provisions
given in sub-section (3). According to the exception, the
provisions of sub-section (1) and (2) would not apply

b. such person sells or transfers such securities or unit within a

period of three months after such date;
c. the dividend or income on such securities or unit received or
receivable by such
d. person is exempted, then, the loss, if any, arising therefrom
shall be ignored for the purposes of computing his income
chargeable to tax. Such loss should not exceed the amount
of dividend or income received or receivable on such
securities or unit.
For the purposes of this section,
a. interest includes a dividend;
i.

record date means such date as may be fixed by a

company or a Mutual Fund or the Unit Trust of India
for the purposes of entitlement of the holder of the
securities or the unitholder, to receive dividend or
income. as the case may be;

b. securities includes stocks and shares;

c. securities shall be deemed to be similar if they entitle their
holders to the same rights against the same persons as to
capital and interest and the same remedies for the
enforcement of those rights, notwithstanding any difference
in the total nominal amounts of the respective securities or
in the form in which they are held or in the manner in which
they can be transferred.
Now questions for you.

i. if there has been no avoidance of tax,

1. What do you mean by transfer pricing regulations.

ii. if the avoidance was exceptional and not systematic and there
was no avoidance of income-tax by the assessee during the
three years immediately preceding the previous year. It is for
the assessee to prove to the satisfaction of the Assessing
Officer that there had been no avoidance of tax or that the
avoidance of tax is exceptional and not systematic even
though it may be suitably planned or devised and may be
carried out by a number of sales at the same time.

2. State the provisions for computation of income from

transaction with non-resident.
3. Write short note on International Transactions and transfer
pricing.
4. What are the power of Assessing Officer.?
5. Explain Transactions in securities and transfer pricing.

Where any person carrying on business, wholly or in part, as a

dealer in shares and securities buys or acquires any security and
sells back or transfers the same, then, if the transaction results
in immediate or future benefit except of the income from such
shares or securities otherwise than as a bond washing transaction the effects of the transaction shall be ignored for purposes
of computing the business profits under this Act.
The Assessing Officer has been empowered issue a notice in
writing requiring any person to furnish to him within a
specified time ( not being less than 28 days) in respect of all
securities of which such person was the owner or in which he
had a beneficial interest at any time during the period specified
by h in the notice, such particulars at he may consider necessary
for purposes of this Section and for the purpose of ascertaining
whether tax has been borne in respect of interest or dividends
on all those securities or shares.
The section also provides that where
a. any person buys or acquires any securities or unit within a
period of three months prior to the record date;

243

LESSON 31:
TAX AUDIT
Lesson Objective

To know need for tax audit.

To know legal requirements for Tax Audit.

To know about maintenance of books of account for tax

audit.

To know about presumptive taxation and tax audit.

Students before going in further details we will have a look at

the backgroung ,need and importance of tax audit.

General
a. Background
The scheme of compulsory audit of the accounts of the
assessee was first recommended by Professor Kaldor. The direct
taxes inquiry committee headed by Justice Wanchoo also
recommended audit of accounts of the assessee engaged in
business or profession where the Income or Turnover exceeded
a certain specified limits. These recommendations were made
with a view to reduce the scope for mal-practices by the assessee
and for ensuring that there is a greater reliability in respect of the
books of account produced before the tax authorities. A step in
these direction was taken in 1973 when section 142 (2A) was
introduced in income Tax act under which the commissioner
of income tax was authorized to get accounts audited by
Chartered Accountants. In those cases were having regard to the
nature and complexity of the accounts of the assessee and the
interest of the revenue, the audit was found to be necessary.
The tax audit which is introduced through section 44 AB aims
to achieve the objectives mentioned above. The memorandum
to the finance bill, 1984 while explaining the purpose of
introduction of these section lays down the objective as under.
Accounts maintain by the companies are required to be audited
under companies act 1956. Accounts maintained co-operative
societies are also required to be audited under co-operative
society act 1912 there is however, no obligation on other
categories of tax payers to get there accounts audited .
A proper audit for tax purposes would ensure that books of
accounts and other record are properly maintained and that they
faithfully reflect income of tax payer and came for deduction are
properly made by him such audit would also help in checking
fraudulent practices it can also facilitate the administration of tax
laws by proper presentation of accounts before the tax authorities and considerably saving the time of assessing officers in
carrying out routine verifications. Like checking correctness of
total and verifying whether purchases & sales properly vouched
or not. The time of the assessing officer thus saved.
Having regard to the forgoing consideration the bill seeks to
make a new provision in income tax act making it obligatory for
person carrying on business to get his account audited before
specified date by as Accountant, if the total sales turnover or
gross receipts in business for accounting year or years relevant to
244

