Handbook of Agricultural Engineering

CIGR Handbook
of Agricultural Engineering
Volume I
i
ii
CIGR Handbook
of Agricultural Engineering
Volume I
Land and Water Engineering
Edited by CIGR–The International

Commission of Agricultural Engineering
Volume Editor:
H. N. van Lier
Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands
Co-Editors:
L. S. Pereira
Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Portugal
F. R. Steiner
Arizona State University, USA
➤ Front Matter
➤ Table of Contents
Published by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers
iii
Copyright °c 1999 by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers
All Rights Reserved
LCCN 98-93767 ISBN 1-892769-01-8
This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part by any means (with the exception
of short quotes for the purpose of review) without the permission of the publisher.
For Information, contact:
Manufactured in the United States of America
The American Society of Agriculture Engineers is not responsible for the statements
and opinions advanced in its meetings or printed in its publications. They represent the
views of the individuals to whom they are credited and are not binding on the society as
a whole.
iv
Editors and Authors
Volume Editor
H. N. van Lier
Wageningen Agricultural University, Department of Environmental Sciences,
Laboratory for Spatial Analysis, Planning, and Design, 13 Gen. Foulkesweg,
Wageningen 6703 BJ, The Netherlands
Co-Editors
L. S. Pereira
Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Departamento De Engenharia Rural, Tapada da
Ajuda, Lisbon 1399, Portugal
F. R. Steiner
School of Planning and Landscape Architecture, College of Architecture
and Environmental Design, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2005, USA
Authors
R. G. Allen
Department of Agricultural Irrigation Engineering, Utah State University, Logan
UT 84322-4105, USA
J. Amsler
Swiss Federal Office of Agriculture, Section Land Improvement, 5 Mattenhof Strasse
Berne CH-3003, Switzerland
V. Bagarello
Universita di Palermo, Dipartimento di Ingegneria e Tecnologie Agro-Forestali,
Sezione Idraulica, Viale delle Scienze, Palermo 90128, Italy
A. Brasa Ramos
Escuela Tecnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Departamento de Producción
Vegetal y Tecnologı́a Agraria, Universidad de Castilla–La Mancha, Campus
Universitario, Albacete 02071, Spain
G. Chisci
Universita di Firenze, Dipartimento di Scienze Agronomiche e Gestione del Territorio
Agroforestale, 18 Piazza delle Cascine, Firenze 50144, Italy
H. Depeweg
Section Land and Water Development IHE; International Institute for Infrastructural,
Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering, Westvest 7, P.O. Box 3015, 2601 DA Delft,
The Netherlands
D. De Wrachien
Università di Milano, Istituto di Idraulica Agraria, 2 Via Celoria, Milan 20133, Italy
M. W. van Dongen
c/o Wageningen Agricultural University, Department of Environmental Sciences,
v
vi Editors and Authors
C. Fabeiro Cortés
V. Ferro
Universita di Palermo, Dipartimento di Ingegneria e Tecnologie Agro-Forestali,
Sezione idraulica, Viale delle Scienze, Palermo 90128, Italy
M. Greppi
Università di Milano, Istituto di Idraulica Agraria, 2 Via Celoria, Milan 20133, Italy
M. B. A. Hes
A. Hoogeveen
Optifield, 197 Boeckstaetedreef, Nijmegen 6543 JH, The Netherlands
C. F. Jaarsma
Wageningen Agricultural University, Department of Environmental Sciences,
J. Arturo de Juan
A. Legorburo Serra
Escuela Tecnica Superior de Ingenieros Agronomos, Departamento de Produccion
Vegetal y Tecnologia Agraria, Universidad de Castilla–La Mancha, Campus
F. Martin de Santa Olalla
Escuela Tecnica Superior de Ingenieros Agronomos, Departamento de Produccion
Vegetal y Tecnologia Agraria, Universidad de Castilla–La Mancha, Campus
J. Martinez Beltran
Land and Water Development Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Room: B 725, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, Rome 00100, Italy
F. Preti
Istituto di Genio Rurale, Facolta di Agraria, Universita della Tuscia, via S. Camillo de
lellis, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
Editors and Authors vii
N. Romano
Università di Napoli, Federico II, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Agraria,
100 Via Università, Portici (Naples) 80055, Italy
J. M. Tarjuelo
Centro Regional de Estudios del Agua, Instituto de Desarrollo Regional (IDR),
Universidad de Castilla–La Mancha, Campus Universitario, Albacete 02071, Spain
T. J. Trout
USDA/ARS/Water Management Research Laboratory, 2021 S. Peach Avenue, Fresno
CA 93727-5951, USA
A. P. Wolleswinkel
viii
Editorial Board
Fred W. Bakker-Arkema, Editor of Vol. IV
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Michigan State University
Michigan, USA
El Houssine Bartali, Editor of Vol. II (Part 1)

Institute of Agronomy
Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco
Egil Berge
University of Norway, Norway
Jan Daelemans
National Institute of Agricultural Engineering
Merelbeke, Belgium
Tetuo Hara
Department Engenharia Agricola
Universidade Federal de Vicosa
36570-000 Vicosa, MG, Brazil
Donna M. Hull
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Michigan 49085-9659, USA
A. A. Jongebreur
IMAG-DLO
Wageningen, The Netherlands
Osamu Kitani, Editor-in-Chief and Editor of Vol. V

Department of Bioenvironmental and Agricultural Engineering
Nihon University
Kameino 1866
Fujisawa, 252-8510 Japan
Hubert N. van Lier, Editor of Vol. I

Chairgroup Land Use Planning
Laboratory for Special Analysis, Planning and Design
Department of Environmental Sciences
Agricultural University
Wageningen, The Netherlands
ix
x Editorial Board
A. G. Rijk
Asian Development Bank
P.O. Box 789
0980 Manila, Philippines
W. Schmid
O.R.L. Institute, E.T.H.Z.
Hongerberg
Zurich, Switzerland
The late Richard A. Spray

Agricultural and Biological Engineering Department
Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina 29634-0357, USA
Bill A. Stout, Editor of Vol. III

Texas A & M University
Texas, USA
Fred W. Wheaton, Editor of Vol. II (Part 2)

Agricultural Engineering Department
University of Maryland
Maryland, USA
Contents
Foreword xv
Preface and Acknowledgments xvii
1 Balancing Agriculture Between Development and Conservation 1

1.1 Agriculture: a Description 1
1.1.1 Scope of Activities 1
1.1.2 Description of Agricultural Systems 2
1.1.3 Characteristics of Agricultural Systems 4
1.2 Dynamics in Agriculture 4
1.2.1 Limiting Conditions for Agriculture 4
1.2.2 Improving the Limiting Conditions for Agriculture 7
1.2.3 Demand for Agricultural Products 8
1.2.4 Major Trends in World Agriculture 9
1.3 Agriculture and the Countryside 12
1.3.1 Description of the Countryside 12
1.3.2 Countryside Values 13
1.3.3 Countryside Values and Agriculture 14
1.4 Farming: a Balance 14
1.5 Sustainability in Farming and Countryside 15
2 Land- and Water-Use Planning 19

2.1 The Planning Issue 19
2.1.1 Why Land- and Water-Use Planning Are Important 19
2.1.2 Goals 22
2.1.3 The Planning Process 24
2.1.4 Levels of Planning 37
2.1.5 Knowledge Systems 38
2.2 Land-Use Planning for Farming 43
2.2.1 Land-Use Planning 43
2.2.2 Spatial Conditions 44
2.2.3 Biophysical Conditions 50
2.2.4 Socioeconomic Conditions 53
3 Rural Roads 59
3.1 Overview 59
3.2 Rural Road Development in a Wider Context 60
3.2.1 Introduction 60
3.2.2 Rural Road Networks and LTRs 62
3.2.3 Classification of (Rural) Roads 65
3.2.4 Rural Traffic Problems and the Need for Planning 70
3.3 Planning of Rural Road Networks 73
3.3.1 Planning for the Opening Up of Agricultural Areas 73
3.3.2 Planning for the Opening Up of Developing Rural Areas 75
3.3.3 Sustainable Planning for Multiple-Use Rural Areas 77
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xii Contents
3.4 Construction of Rural Roads 86

3.4.1 Framework Conditions 87
3.4.2 Concepts 88
3.4.3 Substratum and Foundation 88
3.4.4 Frost Problems 91
3.4.5 Drainage 91
3.4.6 Road Body 94
3.4.7 Construction 95
3.4.8 Other Types of Road Construction 97
3.4.9 Road Safety 99
3.5 Maintenance of Rural Roads 101
3.5.1 Different Concepts 103
3.5.2 Causes of Damage 105
3.5.3 Planning and Execution of Work 106
3.5.4 Financing 108
4 Land Reclamation and Conservation 113

4.1 Soil Reclamation 113
4.1.1 Assessment of the Problem 113
4.1.2 Wet Soils 114
4.1.3 Saline Soils 122
4.1.4 Derelict and Degraded Soils 126
4.1.5 Tidal Soils 131
4.2 Soil Renegeration and Improvement 135
4.2.1 Soil Degradation 135
4.2.2 Soil Regeneration 143
4.3 Assessment of Soil Erosion 153
4.3.1 Types of Erosion and Its Assessment 153
4.3.2 Measurement of Soil Losses from Erosion 161
4.3.3 Estimation of Soil Losses from Erosion 170
4.3.4 Conclusions 176
4.4 Soil Conservation: Erosion Control 184
4.4.1 Mechanical Methods 184
4.4.2 Agrobiological Measures 194
4.4.3 Measures for Wind Erosion Control 206
5 Irrigation and Drainage 213

5.1 Crop Water Requirements 213
5.1.1 Main Concepts 213
5.1.2 Evapotranspiration: The Penman-Monteith Equation 214
5.1.3 Description of the Reference Evapotranspiration 220
5.1.4 Calculation of the Reference Evapotranspiration 224
5.1.5 Crop Evapotranspiration 236
5.1.6 Soil Water Balance and Irrigation Water Requirements 254
Contents xiii
5.2 Water Retention and Movement in Soil 262

5.2.1 Basic Concepts 262
5.2.2 Soil Water Content 263
5.2.3 Soil Water Potential 267
5.2.4 Soil Water Retention Characteristics 270
5.2.5 Flow Within the Soil 273
5.2.6 Water Flow in Saturated Soil 274
5.2.7 Water Flow in Unsaturated Soil 275
5.2.8 Indirect Estimation of Water-Retention and
Hydraulic-Conductivity Functions 279
5.3 Irrigation Scheduling Techniques 284
5.3.2 Methods 285
5.3.3 Water Balance 287
5.3.4 Irrigation Programming Under Adverse Conditions 288
5.3.5 Irrigation Advisory Systems 292
5.4 Irrigation Methods 297
5.4.1 Irrigation Systems and Irrigation Performance 297
5.4.2 Surface Irrigation 301
5.4.3 Sprinkler Irrigation 320
5.4.4 Microirrigation 346
5.4.5 System Selection 369
5.5 Crop Water Management 380
5.5.2 Effects of Water Deficits 380
5.5.3 Effects of Water Excess on Plant Physiology 386
5.5.4 Water-Use Efficiency (WUE) 388
5.5.5 Water Yield Functions 393
5.5.6 Crop Water Models 400
5.5.7 Strategies for Water Conservation in Rainfed Agriculture 405
5.5.8 Water Management Under Specific Environmental
Conditions 412
5.6 Land Drainage 430
5.6.2 Drainage Investigations 431
5.6.3 Subsurface Drainage Systems 444
5.6.4 Surface Drainage Systems 462
5.6.5 Main Drainage Systems 468
5.6.6 Drainage and the Environment: Water-Quality Aspects 476
5.7 Off-Farm Conveyance and Distribution Systems 484
5.7.1 Irrigation Systems Definitions 484
5.7.2 Irrigation Areas 485
5.7.3 Objectives of a Conveyance and Distribution System 487
5.7.4 Types of Conveyance and Distribution Systems 487
xiv Contents
5.7.5 Management of Conveyance and Distribution Systems 490

5.7.6 Water Delivery Policies 493
5.7.7 Flow Control Systems 498
5.7.8 Some Observations on Management Inputs 502
5.8 Water Quality in Agriculture 507
5.8.1 Quality of Water for Agricultural Use:
Impacts on Agriculture 507
5.8.2 Effects of Agricultural Activities on Water Quality 518
5.8.3 Methods of Identification, Evaluation,
Management, and Control 533
Index 545
Foreword
This handbook has been edited and published as a contribution to world agriculture at
present as well as for the coming century. More than half of the world’s population is
engaged in agriculture to meet total world food demand. In developed countries, the
economic weight of agriculture has been decreasing. However, a global view indicates
that agriculture is still the largest industry and will remain so in the coming century.
Agriculture is one of the few industries that creates resources continuously from
nature in a sustainable way because it creates organic matter and its derivatives by
utilizing solar energy and other material cycles in nature. Continuity or sustainability
is the very basis for securing global prosperity over many generations—the common
objective of humankind.
Agricultural engineering has been applying scientific principles for the optimal con-
version of natural resources into agricultural land, machinery, structure, processes, and
systems for the benefit of man. Machinery, for example, multiplies the tiny power (about
0.07 kW) of a farmer into the 70 kW power of a tractor which makes possible the
production of food several hundred times more than what a farmen can produce manu-
ally. Processing technology reduces food loss and adds much more nutritional values to
agricultural products than they originally had.
The role of agricultural engineering is increasing with the dawning of a new century.
Agriculture will have to supply not only food, but also other materials such as bio-fuels,
organic feedstocks for secondary industries of destruction, and even medical ingredients.
Furthermore, new agricultural technology is also expected to help reduce environmental
destruction.
This handbook is designed to cover the major fields of agricultural engineering such
as soil and water, machinery and its management, farm structures and processing agri-
cultural, as well as other emerging fields. Information on technology for rural planning
and farming systems, aquaculture, environmental technology for plant and animal pro-
duction, energy and biomass engineering is also incorporated in this handbook. These
emerging technologies will play more and more important roles in the future as both
traditional and new technologies are used to supply food for an increasing world popula-
tion and to manage decreasing fossil resources. Agricultural technologies are especially
important in developing regions of the world where the demand for food and feedstocks
will need boosting in parallel with the population growth and the rise of living standards.
It is not easy to cover all of the important topics in agricultural engineering in a
limited number of pages. We regretfully had to drop some topics during the planning
and editorial processes. There will be other requests from the readers in due course. We
would like to make a continuous effort to improve the contents of the handbook and, in
the near future, to issue the next edition.
This handbook will be useful to many agricultural engineers and students as well as
to those who are working in relevant fields. It is my sincere desire that this handbook will
be used worldwide to promote agricultural production and related industrial activities.
Osamu Kitani
Editor-in-Chief
xv
xvi
Preface and Acknowledgments
Land and Water Engineering are becoming increasingly important globally for the future
of humankind. There are at least two main reasons for this growing significance: First, it
is well understood that, aside from several other means, the wise use of land and water
will play a key role in the provision of enough good food for future generations. Despite
all types of programs and policies, the global population still increases and most probably
will continue to do so for the next half century or so. This means that more food and
fiber will be necessary. At the same time the demand for food changes in terms of types
and quality. There is undoubtedly an increase with regard to the demand for high-quality
food with a larger variety in daily nutrition. Both effects mean an increased concern for
better land use and improved agricultural water management to provide for future food
requirements.
Second, the demand for different land uses in the rural countryside (often referred
to as the green space) is increasing tremendously, especially in the developed world.
However, each day, it is becoming clearer that the developing world also needs to pay
more attention to this aspect. Land used for housing, industries, infrastructure, outdoor
recreation, landscape, and nature is in high demand. The increased uses of land for urban
development are a direct result of the increasing population, urbanization, welfare, etc.
The growing concerns for landscape and nature are a result of a better understanding of
its vital role in creating a sustainable countryside. Farming, as an important and mostly
dominant user of space in rural areas, has to change in at least two ways. The way in which
farming is performed, especially the high-intensive mechanized farming, has to change
to farming methods in which the natural resources, soils, and water are safeguarded
from depletion. Methods that keep or improve the natural qualities are considered to
be sustainable and therefore important for future generations. At the same time, there
is an increasing understanding that landscape or nature has an important meaning for
earth and humankind in the long run. The protection and re-creation of nature areas,
the planning of new nature areas, the design of ecological corridors, the redesign and
improvement of (often small-scale) landscapes with their value for living and enjoyment
are at stake. Finding new balances in green spaces among these different demands is the
ultimate challenge for land and water engineers and related professions.
Volume I of this CIGR Handbook attempts to address this challenge by first focusing
on the changing role of agriculture within society and within the rural countryside. To-
day’s and future farming systems have to face the challenge of finding a balance between
further development in terms of increased volumes and productivity, diversification in
food, and improved qualities of food on the one hand and the establishment of farm-
ing methods that safeguard the environment, the natural resources, and the ecosystem,
nature, and landscape on the other.
Although many types of action are necessary to achieve these goals, there is certainly
a special role for land- and water-use planning. This creates possibilities for rearranging
farms, fields, and rural roads and for improving soils and the water management systems.
The opening up of the countryside is not only important for farming but also for other
functions, such as for outdoor recreation, living, nature education, forestry, and others.
Chapters 1 through 3 describe these possibilities in more detail.
xvii
xviii Preface and Acknowledgments
Soil, together with water, provides the basis for our life on Earth. After humankind
in distant history changed from hunters and nomads to settlers, soil was worked to
improve its productivity. The reclaiming and conservation of soils through regeneration,
improvement, erosion control, and so forth was, is, and will be extremely important
for our species to survive and prosper. Chapter 4 gives the most important of today’s
knowledge and practice in this regard.
Together with our care for good soils is the establishment of good water management
systems, both in its quantitative and qualitative meanings. Crop production, the relation
of water to soils, the providing of good and sufficient water for crop protection, the
drainage of agricultural lands and regions, and finally the quality of water, especially
related to drainage, are important topics in this regard. Chapter 5 gives the latest and
most important knowledge and practice in these fields.
To conceptualize a book on Land and Water Engineering is not an easy undertaking.
This undertaking is practically impossible for a single individual. I am therefore indebted
to many others. First, I would like to thank the many authors who set aside time not only
to produce the first drafts of their paragraphs or chapters but also to do the corrections
and improvements after one or two review processes. This book would not have been
possible at all without them, and the workers in the field. Second, I owe very much to
the “Wageningen crew,” N. Berkhout, A. Hoogeveen, C. Jacobs and M. Riksen, for their
substantial help in writing Chapter 2 and reviewing the first drafts of Chapters 4 and 5.
Their willingness to do this critical reading and improvement was the beginning of the
last and long effort to complete the book.
I am also very much indebted to our official reviewers from abroad, who read and com-
mented on the different chapters in their final phase. W. Schmid (ORL, ETHZ, Switzer-
land) who, with his team, took the responsibility for Chapters 1–3 and M. Fritsch (LWM,
ETHZ, Switzerland) and his colleagues, who was responsible for Chapters 4 and 5, did
a marvellous work in reading and commenting on the many paragraphs and chapters.
The whole project would have failed without the enormous help of my two co-
editors. L. Santos Pereira not only co-authored two main sections, but also reviewed,
corrected, and improved the contents of the Chapters 4 and 5. For this reviewing
he thankfully was assisted by D. Raes (Leuven, Belgium), M. Smith (FAO, Rome),
D. Kincaid and D. Bjomberg (Idaho, USA), F. Lamm (Kansas, USA), and F. Morissey
(California, USA). It proved to be a time-consuming process for which I owe him very
much. Special thanks goes also to W. H. van der Molen and W. Ochs for reviewing the
Land Drainage Chapter F. R. Steiner spent very much of his time not only in reviewing
and commenting on Chapters 1–3 but also in correcting and improving the English for
the large majority of all sections and chapters. Without his performance in this regard,
the book could not have been published.
A last but specific thanks goes to Andreas Hoogeveen, who from the very beginning
to the last minute helped not only to co-author one of the sections, but also to prepare
all intermediate and final layouts of each paragraph and chapter. Without this heavy and
time-consuming work, the book would not be in its present state. Andreas, thank you.
Hubert N. van Lier

Editor of the Volume I
Balancing Agriculture
1 Between Development
and Conservation
M. W. van Dongen and H. N. van Lier
Increasing agricultural production has always been the main goal of agricultural re-
search. Because of the continuing growth of the world’s population and the important
share of agricultural products in the world economy, this increase of agricultural pro-
duction will continue to be important, but under different conditions. The more or less
uncontrolled growth in agricultural production during the past few decades, in indus-
trial as well as developing countries, has pushed agricultural production to and, in many
cases, over the edge of sustainability. This means that the traditional ways to increase
production by, for example, land and water engineering are meeting a new challenge: to
find a new balance between agricultural development and the conservation of the natural
resources.
1.1 Agriculture: a Description

1.1.1 Scope of Activities
Agriculture is the practice of cultivating the soil, harvesting crops, and raising live-
stock to produce plants and animals useful to human beings and, in varying degrees, it
is the preparation of these products for humans use and their disposal [1]. According
to this definition, agriculture includes horticulture, seed production, dairy farming and
livestock production (animal husbandry), the management of land that supports these
activities [2]. Forestry and fisheries are excluded.
The main activity of agriculture is the production of food. Grigg [3] gives as an
example the United States, where 90% of the value of farm products is consumed as
food, and 93% of farmland is sown with food crops. Besides food, agriculture provides
raw materials such as cotton and wool for clothing, stimulants such as tobacco, coffee,
and tea, as well as flowers and rubber.
In many countries, agriculture is not only the main source of food and raw materials,
it is the main source of income. For the period 1990–1992, about 48% of the total world
labor force was working in agriculture [4]. In the developing countries, this was about
58% and in the industrial countries about 10% of the total labor force [4]. However,
the progressive industrialization of agriculture in developing countries will lead to a
smaller labor force in these countries in the (near) future. This will have a major impact
on the socioeconomic development of rural areas as well as of their agglomerations.
1
2 Balancing Agriculture Between Development and Conservation
Nevertheless, the figures make clear that agriculture is still the most important human
(economic) activity in the world.
1.1.2 Description of Agricultural Systems

Agriculture is practiced in many different ways, resulting in a great diversity of
agricultural types all over the world. These agricultural types can be roughly divided
into eight major groups [5]:
• subsistence farming and shifting cultivation,
• pastoral nomadism,
• wet-rice cultivation,
• Mediterranean agriculture,
• mixed farming systems and dairying,
• plantations,
• ranching, and
• large-scale grain production.
Subsistence Farming and Shifting Cultivation

Subsistence farming is the production of enough food and fiber for the needs of the
farmer’s family [6]. This form of agriculture is quite common in the developing countries.
Shifting cultivation is a system in which a relatively short cultivation period alternates
with a long fallowing period. In the traditional system, a cultivation period of two to three
years is followed by a fallowing period of 20 years or more. In this fallowing period the
original vegetation (mostly forest) regenerates and soil fertility is restored. Because such
a system is only possible where the population density is very low, shifting cultivation
is being replaced by other agricultural systems. In Africa, for example, the original
shifting cultivation is replaced by bush fallowing in which the fallowing periods are only
long enough for grass or bush to regenerate [3]. If more than 30% of the arable and
temporarily used land is cultivated annually, we no longer speak of shifting cultivation
but of semipermanent farming [7].
Pastoral Nomadism
Pastoral nomadism is a system in which farmers (nomads) and their households are
more or less continuously moving with the herd, on which they depend for food, fuel,
clothing, and cash. Pastoral nomadism is found in the arid and semiarid tropics of Asia
and Africa. In these areas the grass production is very low and seasonal. This means
that the livestock cannot stay at one place for a long period [5]–[7]. Ruthenberg [7]
distinguishes two main types of nomadism:
• total nomadism, in which the livestock owners do not live in permanent settlements,
practice no regular cultivation, and move their families with their herds;
• seminomadism, in which the livestock owners have a permanent place of residence
(which is kept for several years) and combine some kind of regular cultivation with
long periods of travel with their herds.
Wet-Rice Cultivation
Wet-rice cultivation is a system in which rice is grown in slowly moving water to
an average height of 100–150 mm for three-quarters of its growing period [5]. Wet-rice
Agriculture: a Description 3
cultivation is found mainly in the river deltas and the lower reaches of rivers of the Far
East. It supports a majority of the rural population in that part of the world [5].
Mediterranean Agriculture
Mediterranean agriculture is found in the areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea
and in areas with a similar climate, characterized by mild, wet winters and hot, dry sum-
mers [5]. There are four land-use patterns that characterize the traditional Mediterranean
farming system [5]:
• extensive wheat cultivation;
• extensive grazing by sheep and goats;
• cultivation of tree crops such as olives and figs, grapes, and date palms;
• cultivation of fruits and vegetables, with apples, peaches, and pears as most im-
portant fruit crops and potatoes, tomatoes, lettuce, onions, cauliflower, and peas as
most important vegetables.
Intensification and specialization has partly changed the Mediterranean agricultural sys-
tem, with olive and grapes becoming the most important crops.
Mixed Farming Systems and Dairying
Mixed farming systems integrate crop and livestock production [6]. Mixed farming
was originally a typical agricultural system for northwestern Europe and the easter United
States [5]. Some characteristics are [5]:
• high level of commercialization,
• a declining agricultural labor force,
• ownership and operation by families (family farm),
• use of a large part of cereal crops to feed livestock.
A better access to inputs and services, cheap chemical fertilizers, and the legislation and
price interventions of the European Union have resulted in specialization and intensifi-
cation of the mixed farming systems in Europe. The number of traditional mixed farms
has strongly declined in the past few decades. They have been replaced with specialized
farms that produce crops or livestock.
Dairying is the production of milk and milk products and is most common within
the farming systems of Europe, North America, and Australasia [5]. Table 1.1 shows the
dominant role of Europe in milk and cheese production worldwide.
Plantations
Plantations are large-scale tropical and subtropical crop production systems, special-
izing in one or two crops. Typical crops are rubber, coconuts, oil palm, sisal, cacao,
coffee, bananas, tea, cotton, jute, tobacco and groundnuts [5]. The plantation system
origined during early European colonization of North and South America and was ex-
ploited with slaves. After abolition of slavery, many large plantations broke down or
were split up. Now, most plantation crops are grown by smallholders or corporations.
Ranching
Ranching is livestock production primarily through extensive commercial grazing.
The main products are beef cattle and sheep for mutton and wool. The major ranching
areas are [5]:
Table 1.1. Milk and cheese production in 1992
Milk Production Cheese Production

Area (1,000 MT*) (MT*)
World 453,733 13,532,455
Africa 14,686 483,544
North and Central America 86,481 3,730,897
South America 34,175 3,268,500
Asia 66,792 866,180
Europe 153,392 6,846,694
Oceania 15,989 356,227
USSRa (former) 100,921 1,686,250
a
Data from 1991.
Compiled from [8].
* MT = metric tons.
• North America, including the western United States and adjacent parts of Canada
and Mexico;
• South America, including Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, and Uruguay;
• South Africa;
• Australia and New Zealand.
Large-Scale Grain Production
The major cash crop grown in the large-scale grain production system is wheat. This
system is found in North America, Argentina, the former Soviet Union, and Australia.
1.1.3 Characteristics of Agricultural Systems

To characterize an agricultural type in a certain area more precisely, a lot of variables
should be taken into account. Grigg [3] gives a good example of a list of such variables
(Table 1.2). This list was compiled by a commission of the International Geographical
Union.
1.2 Dynamics in Agriculture

Agricultural development is a dynamic process and is highly affected by external
conditions. These external conditions encompass the natural environment as well as
socioeconomic and political factors. In other words, agricultural development is caught
between the conditions for growing crops and raising livestock and the demand for
agricultural products.
1.2.1 Limiting Conditions for Agriculture

Crop and livestock production depend on biological, physical, and spatial conditions
and access to inputs and services.
Biological Conditions
Biological conditions refer to the nature of crops and animals and the pests and dis-
eases that threaten them. The nature of crops and animals can be described in terms
Dynamics in Agriculture 5
Table 1.2. Characteristics of agricultural systems
A Social attributes
1 Percentage of land held in common
2 Percentage of land in labor or share tenancy
3 Percentage of land in private ownership
4 Percentage of land in state or collective ownership
5 Size of holding according to numbers employed
6 Size of holding according to area of agricultural land
7 Size of holding according to value of output
B Operational attributes
8 Labor intensity: number of employees per hectare of agricultural land
9 Inputs of animal power: draught units per hectare of agricultural land
10 Inputs of mechanical power: tractors, harvesters, etc. per hectare of
agricultural land
11 Chemical fertilizers: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium per hectare
of cultivated land
12 Irrigation, irrigated land as a percentage of all cultivated land
13 Intensity of cropland use, ratio of harvested to total arable land
14 Intensity of livestock breeding, animal units per hectare of
agricultural land
C Production attributes
15 Land productivity: gross agricultural output per hectare of
agricultural land
16 Labor productivity: gross agricultural output per employee
in agriculture
17 Degree of commercialization: proportion of output sold off farm
18 Commercial production: commercial output per hectare of
agricultural land
D Structural characteristics
19 Percentage of land in perennial and semiperennial crops
20 Percentage of total agricultural land in permanent grass
21 Percentage of total agricultural land in food crops
22 Percentage of total agricultural output of animal origin
23 Animal production as percentage of total commercial output
24 Industrial crops (sugar, fiber, rubber, beverages) as percentage
of total agricultural land
Source: J. Kostrowicki (1976) as cited in [3] p. 3.
of nutritive value (or usefulness in the case of nonfood products), productivity (yield),
and growth characteristics (perennials or annuals, planting season, bearing time, etc.).
Besides being useful to man, crops and livestock are part of the natural food chain.
This means that other living creatures, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi, in-
sects, birds, and beasts of prey, also are interested in the crops and livestock. To the
farmer, these other living creatures are pests that can threaten the production of crops,
livestock, and the products derived from them and thus food security and the farmer’s
income.
Physical and Spatial Conditions

The physical and spatial conditions refer to land and water, which are the limited
resources necessary for farming. This means that to produce agricultural goods and gain
an income, the farmer depends on the quantity and quality of land and water.
Land quantity is the amount of land available for agriculture,which is dependent on
geographic and socioeconomic factors. The geographic factors refer to landform, altitude,
and the ratio of land to open water. The socioeconomic factors are population density
(competition for land among farmers), development rate of the country (competition
among land uses such as for housing, infrastructure, outdoor recreation, and nature), and
the amount of people dependent on agriculture.
Land quality refers to both soil quality and the spatial configuration of farmed ar-
eas. Soil quality depends on soil type, structure and fertility (workability of the land,
water-holding capacity, erosion sensitivity). The spatial configuration of farmed areas is
determined by the fragmentation of property, the distance between farm buildings and
fields, and the quality of the rural infrastructure, and is in many cases a reflection of the
social structure in an area or the political situation in the country.
Water quantity depends on geographic, socioeconomic, and political factors. Geo-
graphic factors include climate (rainfall, temperature), altitude, steepness (water runoff),
soil (water-holding capacity, permeability), and the presence of groundwater and surface
water (rivers, lakes, brooks). The socio economic factors are population size and density
and development rate of the country (amount of water for drinking and industrial uses).
Political considerations include, for example, the relationship of a country with other
(surrounding) countries that are using the same source for water. Table 1.3 shows the
agricultural share of world water use.
Water quality depends on geographic and socioeconomic factors. Geographic fac-
tors include the influence of the sea and other natural sources of water not suited for
agricultural use. Socioeconomic factors are related to water pollution.
Table 1.3. World water use

Water Withdrawals
Domestic Industry Agriculture
Annual
Area (km3 ) (km3 ) (%) a
(km3 ) (%) (km3 ) (%)
Africa 144 10 7 7 5 127 88
Asia 1,531 92 6 122 8 1,317 86
North & Central America 697 63 9 293 42 342 49
South America 133 24 18 31 23 78 59
Europe 359 47 13 194 54 118 33
USSR (former) 358 25 7 97 27 233 65
Oceania 23 15 64 1/2 2 8 34
World 3,240a 259a 8 745a 23 2,235a 69
a
Percentage of total water withdrawals.
b
Numbers are not column totals.
Compiled from [9].
Access to Inputs and Services

The access to inputs and services determines to a large degree the possibilities of
agricultural development in a country or area. With good access to, for example, cheap
fertilizers, good seeds, bank credit, and the results of agricultural research, a farmer has
a greater chance of increasing the farm’s profitability. A good example is the Green
Revolution in Asia. When farmers in that part of the world got access to high-yield
varieties of rice and wheat, the production of these crops increased enormously.
1.2.2 Improving the Limiting Conditions for Agriculture

Improving the conditions for growing crops and raising livestock makes it possible
to sustain or even increase, agricultural production.
Biological Conditions
The biological conditions can be improved by manipulating the nature of crops and
animals and improving the production environment. The most important way to manipu-
late the nature of crops and animals is by developing new varieties that give a higher yield
or production, are more resistant against pests and diseases, more tolerant of drought,
etc. The development of new varieties is possible through crossbreeding of plants and
animals and biotechnology.
The production environment can be improved by animal and plant production engi-
neering (see Vols. II and III of this Handbook). The production environment also can
be improved by fighting pests and diseases through animal and plant production engi-
neering and management, development of new varieties, and the use of pesticides and
vaccinations.
Physical and Spatial Conditions
The physical and spatial conditions can be improved by manipulation of the quantity
and quality of land and water.
Land quantity can be increased through, for example, land reclamation (see Chap-
ter 4).
Land quality can be improved by improving the soil structure and fertility (see Chapter
4), land-use planning (see Chapter 2), and rural road development (see Chapter 3).
Water quantity can be increased through drainage (in the case of water surplus),
irrigation and inundation (in the case of water shortage), and water management in
general (see Chapter 5).
Water quality can be improved through water purification and management (see
Chapter 5).
Which conditions should be improved and by what method depends on the local land
and water quantity and quality and socioeconomic and political conditions as well.
Access to Inputs and Services
The access to inputs and services can be increased by improving rural infrastructure
and distribution of agricultural inputs, forming cooperatives, subsidizing agricultural in-
vestments, funding agricultural research, among others. Governments can, with or with-
out development aid, start programs to improve infrastructure, subsidize investments, or
Table 1.4. Effects of measures to improve agricultural conditions
Measure Positive Effects Negative Effects

Planning
Land reclamation Increasing the land availability Destruction of wetlands, mangrove
for agriculture forest, and riverine systems
Disturbance of natural river dynamics,
causing floods and droughts
Land redevelopment Improving the spatial conditions Loss and disturbance of ecological
for growing crops and working systems
the land
Habitat fragmentation
Degradation of landscape
Irrigation Increasing the water availability Salinization of soils, what causes land
for agriculture degradation and a collapse of
agricultural production
Overconsumption of unrestorable
water sources
Management
Fertilizer use Higher fertility of soils; higher Ground water contamination by nitrogen
yields (in the short term) and phosphates
Mining of nutrients other than nitrogen
and phosphate, what causes fertility
problems in the long term
Decline in biodiversity
Pesticide use Higher yields (in the short term) Increased pest resistance to pesticides
Ground water contamination
fund research. Farmers can form cooperatives to get cheaper inputs or share expensive
machinery such as tractors and harvesters.
Conclusion
In general, the conditions for agriculture can be improved through planning and
management of the limiting resources. Unfortunately, produce although many of these
measures positive short-term effects in agriculture, they can have negative long-term
effects on the environment or human health. A few examples are given in Table 1.4.
1.2.3 Demand for Agricultural Products

The demand for agricultural products determines what a farmer is grows or raises and
in which amounts. Because the main activity of agriculture is food production, human
food requirements generally determine agricultural production and development. Of
course, some exceptions exist for areas where farmers produce crops for certain industrial
products (e.g., fiber for clothes).
Food Requirements
To remain healthy, the human body has minimum nutritional requirements. Although
these requirements depend on gender, climate, age, and occupation, certain intakes of
energy, vitamins, minerals, and proteins, among other nutrients are needed [3]. Energy
Table 1.5. Population growth trends
Number of People (million) Growth Rate (%)
1990 2000 2010 1980–1990 1990–2000 2000–2010

World 5,296.8 6,265.0 7,208.6 1.8 1.7 1.4
Developing countries 4,045.9 4,946.9 5,835.2 2.1 2.0 1.7
Developed countries 1,248.9 1,314.7 1,369.7 0.7 0.5 0.4
Compiled from [10].
is needed “to maintain the metabolic rate and to allow the body to work” [3]. Protein
foods contain amino acids, of which 10 or 11 are essential. They are found in both animal
products (eggs and meat) and plant foods [3]. Although eggs and most meats provide all
of the essential amino acids, they are expensive and thus are unavailable to many people
in adequate amounts. Plant foods are a less efficient protein source; they contain lower
levels of protein and no crop contains all the essential amino acids. This drawback can
be overcome by eating a combination of food crops, for example, cereals and legumes,
which are present in most traditional diets [3].
Demand for Food
The demand for food is determined by population growth and changes in income [3].
Population Growth
World population is still growing. Even with a declining growth rate, about 90 million
people are being added to the population each year [9]. The United Nations predicts an
increase in world population from 5.8 billion in 1995 [9] to 7.0 billion in 2010 [10].
Population growth means a growing demand for food. This is especially true in devel-
oping countries, where the largest population growth is expected (Table 1.5). The growth
in demand for food leads to intensification of agricultural production and an increasing
pressure on existing and potential agricultural lands. Theoretically, this intensification
is possible in most developing countries [10], but this increase in food production will
certainly strain an already fragile ecological balance.
Changes in Income
Changes in income mean changes in composition of diet and the expenditures on food.
In low-income countries the demand is for food products that give the most calories for
the least money, which are cereals and root crops such as potatoes and yams. These crops
give a high yield of calories (and protein) per hectare [3]. This explains the predominance
of crops such as rice, maize, sorghum, or millet in many developing countries. With
increasing income, the food pattern changes. Most important is the shift from plant food
to the less efficient and more expensive animal products.
1.2.4 Major Trends in World Agriculture

Agricultural Production Growth
Together with the ongoing population growth, the rate of agricultural is declining.
Table 1.6 shows the trends over the past few decades and the prognoses for the next
Table 1.6. Agricultural production

growth rates
Period Growth Rates (%)

1960–1969 3.0
1970–1979 2.3
1980–1992 2.0
1993–2010 1.8
Source: [10].
decade. There are a few explanations for this development:

• Urban areas are located mostly in parts of a country that also have the highest
agricultural potential; when a city expands it often takes the best agricultural lands.
The loss of agricultural production is not always (totally) restored elsewhere.
• Intensification of agricultural production and mismanagement of agricultural lands
leads to land degradation and loss of agricultural lands and thus loss of agricultural
production.
• The countries with the best possibilities for production growth are not the countries
where demand for food is increasing most (i.e., developing countries). So, the
possibilities for keeping up with the increasing demand for food are not fully used.
Mechanization
Since the Industrial Revolution, replacement of human labor and draught animals
in agriculture with machinery has occurred worldwide, but there is a big gap between
industrialized and developing countries in this respect.
The first application of power to agricultural production in the industrialized countries
took place at the beginning of the nineteenth century. At first this had little impact on
the overall agriculture production, because the machinery was cumbersome and costly.
In North America and Australia, tractors became a significant factor after World War I,
but in Europe, this was not the case until after the World War II. The mechanization in
the rest of the world stayed far behind [5]. Table 1.7 shows some recent developments
in mechanization and the regional differences.
Fertilizer Use
Soil fertility is one of the most important conditions for agricultural production. In
traditional farming systems, several methods are in use to maintain and improve soil
fertility, the most common being livestock manure, fallowing, and planting of legumes.
Although agricultural output can be maintained with these methods, they are insufficient
for keeping up with the food demands of the increasing world population.
The introduction of chemical fertilizers in the middle of the nineteenth century made it
possible to increase yields per hectare in substantial amounts. Untill the 1950s, however,
intensive use of chemical fertilizers was limited mainly to northwestern Europe. Since
then, their use has increased enormously worldwide, their use is especially significant
in areas with a high population density.
It is expected that fertilizer use will continue to increase, especially in the highly
populated, developing countries. However, the effects of fertilize use on agricultural
Table 1.7. Mechanization
Dynamics in Agriculture
Tractors Harvester/Threshers
Population
Economically Active Number of Change Since Persons No. of Harvesters/ Change Since Persons
in Agriculture Tractors in 1979–1981 per Threshers in 1979–1981 per
Area in 1992 (×1000) 1992 (%) Tractor 1992 (%) Harvester
World 1,116,057 26,137,136 16.4 43 3,861,239 8.8 289
Africa 158,025 554,349 20.4 285 71,797 33.6 2,201
North and Central
America 19,878 5,843,151 3.2 34 849,812 −1.3 23
South America 24,080 11,52,142 23.0 21 121,655 18.2 198
Asia 874,897 5,670,108 40.1 154 1,316,934 30.2 664
Europe 20,055 9,864,083 14.4 2 781,663 −4.2 26
Oceania 2,003 401,399 −5.8 5 60,088 −3.7 33
USSR (former) 17,933a 2,580,000a −0.6 7 675,300a −10.9 27
Source: Compiled from [8].

a
Data from 1991.
11
Table 1.8. Fertilizer use

Nitrogen use (1,000 metric tons)
Area 1991–1992 1994–1995 Change (%)
World 75,481 73,599 −2.5
Africa 2,112 2,022 −4.3
North and Central America 13,376 13,534 1.2
South America 1,670 2,360 29.2
Asia 37,908 40,348 6.0
Europe 12,093 11,819 −2.3
Oceania 544 717 24.1
Compiled from [11].
production are not unlimited and, eventually, its use will decline. Table 1.8 shows some
figures.
Pesticide Use
Although traditional plant protection methods are still important in developing coun-
tries, pesticides have become widely used in the past few decades. There are three types:
herbicides (weed killers) fungicides, and insecticides. Their use is influenced by socio-
economic as well as the agroecological factors [10].
The developing countries have a relatively small share in overall pesticide use (about
20% [10], but a very big share in insecticide use (about 50% [10]). For the first figure,
there are two explanations: the relatively high costs of pesticides and the relatively low
costs for labor. The latter figure can be explained by the higher incidence of insects in
the humid tropics [10].
It is expected that pesticide use in the developing countries will still be increasing in
the coming decade. This will occur because of the rising labor costs in some countries
and the intensification and expansion of agriculture [10]. Through a combination of
technological change, improved management and incentives, and increasing application
of integrated pest management (IPM), this growth could be contained at fairly low rates
[10]. In the industrial countries the declining growth in agricultural production, improved
legislation, and a further spread of IPM could lead to a absolute decline in the total use
of pesticides [10].
1.3 Agriculture and the Countryside

1.3.1 Description of the Countryside
The countryside or the rural area can be defined roughly as the land outside the cities.
More specific definitions are given by, for example, van Lier [12]:
• “rural areas are the areas composed of the (open) fields”;
• “rural areas is all the land outside the urban areas, with a low population density.”
About 37% of the total land area in the world is in use by agriculture as cropland and
permanent pasture [9]. From a global point of view, this means that agricultural activities
Agriculture and the Countryside 13
determine the landscape structure of the countryside. The Agriculture Dictionary [13]
gives a definition of rural land that shows this direct relationship between agriculture and
the countryside. “Land which is occupied by farmers or used for agricultural purposes
as distinguished from urban land, park or recreational land, and wilderness.”
Although agriculture is the major land-use type in the countryside, it is not the only
one. Outdoor recreation, infrastructure, rural housing, and nature, for example, have a
certain share in the spatial structure of the countryside. In general, that share is determined
by the geographic and socioeconomic situation of a country.
1.3.2 Countryside Values

The human race depends for its existence on the natural environment. The natural en-
vironment provides us with air to breathe and the potential to grow food, gather resources
for industry, and recover from work. The natural environment can be characterized by
countryside values: nature, landscape, resources, and ecology.
Nature
A clear and objective definition of nature as a countryside value is difficult. It could
be defined as that part of our environment that is not affected by any anthropogenic
influences. This definition would limit nature only to the largest jungle, the deepest
sea, and the highest mountain and even this would be disputable. A more workable
definition is the following: Nature is that part of the environment that is not dominated
by anthropogenic influences and where natural processes are more or less in balance.
This definition excludes, for example, cropland and includes, for example, forest, which
also is used for production of wood.
An other approach is not to speak of nature as a countryside value as such, but to speak
of land with a certain nature-value. This approach is most popular in highly developed
and densily populated countries, which have almost no land that is not under more or
less total human control.
Landscape
As a countryside value, landscape can be defined as the spatial cohesion of the envi-
ronment. The landscape can be approached in two ways:
• In the anthropogenic approach, landscape has a certain experience value. The im-
portance of this value depends on the place of the countryside in society. In industrial
societies and in agricultural societies, the experience value will be different.
• In the ecological approach, landscape has a certain ecological value. This value
refers to the diversity of the landscape and thus the presence of different macro-
and microenvironments. These environments are interrelated with biodiversity and
thus with the ecological health of the countryside (see also “Resources,” below).
Resources
As a countryside value, resources can be defined simply as everything useful to man,
but not produced by man. This includes water, soil, minerals, food (not produced by
farming), knowledge, and gene pools. Some of the resources are unrenewable (minerals
and some water sources) or easily destroyed (the tropical rain forest as a gene pool for
medical research). In general, resources are more or less sensitive to mismanagement by

man and should be managed carefully.
Ecology
As a countryside value, ecology can be defined as the interrelationship between plants
and animals and their environment. These interrelationships keep the natural processes
running and thus are important for our survival. The ecological health of the coun-
tryside is directly connected to the management of nature, landscape, and resources.
Mismanagement of these countryside values disturbs the ecological relationships and
unbalances the natural processes, with sometimes unrecoverable damage to our natural
environment.
1.3.3 Countryside Values and Agriculture

Worldwide, agriculture is the main “user” of the countryside. This means that agri-
cultural development has a large influence on the countryside values.
Since World War II, agriculture has been very successful in increasing production. This
development has taken place mainly in the industrialized countries, but many developing
countries also have had their share of success.
The increase in output can be attributed to increased output per hectare, increased
output per capita, and in some countries, expansion of the cultivated area. These develop-
ments were made possible through the introduction of inputs such as chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, high-yield varieties of crops, and machinery; management systems such as
irrigation and dry farming; and planning systems such as land realotment.
But this is not the end of the story. The increased output has put great pressure on
the countryside values and thus on our natural environment. In many areas in the world,
natural processes have been seriously disturbed and unrenewable resources used up. The
following list gives an impression of the damage done:
• soil erosion,
• soil nutrient mining,
• salinization of soils (waterlogging),
• desertification,
• water contamination,
• eutrophication
• acidification,
• deforestation,
• habitat fragmentation.
To achieve more sustainable agricultural development, good management of the coun-
tryside values is necessary.
1.4 Farming: a Balance

The farmer’s first interest is to provide for the family livelihood. Farming, though, is no
longer just growing crops, raising livestock, and gaining an income. Population growth
and environmental hazards ask for solutions relating to food security and management
Sustainability in Farming and the Countryside 15
of the natural environment. These are issues directly related to agriculture on both global
and local levels.
To meet future challenges of food security, further development of agriculture is
necessary. This is not only development in the sense of increasing the agricultural output,
but also in the responsible use of natural resources. A responsible use of the natural
resources is important because of the dependence of agriculture on these resources.
Human innovations such as chemical fertilizers cannot totally replace the natural basis.
This means that the natural environment should be treated or managed in such way that
the future of farming is secured. Food security is not only a matter of quantity, but also
of continuity.
Agriculture thus is forced to find a balance between development and conservation.
On a global level, this means the gathering and distribution of knowledge about how to
reach this balance. The support of developing countries by industrialized countries is
important to achieve this goal. On the local level, this means that existing possibilities
for improving farming conditions should be used to achieve a responsible management
of the countryside values.
1.5 Sustainability in Farming and the Countryside

The responsible use of natural resources, as mentioned in Section 1.4, also can be
described in terms of sustainable development: “Sustainable development is development
that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs” [14].
More specifically connecting it with agricultural development, Herdt and Steiner [15]
define sustainability as “the result of the relationship between technologies, inputs and
management, used on a particular resource base within a given socio-economic context.”
Following Lynam and Herdt [16], Herdt and Steiner [15] argue for a system approach to
sustainability.
An approach to sustainable rural systems from a land-use planner’s perspective is
given in [12]. In this approach the term sustainability can be viewed, or be defined,
from several angles. In most cases, its notion is based upon the protection of our natural
resources because of their production and reproduction qualities for now and forever, if
properly managed or used. There are, however, more dimensions in the term. Bryden
[17] distinguishes at least into three meanings:
• Sustainability in the meaning of husbandry. In this sense, it is related to terms such
as continuity, durability, and exploitation of natural resources over long periods of
time. It also refers to certain methods by which land is managed—crop rotation
systems, fallowing, etc.—all meant to make it possibile to restore the quality and
abundance of soil and water systems. This meaning actually refers strongly to the
long-run physical and economic sustainability.
• Sustainability in terms of interdependence. As described by Bryden, this meaning is
strongly related to the spatial dimension of sustainability. It refers to such aspects as
fragmentation (which has contradictory meanings for farming, nature, and outdoor
recreation and is therefore an important land-use planning aspect), and relations
between different land uses (e.g. cropped areas and seminatural vegetations). It is
this meaning of sustainability that gets a great deal of attention in land-use planning
studies, because there is still a great lack of knowledge, there are many uncertainties,
and there clear policies often are lacking in this regard.
• Sustainability in terms of ethical obligations to future generations. This refers to
the many observed losses and depletions of natural resources in combination with
the expected increase in population. In particular, are depletion of fossil fuels and
forests, soil losses, water and air pollution, losses of nature areas and of old land-
scapes, etc. It is clear that, in the field of better management and of restorations,
much needs to be done to ensure the future of mankind.
The term rural or rural area is already described in Section 1.3.1. Besides this description
in terms of land use, rural areas also are considered to consist of specific local economies
and to bear a specific social living pattern. It is than considered to be a specific way of
living.
The term system most probably comes from systems analysis, a scientific field that
was developed after World War II. In its most elementary definition, in the beginning, it
was defined as “a collection of objects, having mutual relations.” Because many systems
have a relationship with their environment, a distinction was made between open and
closed systems. Closed systems are considered to operate outside other systems, whereas
open systems depend on other systems. In this case the output of other systems is often
an input into another system (and vice versa). Later definitions of a system described it as
“a collection of objects, having mutual relations, and so forming an autonomous unity”
[18]. In this sense, rural areas can be considered as open systems: They are composed of
several objects that are related to one another and form a unity, but often undergo strong
influences from the outside world.
Bringing the three words together leads to the following description: sustainable rural
systems are areas outside the urban areas that form a unit and that are composed of
specific land uses, in which the activities are performed in such way that a durable
situation results regarding the social, economic, and natural properties of the area.
Scientists interested in the planning and management of land often have to struggle
with two, seemingly contradictory, dimensions of sustainability: ecological conservation
and economic existence.
The first form of sustainability refers strongly to conservation: to conserve the natural
resources (clear water, air, and soils), to preserve plants and animals (biodiversity; gene
sources), etc. In many cases, it goes even further than just conservation: it seeks a re-
creation of lost values. Examples are the creation of nature areas out of farmland or
reforestation of pieces of land. Other examples are: restoration of high water tables in
formerly drained lands and finding less intensive uses for meadows, thus restoring bird
areas. Many more examples can be given for many parts of the world. Generally, this
approach is a clear one, especially in terms of spatial consequences. Sustainability in
terms of conservation is focused either on halting certain autonomous developments,
retracking on past developments, or a combination of both. It can conflict with the other
meaning of sustainability, but does not necessarily do so.
The second meaning, that of a durable socioeconomic existence, is often argued as
a very important goal to achieve in order to create a sustainable rural system. In many
References 17
places across the world, local economies are under strong pressure, notably so in farming.
Surplus production, low quality outputs, worsening production conditions (lack of water
or other important means), and rising production costs make it even more difficult for
many people to survive at a reasonable standard of living in rural areas. This results in
such things as outmigration among other effects. This dimension of rural sustainability
often is felt when activities concerning land-use planning and management are at stake. A
very important task for land-use planning has always been to improve the socioeconomic
situation of the rural population.
These views seem to be contradictory. They are to certain degree, but they are also a
challenge to mankind. Would it be possible to achieve both ecological and socioeconomic
sustainability all at one time? And if so, what strategies would be needed for that?
Several planning and management instruments that can be important factors in sus-
taining rural systems development are:
• land-use planning (see Section 2.2);
• IPM,
• integrated plant nutrition systems,
• legislation on use of fertilizers (organic and chemical) and pesticides.
It is outside the scope of this Handbook to discuss the whole sustainability concept, but
it should be clear that it is the assignment of this generation to strive for sustaining the
agricultural and rural system.
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1995, p. 4. Rome: FAO.
12. van Lier, H. N. 1996. Sustainable rural systems: Concepts from a land use plan-
ner’s perspective. In: Geographical Perspectives on Sustainable Rural Systems, pp.
14–23. Proceedings of the Tsukuba International Conference on the Sustainability
of Rural Systems. Kasai Publications, Tokyo, Japan.
13. Herren, R. V., and R. L. Donahue. 1991. The Agriculture Dictionary. New York:
Delmar.
14. World Commission on Environment and Development. 1987. Our Common Future.
Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
15. Herdt, R. W., and R. A. Steiner. 1995. Agricultural sustainability: Concepts and
conundrums. In: Agricultural Sustainability. Economic, Environmental and Statis-
tical Considerations, eds. V. Barnett, R. Payne, and R. Steiner, pp. 1–13. Wiley:
Chichester.
16. Lynam, J. K., and R. W. Herdt. 1989. Sense and sustainability: Sustainability as an
objective in international agriculture research. J. Agric. Econ. 3:381–398.
17. Bryden, J. M. 1994. Some preliminary perspectives on sustainable rural commu-
nities. In: Bryden et al (ed.), Towards Sustainable Rural Communities, eds. J. M.
Bryden et al., pp. 41–50. The Guelph Seminar Series, Guelph, Ontario: Arkleton
Trust and University of Guelph.
18. Hanken, A. F. G., and H. A. Reuver. 1973. Inleiding tot de systeemleer (Introduction
to System Analysis). Leiden, The Netherlands: St. Kroese.
2 Land- and Water-Use
Planning
2.1 The Planning Issue