the assessment year 1985-86 or any subsequent assessment year

exceed or exceeds 20 lakh Rs. (limit raised to 40 lakh Rs. In the
bill as finally passed) A person carrying on profession will also
have to get his accounts audited before specified date if his
gross receipts in profession for an accounting year or years
relevant to any of the aforesaid the assessment year exceed 10
lakh Rs. The propose new provision also casts an obligation
earns such persons to obtained before the specified date the
report of the audit in the prescribed form duly signed and
verified by the accountant setting forth such particulars as may
be prescribed by rules made in these behalf by central board of
direct taxes.

B. Special Provisions for Furnishing of Reports and /

or Certificates in Prescribed Forms in Support of
Claims for Deduction (Section in Italic Indicate that
a Certificate in the Prescribed Form is Required
Either in Addition to the Report or Only the
Certificate)
In respect of claims the following deduction reports and /or
certificates in the prescribed form have to be submitted
irrespective of whether accounts are audited (either under the
provision income tax act or other act) or not.
Section 80 HHB :- Deduction in respect of profits and
gains from projects outside India.
Section 80 HHBA:- Deduction in respect of profit and
gains from housing project in certain cases.
Section 80 HHC:- Deduction in respect of profits retained
for export business.
Section 80 HHD:- Deduction in respect of earnings in
convertible foreign exchange.
Section 80 HHE:- Deduction in respect of for export of
computers softare.
Section 80 IA :- Deduction in respect of profits and gains
from industrial undertakings or enterprises engaged in
infrastructures development etc.
Section 80 JJAA:- Deduction in respect of employment an
new workmen.
Section 80 O:- Deduction in respect of royalties etc from
certain foreign enterprises.
c. Audit at Instance of Income Tax Department
Section 142 (2A) of IT act provides that if at any stage of
proceedings the assessing officer is of the opinion that is
necessary to get accounts audited he may, with the previous
approval of Chief Commissioner of Income Tax, direct the
assessee to get his accounts audited by an accountant nominated
by the said Chief Commissioner or Commissioner. They can
done whether accounts have been already audited or not. The
assessee has to get his accounts audited with in the period
specified by the assessing officer and furnish the report of such

audit in the prescribed form duly sign & verified by such

accountant to him and setting forth such particulars as may be
prescribed and such other particulars as the assessing officer may
require.

Types of Report
There are two types of different reports to be given in case the
assessee account are audited under any other law (herein after
tow as non corporate assessee) The following summaries the
reporting pattern

a. Person Carrying on Business

(i)in case of companies and assessee
such as trust ,co-operative societies
where accounts are audited under
relevant statues
(II) In case of other assesses where
account are not audited any other law

(A) Audit report in form NO. 3CA (B)

Statement of particular inform No.
3CD
(A) Audit report in form No3CB
(B) Statement of particulars in form
No 3CD .

B. Person Carrying on Profession

(i) In case of assesses carrying on
profession

(A) Audit report in form No.3CB

(B) Statement of particulars in form No.
3CE

The part is the Audit report and second part is the statement of
particulars to be annexed with the audit report .

Institute Publications on Tax Audit

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India has published
a Guidance Note on Tax Audit under section 44AB of Income
Tax Act and Issues on Tax Audit which should be referred
to for any interpretation or clarification of any term use in the
report as well as in the statement of particulars. However, the
Tax Audit Report and Statement of particular have been
substianlly amended vide notification issue by ministry of
finance dated 04. 06. 1999 by income tax (14 amendment )rules
1999.
Difference Between Certificate and Report
Tax audit is a special purpose audit and the attention is invited
to para No. 2.2 of the institute publication viz. Guidance note
on audit report & certificates for special purposeWhich deals
with the distinction between certificate & report issued by
Chartered Accountant. For ready reference the said para is
reproduced here in below.
A reporting auditor should appreciate the difference between
the terms certificate & report. A certificate is a written confirmation of the accuracy of facts stated there in and does not involve
any estimate or opinion. A report on the other hand is formal
statement usually made after an enquiry, examination or review
of specified matters under report & includes the reporting
auditors opinion thereon thus been reporting auditor issue a
certificate he is responsible for the factual accuracy of what is
stated there in. On the other hand when a reporting auditor
gives a report he is responsible for ensuring that the report is
best on factual data, that his opinion is in due accordance with
fact and that is arrive by the application of due care and skills.
Time Limit for Conduct of Tax Audit
Time limit for conduct of tax limit shall be:
1. Where the assessee is a company

2. Where the assessee is not a company

31st October

When Maintenance of Books of Account Becomes

Compulsory [Sec. 44AA]

To understand provisions of compulsory maintenance of

books of account by certain persons, one must know the
meaning of terms specified professions and non-specified
professions.
Specified profession: For the purpose of section 44AA and
rule 6F legal, medical, engineering, architectural, accountancy,
technical consultancy,or interior decoration or any other notified
profession [i.e., authorised representative, film artist, company
secretary and information technology] are specified professions.
For this purpose authorised representative means a person,
who represents any other person, on payment of any fee or
remuneration, before any Tribunal or authority constituted or
appointed by or under any law for the time being in force, but
does not include an employee of the person so represented or a
person carrying on legal profession or a person carrying on the
profession of accountancy.
Film artist, for the aforesaid purpose, means any person
engaged in his professional capacity in the production of a
cinematography film, whether produced by him or by any other
person as an actor, a cameraman, a director, a music director, an
art director, a dance director, an editor, a singer, a lyricist, a story
writer, a screen play writer, a dialogue writer, and a dress
designer.
Non-specified profession - A non-specified profession is a
profession other than a specified profession mentioned
above.
Requirement of compulsory maintenance of books of
account - The requirement of section 44AA and rule 6F for
compulsory maintenance of books of account may be
summarised by grouping different taxpayers in the following
categories:
Category A - Persons carrying on specified professions if
their gross receipts in the profession do not exceed Rs. 1,50,000
in any of the three years immediately preceding the previous
year (or where the profession has been newly set up in the
previous year, his gross total receipts in the profession for that
year are not likely to exceed the said amount).
Persons coming under this category are required to maintain
such books of account and other documents as may enable
the Assessing Officer to compute their taxable income under
the Income-tax Act. It may be noted that the Board has not
prescribed specified books of account to be maintained for the
persons falling under this category.
Category B - Persons carrying on specified professions if
their gross receipts in the profession exceed Rs. 1,50,000 in all
the three years immediately preceding the previous vear (or
where the profession has been newly set up in the previous year,
his gross total receipts in the profession for that year are likely to
exceed the said amount).
Persons coming in this category are required to maintain such
books of account as are prescribed by rule 6F.

30th November

245

Category C - Persons carrying on a non-specified profession

or any business if their income from such profession or
business does not exceed Rs. 1,20,000, and the total sales,
turnover or gross receipts thereof are not in excess of Rs.
10,00,000, in all the three years immediately preceding the
previous year (or when the profession or business is newly set
up, income/ total sales, turnover or gross receipts are not likely
to exceed the said amount).Persons coming under this category
are not required to maintain any books of account.

When Audit of Accounts by Certain Persons is Compulsory

[Sec. 44AB]

Category D- Persons carrying on a non-specified profession

or any business if their income from such profession or
business exceeds Rs. 1,20,000 or the total sales. turnover or
gross receipts thereof are in excess of Rs. 10,00,000 in any of
the three years immediately preceding the previous year (or
when the profession or business is newly set up, income/total
sales, etc., are likely to exceed the said amount).

A person carrying on profession, if his gross receipts in

profession for an accounting year or years relevant to any of the
assessment year exceeds Rs. 10 lakh.