M. B. A. Hes and H. N. van Lier
2.1.1 Why Land- and Water-Use Planning Are Important

In Chapter 1, it is stated that a traditional way of increasing agricultural production is
by means of land and water engineering. After a few decades of improving the conditions
in favor of people and agriculture, a new view of this matter has arisen, namely the use
of the resources of this earth in a sustainable way [1]. If we continue to produce in the
same way as we have since the start of modern agriculture, the soil will be exhausted and
then it will be impossible to produce food, resources for shelter, and other products that
are necessary to sustain human health, safety, and welfare. It is, therefore, necessary to
look well at how we use this earth and its resources, if we do not want to get ourselves
(further) into trouble.
One way to do this, is to watch closely how we use the earth. Good agricultural soils
are scarce, and so, we have to use them in the best, most sustainable way. We have to
determine how intensively a soil can be used, not only agriculturally, but also for other
land uses such as housing and recreation, and how much we will gain from that specific
land use, economically and socially. A combination of different land uses should be
made in a way that provides for all desired products, and whereby it will still possible
to use the land in the same or any other way in the future. This can be achieved through
careful planning of the uses of land and water. This chapter explains land- and water-use
planning, what the goals are, and the planning process.
First, it is important to explain land- and water-use planning. The phrase can be
divided into three parts: land use, water use, and planning. To start with the latter part,
“planning” is derived from the verb “to plan” and the noun “plan.” The Oxford Dictionary
[2] gives several distinct meanings of “plan” (n&v): “1a) a formulated and esp. detailed
method by which a thing is to be done; a design or scheme, b) an intention or proposed
proceeding, 2) a drawing or diagram made by projection on a horizontal plane, 3) a
large-scale detailed map of a town or district, 4a) a table etc. indicating times, places,
etc. of intended proceedings, b) a diagram of an arrangement, 5a) an imaginary plane
perpendicular to the line of vision and containing the objects shown in a picture.” The
19
20 Land- and Water-Use Planning
list shows that “plan” refers both to something on paper (1a, 3, 4a, 4b, 5) and to a more
abstract concept: an idea that exists in the minds of people who are involved in the
planning and that is expressed by them (1a, 1b). In land- and water-use planning, both
meanings are involved. The planning process is recorded on paper, both the steps in the
process and the proposed development for an area, the land-use plan. The land-use plan
consists of two parts:
• a map of the area for which the development zones and other proposed changes and
developments are represented;
• an accompanying text that explains the symbols used on the map.
This is discussed in more detail in Section 2.1.3. The wishes of the people involved are
not always clear and may not be presented in the actual land-use plan. These ideas are
necessary to start the land-use planning process and continue to the end. Without these
ideas and thoughts, the process will stop quickly after it has started. The thoughts and
wishes are needed to make decisions and to proceed to the next step in the planning
process. To be able to make right decisions, as part of the planning process, requires
experience in planning.
The dictonary [2] gives for “planned, planning” (-v) the following definitions: “1)
arrange beforehand; form a plan, 2a) design, b) make a plan of (an existing buiding,
an area, etc), 3) in accordance with a plan (his planned arrival) and 4) make plans.”
Meanings 1, 2, and 4 refer to the planning itself, the whole process of thinking of solu-
tions to a problem. Meaning 3 refers to planned; the past tense shows that this meaning
only exists after the planning is completed. In land- and water-use planning, meaning 3
is a very important part of the whole planning process. After the planning is completed,
after the development trends are determined and presented in land-use plans and the
physical changes in the area are made, one has to check whether the proposed and in-
tended improvements have taken place, if the changes have been made in accordance
with the plan. This is called “evaluation.” More can be read about this in Section 2.1.3,
Step 10.
In the preceding part of this section, much is said about land use, but what is understood
by it? Looking in the dictionary again, “to use” means “to employ for a purpose, put into
action or service.” The noun “use” means “the act or way of using or fact of being used,
the ability or right to use something, the purpose or reason for using something.” These
meanings intend that “use” is something introduced by people. Something can only be
called “use” when people have meant it to be that way, when some action has been taken
to let it be like it is now, to be able to use it in the way for which it was designed and
for which it is of any purpose for people. In land use, this intends that only if people
have accomplished some action in the land use, can it be called land use. In that sense,
agricultural, living, and recreational grounds that are specifically designed for those uses,
are examples of land uses. Looking at it in a broader perspective, natural grounds also are
a form of land use. They also are of use for people, both economically (e.g., wood) and
socially (e.g., enjoyment of the beauty of nature). In this way, natural ground is used,
and is therefore an example of land use, although people have not choosen at first hand
to use the land in this way. The vegetation arose spontaniously, without intervention by
The Planning Issue 21
Figure 2.1. The hydrological cycle. Source: [4].
people. It became the land use “nature,” by the people’s choice to preserve the vegetation
and enjoy it.
All activities on the surface of the earth can be called land use. Almost everything can
be used by people, socially or ecomomically, and has been given a name. People have
chosen to preserve it in a natural state or to try to change it for themselves. As a result,
the surface of the earth is assigned a land use.
Water use is a little different from land use. The surface water is sometimes there
naturally (oceans, seas, rivers) and is sometimes created by people. Humans are always
a part of the hydrological cycle (Fig. 2.1) and therefore have a function or use. A main
function of streams is water drainage. Streams discharge the superfluous water from an
area and this is stored in the lakes, seas, and oceans. In this way, mankind does not have
an active role; it happens by nature. What people can do is interfere and make an area
drier or wetter (by artificial drainage or irrigation). In this sense, it can be called water
use because a choice has to be made about what to do with this water. People depend a
great deal on water: The use it for drinking, irrigation, and in industries. Bigger streams,
seas, oceans, and lakes are used for transport and fisheries. It is also in limited supply,
especially freshwater. Therefore, it is important to think about what we do with our water
and how we do it. In many areas, there is a water shortage, which means that the area
cannot function to its best abilities, in both socioeconomic and technical senses. The
area cannot produce the products needed for survival of people, such as food, fuel, and
shelter. This is the case in deserts and in many semiarid environments. In other areas,
there is too much water, which also causes problems. For example, roots of plants drown
in groundwater, which causes production loses.
These examples show that the shortage or surplus of water is linked to the land use.
The land use determines how much water is needed. This is why water also should be a
part of land-use planning [3]. The first concern of water-use planning is the state of the
groundwater. The use of surface water for fisheries and transport also can be a topic for
land-use planning.
In addition to the water quantity, water quality is also important. If water is polluted,
it cannot be used for drinking, for example. Also, a natural ground can be damaged by
polluted water. Land- and water-use planning can play important roles in the prevention
and solution of these problems. One has to think carefully about proposed land uses,
especially the effects on surface water and groundwater and on other land uses.
After these explanations of the main aspects of the phrase “land- and water-use
planning,” a description and definition of the concept can be provided.
The process can be described briefly as follows: Take the problems and potential of an
area as bases for land- and water-use planning. Which improvements are necessary to get
the maximum profit for every possible land use? What are the desired land uses? What
are the different possibilities (options) for solving the problems in the area? What are
the necessary measures needed in each option? Make a choice for an option, implement
the plan, and evaluate it during the planning process and afterward. With this description
a definition can be made: Land-use planning is the process of systematically describing
the problems in an defined area, the way in which the problems can be solved, the
combination of these solutions into plan options, and the weighing of these options to
come finally to the economically and socially optimal use of the land and its resources.
“Systematically” in the definition means that, in every situation, in principal, the same
planning process is followed. In Section 2.1.3, a description of the land-use planning
process is given. This cannot be adopted gratuitously in every situation. A land-use
planner always has to decide, for every situation, if all of the described steps are necessary,
how they must be filled in, and if an extra step is needed. The political situation in a
country with its existing laws also will influence the planning process. Some countries
have very extensive planning laws, for example, several countries in northwestern Europe
and in Asia. The planning laws can order that everyone who has any interest in the land
use be consulted or be given the opportunity to participate in the process.
2.1.2 Goals
Goals are important in every planning situation. Often called common goals, they
are stated in the planning procedure adopted by the specific nation or lower jurisdiction,
such as state, province, or region. If a country has not adopted a planning procedure
and a bureau is involved with the planning of the uses of the land, the bureau will have
to describe the goals itself. The goals cannot be the same for each country or be stated
generally for land-use planning. They also depend on the specific situation and earlier
interventions, done by planning or caused by a lack of planning. How land is being used
determines the goals of planning. The vision on the development and direction of the
land uses is not a topic of the land-use planning process or the bureau in charge of it.
Other levels of policy should develop a vision on desirable future land uses. Land-use
planning is the way in which the proposed vision can be realized.
Goals can be further divided into objectives and targets [5]. Objectives are the more
detailed goals of the planning process. They allow the judging of different solutions of a
concrete problem in detail in the planning area. They can be clarified after an analysis of
the planning area and its problems. Usually the objectives are known beforehand because,
after one has seen problems in a certain area, a proposition for land-use planning will be
made. This is often even the incentive to start the planning process. In fact, usually it is the
effects of the stated problems that make one realize that problems and/or opportunities
exist in an area. In the analysis of the area, the cause of the problems, which is what
must actually be solved through land-use planning, becomes clear. The objective then is
to take away the effects of the stated problems.
The actual problem is the topic of the targets, the most detailed goals of land-use
planning. They lead to the actual measures that have to be taken in an area to solve the
problems, to take away the effects in such a way that it is in accordance with the vision
of development. An example may clarify this.
At a certain level, it is stated that the agricultural situation in a specific area of the
country should be improved. The crop production is not as high as it should be. This
means that a part of farming should be improved. A way to do this is through land-use
planning. In planning area X, there is a shortage of water. The production in this area can
be improved by irrigation. Perhaps there is no irrigation system or the existing irrigation
system does not work well enough. The goal of land-use planning is to improve the crop
production. The objective is to improve the water supply. The target is either building an
irrigation system or improving the existing one.
If the water used in the irrigation system comes from a stream and this stream also is
used for transport of the crops to the market, there should remain enough water in the
stream that this latter function will not be lost. With this example, it is shown that goals,
objectives, and targets can be conflicting. Therefore, it is necessary to look at alternatives
for solving the problems. In this example, it could be that transport of the products is
possible through another mode, for example, by building a road to the market. If the
costs of this road are less than the loss in production, and if the water from the stream is
not used for irrigation, it is more profitable to build the road.
Goals and objectives also identify the best use of land. If two different forms of land
use give exactly the same profit (economically and socially, which in practice is hardly
ever the case), the goal will determine which of the two land uses should be implemented.
For example, an analysis may show that a dairy farm can produce as much as an arable
farm on the same area. If the goal is to improve the dairy production, the best land use
will be dairy production. If the goal is to improve crop production, the best land use is
crop production.
The possible goals of land-use planning depend on the present situation, the earlier
measures, and the developments proposed or desired by bureaus (or agencies) of several
levels of government. The following describes a few possible goals of land-use planning.
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) [6] distinguishes three
different goals of land-use planning: efficiency, equity and acceptability, and sustainabil-
ity. Efficiency refers to the economic viability of the land-use plan: The plan should yield
more than it costs. However, it is not always clear which land use is the most profitable
one; this depends on the point of view. A farmer, for instance, has a different point of
view than the government, so they do not necessarily have to agree about which land-use
plan is best.
Equity and acceptibility represent the social part of land-use planning. The plan must
be accepted by the local population; otherwise, the proposed changes will not take place.
People will not cooperate if they do not agree with the plan. Equity refers to the leveling
of the standards of living by land-use planning. People living in the planning area have
to gain from the land-use plan even if they do not own a farm. Others state that a plan
should be a fair and just consideration and treatment for all those affected by a plan or
course of action [3].
Sustainability is, as stated before, an important part of land-use planning. It meets the
needs of the present while conserving resources for future generations. One should use
the present resources to meet today’s needs but also reserve the resources to be able to
use the land in a different way if needed in the future. Other goals could be [3]:
• Livability. After the land-use plan is implemented, the area should still be a suitable
place to live for the people who were already there.
• Amenity. The land-use plan should have provisions for making life pleasant.
• Flexibility and choice. The plan should leave options for individuals to fill in by
themselves. The plan should not dictate to people what to do. If this is the case
the plan probably will not be accepted, and so, this goal is basically the same as
acceptability.
• Public involvement in the planning process. Every group or individual with an
interest in the plan should be able to participate in the process. They should be able
to defend their interests in the land-use plan, to keep their land use from disappearing
through the plan, or to be offered a new land use as part of the plan. This both helps
the planners (who could have forgotten a possible land use, or have not thought
of the right motives to include the particular land use in the plan) and the interest
groups or individuals because they can exert an influence on the plan and are not
restricted to only the “hope that everything will be all right.”
2.1.3 The Planning Process

The planning process can be divided into several steps. Not every step is equally
necessary in all processes and not all steps need equal attention in every new plan.
Sometimes, several steps can be integrated into one large step, depending on the situation.
The FAO [6] describes the following steps:
• Step 1: Establish goals and terms of reference.
• Step 2: Organize the work.
• Step 3: Analyze the problems.
• Step 4: Identify opportunities for change.
• Step 5: Evaluate land suitability.
• Step 6: Appraise the alternatives.
• Step 7: Choose the best option.
• Step 8: Prepare the land-use plan.
• Step 9: Implement the plan.

• Step 10: Monitor and revise the plan.
Step 1: Establish Goals and Terms of Reference
This step includes more than the title indicates. To start a planning process, the
boundaries of the area for which the plan is to be made should be defined. After this is
done the analysis of the present situation begins. Not all information needs to be very
detailed, but it should give a basic idea of the situation, whether more detailed information
is available, and where more information can be obtained. The basic information that is
needed includes
• Land resources, i.e., climate, hydrology, geology, landforms, soils, vegetation,
fauna, pests, and diseases;
• Present land use, i.e., farming systems, forestry, production levels, and trends;
• Infrastructure, i.e., transport, communication and services to agriculture, livestock
management, and forestry;
• Population, i.e., numbers, demographic trends, location of settlements, the role of
women, ethnic groups, class structure, leadership;
• Land tenure, i.e., legal and traditional ownership and user rights to land, trees,
grazing, forest reserves, national parks;
• Social structure and traditional practices, because the current land use is a result of
the history of the area and the culture of the people and when proposing changes,
understanding of the current situation is a prerequisite;
• Government, i.e., administrative structure, the agencies that are involved in plan-
ning, and the laws and rules that exist;
• Nongovernmental organizations, i.e., farming and marketing cooperatives or others
that may have a role in planning or implementing the land-use plan;
• Commercial organizations, i.e., companies that may be affected by the planning.
With the basic information, it becomes clear which (groups of ) people can be affected
by the land-use planning. All these people or their representatives should be contacted
in order to make them aware of the upcoming changes and to obtain a view on the area
and its problems from the inside.
Next, the goals of the land-use plan can be established. In Section 2.1.2, the different
levels of goals are described. The goals meant here are the objectives of the land-use plan,
for which the problems are to be solved. Sometimes it is necessary to establish the goals
for the land-use plan, depending on the planning situation of a country or in the area. It
can also be very useful to record the goals of the planning in the land-use plan because
the goals may not have been recorded previously. Different planning agencies may have
prepared different views for the development of the planning area. In the land-use plan,
these different goals can be united. This helps to clarify the differences between the
views and whether they are conflicting or not.
The terms of reference dictate the limits of the land-use plan. They state what may
change, how it may change, and, more specifically sometimes, how it may not change.
These limits may be legal, economic, institutional, social, or environmental. Specific
conditions also can be included, such as the amount of nature areas in the plan or how
much the local population average should benefit, or how much specific changes may cost.
These may be derived from the goals set out by the different planning agencies. The total
budget for the land-use plan and the implementation period (the length of time for which
the plan will operate) are also terms of reference. The terms of reference limit the possible
alternative land-use plans. If in the planning process the terms of reference are excluded,
many options may be considered that are not feasible. To limit the number of alternatives
and to save time when creating them, the terms of reference are described in the plan.
Step 2: Organize the Work
The work must be organized to coordinate the different activities needed. Some ac-
tivities have a long lead time and should be done in time in order to be able to proceed
with the next step. When, for example, some specific information is needed in a step,
the garthering of this information should be finished on time in the previous step. If this
is done too late, then it will cause a delay in the planning process.
A list of needed activities and planning tasks should be made in order to organize the
work. This list should include the organizations and people responsible, skilled personnel
and other resources needed, and the estimated time needed for each task. The tasks and
activities should be placed on the list in the order necessary to complete the plan. Now
that all tasks and activities are clear, the planning team can be completed (if this has not
yet been done). The planning process and work plan can be drawn up as a whole. This
can be done in different formats: a planning table (Table 2.1), a bar chart (Fig. 2.2), or a
critical-path chart (Fig. 2.3).
Table 2.1. Example of a planning table: Land-use plan for District X
Planning Step Task Resources Responsibility Due date

1 First meeting Identify Participants Director, Decisionmaker J. Cruz 09/01/97
Assemble materials Agency library, E. J. Evans 09/15/97
five-year plan,
national database
Arrange venue, support Administration unit, M. Wong 09/30/97
staff, transport motor pool
3 Structure problems Develop questionnaire Regional statistican, S. Moe (with 02/01/98
and opportunities consultant on public E. J. Hoover)
involvement
3.1 Problem statements Identify and interview Contact list, interview T. F. Guy 03/20/98
key people forms, team vehicle
field assistant
Prepare problem Interview data T. F. Guy 04/01/98
statements S. Moe
3.2 Find options Set benchmarks Land resources survey S. Moe (with 05/05/98
for change (1995), district M. Wong)
agronomist, team
vehicle
Summarize regulations Agency code book, F. Sims 05/30/98
law clerk
Source: [6].
Figure 2.2. Example of a bar chart. Source: [6].
Each activity and task should be assigned to a member of the planning team to make
sure all activities and tasks are done and to make sure every member knows his or her
responsibility. This assignment of activities and tasks should be drawn up in individual,
personal work plans. The work plan for the whole project should also include when
meetings of the planning team need to be held. In this way it becomes clear whether all
scheduled activities and tasks are done and if there are any delays. When these meetings
point out that the work plan needs to be changed, the individual work plans need to be
changed as well.
In the work plan the money and equipment should be allocated. Each activity gets
a budget and the resources needed to complete the task are drawn up. Administrative
matters and logistics also should be arranged, such as transport, equipment and office
facilities for the planning team, technical support (e.g., inputs from other agencies, field
assistance, laboratory and secretarial workers). Seasonal differences, holidays, contin-
gencies, and iteration should be kept in mind while making the work plan.
Step 3: Analyze the Problems
In this step, the current situation is studied carefully. The information gathered is in
much more detail than the basic facts gathered in step 1. It encompasses all information
that will be needed in subsequent steps, up to implementation. Data should be collected
on population (numbers, age, gender, trends, and distribution); land resources (any data
relevant to the planning task, e.g., landforms, climate, agroclimatic regions, soils, vegeta-
tion, pasture resources, forests, and wildlife); employment and income (summarized by
area, age, social and ethnic groups); current land use, production, and trends (tabulated
production data, graphic production trends, and economic projections for the planning
period, as quantitative as possible); and infrastructure (roads, markets, and service cen-
ters). Maps should be made where possible.
Step 1 should have clarified what information is already available and what should be
gathered by surveys. Surveys take more time than the gathering of available information,
and allowance for this time should be included in the work plan.
The planning area can be split into land units, that is, areas that are relatively homoge-
neous with respect to climate, landforms, soils, and vegetation. Each land unit presents
28
Figure 2.3. Example of a critical-path chart. Source: [6].

Land- and Water-Use Planning
similar problems and opportunities and will respond in similar ways to management
[6]. Then, land-use systems can be identified: areas with similar land use and economy,
based on farming systems, the dominant crops, size of the farms, or the presence of
lifestock.
The identification of the problems of land use is necessary to be able to improve
the situation. There are several methods of identifying the problems, such as farming
systems analysis (described, for example, in [7] and [8]), diagnosis and design (D&D,
as described in [9] and [10]), and rapid rural appraisal (see [11], [12], and [13]). They
are all based on interviewing a sample of rural land users, preferably stratified according
to identified classes of farming systems. However, they are centered on different aims.
Farming systems analysis is used to identify problems at the farm level in order to
adapt technologies for specific farming systems. In D&D, the problems with land-use
systems are identified and their causes analyzed (diagnosis), after which new agroforestry
land-use types are designed to solve the problems. In rapid rural appraisal, the existing
land-use systems are analyzed in a short period of time (a number of weeks), including
the problems of the current systems.
The last part of the problem analysis is to prepare problem statements. For each
problem, they describe its nature and severity and its short-term and long-term effects,
and provide a summary of its causes.
Step 4: Identify Opportunities for Change

In this step, possible ways to solve or ameliorate the problems analyzed in step 3 are
formulated. All possibilities should be included in this step; then, the most promising
and most feasible solutions should be analyzed further. When making a range of options
for solving the problems, possible changes include
• People. They can contribute labor, skills, and culture. Cooperation of the people in
the planning area is necessary for success of the land-use plan.
• Land resources. Regions may be underdeveloped, or resources may be unexploited.
Land often has the ability to produce more or new crops with a change in man-
agement. Also new crops or land-use systems can be implemented to improve the
current situation.
• Technology. New or improved technologies can increase production, e.g., new fer-
tilizers, pesticides and irrigation and drainage techniques.
• Economic measures. New sources of capital, new or improved markets, changes
to price structures, or improvement of transport and communications may offer
opportunities for change.
• Government action. Possibilities include reform of land tenure and administrative
structure, taxation policies, pricing policies, subsidies, and investment.
Not all of the above mentioned solutions are part of land-use planning, but they
make it possible to isolate problems that can be better solved through other means
of action. Also, different land-use strategies can be followed: no change, maximum
production, minimum investment, maximum conservation, or maximum equity. Options
for solving problems also can be generated in terms of different kinds of production,
the role of conservation, and self-reliance versus external investment. What is important
when designing the solutions is to keep all interested parties informed and to seek their
views.
When all possibilities have been identified, realistic options that best meet the needs of
production, conservation, and sustainability and that minimize conflicts in land use can
be developed. The number of options can be limited by social imperatives, budgetary and
administrative constraints, the demands of competing land uses, and an initial assessment
of land suitability.
The problem statements and the alternatives for change should be presented in terms
suitable for public and executive discussion: clear, brief summaries but with detailed
evidence available for scrutiny. Now, the question is whether the original goals still
appear to be attainable. If this is the case, the decision has to be made about which
problems are to be given priority and which are the most promising alternatives for a
feasibility study. It is possible that action is needed at other levels of land-use planning
or outside the scope of land-use planning. After making these decisions, targets for this
subsequent work must be specified. Subsequent steps may be more specifically planned
than before. This is in fact a partial reiteration of step 2. It also could be necessary to
prepare an additional or a revised budget and time schedule.
Step 5: Evaluate Land Suitability

For each of the promising land uses identified in step 4, the land requirements have
to be established and matched with the properties of the land in the planning area to
establish physical land suitability. To do this, the land-use types should be described in
terms of their products and management practices. Depending on the geopolitical level,
the descriptions should be more or less detailed; that is, at district and local levels, more
detail is necessary than at national levels.
Next, the land-use requirements are described by the land qualities (e.g., availability
of water and nutrients) necessary for sustained optimal production. Most land qualities
are determined by the interaction of several land characteristics, that is, measurable
attributes of the land.
The land units identified in step 3 should be mapped in more detail when necessary.
Land units are choosen because they are expected to respond to management in a rel-
atively similar ways at similar scales of study. The need to carry out original surveys
depends on the need for and availability of these data.
Now, the requirements of the land-use types can be compared to the properties of
the land units. Each land unit can be put into a land suitability class for each land-use
type. Table 2.2 gives the structure of the standard land suitability classification used by
the FAO. The limiting values of land quality or a land characteristic determine the class
limits of land suitability for a certain land use. First, a determination has to be made as
to whether the land unit is suitable or not suitable. The important criteria used in this
decision are sustainability and ratio of benefits and costs.
After the land suitability classes of the different land units are determined, the match-
ing of land use with the land quality starts. Compare the requirements of each land-use
Table 2.2. Structure of FAO land suitability classification
Code Classification Description

S SUITABLE The land can support the land use indefinitely and benefits
justify inputs.
S1 Highly suitable Land without significant limitations. Include the best 20%–30%
of suitable land as S1. This land is not perfect but is the best
that can be hoped for.
S2 Moderately suitable Land that is clearly suitable but that has limitations that either
reduce productivity or increase the inputs needed to sustain
productivity compared with those needed on S1 land.
S2ea Land assessed as S2 on account of limitation of erosion hazard.
S2w Land assessed as S2 on account of inadequate availability of water.
S3 Marginally suitable Land with limitations so severe that benefits are reduced and/or
the inputs needed to sustain production are increased so that
this cost is only marginally justified.
N NOT SUITABLE Land that cannot support the land use on a sustained basis, or
land on which benefits do not justify necessary inputs.
N1 Currently not suitable Land with limitations to sustained use that cannot be overcome
at a currently acceptable cost.
N2 Permanently not suitable Land with limitations to sustained use that cannot be overcome.
N2ea Land assessed as N2 on account of limitation of erosion hazard.
a There is no standard system for letter designations of limitations; first-letter reminders should be used
where possible.
Source: [6].
type with the qualities of each land unit. Check measured values of quality or charac-
teristics against the class limits and allocate each land unit to its land suitability class
according to the severest limitation. Consider which modifications to the land-use type
will be most suitable. Also, consider which land improvements could make the land
better suited for the type of land use. Land can be made physically suitable for many
types of land use. Sometimes, however, these technical changes are so intense that the
land is no longer sustainable or the change is not economically feasible. In those cases,
the proposed land use is not possible on that specific piece of land. One also can argue
about which interferences are still contributing to a sustainable environment and which
are not.
The last part of this step concerns the mapping of the land suitability, which shows
the suitability of each land unit for each land-use type.
Step 6: Appraise the Alternatives Through Environmental, Economic, and
Social Analysis
In this step, a number of studies are carried out. They refer first to individual combi-
nations of land uses to which land units, classified as suitable, can be put and, second,
to alternative combinations of land uses that are being considered in the plan. These
proposed combinations can be considered as the alternatives among which the choices
should be made. The following types of analyses are made:
• Environmental impact assessment. An assessment will help to determine what will

happen under each alternative system of management in terms of the quality of the
whole community. It also should consider effects both within and beyond the plan-
ning area. Examples of environmental considerations are soil and water resources,
pasture and forest resources, quality of wildlife habitat, and scenic and recreational
values.
• Financial analysis. This analysis considers the profitability from the point of view
of the farmer or other private investor, by comparing the producers’ revenues with
their costs. The proposed land-use types should be profitable for the farmer or other
land users.
• Economic analysis. This analysis estimates the value of a system of land use to the
community as a whole. In addition, the monetary value of clear economic conse-
quences of environmental effects can be estimated and included in the economic
analysis. This also holds true for the unintended side-effects, such as damage done
to the environment.
• Social impact. An assessment studies the effects of proposed changes on different
groups of people. Examples of social factors are population, basic needs of the
people, employment and income opportunities, land tenure and customary rights,
administrative structure and legislation, and community stability.
• Strategic planning. A strategic study will help to determine how the proposed
changes in land use affect wider aspects of rural development planning, includ-
ing national goals. The critical importance of land for specified uses has to be clear.
This means that, besides the economic and physical suitability, the use of a specific
area in a particular way has to be taken into account.
Step 7: Choose the Best Option

First, a series of options for the allocation or recommendation of land-use types to land
units should be set out. Their evaluation in terms of land suitability and environmental,
financial, economic, and social analysis should be stated. For each alternative, all other
consequences should be listed, including the advantages and disadvantages of every
possible combination of land uses. Advantages and disadvantages are not always very
easy to list: some effects might be favorable for one and unfavorable for another. It is not
really necessary to work out every alternative in great detail; this is a lot of work and does
not really make a difference when comparing them. Enough data should be available to
make a fair comparison. The alternatives should be in the same level of detail.
All proposed alternatives should meet the goals and objectives set earlier and the
terms of reference. If an alternative does not correspond to those, the proposal cannot be
an alternative.
One of the alternatives should be a description of what will happen if nothing is done
at this point in time. This alternative, usually called the zero, no-action, or steady-state
alternative, can be used as a reference. The steady-state alternative is actually a wrong
name. It implies that nothing will happen in the future, but it actually describes what
will happen if no planning is done now. Therefore, it is also called the autonomous
development alternative. Usually, this zero-alternative is not a realistic option but helps
the planning team to make clear what is actually gained by carrying out a land-use
plan. It points out the relative difference between carrying out and not carrying out a
plan.
Next, the options or alternatives and their effects should be presented in a way that is
appropriate for review. Make arrangements for public and executive discussions of the
viable options and their effects. These are necessary to safeguard the public involvement
in the planning process. The people who should be able to take part in these discussions
are from the communities affected and the implementing agencies. These people now
have the opportunity to find out in detail what the plan is designed to achieve and how
it will affect them. Planners should allow adequate time for reviews and comments, and
should obtain views about feasibility and acceptability. Sometimes the discussions have
as a result a new alternative, being a combination of two existing ones, or a completely
new one. This new alternative also should have a fair chance in the comparison and,
therefore, it is necessary to go back to step 5 (and sometimes even further if not all data
are available to work out the new alternative into the same level of detail as the other
alternatives).
With the comments from the public, any necessary changes to the options have to be
made. Now the real decision about the options or alternatives can be made. Sometimes it
is completely clear which alternative should be chosen. If this is not the case, an objective
method of weighing alternatives, such as multicriteria analysis (MCA), can be used (this
method is described in more detail in Section 2.1.5).
Finally, the subsequent steps must be authorized. The source of this authorization
depends on the level at which the planning is being done, e.g., local or national. At the
local level, it might be an executive decision; at national level, it might require a decision
at the highest level of government.
Step 8: Prepare the Land-Use Plan

After an alternative is selected, the land-use plan has to be worked out in great detail.
The plan consists of two parts: the map of the planning area with the location of the
proposed land uses and several supporting maps; and a report describing what these
different land uses look like, how the needed changes will have to be made, and when
and how all of this will be put into practice. The report also contains a summary of
all results from the previous steps. Next to presenting the plan, the report also has the
function of preparing the plan for implementation. Therefore, the report consists of
three elements: what should be done, how it should be done, and the reasons for the
decisions.
An important part for those who need to know what is to be done next is the description
of the land-use allocations or recommendations, in summary form and then in more detail.
Here, the selected option is set out without confusing the reader by references to rejected
alternatives. The selected land-use types, including their management specifications and
the land units for which they are recommended, are described.
Then, the reasons for choices and decisions must be given, in outline and in some
detail. Funding agencies need these explanations if they want to review the soundness
of the proposals from technical, economic, or other points of view.
Next, practical details for implemention must be considered: deciding the means,
assigning responsibility for getting the job done, and making a timetable for implemen-
tation. In large plans, it might be wise to divide the plan into phases. In this case, a map
is made for the first phase, for the second, and so on. The needs for land improvements
are itemized, including supporting services, physical infrastructure, and credit and other
internal financial services. The needed inputs are based on the phases and the man-
agement specifications for the land-use types. Land improvements, such as engineering
works, are ranked. Extension programs and incentives are planned. Responsible parties
are identified for each activity. Adequate arrangements for financing staff costs, inputs,
and credit are ensured. Particular attention must be paid to providing for maintenance
of all capital works. Details of the arrangements to be discussed with the decisionmaker
and relevant agency staff in terms of feasibility and acceptability and the availability of
advisory staff, logistic support, and supervision. The need for staff training is assessed.
The necessary arrangements for research, within the plan or through outside agencies,
are made. A procedure for reviewing the plan’s progress is established. The financing
needed for each operation and the sources of funds are determined. Policy guidelines
and any necessary legislation are drafted.
Because of the wide range of readership and what they want to read in the report of
the land-use plan, the report is usually divided in the folowing sections:
• Executive summary. Written for nontechnical decisionmakers, it is a summary of
the land-use situation, its problems and opportunities, and the recommendations
for action. Reasons for decisions are given briefly. Clear concise writing is of the
highest importance. This section should include at least one key map, the (master)
land-use plan and possibly other maps at small scales. It is typically 20 to 50 pages
long at the most.
• Main report. It explains the methods, findings, and factual basis of the plan. Written
for technical and planning staff who want to know details, it includes reasons for
decisions and often is 5 to 10 times longer than the executive summary.
• Maps volume. This is an integral part of the main report, presented seperately for
convenience of binding.
• Appendices. These provide the technical data that support the main report. These
may run to several volumes. They include the results from the original surveys con-
ducted as part of the plan, e.g., soil surveys, forest inventories, records of river flow.
Table 2.3 gives an example of the contents of a report for a land-use plan.
Because not all of the people that may need to be informed may (be able to) read
the full land-use plan report, a range of public information support documents may have
to be created. The support documents will inform interested parties about the plan, its
relevance, the benefits to the community as a whole and the participation needed from
different sections of the community.
Step 9: Implement the Plan
Implementation is a step of a totally different nature than the other steps, but because
the objective of the land-use planning process is to identify and put into practice beneficial
land-use changes, it is considered a part of the whole process. Implementation involves a
Table 2.3. Example of contents of a land-use plan report
Titlea
• Land-use plan for. . .
Summary
• Highlights of problems, recommendations, and the main reason for these recommendations.
Introduction
• Long-term goals for the planning area and the purpose of the plan.
• Relationship to other documents; briefly describes legislation and any higher-level plans as well
as local plans that are related to this plan.
• Description of the planning area; brief overview of location, area, population, land resources,
current land use and production.
Management problems and opportunities
• Statement of land-use problem and opportunities.
• Rationale for the selected option.
• Summary of the changes the plan will bring about, by subject area or geographical area.
Direction
• List of land-use types standards that apply to the whole planning area and to individual
planning units.
• Identification of projects, illustrated with maps and diagrams.
• Timescale for action.
Monitoring and revision
• Description of procedure for reviewing progress and revising the plan.
Work plan for implementation
• List of individual project with details of location, time, resources required, and responsibility
for implementation.
Appendices
• supporting information:
– physical environment, planning units, agroclimate, and soil data
– population, settlement, infrastructure, tenure
– present land use
– land-use types and land requirements
– land suitability
– economic projections
a Until the plan has been approved by the decisionmaker, it is a “proposed land-use plan.”
Source: [6].
wide range of practical activities, many of which lie beyond the scope of this overview of
the land-use planning steps. The following implementation strategies refer specially to
the roles that the planning team may undertake. Depending on the level of planning, the
team has different roles. On the national level, it supplies information to the government
as a basis for decisions. At the local level, the planning team may draw up detailed plans
for implementation while leaving other agencies to put the plan into action. The focus
of the planning team could be:
• Ensure that the changes and measures recommended in the plan are correctly under-
stood and put into practice. Be available for technical consultations. Discuss with
implementing agencies any suggested modifications.
• Help to maintain communications among all people and institutions participat-

ing in or affected by the plan, i.e., land users, sectoral agencies, governments,
nongovernmental organizations, commercial organizations. A part of this is also
the explanation of the land-use situation and plan to the media, at public meetings,
and in schools.
• Assist in coordination of the activities of the implementing agencies.
• Assist in institution building by strenghening links between existing institutions,
forming new bodies where necessary, and strengthening cooperation.
• Focus on the participation of the land users. Ensure adequate incentives.
• Organize research in association with the plan. Ensure that results from research
are communicated and, where appropriate, incorporated into the plan.
• Arrange for education and training of project staff and land users.
Step 10: Monitor and Revise the Plan
In this step, it becomes clear how well the plan is being implemented and whether it is
succeeding. The implementing agencies can still modify the “strategy for implementing
the plan” or just “modify the plan,” if necessary, before the full plan has been applied. The
planning team may learn from experience and respond to changing conditions. When
monitoring the plan, implementation data are collected to discern whether the land-use
activities are being carried out as planned, if the effects and costs are as predicted,
whether the assumptions on which the plan has been based have proven to be correct,
whether the goals are still valid, and how far a long the goals are toward being achieved.
One should keep in mind that the analysis and the action are more important than the
gathering of the data. The more time spent on gathering data, the less time there is for
adjustments, and the greater the loss or the failure may be. Monitoring also may involve
observations at key sites, regular extension visits, and discussions with officials and land
users. These periodic checkups make clear whether the goals are being met also in the
long term.
There are many possible reasons for failure of the plan: It could have been based on the
wrong assumptions, there may be changes in economic circumstances, the logistics of
the implementation could be failing, and there could be a problem of communication and
participation. Try to find solutions for these problems. Initiate modifications or revisions
of the plan: Minor modifications can be made through action by implementing agencies,
and larger revisions can be made by the preparation of proposals and reference back to
decisionmakers. Continuous minor revisions are preferrable because more substantial
changes can lead to delays.
The focus monitoring will change with the passing of years. In the first period, dur-
ing and immediately after implementation of the plan, results will become visible, for
example, new roads, water supplies, job opportunities. The second stage, consisting of
extension and maintenance and operation of capital works, is harder to monitor. This
transition is difficult and so, the latter phase calls for even more effective and willing
cooperation between implementing agencies and land users.
In several of the above steps throughout the planning process, contact must be estab-
lished with local people in the planning area. This is done to make sure that they are
involved in the planning process. Without their support and involvement, the plans likely
will not succeed [6]. This is because many changes will have to be made voluntarily by
the people, such as changing crops. For example, through analysis, the planning team,
determines that wheat will provide more income for farmers than potatoes in a certain
area. In the land-use plan, it is stated that the crop to be grown will be wheat, not pota-
toes. The individual farmers in the planning area have to grow wheat to make the plan
succeed. When the farmers are not willing to do that, their income will not increase and
the planning will have failed. In addition, the farmers may have had a very good reason
not to grow wheat; they may have tried it before and their yield and/or income dropped
and so, they switched back to potatoes. If the planning team had asked the farmers about
their ideas, they would have found this out earlier so that another way to increase the
farmers’ income could have been explored .
Too often in land-use planning, a top-down approach is followed. This means that the
government starts the planning process and fails to integrate the local people into it ([14],
[15]). Thus, local people have no opportunity to participate in the development of their
area. There is no link between the people and the planning agencies. The local people
usually are the most knowledgeable about major problems and constraints as well as
opportunities, in their area. Therefore for more successful planning, the more holistic,
bottom-up approach should be followed. Not only will local people be involved in the
planning process, but it is more likely that all relevant issues will be integrated in the
planning.
More about the importance of people’s participation can be found in an FAO report
[16].
2.1.4 Levels of Planning

In the description of the steps, it seems that there is only one level on which land-use
planning can take place, that of a relatively small area. This is not really the case; there
are some levels above and beneath the local level. The following seven major levels are
distinguished by the United Nations Economic and Social Council [15]:
• global,
• regional,
• national,
• provincal/district,
• local,
• municipal/village,
• household/farm.
The following five are distinguished by the FAO [14]:
• international,
• national,
• district/local/government/subnational,
• local community/watershed/ecosystem,
• primary land user.
Global is joined with regional and called international and local is partly joined with
provincial/district and partly with municipal/village. It is clear that the level of land-use
planning is not always easy to establish.
How rigidly the steps that describe the land-use planning can be followed also depends
on the level. On the global or international level, for example, not all people involved
can be asked about their development ideas. Planning also is not as detailed at higher
levels as at lower levels. At higher levels, a global direction of development is given for
large areas; for example, world-scale parts of South America are designated as tropical
rainforest and parts of Africa as desert. This does not mean that other land uses are not
allowed; it only indicates the importance of the conservation of these types of land use
in these areas or, in the case of the deserts, that very little can be done to change the
present situation. Also, the boundaries of the areas or not fixed; the patches on the map
only give an indication of the location of the rainforests and deserts.
On the regional or national level, the planning area is already a lot smaller and therefore
the planning is more detailed. The edges of the patches better indicate what kind of land
use is planned for which area, although the boundaries still are not fixed on the map.
The steps of the planning procedure cannot be followed in every detail but participation
is more important than on a higher level.
On the lowest level of land-use planning—the household, farm, or primary land user—
planning the use of land generally is called “management of the land.” Whereas the use
of the land is determined at a higher level, on the lowest level, only decisions on how to
implement the plan have to be made.
Very little can be said about the exact scale of the maps that can be used at the different
levels. On a global or international level, the maps will be of a smaller scale; conversely,
maps that show a small area are of a larger scale.
On the different levels, the land uses are not described in the same detail. Going from
a small scale (global/international level) to a larger scale (local level), the land uses will
be more specific. For example, agriculture can be divided into arable land and pasture.
Arable land use can be specified as crop and pasture by cattle. It is not always possible,
desirable, or even necessary to describe the land uses in much detail on higher levels. The
data that are required to make a more detailed distinction within a land use are not always
available on smaller scales. But even if these data are available, making such a detailed
plan allows the planners on a lower level little space in further detailing the land use.
2.1.5 Knowledge Systems

Knowledge systems are techniques or methods that support the land-use planning pro-
cess. Sometimes, they can be used in different steps of the process but some are especially
designed for one particular step. Not all knowledge systems or available methods are
described in this book. Also, a general description is given of the knowledge systems, but
there are substantial handbooks available for each knowledge system, sometimes even a
different one for each possible application. The most important knowledge systems that
are used in land-use planning are described shortly.
Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

GIS are very important knowledge systems in land-use planning. They are used widely
for multiple purposes in the process. A GIS can be described in many different ways but
all descriptions deal with georeferenced or spatial data. Standard (commercial) software
or specific applications are available for dealing with these spatial data [17]. Within GIS
the real world and its elements are transformed and formalized into spatial data, which
then are processed into information from which results are presented. A GIS can be cell
based or vector based. In the cell-based systems, all data are stored in grids. The grids
together form one layer in which an area of the real world is represented. In different
layers (maps) different kinds of data can be stored. The size of the grids defines the
accuracy of the representation, smaller grids (grids that represent a smaller piece of the
modeled area) give a better representation of reality than larger grids.
In the vector-based systems the data are stored as points, polygons, and lines. In this
format the real world can be represented more accurately. A real point can be depicted
as a point and a line as a line. This is not possible in a grid-based format. Points and
lines then are depicted as a small area of a certain size, namely the size of one (point)
or more cells (lines). Figure 2.4 shows how points, lines, and polygons are represented
in grid-based and vector-based formats. Just as in the grid-based format, different sorts
of information can be stored in different maps in vector-based formats. This structure of
the GIS allows different kinds of information to be recalled and combined.
A GIS can be very useful when a large amount of data must be gathered and stored.
With a GIS, this information can be retrieved and processed more easily than when it
has to be done manually. It is especially helpful in performing land suitability analyses,
described in step 5 of the planning process.
Systems Analysis
The use of system analysis in land-use planning is described in [18]. In systems
analysis, interrelated processes are analyzed and modeled. In [19] and other references, it
has been defined as a general framework of thoughts that creates the possibility to project
specific problems as seen from a general background. This description is rather general.
It shows that system analysis is applicable to many disiplines and that an interdisciplinary
approach is possible as well. Land-use planning deals with concrete systems. A concrete
system is a limited and coherent part of the real world (e.g., a technical instrument, a farm,
a local community, or a land-use planning area). Such a system is, by definition, limited.
The type of system determines whether it is open or closed. An open system interacts
with its surroundings; a closed system does not interact. Land-use planning areas are
(predominantly) open systems: They have an input (influence of their surroundings on
them) and an output (their influence on their surroundings).
There are at least three reasons to apply systems analysis in land-use planning:
• to encourage a more holistic perspective, rather than the reductionistic view from
which science usually works;
• to try to learn more about the most important aspects of a system and to focus
further research upon these aspects;
• to learn about the interaction of the different aspects and, where applicable, to
promote the study of these interactions.
An objective of a systems analysis approach in land-use planning is “to learn about
the meaning of planning in the functioning of rural areas so that priorities can be given
Figure 2.4. Difference between grid-based and vector-based formats.
for research as well as that the interaction between different studies can be clarified.”
Systems analysis in land-use planning should lead to knowledge about interactions,
for example, between the different land-use types; knowledge about the most striking
problems in the system; a determination of what knowledge is lacking; and the setting of
priorities and promotion of new research. Research in land-use planning is based almost
entirely on field research. A systems analysis approach to land-use planning in specific
rural areas, therefore, is predominantly based upon properties, land use, and problems of
that specific areas. Systems analysis of a specific planning area may study the different
land-use types in such a way that the long-term effects of changes on area properties,
often based upon spatial concepts, can be given for the different land uses.
Systems analysis is not new. It has been used in many fields throughout the past 50
years. It also has been used in land-use planning. An example of this is the research
described by Jorjani [20]. The effects of changes in a rural water management system
were analyzed from a total systems approach, as Fig. 2.5 shows. The approach clarifies
many things. First, it demonstrates that working with systems is a complicated approach.
Figure 2.5 shows, for example, that answering the question “What are the effects of
changing the water (management) system?” leads to 33 knowledge fields. Second, it
makes clear that teamwork is needed. Third, it probably is impossible, despite teamwork
and an interdisciplinary approach, to cover everything: priorities have to be set and
choices made. In the case of the drainage system study [20], which took four years, the
researcher could study only line 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8 (see numbered boxes in Fig. 2.5), with
some references to 27-28 and 14-15-16.
Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA)
Financial and economic analyses are important parts of the land-use planning process.
A land-use project, like any other project, can be implemented only if the total benefits
exceed the total costs. This has to be true for the project as a whole (economic analysis)
as well as for the individual land users in the project area (financial analysis). It is not
always possible or necessary to perform a financial analysis for every individual land user
but it has to be clear that most people—not just a few—will benefit from the project.
The problem with financial and economic analyses is that the total benefits and total
costs cannot simply be added. The costs usually occur in the first year(s) of the project
whereas the benefits are spread out over a longer period of time and usually occur later
in the project (e.g., when the project is halfway through implementation or after it is
completed). The amounts have to be discounted to a standard year.
After this is done, there are several methods for comparing the costs and benefits.
These methods, as well as the other aspects of CBA in an agricultural project, are
explained in the literature [21].
Multicriteria Analysis
The decision to implement a particular land-use plan or a certain alternative that is
designed within a project is not based only on the economic and financial analyses.
Other criteria, which have to be established earlier in the project, play an important role.
Each criterion usually has a specific format and therefore cannot just be compared to
each other criteria or added to obtain “score” of a plan or alternative. To make a fair
comparison of criteria and alternatives, MCA can be used. It consists of a few steps [22]:
A table is made with the value of each criterion for every alternative. This is called the
criterion score matrix. Each criterion has different units in which it is measured. To be
able to compare them, the values have to be transformed and standardized. To transform
means to express the qualitative criteria in a figure (by valuing the qualitative items).
To standardize means to express the criteria in equal units with the help of the same
formula. All scores are expressed on the same scale so that the criteria are comparible
among themselves. The converted criterion scores are put into an effectivity matrix. In
the next step, called priority standing, the criteria are weighted. Then it is possible to
state which criteria are considered more important than the others. The distribution of
weights is represented in the priority matrix. The last step is to multiply the converted
criterion scores by the weights and add all values to calculate a total score for each
alternative.
42
Figure 2.5. A systems approach to the study of the cause-effect relationship through drainage systems. Source: [20].
Land- and Water-Use Planning
Land-Use Planning for Farming 43
There are several ways to transform and standardize the values. Each way gives a
different total score. Also, the weighting is of great influence on the total score. The
distribution of the weights is influenced by the point of view from which the comparison
is made. Someone who thinks the conservation of natural beauty is more important than
the growth of agricultural output will distribute the weights differently than someone
who thinks otherwise. These two people most likely will not have a preference for the
same alternative and that is shown objectively by the total scores of each alternative.
By using MCA, the personal preferences of the planning team for an alternative will be
ruled out (or at least clarified and made public).
2.2 Land-Use Planning for Farming