Moreover, this category includes, an assessee, covered under

section 44AD or 44AE or 44AF, or (from the assessment year
2004-05) 44BB/44BBB if it is claimed that the profits and gains
from the business are lower than the profits and gains computed under these sections.
Persons falling under this category are required to maintain such
books of account and other documents as may enable the
Assessing Officer to compute their taxable income under the
Income-tax Act. However, the Board has not prescribed
specified account books to be maintained for this category.
In brief, it can be said that all taxpayers (except those falling
under category C supra) are required to maintain books of
account for computation of taxable income by the income-tax
department, though the Board has prescribed specific account
books only for those who come under category B.
Specified books of account - The Board has specified certain
books of account under rule 6F for the persons falling under
category B supra. The prescribed books are as follows:
(a) a cash book; (b) a journal, if the accounts are maintained
according to the mercantile
system of accounting; (c) a ledger; (d) carbon copies of machinenumbered bills, exceeding Rs. 25, issued by the person; and (e)
original bills wherever issued to the person and receipts in
respect of expenditure incurred by the person or, where such
bills and receipts are not issued and the expenditure incurred
does not exceed fifty rupees, payment vouchers prepared and
signed by the person.
Apart from the aforesaid books of account and documents, a
person carrying on medical profession (i.e., a practitioner of any
system of medicine-physicians, surgeons, dentists, pathologists, vaids, hakims, etc.) is required to keep the following
additional books/documents :
a. A daily case register in Form No. 3C showing date, patients
name, nature of professional services rendered, fees received
and date of receipt; and
b. An inventory, as on the first and the last days of the
previous year, of the stock of drugs, medicines, and other
consumable accessories used for the purpose of his
profession.

246

Provisions of section 44AB are given below:

Who has to get his accounts audited on compulsory basis The following persons are required to get their accounts
compulsorily audited by a chartered accountant A person
carrying on business, if the total sales, turnover or gross receipt
in business for the accounting year or years relevant to the
assessment year exceed or exceeds Rs. 40 lakh.

A person [covered under section 44AD, 44AE or 44AF or

44BB/ 44BBB] who claims that the profits and gains from the
business are lower than the profits and gains computed under
these sections (irrespective of his turnover).
Due date for getting books audited - Section 44AB casts an
obligation on the aforesaid persons to obtain before the
specified date a report of the audit in the prescribed form
duly signed and verified by a chartered accountant. In cases
where accounts are required to be audited by or under any other
law (as in the case of companies and co-operative societies), it
will suffice if accounts are audited under such other law before
the specified date and the assessee obtains before the said
date, a report of the audit as required under such law and also a
report of audit from a chartered accountant in the prescribed
form. The expression specified date is October 31st of the
assessment year in the case of a corporate or non-corporate
assessee.
When the audit report should be submitted - It is obligatory
for a taxpayer [covered under section 44AB :- To not only get
his accounts audited by the specified date but also furnish the
audit report on or before the specified date (i.e., October 31
of the assessment year). Tax audit report shall be furnished by
the specified date irrespective of the fact whether (or not)
return of income is filed by that date. If the return of income is
submitted after submission of tax audit report, then the
following should be submitted along with the return of
income
a. A copy of tax audit report; and
b. A proof of filing tax audit report before the .specified date
(i.e., October 31 t of the assessment year).
Audit forms - The audit report shall be submitted in the
following forms :
Particulars
In the case of a person who carries on
business or profession and who is required
by or under any law to get his accounts
audited.
In the case of a person who carries on
business or profession but not being a
person referred to above

Audit report

Statement
particulars

Form No. 3CA

Form No. 3CD

Form No. 3CB

Form No. 3CD

0therpoints - Section 44AB is not applicable in the case of

assessees who come within the purview of section 44B or
44BBA.

What are the Special Provisions for Computation of

Cost of Acquisition in Certain Cases Under Section
43C ?
Where an asset [not an asset referred to in section 45(2)], which
has become the property of an amalgamated company under a
scheme of amalgamation, is sold after February 29, 1998 as
stock-in-trade, then, in computing the profits and gains from
the sale of such asset, the cost of acquisition of the asset to the
amalgamated company shall be the cost of acquisition of the
asset to the amalgamating company, as increased by the cost, if
any, of any improvement made thereto and the expenditure
incurred wholly arid exclusively in connection with such transfer.
Similarly, when an asset [not being an asset referred to in section
45(2)] which has been acquired by the assessee on transfer, either
by way of total or partial partition of a Hindu undivided family
or under a gift or will or an irrevocable trust, is sold after
February 29,1988, as stock-in-trade, then, in computing the
profits and gains from the sale of such asset, the cost of
acquisition shall be the cost of acquisition in the hands of the
transferor or the donor, as increased by the cost of any improvement made and the expenditure incurred wholly and
exclusively in connection with such transfer including the
payment of gift-tax, by the transferor or the donor, as the case
may be.
To have better understanding, we will discuss the following
examples:

X Ltd. purchases a capital asset on April 6, 1985 for Rs.

2,00,000 and spends Rs.10,000 for making some alterations.
This asset is later on transferred as stock-in-trade at Rs.
240000 to Y Ltd, in the scheme of amalgamation of the two
companies. Y Ltd. sells the stock-in-trade for Rs. 5 lakh on
May 6, 2003. Business income of Y Ltd. will be, Rs. 2.90
lakh (i.e., Rs. 5 lakh minus cost of the capital asset to X Ltd. :
Rs. 2 lakh minus improvement expenses: Rs. 10,000).
X purchases a capital asset on May 1, 1982 for Rs. 1,00,000
and for making some alteration he incurs, an expenditure of
Rs. 50,000. He gifts the asset to Y on June 5, 1995 (value of
the asset being Rs. 2,30,000 and pays Rs. 54,000 as gift-tax
on the same day. Y sells the asset as stock-in-trade on April
20, 2003 for Rs.840000. Business Income of Y for the
assessment year 2004-05 will be determined as follows:
Particulars
Sale Price of stock
Less:
Cost of X
Cost of Improvement
Gift Tax paid by X
Business Income.

Rs.
840000
100000
50000
54000
636000

Presumptive Taxation.
What are the Special Provisions for Computing
Income on Estimated Basis Under Sections 44AD,
44AE and 44AF ?
There provisions are given below

Computation of income on estimated basis in the case of

taxpayers engaged in the business of civil construction
[Sec. 44AD] - The provisions of section 44AD are given below
Who is covered by the scheme of section 44AD - Section
44AD is applicable only if the following conditions are satisfied:
The taxpayer may be an individual, HUF, AOP, BOI, firm,
company, co-operative society or any other person. He or it may
be a resident or a non-resident.
The taxpayer is engaged in the business of civil construction or
supply of labour for civil construction work. The expression
civil construction includes the construction -(or repair) of
buildings, dams, bridges or other structures, or of roads or
canals. It also includes the execution of any other work contract.
It thus includes work related to electrical fittings, plumbing job,
landscaping work, etc.
Gross receipts from the above business do not exceed Rs. 40
lakh. Gross receipts are the amount received from the clients for
the contract and will not include the value of material supplied
by the client.
Consequences if section 44AD is applicable - If the
aforesaid three conditions are satisfied then section 44AD is
applicable. The following are the consequences if section 44AD
is applicable:
1. Income to be calculated on estimated basis @ 8 percent The income from. the above mentioned business is estimated
at 8 per cent of the gross receipts paid or payable to a taxpayer.
A taxpayer can voluntarily declare a higher income in his return.
2. Rate of 8 per cent is comprehensive - All deductions
under sections 30 to 38 including depreciation, are deemed to
have been already allowed and no further deduction is allowed
under these sections. However, in the case of a firm, the normal
deduction in respect of salary and interest to partners under
section 40(b) shall be allowed. The written down value is
calculated, where necessary, as if depreciation as applicable has
been allowed. Moreover, it will be assumed that disallowance, if
any, under sections 40, 40A and 43B has been considered while
calculating the estimated income @ 8 per cent.
After calculating income in accordance with the aforesaid
provisions, one has to follow the following steps
a. It will be aggregated with income of the assessee from any
other business or under other heads of income in accordance
with the normal provisions of the Income-tax Act;
b. Brought forward business losses and other losses shall be
deducted according to the normal provisions of the Incometax Act;
c. All deductions permissible under sections 80CCC to 80U
shall be allowed; and
d. Tax on net income shall be calculated according to the normal
provisions and rebate under sections 88, 88B and 88e shall be
allowed.
3. Provisions for maintenance of books of account or
compulsory audit - not applicable - The following privileges
are available to a taxpayer who declares his income from the
aforesaid business at the rate of 8 per cent of gross receipts (or
at a higher rate):
247

a. He is not required to maintain books of account according

to the provisions of section 44AA in respect of the aforesaid
business; and
b. He is not required to get his books of account audited under
section 44AB in respect of the aforesaid business.
It may be noted that the aforesaid privilege is available only in
respect of the aforesaid business. Even such an assessee has to
comply with the requirements of both sections 44AA and
44AB in respect of his business which are not covered by this
scheme.