A. Hoogeveen and H. N. van Lier
2.2.1 Land-Use Planning

In Section 2.1, a general outline of land-use planning is provided. This section focuses
on land-use planning for farming. Land-use planning can be defined as an idea for the
future land uses, expressed in a map and a written text, presenting the development zones
and other proposed changes and developments (see also Section 2.1). In this case, land-
use planning can be considered as a form of (regional) agricultural planning. Its target
is to establish the best use of land, within certain environmental and societal conditions,
and with certain objectives [7]. A way to establish the best use of land is to develop
the right spatial structures. These spatial structures set the right conditions for farming.
Apart from the actual making of a plan, the implementation of the plan also is considered
to be a part of land-use planning. Usually, the achievement of the desired use of land
takes place in the form of projects or programs.
When it comes to farming, the development of spatial structures is regarded from a
point of view of the modernization of agriculture. Modernization involves the increase of
agricultural productivity, that is, more output with less input. During the past few decades,
however, a general sense of responsibility toward ecosystems, of which humankind is a
part, has resulted in some additional targets. The notion of sustainable development, used
by the Brundtland Commission, has become an important issue in agricultural science
as well as in most communities throughout the world. It encompasses the idea that
humankind has certain responsibilities for future generations, who will need to provide
a way of living with the same (or more) possibilities and natural resources as the present
generations. The principle of sustainable development also identifies a certain intrinsic
value in the natural environment [1].
Agriculture can contribute to sustainable development. This is in the interest of agri-
culture because production is dependent on the resources provided by the natural envi-
ronment. Land-use planning is able to provide agriculture with some of the conditions
that make sustainable development possible.
The first objectives of land-use planning for farming—increasing production and
reducing production costs—can be achieved through changes in spatial conditions and
Figure 2.6. Land-use planning and its conditions.
biophysical processes. The second target, which can be summarized as sustainability, also
can be achieved by modifying these two conditions. At the same time, sustainability sets
the limits for these modifications. These limits are a part of socioeconomic conditions,
which cannot be altered by land-use planning alone.
To a certain extent, the spatial and biophysical conditions are the subject of land-use
planning for farming and the socioeconomic conditions set the limits for this planning.
These relationships between land-use planning and the two conditions are illustrated in
Fig. 2.6.
2.2.2 Spatial Conditions

Land-use planning for farming has an impact on agricultural spatial conditions. It is a
means to improve these conditions and provide better production. Spatial conditions can
be divided into four aspects: access, location, shape, and dimensions. These aspects can
be used to describe the way in which spatial conditions influence agricultural production.
See Fig. 2.7 and Table 2.4 for examples of these aspects.
Various kinds of access are necessary for the farm to operate competitively. Farm
products have to be transported from the fields to the farm buildings and to the market.
Animal feed supplements must be taken to the stables, fertilizers must be transported
from the (local) market to the fields. In agricultural systems, with high mechanization,
it is also neccesary that the fields be accessible to heavy mechanical equipment.
Spatial parameters vary from one location to another. It is very important to fix the
right location for the right activity. The best location for storage facilities is near a road.
Conversely, an isolated field in the middle of a forest area will be of little use to a farmer.
On a higher level, the right location will depend on regional types of land use and on the
suitability of the location for farming.
At different levels, the dimensions indicate the economic and, sometimes, social
survivability of a farm or a farming system. Almost always, a minimum size is required.
For example, the use of mechanical equipment is tied up with the size of the area (the
field) that has to be worked. When the field is too small, the investment in a harvester is
too high for a single farm or group of farms.
The shape is less important as a spatial condition. Its meaning as a factor to determine
the suitability of a farm or a field for agricultural production is limited almost entirely
to mechanized farming systems. In these systems, the shape of the fields influences the
yields and the productivity of the equipment used.
Figure 2.7. Example of the four aspects of spatial conditions (see also Table 2.5). Three of the four
aspects can be illustrated by a dairy farm that is not too distant from a town, where the local market
is situated. The farm buildings are situated along a public road. A private road leads from the
buildings to five lots. The local market at which all products from the farm are sold, also is situated
along the public road. The text in Table 2.4 reviews the aspects of the spatial conditions. The
regional level is left out, because of the scale of the example. The dimension aspect also is left out
because it was not possible to incorporate it in the figure.
Table 2.4. Aspects of spatial conditions using a dairy farm example
Level
Aspect Farm Field
Access Excellent. The buildings are Moderate. Lots 1, 2, and 3 are
situated along the public road. easily accessible, but lots 4 and 5
Trucks and other vehicles have have restrictions: a hedge and a
direct access to the farm. ditch, respectively.
Location Fairly good. The local market, Could be better. The distance from
which is very important to the the buildings to the lots, especially
farm, is not too far away. lots 4 and 5 are restricting the
farming method. The animals (in
this example cows) cannot graze
on these two lots, because they
have to be milked twice or three
times a day.
Shape Good, with the exception of lot 5,
which is irregularly shaped and is
in the shadow of a tree.
Table 2.5. Levels and aspects of

spatial conditions
Level
Aspect Regional Farm Field
Access x x x
Location x x
Dimensions x x x
Shape x
The four aspects—access, location, shape, and dimensions—can be reviewed at dif-

ferent levels. The examples show that access to a field is very different from access to a
farming system. Three levels can be distinguished: field, farm, and region. Each aspect
has its own characteristics at each level. Shape applies only to the field level, whereas
location does not apply to the field level. The four aspects and the levels at which they
occur are given in Table 2.5.
Access
Accessibility is defined by Mitchell and Town (in [3]) as “the ability of people to
reach destinations at which they can carry out a given activity.” Moseley et al. [23] use
this definition to describe a form of physical accessibility. The other form of accessibility
that they distinguish is social. It refers to the fact that sometimes individuals must fulfill
certain requirements to reach something they want.
In this Handbook, the first form of accessibility is used, as far as it concerns agriculture.
The central idea of accessibility is the capacity to overcome distance. Hence it refers
to the term “ability” [23]. The interaction between the destinations and the people is
an important factor of accessibility. Accessibility is determined by the nature of the
destination, but also by the people who (desire to) reach the destination to carry out a
certain activity. As far as accessibility is concerned, both aspects have to be taken into
account.
In land-use planning, the accessibility of a certain location (e.g., a field with cattle)
can be improved, according to the wishes of the people who need to have access to the
location. Improvement can take place in many different ways, ranking from the removal
of physical barriers to the relocation of the land.
For farming, accessibility is very important. At the field level, all lots have to be
accessible, either for small-scale activities or for large-scale mechanized activities. The
activity carried out on the field determines the requirements with regard to accessibility. In
practical terms, this means, for example, that for a lot situated near a road, it is possible to
get from the road onto the field without having to cross barriers such as ditches or fences.
At the farm level, the transport of raw materials and finished products determines
economic survivability. The importance of accessibility at the farm level depends on the
farming system. In modern farming systems, the trucks that transport cattle fodder to
the farm and milk from the farm must have access to the right location on the farm.
In less developed systems, with extremes such as autarkic systems, accessibility is less
important for economic survivability. Land-use planning at the farm level has roughly
the same tasks as at the field level. The difference is the scale of the measures. A road
from a farm to a local market is more complicated and has more side effects than a road
from the farm buildings to a field. On top of that, regional development also applies
to this level of planning and land-use planning has to interact with regional economic
development strategies (see Section 2.2.4).
The access to a farm from a local market (and vice versa) is very important for the
economic development of an area. First, there have to be roads and waterways before
the potential of an area can be fully realized. In areas with less potential, but better
transportation systems, farming may be a more attractive enterprise [24].
Large-scale economic principles on the regional level lead to more complexity. Land-
use planning is one of the many instruments that determine the use of land on this scale.
Factors such as the services provided in a certain area and the number of food-producing
factories in the region are important. Access to these facilities is crucial for farming in
developed countries. On a regional level, access is a key factor to provide farming with
the means to play its role in the economic system. However, access on this level is more
a matter of regional development and large-scale land-use planning than of land-use
planning for farming.
Location
The location of certain elements, such as fields at a farm or farms within a community,
can be defined as the relative geographic position of each element with regard to other
elements. Access and location interact when planning the use of land for agriculture. A
field that is located at a great distance from the farm is not very accessible. Access is
also poor when a field is situated in an extensive woodland area.
At the farm level, the location of each field determines the time needed to move from
one field to another and from the fields to the farm building. Location is an important
factor for reducing the costs in mechanized agricultural systems. For less mechanized
systems, the losses will not be counted in money but in time. Walking to the fields takes
even longer than driving, and so, every reduction of the distance will be welcome.
At the regional level, the location of the local market is of great importance. Also at
this level, the interaction between accessibility and location is eminent (see “Access”).
Land uses may conflict in their way of using natural resources. Some forms of indus-
try threaten vulnerable ecological systems and a wrongly designed water management
system in an agricultural area may drain the water from valuable wetlands. In most cases,
land uses that are not economically powerful are vulnerable. Usually, nature is the most
vulnerable use of land, industry, agriculture, and urbanization are the most threatening
uses. In densely populated areas, agriculture also can be one of the vulnerable uses of
land. The right location of each land use, and of agriculture in particular, can prevent ei-
ther agriculture from threatening nature or agriculture from being threatened by industry
or urbanization. These considerations take place at the regional level. In Fig. 2.8, three
examples are given of how different land uses can intertwine. In the three examples, the
scale at which the mix of land-uses takes place, varies.
Figure 2.8. Separated or intertwined

land uses [25].
Dimensions
Land-use planning can be a means to enlarge farms. Lots that belong to farmers who
quit can be sold to the remaining farmers. Land-use planning can provide strategies for
the exchange of lots, in order to reduce the distance from the farm buildings to each lot.
Mechanized agriculture requires optimized production conditions. Only when the
circumstances are optimized, can the production take place as efficiently as possible. In
most processes, economies of scale occur when the amount processed increases. This
is also the case in agriculture. The fields have to have a certain area for the machinery
to be able to produce efficiently. The smaller the field, the more time that is spent on
turning and the more area that is lost at the edges (in relation to the yields), as is shown
in Fig. 2.9.
However, farmers of all size of operations tend to enlarge their farms, more for the
increase in income than for the decrease in costs per unit [26]. This applies to the field
level as well as to the farm level.
Farm size is influenced by a number of factors. These factors have been given for Cal-
ifornia [27], but they apply to most other developed countries. They include government
politics, taxation, the product marketing system, labor costs, energy use, mechanization,
and the rural community. If land-use planning is used to enlarge farms, these factors have
to be taken into account to ascertain the mutual influence of these factors and farm size.
Figure 2.9. Losses on edges and corners (jaar = year; gld = dutch
guilder = approx. U.S. $0.5). Source: [31].
Shape
The aspect of shape is important at the field level. It influences the time spent on each
field in the case of mechanized farming systems. On irregular-shaped fields, the number
of turns and the area that is not cultivated at the end of the bouts increase. This consumes
time and money [28]. In Table 2.6, some figures are given to indicate the loss of time on
irregular-shaped fields compared to regular-shaped ones [28].
In Fig. 2.10, the field shapes that are used in Table 2.6 are visualized. All examples
have an area of 10 ha (25 acres).
As with dimensions, the shape is only important in mechanized agricultural systems.
The shape of a field is not very important to the farmer in less-developed systems, who
does all the work by hand.
Table 2.6. Effect of field shape on the time to

cultivate 10 haa
Cultivation Time
Field Shapeb (Min ha) Index
Square 56.6 100
Rectangle (2:1) 54.0 95
Rectangle (4:1) 52.4 93
Re-entrant side 59.1 104
Building plots 60.5 107
Obstacles in field 62.0 109
a See also Fig. 2.9.
b See Fig. 2.10.
Source: [28].
Figure 2.10. Field shapes (see Table 2.6 for cultivation times).
The effect of an irregular shape decreases when the size of the field increases. The
time that is lost remains the same, but the amount of yield increases, and therefore the
efficiency rises.
In Fig. 2.9, the relation between size and shape is shown in the context of losses at the
edges. The horizontal axis represents the ratio of the length to the width of a field. The
various lines indicate the field size, ranging from 0.25 ha to 16 ha. The graph shows that, as
the acreage increases, the losses decrease. It is also clear that the effect of shape decreases
as the acreage increases. On small fields, the shape is more important than the size. On
big fields, it’s the other way around. The optimum is at a ratio of approximately 2.5.
2.2.3 Biophysical Conditions

The biophysical conditions are qualities of the land. Water, soil, and air are the
components of the biophysical surroundings of any farm system. The nature and ex-
tension of natural biotopes is determined by biophysical conditions [29]. Agriculture
is heavily dependent on natural biotopes because they form the main production fac-
tor of farming. Throughout the years, the components of the biophysical surround-
ings are changed by various land uses, resulting sometimes in near-perfect production
conditions.
The quality of these components is an important factor for growing any crop or keeping
most animals. Some sorts of farming can function without their natural environment (such
as greenhouse systems), but they are not reviewed here because they are hardly affected
by land-use planning.
The FAO has defined a land quality as “a complex attribute of land which acts in
a distinct manner in its influence on the suitability of land for a specific kind of use”
[30]. If the suitability of land for farming has to be increased with land-use planning,
the qualities of the land have to be altered through land-use planning. The land qualities
that apply to rainfed agriculture are listed in Table 2.7.
Some of these land qualities cannot be influenced by land-use planning. For example,
the radiation regime is a factor that is unchangeable. The same goes for temperature
regime and climatic hazards. Other land qualities are influenced by normal farming pro-
cedures. Rooting conditions are improved by plowing, moisture availability is improved
Table 2.7. Land qualities for rainfed agriculture
No. Quality
1 Radiation regime
2 Temperature regime
3 Moisture availability
4 Oxygen availability to roots (drainage)
5 Nutrient availability
6 Nutrient retention capacity
7 Rooting conditions
8 Conditions affecting germination and establishment
9 Air humidity as affecting growth
10 Conditions for ripening
11 Flood hazard
12 Climatic hazards
13 Excess of salts
14 Soil toxicities
15 Pests and diseases
16 Soil workability
17 Potential for mechanization
18 Land preparation and clearance requirements
19 Conditions for storage and processing
20 Conditions affecting timing of production
21 Access within the production unit
22 Size of potential management units
23 Location: accessibility
24 Erosion hazard
25 Soil degradation hazard
Source: [32].
by sprinklers, and nutrient availability is improved by application of manure. The im-

provement of these qualities is not land-use planning.
Typical land qualities that can be ranked under land-use planning are access (Nos. 21
and 23 in Table 2.7), size (No. 22), location, and shape of the farms and fields. These
land qualities are reviewed in Section 2.2.2, “Spatial Conditions.” Other land qualities
that can be improved through land-use planning are structural soil improvements (Nos.
4, 7, 16, and 17), erosion control (Nos. 24 and 25), and flood hazard (l.q. 11). The nature
of these qualities and the way to improve them are dealt with in other sections of this
Handbook. In this chapter, the way land-use planning affects these qualities is reviewed.
Structural soil improvements can be achieved outside land-use planning but nearly
all land development plans contain measures to improve the soils. The conditions of the
soil are important for crops and for mechanization.
The rooting conditions, that is, the conditions for the development of an effective
root system [31], refer to the ability to keep the plant in place and the plant’s ability to
extract moisture and nutrients. If the volume of the root system is limited, the parts of
the plant that are aboveground will suffer [32]. The characteristic by which the rooting
conditions are measured is the effective soil depth. Additional characteristics include
soil structure, consistency, and texture. Land-use planning involves measures to improve
rooting conditions, such as deep ploughing, adding chalk or sand to clay or peat, removing
of the topsoil, or applying drainage. If the land-use plan contains uses of land that require
perfect rooting conditions, the measures should be part of the land-use plan.
Almost all crops need to take up oxygen through their roots, although plants vary in
their tolerance of short periods of waterlogging. Oxygen availability to roots is therefore
very important. Because oxygen is available above the water table and not below it,
the depth of the water table is the key factor for this land quality. Drainage is a way
to improve oxygen availability. Most land-use plans involve interventions in the water
management system. Ditches, dikes, pumps, and field drainage, are ways to influence the
amount of water in an area. Because water management is of a regional nature, land-use
planning is a preeminent way to achieve the right level of availability of water.
Water management is also very important for soil workability and mechanization. The
moisture content of the soil is particularly important for the workability. Some soils are
always easy to work, whereas other soils have strict limitations with regard to the water
content. Generally, sandy soils are easier to work than clayey soils and well-textured soils
are easier to work than massive soils [32]. The measures in a land-use plan that can be
applied to improve soil workability are the same as with land quality 7, rooting conditions.
Apart from soil workability, the texture of soil is also important for mechanization.
This land quality applies only to agricultural systems that are highly mechanized. Charac-
teristics of land that define potential for mechanization are slope angle, rock hindrances,
stoniness or extreme shallowness of the soil, and the presence of heavy clays [32].
The potential for mechanization can be improved by lessening the slope angle and by
improving the soil characteristics. The slope angle can be lessened by terracing the lots
(Fig. 2.11). These improvements, like soil improvements, can very well take place in
connection with land-use planning schemes.
Erosion is one of the main problems for agriculture across the world. It causes fertile
soils to be washed or blown away, leaving poor, nonproductive land. The many aspects
of erosion are discussed in other parts of this book. The ways in which land-use planning
can reduce erosion are reviewed here.
Land-use planning can prevent erosion by assigning uses of the land that protect
sensitive soils (such as dense woods). Less sensitive soils can be used for agriculture.
Where this is not possible, a small-scale mix of certain land uses provides a way to
prevent erosion: For example, when agriculture is combined with forestry or nature
reserves, the forest or the reserve functions as a buffer, preventing the water or the wind
from eroding the nearby fields. Other ways to prevent erosion include terracing fields,
building dikes, planting grass strips for water flows and to trap sediments, and planting
Figure 2.11. Terracing of fields.

Figure 2.12. Damage resulting from flooding can be reduced by planning

the use of the land.
trees as a protection against wind. These measures can also be taken outside land-use
plans and they are discussed elsewhere in this volume (see Chapter 4).
Flood hazard is a problem that requires more than just land-use planning. However,
planning can mitigate the effects of flooding by making sure that land threatened by
flooding is used appropriately (see Fig. 2.12). Some uses of land even benefit from
incidental or permanent inundation.
2.2.4 Socioeconomic Conditions

Although land-use planning changes the spatial and physical aspects of a rural coun-
tryside, it also has impact on and is influenced by social and economic conditions. The
status of these conditions can hardly be changed by land-use planning on a farm-level
scale. Only through nationwide or statewide land-use planning can certain changes be
achieved. This is especially so for multiple land-use planning. In this section, some issues
between land-use planning for farming and socioeconomic conditions are presented.
The first issue is sustainability, the general outlines of which are given in Chapter 1.
The concept of sustainable land use embraces two goals: optimal use and protection of
natural resources for the long term (environmental sustainability) and meeting the needs
and aspirations of the present generation (socioeconomic sustainability) [33]. Natural re-
sources are the main production factor for farming, and so, farming has, by definition, an
impact on these resources. To provide the right conditions for sustainability within farm-
ing systems, land-use planning must improve the spatial and biophysical conditions of
the agricultural area, so that an optimal and sustainable use of the natural resources is pos-
sible. Land-use planning provides the tools to do this. Some examples of these tools are
• the spatial separation of conflicting land uses (e.g., agricultural and urban land use);
• legislation and regulation with regard to the agricultural use of land (e.g., nitrate
application criteria to protect water resources);
• promotion of and provision of the means for nature management by farmers.
Figure 2.13. The land-use planning spectrum. Source: [34].
Land-use planning has to struggle with two dimensions of sustainability [34]: eco-
logical conservation and economic existence. Conservation is a striving to restore and
preserve; Development is a striving to create and “improve.” Figure 2.13 illustrates this.
Land-use planning, however, can go further than the above mentioned protection of
the natural resources; it can help to restore lost values. This is the case when, for example,
farmland is turned into nature areas [35].
The second issue is multifunctional land-use planning, which occurs on a larger scale
than one or a few farms. More types of land uses have to be taken into account when
planning on this scale; it cannot be restricted to farming alone. The most suitable use of
land has to be determined with regard to the land qualities and the requirements that each
type of land use has. This may not be agriculture, even in an agricultural area. Sometimes
mixed forms of land use are possible and, in fact, have even been encouraged [33] where
they take into account the interrelationships among the land uses (see Fig. 2.14).
The third issue concerns the market principle and economic conditions. The agricul-
tural interest in certain kinds of land is determined by the situation in the agricultural
market [36]. The market has more influence in some political systems than in others,
depending on the extent of freedom of pricing. If land prices are low, many farmers will
want to buy land, so that the pressure on the market for land increases. Land-use planning
has to deal with this problem, for example, by making more land suitable for farming.
Figure 2.14. Multiple land-use planning.

When the demand for farmland is low, land-use planning can transform agricultural land
into nature reserves or recreational sites.
Agriculture always has been an important sector in almost every economic system in
the world. Most nations have been and are dependent on agricultural exports [37]. Gov-
ernments have treated agriculture according to its importance to the national economy
and, in many cases, have made the improvement of agricultural conditions the single
goal of land-use planning.
In developing countries, land-use planning and rural development may be used to
increase exports consisting of primary agricultural products, such as cocoa butter, raw
timber, and soybeans. These products are processed, after being imported, in developed
countries [38]. In this situation, land-use planning can be used in two ways: The first is
to help increase the production level of the primary production systems. The second is
to help to develop ways to process the primary products in their country of origin, thus
stimulating the national economy. Land-use planning is only one of the many instruments
needed to enhance these complex, international relationships.
The fourth issue is rural development. When the agricultural system in a certain area
is improved by land-use planning, the rural area, which usually is connected closely
with agriculture, benefits from this improvement. In most cases, land-use planning will
improve not only the conditions for farming, but also for other land uses (see the preceding
discussion of multifunctional land-use planning). Conditions in the area as a whole will
improve, in most cases causing a higher level of economic activity. When this happens,
land-use planning can provide some of the conditions for increased economic activity,
for example, through improvement of the infrastructure.
The improvement of a rural area with regard to its economic possibilities and its
social and environmental “health,” is called rural development. Land-use planning and
rural development go hand in hand: one needs the other, and there is no clear boundary
between them [6].
However, there are, two sides to rural development. The most important is the above-
mentioned development of the area. The other side is the increase in property taxes and
the general cost of living [37]. The increase in property taxes is a result of the increased
value of the land arising from the demand for more land to facilitate the economic
activities. This is even more the case when the increased economic activity leads to
urbanization of the countryside. Speculation and the market principle lead to higher land
prices. A higher service level for the inhabitants of the area leads to higher cost of the
primary services.
The fifth, and final, issue is knowledge. Generally, much knowledge and information
are required about what, how, where, and why planning should take place. For farming,
land-use planning involves information about the land and about farming. Information
about the land provides insight into the opportunities and constraints of each type of
land for agriculture. The land qualities mentioned in Section 2.2.3 can be a good guide
when gathering information. The spatial requirements of agriculture can be found in
Section 2.2.2. It is essential that all information be integrated in an information system.
Such a system makes it possible to assess biophysical and spatial effects of the alternative
land-use options and to make decisions as to the best alternative [39].
Aside from the information about land and agriculture, some knowledge about the
planning process is necessary. This is reviewed in Section 2.1.
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Emphasis on California. A Review of What Is Known About the Diverse Forces
Affecting Farm Size, and Additional Research Considerations. Davis: University of
California, Department of Agricultural Economics.
28. Sturrock, F. G., J. Cathie, and T. A. Payne. 1977. Economies of Scale in Farm
Mechanisation. A Study of Costs on Large and Small Farms. Cambridge, UK:
Agricultural Economics Unit, Department of Land Economy.
29. Brouwer, F. M., A. J. Thomas, and M. J. Chadwick (eds.). 1991. Land Use Changes in
Europe. Processes of Change, Environmental Transformations and Future Patterns.
Dordrecht: Kluwer.
30. Food and Agriculture Organization. 1976. A Framework for Land Evaluation.
Wageningen: International Institute for Land Reclamation and Irrigation.
31. Sprik, J. B., and J. A. Kester. 1972. Kantverliezen op Rechthoekige en Onregel-
matig Gevormde Akkerbouwpercelen (Edge Losses on Rectangular and Irregular
Shaped Fields). Wageningen: Instituut voor Cultuurtechniek en Waterhuishouding.

(in Dutch.)
32. Food and Agriculture Organization. 1984. Guidelines: Land Evaluation for Rainfed
Agriculture. FAO Soils Bulletin 52. Rome: FAO.
33. van Lier, H. N., C. F. Jaarsma, C. R. Jurgens, and A. J. de Buck (eds.). 1994.
Sustainable Landuse Planning. Proceedings of an International Workshop, 2– 4
September 1992, Wageningen. ISOMUL, CIGR. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
34. Sasaki, H., I. Saito, A. Tabayashi, and T. Morimoto (eds.). 1996. Geographical Per-
spectives on Sustainable Rural Systems. Proceedings of the Tsukuba International
Conference on the Sustainability of Rural Systems. Tokyo: Kaisei Publications.
35. Kneib, W. D. 1996. A landscape development plan as a tool for sustainable ecological
planning. Second Workshop on Sustainable Land Use Planning with Special Regard
to Central and Eastern European Countries. Gödöllö, Hungary: Gödöllö University
of Agricultural Sciences and National Committee of CIGR.
36. Organisation For Economic Cooperation and Development. 1976. Land Use Politics
and Agriculture. Paris: OECD.
37. Cloke, P. J. (ed.). 1989. Rural Land-Use Planning in Developed Nations. London:
Unwin Hyman.
38. Food and Agriculture Organization. 1995. Planning for a Sustainable Use of Land
Resources: Towards a New Approach (Draft). Rome: FAO.
39. Fresco, L. O., L. Stroosnijder, J. Bouma, and H. van Keulen. 1994. The Future of
the Land. Mobilising and Integrating Knowledge for Land Use Options. Chichester:
Wiley.
3 Rural Roads
3.1 Overview
A. P. Wolleswinkel and C. F. Jaarsma
A rural road network creates many contradictions. The presence of a well-developed
road network in a region is a conditio sine qua non for economic development and effi-
cient access to and use of land resources. Accessibility of rural areas and mobility for the
rural people are also social aims. Simultaneously, the presence of the road network and
its traffic flows often can have harmful effects. The problems that are encountered in this
context may be approached in two ways: quantitatively and qualitatively. Both aspects
occur everywhere, but may have especially large effects in less developed countries. Re-
moteness, isolation, and inaccessibility are the key characteristics of many rural regions
in Africa, Asia, Central America, and South America. A lack of sufficient roads, both
qualitatively and quantitatively, results in a bad transportation system, leading to eco-
nomic and social losses. Another problem in these countries constitutes the impacts due
to the disturbed balance between the road functions and maintenance. In industrialized
countries, the quantitative aspect is less important than the qualitative aspect. Emissions
and noise affect local people, flora, and fauna. There also is the problem of traffic safety
on rural roads with low capacities, because of high traffic speeds.
Terms such as remoteness and isolation vary with national living standards. In Aus-
tralia, the extensive use of air transport and radio links brings the most distant farm into
easy communication with essential services. On the other hand, in much of Southeast
Asia, even the bicycle is beyond the means of many villagers. Thus, these terms need to
be handled with caution. It is too complex to restrict these terms to developing nations
alone [1].
In the next sections, a substantial distinction is drawn between industrialized and
developing countries. The latter nations must deal with mobility problems that differ from
those in the industrialized countries. In most developing countries, at least two-thirds
of the population still can be classified as rural, although densities vary considerably
according to levels of economic activity. In Nigeria, for example, rural densities of 400
persons per km2 are recorded in the southeast region, whereas the drier interior savannahs
support densities of only 20–30 persons per km2 . If rural isolation is interpreted in terms
of the absence of roads for cars, then 196 million village dwellers in India belong in this
59
60 Rural Roads
category. A survey of 16 provinces in Indonesia indicated that 30% of all villages had
no link to the road network [1].
Many nations, however, find themselves in an intermediate position between the two
extremes of being industrialized or developing. Within these countries, the levels of
isolation and remoteness in rural areas can vary substantially. In nations in the Middle
East and Latin America, for example, the mobility is relatively high in some rural areas but
inaccessibility is still a severe problem in other regions [1]. Eastern European countries,
with economies in transition, face the problem of rapidly growing car ownership. At the
same time, the existing road network needs structural changes to serve the new forms of
land use and the related land layout changes.
Where this chapter deals with roads, it should be realized that a road is not a goal
unto itself. Roads are only constructed to serve traffic and transportation. Both traffic and
transportation are derived functions. They strongly depend on local land use (location
and type of activities). Simultaneously, all human activities are strongly dependent on
the road network. In this way, there is a narrow relationship between spatial planning,
land-use planning, and the planning, construction, and maintenance of the road network.
This holds for both urban and rural areas.
This chapter is divided into three main parts. Section 3.2 addresses the fundamentals
of rural roads. It explains rural road structure and the density of networks. Then traffic
problems are discussed in the context of the need for traffic planning. Section 3.3 dis-
cusses in greater depth the motives and perspectives for rural road planning. Examples of
planning systems and cases are described to give an adequate view into the international
planning for rural roads. In Sections 3.4 and 3.5, respectively, basic principles of road
construction and maintenance are presented and discussed.
3.2 Rural Road Development in a Wider Context

A. P. Wolleswinkel and C. F. Jaarsma
3.2.1 Introduction
A well-designed regional road network consists of several mutually related hierar-
chical networks. First, there is the network of high-quality roads, such as motorways,
to provide long-distance connections with high-speed travel. This is mostly a national
network. Second, the network of regional highways connects regions with each other
and with the first network. In countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD), these major roads only represent some 20% to 40% of the
overall stock. In developing countries, this is much lower—some 5% [2]. So, the network
of high-quality trunk roads only includes a relatively small part of a country’s total road
network. The majority of this network is the so-called low-traffic network, embracing the
low-traffic roads (LTRs). Other terms, such as low-volume roads and minor rural roads,
are also in use. In the following sections, LTR is used to mean roads with lower functions
than the trunk roads. Both one-lane and two-lane LTRs and paved as well as unpaved
LTRs appear. In developing countries, unpaved roads represent about two-thirds of the
Rural Road Development in a Wider Context 61
Figure 3.1. Coherence between networks of trunk roads and

LTRs. Source: Reprinted by permission of the Wageningen
Agricultural University.
network, excluding tracks that cannot be defined as roads [2]. Figure 3.1 illustrates the
coherence between the networks of trunk roads and LTRs.
LTRs play a major role in the industrialized countries in promoting and facilitating the
proper development of land and natural resources, serving the needs of local industry and
promoting commercial, social, and cultural activity at both local and regional levels. In
developing countries, roads are designed essentially to open up new resources, develop
agriculture and mining, promote industry and commerce, and stimulate the social and
cultural life of the regions [2].
In defining an LTR, several criteria may be used, including traffic volume, road
function, administrative classification, and management and financing arrangements.
LTRs are mainly local collector and access roads but they might also be of a higher road
class. Traffic volumes on these roads is less than 1,500 (2,000 in certain exceptional
cases) motor vehicles per day [2]. Among the network of LTRs, there are mainly local
62 Rural Roads
Figure 3.2. Relationships between road function, design (technical layout),

and traffic use (elaborated from [3]).
collector roads and access roads to adjacent land, housing developments, and agricultural,
forestry, and industrial sites.
For every road link in the network, a mutual harmony must exist between desired
function, technical layout, and traffic characteristics. Figure 3.2 illustrates these rela-
tionships.
The next section (3.2.2) deals with the different networks that generally occur.
Section 3.2.3 discusses possible rural road classification systems, and finally, Sec-
tion 3.2.4 briefly indicates the traffic problems to be solved with traffic planning.
3.2.2 Rural Road Networks and LTRs

LTRs are part of the entire road network. Two parameters describe this network: form
(structure) and density. The next sections discuss both parameters.
Network Form
Tradionally, the form of the road network on a regional scale strongly depends on
natural constraints and/or the historical rural occupation patterns. For example, in the
Dutch province of Drenthe, several features of the triangular network can be observed
through the old Sachsian settlement pattern. Principally, there are two basic shapes:
radial and tangential (the somewhat confusing terms functional and geometric network
are also in use). In a radial network, the roads start from the center village or town and
go into the surrounding rural area. This system is found in areas with natural barriers
such as hills, mountains, or rivers and/or in areas where the occupation lasted relatively
long (Fig. 3.3A). Adequately expanded radial networks provide access to the formerly
fairly inaccessible mountainous areas. In contrast, a tangential network is applied in
more or less homogeneous areas, occupied during a relatively short period. They are
characterized by a clear, easily expanded structure. This type of network is suitable
in areas with intensive agriculture and forestry. Its chessboard structure is well known
in the United States. It also occurs in both historically (Fig. 3.3B) and more recently
constructed reclamation areas (e.g., The Netherlands), in extensive agricultural regions
(e.g., eastern Germany), and in lowlands of mountain regions (e.g., Switzerland).
In practice, adapted forms of these basics appear. Radial networks are shaped either
as a branched structure or an “antichessboard.” A grid structure introduces hierarchy
into the basically unhierarchical tangential chessboard network [4]. Figure 3.4 shows
the most important advantages and disadvantages.
Figure 3.3. Basic network forms: (A) radial and (B) tangential (original pattern after reclamation).
Source: Reprinted by permission of the Wageningen Agricultural University.
Network Density
An easily interpretable statistic for the network density is the so-called road density
(symbol W , dimension km/km2 ). This statistic is calculated by dividing the road length
by the acreage of the study area. In this calculation, only roads with an access function
for the study area are considered. A road density of 1.5 to 6 often is used for farmed
areas. The desired value strongly depends on the type of agricultural land use. The lower
values (1.5 to 2.0) count for arable land and pasture land in flat areas. For horticulture, a
density of 2 to 3 is used, whereas glasshouse districts need a density of 3 to 6 km/km2 .
Furthermore, the values depend on farm sizes, the number of parcels per farm, form
and acreage of the parcels, and the topographical structure of the landscape. In newly
reclaimed land, with large arable farms and the farmland concentrated around the farm
buildings, the road density is only 0.6 to 0.8 km/km2 for public roads. This value roughly
doubles when the frequently constructed, paved private farm roads are included.
In developing countries the road density is much lower. Overall data for selected coun-
tries in Africa from the International Road Federation show values from 0.02 km/km2
(in Botswana and Ethiopia) to 0.4 km/km2 (in Rwanda). However, these data are on a
national scale. They cannot be compared directly with the regional data for a specific
form of agricultural land use, as presented above.
It might be more illustrative to recalculate the road density in a mesh size of the
network. This can be done easily if a standard representation of reality is dividing all roads
outside built-up areas in a regular rectangle (the chessboard structure). The relationship
between road length and road density can be calculated by considering the total road
length around a rectangle as 4L km; the surface amounts L 2 km2 . To determine the road
density, each length needs to be halved because each road serves the opening up of two
64 Rural Roads
Figure 3.4. Adapted forms of networks with their advantages and disadvantages.
Source: [4], reprinted by permission of PUDOC-DLO, Wageningen.
adjacent blocks. The road density then amounts to
W = 1/2 · 4L/L 2 = 2/L , (3.1)
where W = road density (km/km2 ) and L = mesh size (km).

This mesh-size approach may give more insight into the real network situation. It is a
good starting point for calculation of accessibility measures of a network. These can be
defined as the travel time necessary within the network to reach a destination in the rural
area. The kind of land uses in the rural area determine the desirable mesh size (km), just
as it was for road density (km/km2 ).
Most regions in industrialized countries have, from a quantitative point of view, a
sufficient rural road network. With regard to quality, however, increasing volumes cause
increasing problems. On the contrary, in developing countries the main problem is a
proportionally more expensive infrastructural network over large distances, dispersed
population centers, and low traffic flows. Large, sometimes oversized, networks often
mean that maintenance is a major financial problem for these countries [5].
3.2.3 Classification of (Rural) Roads

Roads can be categorized in many different ways. In relationship to Fig. 3.2, a clas-
sification may be based on road design (construction), use (traffic characteristics), or
function. For planning purposes, a classification by function is most useful. This is elab-
orated in the next sections, for both industrialized and developing countries. Classifica-
tions by road design are commonly based on pavement width and type. The distinction
“paved/unpaved” is the simplest classification. Road surfaces can be paved with seales
or oil-based materials as well as asphalt or concrete. Unpaved roads are characterized
as earth, sand, or gravel. Traffic characteristics embody features such as traffic volume
and composition by mode. The narrow relationships between the three classifications
are self-evident. The more important the function of the road, the higher the volumes,
the bigger the construction of the road, and the wider the pavement. Table 3.1 gives an
idea of such relationships.
Divisions into categories have been developed with the intention of forcing the adjust-
ment of the driving behavior to conditions of road and traffic. To enable road users to do
this, differences among the categories should be clear to them. The clearest road feature
is the width of the pavement. Therefore, in each country, standard sizes are handled and
recommended.
Industrialized Countries
In the introduction, LTRs are defined as roads with lower functions than the trunk
roads. Their most common function is giving access to rural areas. In addition to this
function, LTRs may serve functions specific to certain countries [2], such as
• providing access to remote communities, e.g., in Australia and Canada;
• providing access to and circulation within recreational areas;
• providing long-distance connections between remote centers, e.g., in Australia,
Canada, and Finland.
66 Rural Roads
Table 3.1. Relationships among possible road classificiations in rural areas
Pavement Traffic Modes Management

Width (m) Access Functions Allowed Traffic Composition Authority
3.0–3.5 Local access to parcels All (mixed traffic) Destination traffic: Private, municipality
and farms agricultural vehicles
4.5–6.0 Local/regional access to Mixed traffic; Destination traffic: Municipality, county
villages; (collecting sometimes agricultural traffic,
and distributing local bicycles recreational traffic
traffic to higher-level separated
networks)
6.0–7.5 Regional access Bicycles and Through and destination County, region,
(opening up of sometimes traffic (cars and district
regions, connection agricultural commercial vehicles
of regional centers) vehicles such as trucks, tractors,
separated and buses)
>7.5 Flow function: through Motor vehicles Through traffic (fast Federal, national
traffic on long only vehicles)
distances (no access)
This also illustrates the enormous differences between countries, resulting in completely
different purposes of the LTR network. However, even within the LTRs for rural access,
considerable differences appear. In the Netherlands, three categories of LTRs are distin-
guished. As shown in Fig. 3.5, trunk roads are neglected. The three categories of LTRs
imply different levels of access. The lowest category (VIII) gives access to some parcels
or a single farm. The next category (VII) gives access to farms, whereas the highest
category (VI) gives access to the villages (local distributor road). The figure also shows
that both categories VII and VIII are subdivided into two types with different pavement
width. So, in practice five types of LTR appear for three access functions.
Table 3.2 presents an indication of the differences between the three access func-
tions of LTRs. Traffic volumes, characteristics, and speeds and road characteristics are
compared. The table also indicates an important characteristic of LTRs: the mixed com-
position of traffic by mode. Heavy and light vehicles, slow and fast vehicles, and cars and
bicycles occur together. In terms of numbers, passenger cars are dominant. Remarkable
is the small portion of agricultural vehicles even on agricultural access roads. Because
of general developments in transport, the portion of trucks slightly decreased during the
past decade but truck dimensions (including axle loads) clearly increased [6].
A recent development is a desired reduction of the number of categories of roads.
For LTRs, one category with only two types is proposed. One type will be provided
with a separate bicycle path. Further technical layout of both types is still open to
discussion.
For example, to obtain a policy framework to be able to manage, improve, and maintain
the Devon Rural Road Network (United Kingdom), the network was categorized in a
special way. An appraisal of the entire network was carried out by classifying routes
under a number of generalized functional headings. These headings were related to the
settlement pattern but also recognized the requirements of industry and the volumes of
Figure 3.5. Classifications of roads with a lower hierarchical function [6].
Table 3.2. Comparison of traffic features on different access roads
Access Road to
Traffic Characteristics Parcel Farm Village
Volumes (motor vehicles/day) 20–100 50–500 500–3,000
Portion of (%)
Passenger cars 65 69 78
Heavy-goods vehicles 3 4 5
Agricultural vehicles 5 3 2
Bicycles and mopeds 27 24 15
Average speeds (kph)
Heavy-goods vehicle 44.9 50.1 57.9a
Motor vehicle 47.1 57.6 66.5a
Exceeding speed limit (%) 2.6 10.3 26.9
Road type VIII VII VI
Road characteristics
Pavement width (m) 3.5 4.5 6.0
Design speed (kph) — ≤ 60 60
Capacity (motor vehicles/hour) 50 150 900
a Pavement width 5.5 m.
Source: Adapted from [6].
68 Rural Roads
Table 3.3. Functional network in Devon County, UK
Route Type Function

Major road network
Motorway and primary routes National strategic routes for through and long-distance traffic
(national routes)
Primary county routes Main county routes connecting principal settlements
Secondary county routes Main access routes to large settlements and principal
recreational attractions
Minor road network
Local distributors Access routes to small settlements and recreational attractions
Collector roads Access routes to small villages and other significant generators
Minor collector roads Local roads serving small hamlets and scattered communities
Service roads Local roads serving a few properties
Minor service roads Local roads serving only one property
Minor lanes Other minor roads serving fields only or duplicating other routes
Tracks Not normally used by vehicular traffic
Source: [7].
traffic, particularly trucks. Table 3.3 sets out the functional route network—both the
major and the minor road network—for Devon County [7].
The Swiss distinguish among connection roads (point-to-point traffic), collection
roads (area-related traffic), and access and minor access roads (parcel-related traffic) [4].
The German subdivision roughly consists of community roads, farm roads, forest roads,
and rural roads for other purposes [8].
Developing Countries
The most common classification system used by developing countries can be given
in terms of motorways and primary, secondary, and tertiary roads. However, major dif-
ferences exist among countries in their breakdown of groups, or types of traffic, terrain,
and road surfaces [2]. Rearranging the various data leads to three useful main categories,
outlined in Table 3.4.
Category 3 includes the LTRs. It may be further divided into two subclasses: local
roads and special service roads. This distinction is not meant to be a strict one; there is
Table 3.4. Classification of roads in developing countries
Category Road Function Surface Type Kind of Management

1 High-volume traffic lanes Bituminous concrete surfacing Central government
2 All primary and secondary All Central government or, in
roads with low or medium the case of a federal
traffic structure, by the state
3 Tertiary roads with low or Mainly nonsurfaced Local or central government;
very low traffic volumes in many cases, ministry
for agriculture or
development
Source: Based on [2].

a wide range of intermediate situations. Local roads are designed primarily to serve the
rural population. In many cases, they are constructed using local human resources. A lot
of these roads started out as a trails or village tracks used by people traveling on foot or
on local animal-drawn vehicles. Such roads usually are not inventoried or classified and
do not fall under any particular authority.
Special service roads are known as feeder roads. They serve to span the distance
between the source of the product transported, which is generally a farm or a forest,
and the place of use. In contrast with the local network, these roads are planned mostly
from scratch, frequently by foreign consultants, and integrated into national defense or
development projects [2].
In India, LTRs can be defined as “the roads primarily serving a group of villages,
passing through mainly agriculture areas, and having relatively low volume of traffic,
often slow moving.” These roads are generally shorter, sometimes even as short as a
kilometer. Rural roads consist of other district roads (ODRs) and village roads (VRs).
ODRs serve the rural areas of production and provide them with an outlet to market
centers or other main roads. VRs connect a group of villages with each other and to the
market centers, or with the nearest road of a higher category [9].
Comparative analyses of LTRs in developing countries are difficult. There are no com-
monly accepted definitions of route status, and the three general categories of seasonal
road, track, and footpath frequently coincide. A fundamental distinction can be drawn
between all-weather and dry-weather routes, and also between tracks capable of carrying
wheeled vehicles and those open only to pack animals and pedestrians. Figure 3.6 shows
a road map of a part of Zimbabwe. It categorizes the qualitatively insufficient routes as
being “unsuited to use by tourists.” This also gives a realistic impression of the increasing
importance of international tourism for the national economy [1].
Figure 3.6. Road categories west of Harare, Zimbabwe. Source: [1], Reprinted by permission of
Addison Wesley Longman Ltd.
70 Rural Roads
3.2.4 Rural Traffic Problems and the Need for Planning

Traffic Problems in a Wider Context
Worldwide traffic problems are becoming manifest in different forms. Densely pop-
ulated countries regularly have to struggle with large traffic volumes on roads with
capacities that are too low, causing large traffic jams. On the other hand, problems of
mobility and inaccessibility are created because of low population densities and different
settlement patterns in remote areas. In African and Asian countries, road planning is usu-
ally a part of an integrated development program in order to advance the common welfare
and living conditions. For this purpose, plans for mobility within and accessibility of the
countryside are integrated in the development program.
Traditionally, road planning focused on the construction of new roads and on the
modernization of existing ones, in order to satisfy traffic demands. However, gradually
it became clear that this way of planning insufficiently considers side effects of roads
and traffic. Technological, economic, and social developments have caused new trends
in the planning of roads [2], such as
• the importance of safety and consistency in design in each road category;
• the harmonization of the service conditions offered by different networks and road
categories;
• the inclusion of side effects of traffic for local people (livability, which is negatively
affected by noise and pollution) and for flora and fauna (habitat fragmentation by
roads and their traffic).
Today, safety generally is considered to be one of the most important traffic issues.
In the United States and in western European countries, traffic safety has increased
significantly over the past decades, despite a considerable growth of traffic volume.
However, this increase has slowed recently. The number of victims is still much too
high. Differences between countries are considerable. A substantial further increase in
safety requires an entirely new approach [10]. In countries in transition, the number of
traffic victims is relatively high, and traffic safety in these countries has worsened. The
standard of the existing road network fails to cope with the present rapid growth of car
ownership and the simultaneous technical upgrading of cars. Developing countries are
well known by their relatively unfavorable traffic safety situation.
Emissions problems have diminished with the introduction of catalytic converters,
especially in industrialized countries, but growing volumes of motor vehicles have in-
creased the problem of traffic noise. This is mainly, but not only, an urban problem.
Outside of built-up areas, roads and traffic cause habitat fragmentation for flora and
fauna. Four aspects of this habitat fragmentation are important [11]:
1. destruction or alteration of habitat due to construction works;
2. disturbance of habitat along the roads by noise, etc.;
3. hindrance of movements caused by physical barriers related to the presence of
roads;
4. crossing hazards due to traffic.
For LTRs, aspects 3 and 4 are considered to be the most important ones [11]. Both are
barrier effects, especially affecting fauna. They force a separation of functional areas,
such as living and reproduction areas or rest and food areas as well as kill the crossing
animals. Both an increase of the overall stock of roads and growing traffic volumes
intensify habitat fragmentation.
Traffic Problems in Western European Countries

Traffic problems on LTRs are caused by changes in the use of the road infrastructure
(growing volumes of vehicles in general and of rat-run traffic (defined below), larger
farm equipment, and larger and heavier trucks). Through these changes, the actual usage
of some roads is not in accordance with their originally planned functions and designs.
Therefore, usage should be restricted to what is desirable and appropriate for the layout of
the road. Attention should be given to the three major types of traffic problems on LTRs:
1. mixed composition of traffic by mode;
2. high speeds and large differences in speeds;
3. rat-run traffic.
Rat-run traffic is through traffic that uses roads with a lower hierarchical function
in order to avoid a longer travel time (e.g., caused by traffic jams) and/or a longer dis-
tance on the functional route (along roads with a higher hierarchical function). This can
cause several problems on misused LTRs: capacity (especially for LTRs with an access
function only), safety (especially for nonmotorized road users such as pedestrians and
cyclists, related to higher car speeds), and annoyance and emissions for residents. Rela-
tive to the traffic performance, the number of personal injury accidents between fast and
slow traffic on LTRs is two-to threefold the number on trunk roads. These problems are
still increasing because of the increased volume (and congestion) on trunk roads. The
introduction of tolls on the major roads can cause a further shift of traffic to minor roads.
Road administration is used to respond to such growing volumes through an adaption
of the road. At first view, this seems reasonable. Damage to the road may result in
decreased safety and must be repaired. For management, a broadening of the pavement
may be cheaper than a continuous repair of damaged verges. However, the disadvantages
of this “following” approach become clear:
• Road improvements frequently attract “new” traffic, quickly consuming the newly
reconstructed road capacity.
• The increase in traffic safety, if any, is very modest.
• Diffuse traffic flows are spread over the rural area, resulting in emissions and noise
for residents and habitat fragmentation for flora and fauna.
To overcome these shortcomings, another approach needs to be followed [12]: the integral
approach to regional rural traffic planning. See Section 3.3.3 for elaboration.
Mobility Problems in Developing Countries
The minimum socially acceptable levels of mobility identified in the developed world
may be irrelevant in most developing rural societies, given the great differences in overall
living standards. In developing countries, the quality of the infrastructure and levels of
personal and household income are often the most important factors. This is unlike
the industrialized world, where levels of mobility and access are closely related to the
availability of public transport and private car ownership.
72 Rural Roads
In most developing countries, the road is the principal mode available. Rail and inland
waterway transport generally play a less important role within rural areas. However, for
the developing world, the physical condition for the rural road network is one of the
main conditions for economic expansion and the upgrading of social facilities. In the
mid-1960s the road networks of most African states, apart from South Africa, had on
sealed surfaces less than 5% of their total length. A large proportion of the minor feeder
roads were, and still are, tracks beaten out by walkers and animal carts [1].
Agricultural improvement programs change the land use and increase crop yields.
They also result in a need for longer trips by farmworkers to farming areas. When time
spent on walking increases, the period available for farming activities decreases and the
effectiveness of farm labor is even further reduced. In that case, farmers may decide to
abandon their remotest fields to concentrate their efforts on the more accessible food
crops. The need for regular supplies of drinking water and firewood in rural areas also
can involve long trips. This can take up to four hours each day as, for example, in the
eastern part of Africa. In parts of Tanzania, for example, water sources are often found at
distances of at least 5 km from a village. Almost all of these trips have to be undertaken
on foot. These long trips for water can be avoided if wells or boreholes are created closer
to the villages [1].
Table 3.5 displays information on the small distances and the modest loads transported
for the majority of trips in developing countries. To provide for these kinds of trips, an
adapted network for local available modes may be preferable.
Traffic Problems: A Solution?
The foregoing leads to somewhat confusing and contradictory conclusions. On the one
hand, in many parts of the world (such as developing countries, countries in transition)
the primary goal still is to design and construct new roads. This is a main condition for
economic expansion and the upgrading of social facilities. On the other hand, in other
parts of the world (notably in densely populated, developed countries) disadvantagous
side effects of the growing traffic flows become more and more apparent. It is also
quite clear that neither the side effects nor the growing demand can be neglected: No
country in the world is rich enough to permit a continuously congested traffic system.
Table 3.5. Rural transport trips by length and loads transported in some developing countries
Distance of Transport (Km)

Average Average
Country Typical On-Farm Off-Farm Load (kg)
Kenya 90% of trips <7 0.8 70% of trips <25
Malaysia 75% of trips <7 1 10
India 90% of trips <5 1.5 8.3
Bangladesh Most trips <12 Most trips <50
Western Samoa Most trips <5 Most trips <80
Republic of Korea Most trips <10 30–80
Source: [1].
Planning of Rural Road Networks 73
Therefore, all over the world, physical planning and improvement plans for the rural
road network are necessary to provide for people’s needs in the future. Simultaneously,
however, harmful effects of this network conflict with the principles of environmental
sustainability. In practice, planners must search for solutions. It is quite clear that the
kinds of solutions will differ with the circumstances, such as the land uses to be served,
population density, possible alternative solutions, other lands uses that are affected,
opportunities for mitigation, and compensation for side effects. Obviously, these are
great challenges for planners [13].
3.3 Planning of Rural Road Networks