Notes:
Goods carriage - Goods carriage means any motor vehicle
constructed or adapted for use solely for the carriage of goods,
or any motor vehicle not so constructed or adapted when used
for the carriage of goods.
Heavy goods vehicle - Heavy goods vehicle means any
goods carriage the gross vehicle weight of which, or a tractor or
a road-roller the unladen weight of either of which exceeds
12,000 kilograms.

Provisions illustrated - A person has gross receipts of Rs. 30

lakh from civil construction business and of Rs. 25 lakh from
trading in scrap. Although his total gross receipts are Rs. 25
lakh, he will not be required to have his accounts audited, since
his gross receipts after excluding those from the business of
civil construction are still less than Rs. 40 lakh, the limit
provided in section 44AB.

Ownership is the criteria - Income on the aforesaid basis is

calculated for the period during which the goods carriage is
owned by the taxpayer (not on the basis of the period during
which the goods carriage is put to use). For instance, income of
a taxpayer who is engaged in the aforesaid business and who
purchases a heavy good vehicle on May 16,2003 (the goods
carriage is put to use on June 12, 2003) shall be Rs. 38,500 (i.e.,
Rs. 3,500 for 11 months).

Is it possible to declare lower income - A taxpayer can declare

his income to be lower than the deemed profits and gains as
stated above. In.such cases,

Hire declaration of income possible - A taxpayer can claim

his income from the aforesaid business at a higher amount then
that specified in the table above.

a. The taxpayer will have to maintain the books of account as

per section 44AA (irrespective of income or turnover); and

2. Estimated income is comprehensive - All deductions

under sections 30 to 38 including depreciation, are deemed to
have been already allowed and no further deduction is allowed
under these sections. However, in the case of a firm, the normal
deduction in respect of salary and interest to partners under
section 40(b) shall be allowed. The written down value is
calculated, where necessary, as if depreciation as applicable has
been allowed. Moreover, it will be assumed that disallowance, if
any, under sections 40, 40A and 43B has been considered while
calculating the estimated income @ 8 per cent.

b. The taxpayer will have to get his books of account audited

under section 44AB (irrespective of turnover).

Computation of Income on Estimated Basis in the

Case of Taxpayers Engaged in the Business of
Plying, Leasing or Hiring Trucks [Sec. 44AE]
The provisions of section 44AE are given below
Who is covered by the scheme of section 44AE Section 44AE is
applicable only if the following conditions are satisfied
1. The taxpayer may be an individual, HUF, AOP, BOI, firm,
company, co-operative society or any other person. He or it
may be a resident or a non-resident.
2. Taxpayer is engaged in the business of plying, hiring or
leasing goods carriages.
The taxpayer owns not more 10 goods carriages at any time
during the previous year. f:or this purpose, a taxpayer, who is in
possession of a goods carriage, whether taken on hire purchase
or on instalments and for which the whole or part of the
amount payable is still due, shall be deemed to be the owner of
such goods carriage.
Consequences if section 44AE is applicable
If the aforesaid conditions are satisfied then section 44AE is
applicable. The following are the consequences if section 44AE
is applicable:
1. lncome to be calculated on estimated basis - Income
from the aforesaid business shall be calculated as follows:
Type of goods
carriage

Estimated Income

Heavy good vehicle

Rs. 3,500 for every month (or part of a month) during

which the goods carriage is owned by the taxpayer

Other than heavy

good vehicle

Rs. 3,150 for every month (or part of a month) during

which the goods carriage is owned by the taxpayer

248

After calculating income in accordance with the aforesaid

provisions, one has to follow the following steps
a. It will be aggregated with income of the assessee from any
other business or under other heads of income in accordance
with the normal provisions of the Income-tax Act;
b. Brought forward business losses and other losses shall be
deducted according to the normal provisions of the Incometax Act;
c. All deductions permissible under sections 80CCC to 80U
shall be allowed; and
d. Tax on net income shall be calculated according to the normal
provisions and rebate under sections 88, 88B and 88C shall
be allowed.
3. Provisions for maintenance of books of account l
compulsory audit - Not applicable - The following privileges
are available to a taxpayer who declares his income from the
aforesaid business at the rate given above (or at a higher rate)
a. He is not required to maintain books of account according to
the provisions of section 44AA in respect of the aforesaid
business; and
b. He is not required to get his books of account audited under
section 44AB in respect of the aforesaid business.
It may be noted that the aforesaid privilege is available only in
respect of the aforesaid business. Even such an assessee has to
comply with the requirements of both sections 44AA and