C. F. Jaarsma
This section presents the motives for rural road planning.
Traffic and transportation should be conceived as derived functions rather than as
objectives in themselves. They originate from social activities, the volumes and charac-
teristics of traffic depending on both location and type of activity. The location of the
various land uses is a task of spatial planning. As a result, spatial planning forms an
important determinant of traffic volumes and characteristics.
Many rural areas around the world are used as farmland. In the early days, the opening
up of the farms to the fields and to the villages and towns was the most essential traffic
aspect in these areas. It is still very important. However, the extent of importance varies
from nation to nation, depending on the level of development.
The function of traffic is characterized by continuing development in the rural areas.
In densely populated and well-developed countries, space has always been scarce. So,
much attention has been paid recently to having a diverse, liveable, and sustainable
rural area. Apart from the dynamic agricultural activities, many societal demands have
arisen (e.g., for outdoor leisure activities) as well as demands for nature conservation
and development outside the cities. These developments have had a clear impact on
the rural road traffic. These other uses have increased the impacts of traffic on the
rural landscape, especially the ecological system. Consequently, a good traffic system
depends on a careful land-use planning system. This section deals with such a system.
Some examples of planning systems and cases are described to give an adequate view
into the international planning for rural roads.
First, the specific road planning for farming is elaborated. Then, a more integrated
approach of planning for rural roads in developing countries is outlined. A description of
the planning for multiple uses of rural areas is the third part of this section. In that part,
ecological habitat fragmentation and different concepts for traffic planning are presented,
illustrated with case studies for solving traffic problems through a regional approach.
3.3.1 Planning for the Opening Up of Agricultural Areas

Several studies are available on so-called optimal agricultural field length. Boss and
Flury [4] cite a Swiss study from the early 1980s. This study shows that fields suitable for
arable farming require a road on both sides, whereas one road is sufficient for grassland.
74 Rural Roads
Figure 3.7. Optimum field lengths for a 16-ha farm with several crop cultivations.
Source: [4], reprinted by permission of PUDOC-DLO, Wageningen.
This difference is explained by the burden of the harvest. Instead of a second public road,
private farm roads on the field may be an alternative in arable farming. Further, Boss and
Flury [4] state that the field lengths are dependent on the cultivated area per farm, the
degree of mechanization, the soil utilization system, and the crop rotation. Figure 3.7
demonstrates the various effects of these factors on a 16-ha farm. The optimum field
length is based upon the cost of turning (related to reduced yields at field edges and in
the turning area), “empty” trips (due to additional filling and emptying during fertilizer
application, spraying, and harvesting), double work during turning at field edges, and the
additional expenditure of seed and fertilizer during an entire crop rotation. In addition to
the 16-ha farms in the figure, it can be summarized that for 9-ha farms and 25-ha farms,
respectively:
• the optimum field lengths are about 250 m and 450 m, respectively;
• the associated road densities are 3.5 and 2.5 km/km2 , respectively;
• the optimum ratio of field width to field length is 1:5 or 1:4, respectively.
It is clear that the optimum field length increases and the optimum road density decreases
with increasing farm size.
To calculate the optimum road density in agricultural areas, it is advisable to take

more factors into account than the agricultural ones mentioned above. Surely, factors
such as costs of construction and maintenance of roads and ditches, as well as costs of
drainage systems, should be considered. Then, an optimum size for arable farms appears
to be 300 × 1,000 m for a 30-ha farm, 500 × 1,200 m for a 60-ha farm and 500 ×
1,700 m for a 85-ha farm [14].
Generally, it can be stated that the larger the farms, the larger the fields and the lower
the road density. This holds for public roads. Depending on the bearing power of the soil,
private paved farm roads are advisable for larger farms in order to avoid long distances
for internal transports on bad subsoil.
3.3.2 Planning for the Opening Up of Developing Rural Areas

Today, planning issues regarding the opening up of areas that are solely agricultural
are confined mainly to developing countries. Especially in these countries remoteness,
isolation, and inaccessibility are key characteristics. Moreover, the economic and so-
cial deprivation that these areas suffer is often largely due to inadequate transportation
services. Investment in transport facilities is usually just one element of an integrated
development program. This is designed to improve standards of living in these ru-
ral areas. Commonly, the main objectives are to increase the quality and quantity of
commercial farming and to ensure a better distribution of educational, health, and other
social services [1].
Although economic motives are reasons enough for road improvements, the same
road also can serve the needs of farmers and provide connections to shops, schools, and
villages, to vehicular or foot traffic. Road building and upgrading projects are essential
if access to local markets, schools, and clinics are to be increased. Because of the high
costs of road-building schemes, most plans are preceded by feasibility studies that in-
vestigate the potential benefits to be gained from road upgrading and the introduction of
mechanized transport (if appropriate).
Rural communities, however, are just one of many sectors that depend on funds from
the national level for road improvements. Even when an appropriate allocation of these
funds has been made, the problem of how the optimal distribution of investments within
individual rural districts, to secure the most effective return in social and economic terms,
remains. The specific transport needs of each area must be identified, followed by the
selection of the most effective technology in terms of road surface standard and vehicle
type. Finally, the extent to which the opportunities, offered by new or improved roads,
for the advancement of living standards, can be realized must be assessed wherever
possible. Specific surveys usually are limited to rural areas with an existing or potential
agricultural value, as well as to areas that are judged most likely to benefit from the
investments. Given the costs of road construction, the issue of cost-effectiveness is often
a major criterion [1].
Early studies of the effectiveness of road improvement programs in Africa and
Southeast Asia were concerned primarily with improvements in vehicle operating costs
and changes in agricultural output and prosperity. In areas with low crop yields, typ-
ical for remote areas as well as regions in the developing countries and countries in
76 Rural Roads
transition, it is likely that additional investments in road upgrading and new feeder
road construction will continue to be highly selective and confined to areas produc-
ing the more profitable and higher-yielding crops. In the Ashanti region of Ghana, for
example, 98% of the population are within 2 km of all-weather roads or tracks suit-
able for motorized vehicles. There, additional road improvements would have little
effect on either farm-gate or village market prices here, because nontransport factors
such as marketing practices are more significant in the local agricultural economy.
However, schemes to upgrade footpaths to allow vehicles would be effective here,
because improvements in the field–village linkages could lead to more efficient farm
practices [1].
Today, “intermediate technology” is often accepted as being the most effective ap-
proach to satisfying immediate needs for better accessibility. It matches the limited
financial means of isolated farming communities with the demands for more efficient
but affordable means of transportation.
Traffic densities in many parts of rural Africa and Asia are insufficient to justify the
extension of all-weather road networks. The ultimate objective of a more prosperous
rural society with higher levels of accessibility may be obtained by means of a less so-
phisticated traffic and transport system. Moreover, this can be reached in a more rapid
and cost-effective manner. Individual local authorities, rather than regional or national
agencies, would be capable of initiating and operating these intermediate technology
improvements, which then could be adjusted more closely to the transport needs of spe-
cific settlements. If commercial agriculture then prospered to a level where motorized
transportation for marketing were feasible, a more ambitious program of road improve-
ment could be introduced.
In many rural areas, therefore, current short-term investments are best directed at the
lower end of the road hierarchy, converting simple tracks into serviceable roads to benefit
local communities. As soon as information on the existing transportation requirements
has been collected, a decision can be made about what level of transport technology is
most appropriate for the situation.
In developing countries, the agricultural output from rural areas is still a very mean-
ingful component of the national economy. Therefore, it is important to realize that the
small-scale transport systems serving those areas are, in turn, a substantial part of the
national transportation system. The systems require as much attention from transport
planners as nonrural interurban transport [1].
Guidelines are published for the European Union, aiming to provide a comprehensive
overview of the issues that are important for moving toward more sustainable transport
infrastructure in developing countries [5]. Furthermore, the guidelines provide a sectoral
framework in which project proposals and requests for European Union assistance to
the sector can be examined. The guidelines comprise three parts: The first part provides
an insight into the key issues in transport infrastructure in developing countries and
the emerging solutions of a sectoral approach. The second part provides the means to
apply a sectoral approach to examine proposals and requests for assistance in financing
transport infrastructure projects. It is organized according the phases in Project-Cycle
Figure 3.8. The six phases of the project cycle, as accepted by the European
Commission [5].
Management, as adopted by the European Commission (Fig. 3.8). For each of these
phases, the issues affecting project sustainability are raised in a series of key questions.
This list of questions should be used as the starting point to raise further questions in
examining the underlying problems and causes. Finally, the third part provides tools
for developing and monitoring projects within a sectoral framework. These are standard
formats for terms of reference and reports of studies in different phases of the project
cycle.
3.3.3 Sustainable Planning for Multiple-Use Rural Areas

“Land-use planning deals with an active planning of land to be used in the (near)
future by people to provide for their needs. These needs are diverse: from food products
to places to live; from industrial production sites to places to relax and to enjoy beautiful
78 Rural Roads
Figure 3.9. Sustainable land-use planning and its embracing aspects

Source: Reprinted from [15, p. 9], with kind permission from Elsevier
Science NL.
landscapes; from human uses to places where natural plants and animals can live and
survive; and many more” [15].
The phrase “sustainable land-use planning” embraces several aspects, as given in
Fig. 3.9. The figure illustrates the two dimensions of both land-use planning (physical
planning and improvement plans) and sustainability (environmental and socioeconomic
sustainability).
Traditionally, both land-use planning and the planning of the rural road network fo-
cused on economic and social impacts. The accessibility of the rural area used to be
the first consideration. Consequently, existing unpaved roads were paved and existing
paved roads were widened or even reconstructed. Furthermore, new paved roads were
constructed. In practice, many minor roads were constructed to such a high techni-
cal standard that they competed with major roads. This is a follow traffic approach,
which is based on road links, not on the whole network. In most industrialized coun-
tries, this policy was abandoned during the 1970s. Mainly because of lack of financing,
(re)construction of the network of LTRs came to a standstill. In 1986, the OECD [2]
established a policy, primarily designed to conserve the network of high-quality ma-
jor roads. According to the OECD [2], the minor road network had become somewhat
run down and a sizeable effort in terms of investment and energy would be needed to
bring them up to acceptable standards. Furthermore, the OECD stated that design stan-
dards were not static but were changing in the light of technological, economic, and
social developments. New criteria in geometric design, involving such considerations as
energy consumption and side effects of traffic (noise, pollution, unsafety), were being
included [2].
The inclusion of new criteria marked a transition to road planning with a wider
perspective. It also marked a transition from planning for road links to planning for
road networks. So, the question arises as to how such planning can be realized. For this
purpose, Jaarsma [13] suggests a planning system for a network of rural LTRs in three
stages. This system is based on existing or planned traffic flows.
To obtain a safe and efficient traffic system, first a functional classification of the
network should be made. The assignment of functions to the regional road links should
be based on an inventory of the present situation (function, traffic volumes and speeds,
traffic accidents, acceptable road capacity, geometric features), regional transportation
plans, possible changes in land uses, and traffic volumes. A proper distinction between
minor roads with mainly a residential access function and minor roads with mainly a
traffic flow function should result from this functional classification. For example, five
classes of LTRs are distinguished for a densely populated country such as the Netherlands.
The main difference in road design is the pavement width, for which 3, 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, and
6 m as standards are advised (Fig. 3.5).
The next step in the planning is a mutual harmony among desired function, technical
layout, and traffic characteristics, for every road link in the regional network in question.
This is schematized in Fig. 3.2. In this second step, the actual technical layout of each road
link in the network is compared with its desired layout, concluded from the road function
assigned in the first step. Discrepancies, if any, should be removed by introducing the
desired technical layout [3]. This may result in a downgrading of some roads.
In the third step, traffic characteristics on each road link, such as volumes and speeds
of cars, are compared with the characteristics belonging to a road with the function
assigned in the first step. If discrepances appear, the roadlink is classified as a bottleneck.
For these bottlenecks, a choice should be made between two fundamentally different
solutions:
• upgrading a road from a lower to a higher category,
• reduction of traffic and/or adaptation of the traffic characteristics to the road.
The first solution is obvious when the desired function of the road is higher than the func-
tion belonging to the present layout of the road. In general this means reconstruction of
an access road to a road with mainly a traffic function. Widening of roads, construction
of bicycle paths, or even construction of new roads are alternatives within this solution
(new construction).
Unlike the foregoing, the desired function may be lower than the function of the
present layout of the road. Then, the second solution comes into the picture. This is also
the case when actual traffic characteristics do not match with the traffic characteristics
belonging to the desired function of the road. In general, this means refuse admittance
to through traffic and/or enforce the desired driving behavior on a road with mainly an
access function. There are two ways to realize this solution: structural regulations and
incidental regulations. This approach to the problem has a small-scale character. It can
be called amelioration [6].
Structural spatial changes to the road network influence rural access definitively, for
example by removing a rural road or by transforming a rural road into a bicycle path.
These changes can be very effective but they are very interfering for local residents and
firms, and so, they should considered carefully. Thus, in practice, spatial changes are
difficult to realize [6].
80 Rural Roads
Incidental changes in the network imply either legal regulations (traffic signs) or small-
scale adaptations of the roads in the field of traffic engineering. A detailed description
of 16 civil technical regulations and five legal regulations, applicable for LTRs, is given
by the CROW [16]. The suitability of these incidental regulations depends on the type
of problem and the function of the road. This is illustrated in Table 3.6.
The functional network approach, as described earlier, differs fundamentally from
the traditional follow traffic approach. This holds for both the regional scale and the
leading role of the road function, resulting in an adjustment of traffic characteristics
instead of the road characteristics in cases where discrepancies appear. It also means
that the accepted traffic characteristics are embedded. However, for the road users the
differences between the classes may seem too small, and so, they do not sufficiently
modify their behavior (traffic characteristics, such as speed). Therefore, a clarification
of the functional classification for LTRs for road users (especially car drivers) requires
further research. The concept of traffic calming brings new ideas into this discussion.
In the functional network approach, the assignment of road functions is implicitly or
explicitly based on existing or planned traffic flows. A starting point is a more or less
stressed traffic function for each link in the network of LTRs. In built-up areas, this idea
was abandoned with the introduction of residential areas. The approach of urban traffic
calming started with speed reduction. Urban traffic calming became a wider idea with
the Dutch concept woonerf in the 1970s, followed by the German Verkehrsberuhigung
in the 1980s [17]. The basic principle is an integration of traffic in residential areas, but
based on priority to the needs of people, not the needs of traffic. In the residential space,
traffic is unavoidable but it should be subsidiary to other spatial functions. Traffic is
concentrated on distributor roads that are able to cope with the flow [13]. This approach
represents a fundamental change in rural transportation planning: from following actual
traffic flows to regulation of it. Its application creates bridges between contradictory
demands for rural road networks.
The suitability of this new concept of urban traffic calming as a principle for rural
traffic planning is currently under investigation. For this purpose, the concept of a traffic-
calmed rural area (TCRA) was established [13]. A starting point in the TCRA is the
desired spatial function of the rural area, rather than the existing traffic flows. Aside
from the demands of the population, the need for nature conservation also is considered.
Principally, in the concept, residence functions (for inhabitants and recreationists as well
as for local fauna) refer to the flow function for through traffic. With the modest technical
design for this function, roads within the region mainly will have an access function.
With a flow function, the region is surrounded by and accessible from rural highways.
The underlying idea is a regulation of rural traffic flows with a clear separation of space
for living and staying and space for traffic flows.
Although this underlying idea is the same in rural and built-up areas, large differences
occur in desired traffic characteristics and in measures to realize them. In the TCRA,
traffic speeds should be modest, for example, 40 to 60 kph. However, it is not desirable that
the network be planned in such a way that cars are forced to drive too long on these roads.
Therefore, a second type of road, with somewhat higher technical standards and speeds of,
Table 3.6. Legal and civil technical means and their applicability in relationship with the type of problem (rat-run traffic, traffic speeds, or mixed traffic) and road typea
High Speeds or
Rat-Run Traffic Large Differences in Speeds Mixed Traffic
0 0 0 0
Incidental Regulations VI VII VII VIII VIII VI VII VII VIII VIII VI VII0 VII VIII VIII0
L Legal regulations
1 Closed for motorized traffic + + + + + +
2b Road signalization + + + + + +
3b Reducing maximum speed + + + + + + + + + +
4 Restrictions on width, length, and/or weight + + + +
5 Left and/or right turning not allowed + +
C Civil technical regulations
1 Visual narrowings + + +
2 Physical narrowings + +
3 Central rumble strips + + + + +
4 Design of pedestrian or cycle paths + + + +
81
5 Cycle suggestion lanes + + +
6 Roundabout + + +
7b Central line deflections + + + + +
8 Rumble strips + + + + +
9 Service roads +
10 Blocked, with side lane for turning around + + + +
11 Median painted or raised traffic-guiding + + +
islands, with traffic lanes bending outward
12 Idem, in curves + + +
13 Barricades and curve attention signs + + +
14 Traffic-guiding earth walls in outside curves + + +
15b Emphasizing entrance of urban areas + + + + + + + +
16 Stressing the crossings at intersections + + +
a
Road types VI–VIII; see Fig. 3.5 for more details. Pavement widths of types VI, VII0 , VII, VIII, and VIII0 are 6.0, 5.5, 4.5, 3.5, and 3.0 m respectively.
b
Only applicable as a component of other regulations.
Source: Elaborated from [16].
82 Rural Roads
for example, 60 to 80 kph is planned. Only this second type of LTR is connected with the
network of rural highways and trunk roads. This part of the implementation of the TCRA
strongly differs from the usual classification as given in Fig. 3.5, with five categories.
However, it refers to another recent development, the concept of sustainable safe road
traffic [10, 18]. This concept introduces a preventive approach to traffic safety, instead
of the traditional curative approach. The reason for this new approach is the decreasing
efficiency of the curative approach, especially in most western European countries. The
curative approach can be successful as long as a systematic improvement of the so-called
“black spots” in the road network is possible. The remaining safety concerns are more
complex and more diffuse and are too difficult for the curative approach.
The sustainable safe-road traffic concept describes a durable safe (DS) traffic system.
Instead of the car, the human being with all his constraints is the starting point of DS. This
concept consists of three components: traffic participants, vehicles, and infrastructure.
For the infrastructure, DS suggests a classification of the complete road network into
only three categories, based on three traffic functions:
1. a flow function, for a fast and comfortable service for through traffic on long
distances;
2. an access function for regions (opening up of regions); and
3. an access function on the local level (accessibility of destinations).
The technical design of the roads in the DS concept depends on the function assigned,
in which an optimal safety is guaranteed. Three safety principles are systematically and
consistently applied:
1. to prevent unintended use;
2. to ensure that speed differences are small on roads where traffic is in both directions
on one lane and/or where there are large differences in vehicle mass; and
3. to promote the predictability of road path and traffic behavior through a maximum
standardization of the road design.
LTRs will have the third function: access on the local level. For such roads, the safety
principles lead to
• prevention of through traffic and rat-run traffic,
• enforcement of low speeds (e.g., maximum 40 kph),
• standardization of design (as much as possible).
Low speeds on LTRs are necessary in the DS concept because of the presence of slow
vehicles, traffic flows in two directions, and a mix of light and heavy vehicles on only one
lane. For cars, the speed limit is reduced (40 kph e.g., to). The acceptability of the low
speeds, from the point of view of the drivers and the perspective of regional accessibility,
strongly depends on trip duration on these roads. A maximum trip duration of 3 minutes
on roads with this low speed limit has been proposed [18].
Realization of the DS principles strongly depends on the mesh sizes of the regional
and local access roads. The larger the area to be opened up with local access roads, the
greater the travel time. This demands that small regions be opened up by local access
roads. On the other hand, small regions need a high density of roads with a regional
access function. This is an expensive solution that requires much space. Therefore, large
regions with only access roads on the local level seem to be preferable. However, this
leads to another problem. The larger the region with local access roads only, the greater
the traffic volumes and the wider the needed roads. For that reason, the current planning
distinguishes five categories of LTRs (Fig. 3.5). In other words: the technical layout of
LTRs cannot be similar. This conflicts with the DS aim of standardization. As yet, two
types of DS LTRs are proposed. For modest traffic volumes (average annual daily traffic
[AADT], less then 1,000 motor vehicles per day), a maximum pavement width of 4.5 m is
proposed. This type of DS LTR only services local inhabitants and firms. It has an access
function only. A second type services local land uses with a higher traffic volume, such
as larger villages. For this type a pavement width between 4.2 m and 5.4 m is proposed.
To guide the traffic, either median or side lines are painted. Further, because of the higher
speed level on this type (60 kph is proposed), a separate path (minimum size 2.25 m) is
provided for bicyclists. Only this second type of DS LTR is directly connected with the
rural highways. To reduce speed, especially at the intersections, four-way intersections
(full crossings) are avoided as much as possible. Miniroundabouts and T-crossings offer
a safer solution. To reduce speed, especially at potential conflict points such as exits, the
civil technical regulations presented in Table 3.6 may be applied.
Figure 3.10 illustrates a possible solution for the functional classification of a rural
road network. Within the rural area between the two rural highways, two types of LTRs
are distinguishable. To provide for the access to farms and fields, the modest type of
DS LTR will satisfy (pavement width 3.5 or 4.5 m; see A-A and B-B in Fig. 3.10). The
connection with the rural highways is made by the second type of DS LTR (pavement
width 5.4 m; see C-C in Fig. 3.10). Note that direct connections between the modest type
of DS LTR and the rural highway are avoided. If necessary for access, a parallel road is
applied. Crossings between the DS LTRs are T-crossings wherever possible.
Implementation of the DS concept still needs further investigation into the classifica-
tion of the network of LTRs and the technical design belonging to it. This is also so for
the acceptable travel time on roads with low speed limits. The DS concept only consid-
ers traffic safety and does not include the other side effects of traffic. Nevertheless, the
approach has given new perspectives to the principles of regional road network planning
based on regulation of rural traffic flows.
Based on recent case studies, a procedure for sustainable rural traffic planning is
elaborated in Fig. 3.11. A structural regional approach starts with determination of
the boundaries of the area to be considered (step 1). It is important that a coherent
network exist within the area included in the study. Natural boundaries, such as rivers and
canals, may be much more useful than boundaries of management and administration. In
step 2, data on road and traffic characteristics are sampled. Information about present and
planned land uses, as well as policy documents on physical planning, is also important.
Based on these data, a functional classification of the road network is made (step 3).
In step 3, it is important to check the future accessibility especially of the land uses
with high traffic volumes. After the functional classification, for which options may be
elaborated, a traffic forecast is made in step 4. Also, the main impacts of the flows are
calculated. In step 5, for each link in the network, the calculated flows and their impacts
84 Rural Roads
Figure 3.10. A possible solution for the functional classification

of the road network, within the context of rural traffic calming.
Figure 3.11. Sustainable rural traffic planning, step by step [19].
are compared with the flows that are characteristic for the function assigned to that link.
If discrepancies appear, step 6 suggests three different types of solutions. When the road
and traffic characteristics from the functional classification match with the calculated
flows, impacts can be calculated in more detail (step 7). Step 8 implies a selection from
the possible options and implementation of the plan. Step 9, evaluation of the plan, is
strongly recommended [19].
In conclusion, the concept of the TCRA decreases traffic speeds on LTRs. With a
well-designed network, this may result in a reorganization of traffic flows:
• Diffuse volumes at the minor rural roads will be concentrated at a few trunk roads.
• Remaining traffic flows at minor rural roads will be rural bound (origin and/or
destination along a minor road).
86 Rural Roads
•Traffic volumes and speeds within the region will decrease.