44AB in respect of his business which are not covered by this

scheme.
Is it possible to declare lower income - a taxpayer can declare
his income to be lower than the deemed profits and gains as
stated above. In such cases,
a. The taxpayer will have to maintain the books of account as
per section 44AA (irrespective of income or turnover); and
b. The taxpayer will have to get his books of account audited
under section 44AB (irrespective of turnover).

Scheme for Computing Profits and Gains of Retail

Traders [Sec. 44AF]
The provisions of section 44AF are given below
Who is covered by the scheme of section 44AF - section
44AF is applicable only if the following conditions are satisfied
1. The taxpayer may be an individual, HUF, AOP, BOI, firm,
company, co-operative society or any other person. He or it
may be a resident or a non-resident.
2. The taxpayer is engaged in the business of retail trade in any
goods or merchandise.
3. Total turnover from the above business does not exceed Rs.
40 lakh.
Consequences if section 44AF is applicable - if the aforesaid
three conditions are satisfied then section 44AF is applicable.
The following are the consequences if section 44AF is applicable:
1. Income to be calculated on estimated basis @ 5 per cent
- The income from the above mentioned business is
estimated at 5 per cent of the total turnover. A taxpayer can
voluntarily declare a higher income in his return.
2. Rate of 5 per cent is comprehensive - All deductions
under sections 30 to 38 including depreciation, are deemed to
have been already allowed and no further deduction is
allowed under these sections. However, in the case of a firm,
the normal deduction in respect of salary and interest to
partners under section 40(b) shall be allowed. The written
down value is calculated, where necessary, as if depreciation as
applicable has been allowed. Moreover, it will be assumed
that disallowance, if any, under sections 40, 40A and 43B has
been considered while calculating the estimated income @ 5
per cent.
After calculating income in accordance with the aforesaid
provisions one has to follow the following steps
a.
It will be aggregated with income of the assessee from
any other business or under other heads of income in
accordance with the normal provisions of the Incometax Act;
b.
Brought forward business losses and other losses shall
be deducted according to the normal provisions of the
Income-tax Act;
c.
All deductions permissible under sections 80CCC to
80U shall be allowed; and
d.
Tax on net income shall be calculated according to the
normal provisions and rebate under sections 88, 88B
and 88C shall be allowed.

3. Provisions for maintenance of books of account l

compulsory audit - Not applicable - The following privileges
are available to a taxpayer who declares his income from the
aforesaid business at the rate of 5 per cent of gross receipts (or
at a higher rate)
a. He is not required to maintain books of account according
to the provisions of section 44AA in respect of the aforesaid
business; and
b. He is not required to get his books of account audited under
section 44AB in respect of the aforesaid business.
It may be noted that the aforesaid privilege is available only in
respect of the aforesaid business. Even such an assessee has to
comply with the requirements of both sections 44AA and
44AB in respect of his business which are not covered by this
scheme.
Provisions illustrated - A person has gross receipts of Rs. 30
lakh from the business of retail trade and Rs. 35 lakh from
wholesale trading in paper. Although his total gross receipts are
Rs. 65 lakh, he will not be required to have his accounts audited,
since his gross receipts after excluding those from the business
of retail trade are still less than Rs. 40 lakh, the limit provided in
section 44AB.
Is it possible to declare lower income - A taxpayer can
declare his income to be lower than the deemed profits and
gains as stated above. In such cases,
a. The taxpayer will have to maintain the books of account as
per section 44AA (irrespective of income or turnover); and
b. The taxpayer will have to get his books of account audited
under section 44AB (irrespective of turnover).
Let us have some questions for our practice.
1. What are the requirements for tax audit as per the Act.
2. What do you mean by presumptive taxation. Give two
examples.
3. Explain when an assessee is required to maintain
compulsory books of accounts under the Act.
4. Explain the Scheme for computing profits and gains of retail
traders [Sec. 44AF].

249