Case studies [19, 20] show that such a reorganization will counter both traffic safety
problems and habitat fragmentation within the region. These cases also illustrate the
surplus value of integral planning of rural traffic, based on regulation of traffic flows.
Even other impacts of rural traffic may be included in such planning. For example,
emissions of exhaust gases, noise levels, or energy use [21] may be considered.
In practice, it may be difficult to realize integral traffic planning. Many rural areas cur-
rently do not suffer from the same car-related problems with which urban environments
are faced. Therefore, the need for rural traffic planning and traffic management is not
widely recognized. There is a feeling that rural areas can continue to absorb large traffic
increases [22]. Cullinane et al. [22] report on a Devon County Council and Dartmoor
National Park Authority proposal to implement an integrated traffic management scheme
at Burrator Reservoir in Dartmoor National Park (Great Britain). This scheme proposes
the closing of some roads in the area (either permanently or on summer Sundays only),
the running of a frequent minibus service on days when these roads are closed, and the
extension of bus services and an existing cycle path. However, criticisms of the scheme,
promulgated by a minority of local residents, mushroomed into a major problem. It
became obvious that many people had failed to understand the motivation behind the
proposals. As a result, the scheme was reluctantly shelved [22].
What are the lessons to be learned from this experience? It is generally accepted that,
to be successful, a traffic management plan should be integrated and composed of carrot-
and-stick elements [22]. Other studies have highlighted the role of effective marketing.
In our opinion, communication with interested parties early in the planning process
is very important. These parties must have the opportunity to share their visions on the
problems. The next step, finding solutions, should not be started too early because nearly
every proposed measure will have some disadvantages for some of the parties involved.
Therefore, a complete agreement about the goals of the management scheme and the
problems to be tackled should be reached in advance. In a second stage, measures may
be developed. Sometimes, even options may be presented. The impacts of the proposed
measures can be tested on the basis of the agreements in the first step. This allows for a
check of agreements, for example, on reduction of local traffic flows and traffic victims
and on a minimum level for local accessibility.
The final conclusion is that, throughout the ongoing growth of motorized traffic,
there never has been a greater need for the successful implementation of integral rural
traffic planning. To realize this, early communication with interested parties and effective
communication play major roles. Main difficulties met during the planning process may
be of a social, not a technical type.
3.4 Construction of Rural Roads

J. Amsler
Access roads are generally the first infrastructural features to be installed in a rural
or remote area. Such roads are designed to meet the needs of agriculture or forestry
Construction of Rural Roads 87
management. It is usually difficult to predict how an area will be developed. This will
depend on several factors:
• the area’s attractiveness for nonagricultural and nonforestry activities (tourism,
residential use and leisure activities, quarrying, landfills, commercial fishing, trans-
portation facilities, and so on);
• activities of the resident population (interest in the marketing of advantages, ameni-
ties);
• political planning preferences oriented either toward protection or utilization (land-
scape planning);
• natural physical requirements, including danger zones (avalanches, landslides,
floods, etc.), water protection zones, zones with few human activities, species di-
versity (occurrence of rare species).
In areas where agricultural and forestry activities remain dominant, rural roads usually
manage to satisfy the requirements for a number of decades. If, on the other hand, an
area is developed for tourism (e.g., winter sports) or for quarrying (heavy transport), the
access requirements will increase dramatically. In such cases, the existing roads have to
be widened, reinforced, made safer for traffic, or rebuilt entirely, depending on the extent
of the new requirements.
In several countries, minor roads are built by private individuals or cooperatives. Such
roads probably receive state subsidies but must themselves pay for the upkeep, financing
this with the help of the users and, where one exists, through a cooperative. However,
it should be clear that, in the case of changed requirements, a new maintenance model
will be necessary.
In cases where the planning requirements are to be determined as part of a political
process prior to opening an area to a variety of activities, attention also must be paid to
such questions as the ownership and the responsibility for operating and maintaining the
roads concerned. It may be appropriate to take these roads into public ownership.
Therefore, it must be concluded that the concept of minor rural roads is not a clear-cut
one, which makes it more difficult to prescribe general guidelines for their construction.
The following guidelines apply only to roads with a width of 3.0–4.0 m for single-track
roads and 5.0–6.0 m for two-track roads with a layout of 100,000 to 150,000 standard
single-axle loads (8.2 t). See Table 3.7 for definitions of technical terms.
It is particularly worth noting that, where paths and roads have been well laid out, with
appropriate geometry, they generally are easy to adapt to more demanding requirements.
However, steeper gradients and the crossing of sliding areas in particular represent almost
insurmountable obstacles to enlargement. It is difficult to alter a gradient once it has been
laid out.
3.4.1 Framework Conditions

Those involved in the planning and construction of minor rural roads often find that
the financial means of the main contractor (rural commune, cooperative, individual) are
limited and the project will have low priority among competing government activities.
Moreover, these roads have to be planned for slow-moving, infrequent traffic, and, at the
88 Rural Roads
Table 3.7. Definitions of some important technical terms
Term
Design load Definition standard single-axle load or equivalent standard-axle load: 8.2 t or about
80 kN (US: 18 kip [1 kip = 4.4 kN])
HMT Heissmischtragschicht: Hot-mix asphalt (mixed in plant), used as bearing
bed and pavement
GIS Geographic information system: a system for capturing, storing, checking,
integrating, analyzing, and displaying data about the Earth that is spatially
referenced. It is normally taken to include a spatially referenced database
on appropriate applications software.
LIS Land information system: a system for acquiring, processing, storing, and
distributing information about land.
CBR California Bearing Ratio
CBR% P
Ps
· 100 P : resistance of the material in place
Ps : resistance of standard material
ME Disk standard procedure
1P
ME 1S
· D [N/mm2 ] 1P : change of change (pressure)
1S : corresponding change of settlement
or [kg/cm2 ] D : Diameter of disk
same time, designed to bear heavy loads. They should also be easy to drive on, should
conform to appropriate standards in terms of safety and consolidation, and should offer
sufficient comfort.
Although in many countries a complete set of standards for high-performance roads
is readily available, these standards simply are not applicable to minor rural roads for a
variety of technical and economic reasons. Generally speaking, there are considerably
fewer regulations intended for minor rural roads than for the high-performance type.
This allows greater freedom to those concerned in the modelling of such works (variants
and selection criteria). Despite this fact, more assessments and decisions are required.
Two main criteria are worth mentioning: utility and cost-effectiveness.
Conspicuous examples are found in the work of the pioneering Swiss bridge builder
Robert Maillart. His celebrated bridges often are found on country roads and are fine
examples of the conservative use of materials, which at the time was an important
consideration in view of the higher relative costs of both materials and transport, as well
as for the superlative and even daring way in which they are laid out [25].
For the following remarks we make reference to Hirt [24] and Kuonen [23].
3.4.2 Concepts
The standard concept of a minor rural road is given by its cross section, as demon-
strated in Fig. 3.12.
3.4.3 Substratum and Foundation

The optimum requirements will have been met if the subsoil has excellent bearing
capacity and also can be used as building material, which can reduce the construction
costs drastically. Unfortunately, such conditions are rare. Most sites either have been
developed already or lack the appropriate dimensions. Geology is differentiated only
Figure 3.12. Standard cross section of a minor rural road.

in wide areas. However, development areas are usually smaller. It is improbable that a
subsoil with sufficient bearing capacity can be found only by changing the alignment of
the road; subsoil treatment measures will be required in any case. Local zones with bad
subsoil should be upturned.
The following substrata are more or less suitable for the building of minor rural roads
(suitability of other materials can be determined from Table 3.10, as discussed later in
Section 3.4.7):
• good substrata with the requisite bearing capacity include limestone, moraine, bal-
last, alluvium or alluvial deposit, conglomerate, granite, gneiss, schist, or slate (solid
rock);
• substrata lacking both sufficient bearing capacity and suitability as building material
include opalinus stone or clay, marl, marl slate, decomposed moraine, slope wash,
loess loam, molasse debris or soft sandstone, alluvial soil or silt, flysch debris,
decomposed sandstone, clay slate, marl slate, and peat.
Cost-conscious construction requires as little displacement of earth (earthwork vol-
ume) as possible, from excavation to deposition. The aim is to achieve balance. It is
with this in mind that the choice of machines for transport and spreading should be
made. If earth displacement over long distances by means of trucks, dumpers, or other
transport is unavoidable, preliminary steps should be taken to stabilize the subsoil or to
provide the necessary foundation layer. This can result in a considerable increase in cost,
however.
90 Rural Roads
Table 3.8. Stability of earthslope
Slope Gradient
Bottoming Excavation Embankment
Noncohesive rock 1:1 4:5
4:5 2:3
Solid rock 5:1 —
10:1 —
For cost reasons, state-of-the-art bottoming (filling) in accordance with the regulations
is rarely possible. The bottoming can be done makeshift fashion with the caterpillar track
of the excavation equipment or using pressure from the power shovel. This often results
in long-lasting problems of uneven settlement. Therefore, waiting one to two years
before fine subgrading of the foundation layer and surfacing with the bituminous layer
is recommended. Distinctions must be made among the following types of bottoming:
• Side bottoming is used in the case of mixed profiles with excavation and embank-
ment immediately to full dumping height. To prevent any danger of slipping or
shifting it may be necessary to form a slope base and stepping. No real compacting
will be necessary.
• Head bottoming is used in the case of short embankments built over gullies and
ditches immediately to full dumping height. Again, no real compacting is necessary.
Better results will be achieved with the help of excavation equipment.
• Layered bottoming is used only in the case of long embankments. The bottoming
should be done in layers, with subsequent compacting.
The compaction requirements for the subgrade surface are contained in several stan-
dards of different countries. The requirement that calls for a ME > 150 kg/cm2 and a
CBR > 8% in the case of 100% Proctor standard is not achievable, in particular with
cohesive ground. More realistic values for simple roads are ME > 100 kg/cm2 and
CBR > 3%. These are minimum values, however, for construction to begin, that is, to
consider installing and compacting the road body. There must be no mixing of the sand
and gravel with the subsoil and, moreover, a suitable foundation must be available for
the compacting. By way of improvement, the following measures should be foreseen:
• where the natural water content (wnat ) is approximately equal to the optimum water
content by compression (wopt ), normal compacting is possible.
• where wnat is much greater than wopt , dewatering by airing or lime stabilization is
possible.
• where organic soil or peat occurs, a pounded layer, a spur layer, fibrous matting,
or stabilization of foreign material can be used in application of the “floating road”
principle. (floating road: road structure has to be enough flexible to avoid fracture
in case of unequal settlements caused by the underground)
The largest possible slope gradient and the lowest level of safety permissible in terms
of stability under load should be preferred, in order to keep earthmoving to a minimum.
In the event that the slope slips or is demolished as a result, repair during construction or
when the snow next begins to melt in mountainous regions, will be more cost-effective
than carrying out the bottoming with fairly level slopes and large cubatures. It would be
advisable to model new slopes of earthworks on stable slope gradients in the immediate
vicinity and in general to adapt the road to the surroundings. This generally means low
slopes. In any case, fairly level slopes are necessary for the activities carried out in
agricultural areas. The availability of a number of variations (steep slopes achieved with
biotechnical measures, or retaining walls) should make it easier to reach consensus in
the search for a cost-effective solution.
The safety of the slope should be an immediate priority (application of maximum
safety level). When deciding on the method, attention should be paid to appropriateness
to the landscape, good cover of the surface to prevent erosion, thorough rooting for
consolidation, and good water runoff. The method and the choice of plants will depend
on the purpose, the local conditions, the climate, the danger of erosion, the steepness, and
so on. Biotechnical measures often are combined with civil engineering and landscape
architecture techniques [26, 30].
Bear in mind that, even as early as the planning stage, few walls and only short ones
are necessary for minor rural roads. With simple roads, the supporting structures are
mainly deadweight constructions (wood boxes, wire ballast baskets, block bottoming).
Wood boxes and wire ballast baskets, in particular, have to be renewed every 10 to 20
years. These can be combined with biotechnical measures. Guidelines for the dimensions
of nonreinforced concrete walls are available in a number of countries. State-of-the-art
supporting walls are required for greater heights. These are expensive, however, and
their design loads are not suitable for minor rural roads.
3.4.4 Frost Problems

In areas where frost is common, with soils that are vulnerable to frost conditions
and the associated water input problem, simple roads are particularly exposed to frost
damage (ice formation). Frost-sensitive soils fall into two main categories:
1. silty soils, where frost causes lifting and thawing causes a loss of bearing capacity;
2. clay soils, where thawing results in a loss of bearing capacity.
Under normal conditions, a road with the proper dimensions will not suffer from frost.
In gravelly or sandy soils, frost will not be a problem as long as the drainage is good. In
the case of roads in Alpine regions that are not kept clear of snow, the snow acts as an
insulator and no frost-related problems arise.
In the case of most soils, except extreme silt or very fine sand (I p < 12, where
I p = plasticity index), building for bearing capacity will suffice (e.g., as per American
Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO)).
3.4.5 Drainage
Drainage is also an important consideration when planning simple roads. If sufficient
thought is not given to providing adequate drainage, then major damage may result.
Large quantities of surface water can particularly be a problem with inclined terrain,
so that it will pay to consider various ways to ensure flawless drainage. In this context,
the first consideration should be to determine in which hydrological catchment area
the road is situated. This depends on the adjacent area (upstream) and in particular its
92 Rural Roads
dimensions, inclination, and the ground cover. In mountain regions, the amount of melt
water (from melting snow) is also important, as are the location and capacity of surface
waterways in flat regions. Depending on the road environment, the following systems
can be applied:
• In forests, open ditches are easy to manage and maintain. If the gradient exceeds
3% to 4%, or the water input is relatively large, fortification of the base is advisable.
• In agricultural areas, so that there is the least interference. With cultivation, rubble
drains with pipes (usually plastic) should be used.
When it comes to drainage of the road surfaces, protection of the road body and
the substructure from both surface and seepage water should be the foremost concern.
Erosion of the cover layer is to be avoided. Aquaplaning should not be a concern,
considering the low speeds normally involved on such roads.
To promote drainage, several types of carriage crossfalls, shown in Fig. 3.13, are
proposed:
• Downstream carriageway crossfall. For ecological reasons (to avoid interference
with natural circulation), an effort must be made to avoid concentrating the water
drainage in a way that allows increasing high-water peaks in the drainage ditch;
additional measures (retention basins) also should be avoided. A downstream road
gradient of 1% to 3% is a good solution. It is also advisable to avoid long distances
between discharges on the road surface because of the danger of erosion of the
verges and of the downstream slope. Regular partitions should be made to allow
drainage of the carriageway water. The subgrade surface also has to be slanted to
ensure even thickness in the road body. A downstream carriageway crossfall of 3%,
Figure 3.13. Types of carriageway

crossfall.
however, can lead to a certain amount of anxiety for drivers. In the event of ice
formation, there might be a danger for vehicles (the liability of the owners of the
road will need to be clarified).
• Upstream carriageway crossfall. In addition to the variations already mentioned,
upstream longitudinal drainage (weep drain) also must be provided, although it will
increase the cost. In poor weather conditions (ice on the road, slushy snow), this will
provide a certain additional safety, because vehicles tend to skid in the upstream
direction.
• Camber, top profile. This method, common in earlier days, is still appropriate for
dirt roads. The amount of water that falls on the road is channeled evenly to both
sides of the road. Runoff grooves should be provided on the verge downstream, and
longitudinal drainage (ditches) will be necessary upstream. The subgrade surface
must be made horizontal, so that the greatest road body thickness occurs between
lanes.
• Horizontal carriageway. This is a commonly employed method for simple covered
roads. The water drainage occurs sporadically at the curves thanks to the camber
of the road surface. This technique is not recommended for dirt roads.
The general rule to follow is that water must be evacuated from the road surface as
quickly as possible. Cross drains should be provided every 20 m to 50 m, depending on
the steepness of the road, the amount of precipitation, and the frequency of bad weather.
These will affect the road comfort as well as increase the cost of road maintenance.
Longitudinal drainage ditches, with or without pipes, also are commonly used sys-
tems. Other possibilities, however, include asphalt reinforcement, an asphalted ditch, or
prefabricated concrete forms. The latter are expensive and therefore not widely used for
rural roads.
Intake constructions (shafts for road water) should be placed so as to ensure that
the surface runoff water does, in fact, flow into them, and to minimize the danger of
obstruction (leaves, twigs, branches, and road debris) as well as to make maintenance
easy.
Particular attention also must be paid to stream crossings. If possible, bridges should
be avoided as a solution because they represent a significant cost factor. Depending
on the topography and other marginal considerations (the danger of flooding), there
nevertheless may be a need for bridges, support viaducts, or other major engineering
structures, which we do not discuss further at this point. Some possible simple solutions
for stream crossings are as follows:
• Fords. This is an appropriate solution for ditch crossings involving large inflows of
water on a periodic basis, avalanches, and landslips. A longitudinally cut pipe cul-
vert, accessible from above so that blockages can be remedied simply and quickly,
is recommended as a normal outlet.
• Plate outlets made of local concrete.
• Plate outlets made of prestressed and glued wooden slabs.
• Outlets of corrugated steel (corrugated pipe outlet).
It is important that both the in and out ends of the outlet be secured and that the road
be protected (from erosion in flumes and on the road surface).
94 Rural Roads
3.4.6 Road Body

Structure
The road body serves to transfer the load and to prevent penetration of water and
thus erosion. It reduces the danger of frost and, depending on the type of surface finish,
the development of dust. The course structure of simple roads has the following pattern
(beginning with the bottom course, ending with the top, as shown in Fig. 3.14):
• Transition course. This serves to prevent interpenetration of the subsoil with the
foundation or bearing bed (base course) in cases where there is poor subsoil bear-
ing capacity. The various possibilities include lime stabilization, stabilized foreign
matter, wool (fleece. [expensive]), beaten layers, branch layers (only small surfaces
possible).
• Foundation course. In an effort to contain costs, local materials such as uncombined
gravel and sand and crushed rock should be used whenever possible. The degree
of consistency in bearing capacity, which is required in the construction of major
roads, is not usually possible with minor rural roads.
• Bearing bed (base course). There is often no distinction made between a foundation
course and a base course, particularly when the latter is an uncombined layer using
Figure 3.14. Road body of different types of rural roads.

the same materials as for the foundation course. The term “base course” often
is used for a layer above the subgrade, whereas pavement also means “bearing
bed”.
The following are other types of bearing beds:
• Stabilized bearing beds. Local and centralized mixing procedures for tar and cement
are well known (mixed in place and mixed in plant). Cement-stabilized gravel paths
also have proven their worth. The proportion of cement should be 50–70 kg/m3
with an appropriate homogeneous grading curve. It is also important to use the
prescribed water content and to mix thoroughly to ensure optimum durability. In
any case, the meteorological conditions at the time of laying the bed, such as wind,
air humidity, and sunshine, are also important. If meteorological conditions are
bad, works must be stopped. Dry weather demands the moistening of the stabilized
bearing bed. It is also possible that separation during transport or application will
impair the quality. Otherwise, the result can be a compact surface that will be prone
to cracking.
• Hot-mix bearing beds. The minimum thickness should be 6 cm at least, because
anything less can lead quickly to damage, as indeed can too precise a thickness of
the subgrade surface, which is technically possible.
• Concrete pavement. The application thickness together with the sliding moulding
finish should be 15–16 cm. Concrete paving has shown itself to be exceptionally
long-lasting and maintenance-free. If the subsoil has good bearing properties and
the concrete slab can be laid directly, the construction costs can be quite low. On the
other hand, if the concrete pavement is laid out on top of subsoil with poor bearing
properties or insufficient homogeneity, uneven settling may occur when heavier
loads move across it, reducing the road’s practicability or even ending it altogether
(should the slab be subject to subsidence).
• Pavement. This serves to seal the road and prevent water penetration. It is in-
tended as a wearing course, i.e., to bear the direct brunt of abrasion wear caused
by spike tyres, horseshoes, drip damage in forests, contamination by the passage of
livestock.
As far as simple roads are concerned, the following types of pavement are commonly
used:
• water-bound clay wearing course on unbound gravel and sand bearing bed;
• cutback pavements, as a flexible cover on unbound gravel, possibly with cement
stabilization;
• sealing coat, requiring a minimum of two courses for an acceptable result.
3.4.7 Construction
Construction of the road body will depend on the subsoil (bearing characteristics, uni-
formity), environmental conditions (hydrological conditions, frost), traffic (frequency of
standard single-axle weight), and construction materials (toughness, stability). Whereas
proven standard values should govern the construction of dirt roads and rigid-type roads
(concrete slabs), the following should conform more to a flexible construction style. In
96 Rural Roads
Table 3.9. Type of road and traffic volume
Frequency of Standard
Road Type Single-Axle 8.2-t Load Vehicles
Connecting roads 100,000–150,000
Forestry roads 25,000–50,000
Feeder roads
Agricultural roads 10,000–25,000
Forestry roads 10,000–25,000
Access roads
Agricultural roads 10,000
Table 3.10. Determining the subsoil bearing capacity and the road body construction method in relation
to subsoil conditions
Procedures for Determining
Subsoil Subsoil Bearing Capacity Construction
Fine-grain soils, sand and gravel with Determination of CBR value Determination of the SN
many fine particlesa with the help of a Farnell strength index by means of
CBR value <10% (scarcely or not at all hand penetrometer the construction formula or
practicable with trucks) construction nomogram
(Fig. 3.15)
Sand, gravel with many fine practiclesb Determination of deflection Procedure similar to road
10% <CBR value <20% (practicable by means of Benkelman body reinforcement:
with trucks) beam determination of SN with
reinforcement diagram for
CBR = 10%
Gravel with few fine particlesc Determination with subsoil Choice of a suitable
CBR value >20% bearing capacity not surfacing course
necessary
a (USCS: CL, CH, ML, MH, OL, OH, SC–CL, SM–ML, GC–CL, GM–ML)
b (USCS: SW, SP, SM, SC, GC–CL, GM–ML)
c (USCS: GW, GP, GC, GM)
Source: [27].
this context, greatly simplified calculation principles should apply (traffic dimension of
100,000 to 200,000 standard single-axle loads, time dimension of 30 to 40 years).
The construction principles can be determined with the help of Table 3.9 (type of
road and traffic volume), Table 3.10 (subsoil bearing capacity), and Table 3.11 (regional
factors). This will help to determine the construction diagram of Fig. 3.15 (Nomogram)
of the SN weighted strength index. The thickness and composition of the road body can
be determined on the basis of the coefficient of bearing capacity for different courses
and materials, shown in Table 3.12. An example in Fig. 3.16 illustrates this simple
construction method.
In determining the covering course for dirt roads, a simple diagram can be of consid-
erable assistance (Fig. 3.17). This permits an objective assessment of the situation when
discussing a road’s suitability in relation to the landscape.
Table 3.11. Regional factor (R ) for simple roads
Type of road (conditions) R

Roads requiring no snow clearance
(forestry roads, miner rural roads) 1.0
Connecting roads <700 m above see level 1.3
Connecting roads:
Favorable hydrological conditions 1.5
Unfavorable hydrological conditions 2.0
Table 3.12. Coefficient of bearing for the most commonly used building
materials
Course Thickness (cm)

Same Bearing
Construction Materials a Value Capacity Minimum
AB 25/TA 25 (Asphalt pavement) 0.44 0.9 6
MHT B (Hot mix) 0.40 1.0 6
HMT A (Hot mix) 0.30 1.3 6
Bituminous stabilization 0.23 1.8 12
Stabilization with cement
mix-in-place 0.20 2.0 15
mix-in plant 0.30 1.3 15
Stabilization with lime
quick-acting 0.13 3.1 15
slow-setting 0.30 1.3 15
Crushed gravel 0.14 2.9 20
Round grave 0.11 3.6 20
Source: [24].
It should be borne in mind that the construction traffic will already involve a certain
number of standard single-axle loads, that is, there is a preloading that somewhat reduces
the theoretical mean life of the road. Logging, quarrying, and landfilling activities can
likewise put great stress on minor rural road networks. All basic relevant information
should be available at the planning stage. If at a later stage there is to be an extra burden,
reinforcement of the road must be carefully planned. The following are useful general
guidelines:
• Construction site transport ≈0.8 standard single-axle load per m3 .
• Timber transport ≈0.4 standard single-axle load per m3 .
3.4.8 Other Types of Road Construction

Roads with continuous pavement are much appreciated for such leisure activities as
bicycling, jogging, or rollerskating, although avoided by other users such as ramblers.
In vulnerable areas, objections often are raised to pavement for reasons that have to do
with the landscape. Many spur roads are built in such areas, a variation that has proven
its worth. The tracks for vehicles usually are made of concrete, with grass in between
98 Rural Roads
Figure 3.15. Nomogram for the construction of roads with low volume of traffic and
flexible road body (p = 1.5). Source: [27].
Figure 3.16. Example of calculation of the road body. Source: [24].
and on the verges (Fig. 3.18). This reduces the total extent of the sealed area, and the
amount of surface water runoff, without having too much effect on the practicability. The
visual impact is also better. In some countries, it has long been the custom to use hot-mix
bearing beds for this application. For purely agricultural roads with steep gradients and
involving a real danger of erosion, the tracks are made of permeable concrete sections
(e.g., checker brick). Even with roads of this type, it is important to consider the question
of drainage. It goes without saying that spur roads are suitable only for single-lane roads
with little traffic. Performing ecological impact studies are important as well [28].
3.4.9 Road Safety

By virtue of their geometry, minor rural roads are suited for speeds of 30–40 kph.
It must be clear, therefore, that they do not meet the same safety standards as high-
performance roads. Even so, it may become necessary to take certain measures in the
100 Rural Roads
Figure 3.17. Criteria for determining the type of pavement.

Source: [24].
event of mixed usage (by cars, pedestrians, bicyclists, in-line skaters, etc.), in relation
to dangerous sections (sharp corners, slopes that are steep or ill-adapted to driving,
danger of rockslides, avalanches, floods), or temporary peaks in the amount of traffic
(weekends, special events). The appropriate solution in each case can be difficult to
assess. The measures referred to include
• signs indicating use of the road by agricultural or forestry traffic, livestock, bicy-
clists, or pedestrians and alerting users to the danger of falling rocks, etc.;
• passing places within easy viewing range along one-track through roads, and along
other simple roads at distances of 150–250 m (within earshot), light signal controls
for one-track tunnels and long bridges;
• protective barriers along dangerous roads;
• Rockslide safety measures (netting, blasting at the time of construction, clearing
away of rocks);
• avalanche and flood warning systems.
Galleries to protect against rockslides or avalanches are, in most cases, out of the
question for cost reasons. To guard against such dangers, measures to combat the causes,
such as afforestation or timbering in areas where cracks are a problem, may be more
appropriate.
Maintenance of Rural Roads 101
Figure 3.18. Standard cross section of a concrete spur road.
3.5 Maintenance of Rural Roads

J. Amsler
As already indicated in the preceding section, roads are built for a given life span, that
is, a given number of standard axle weights. Once built, with the best possible quality,
they are opened to traffic. As near-surface constructions they are particularly prone to
wear and tear and to aging. Over time, the wear and tear from traffic, climate, timber
harvesting, and agricultural and other activities reduces the original quality of the road.
The state of the road, in particular of the track for vehicles, worsens because of this wear,
and also as a result of damage and aging of the building materials. During the life cycle
of the road, however, its quality must not be allowed to fall below a given level (see
Fig. 3.19).
Roads built with public funds or by a local authority often are subject to legal minimum
maintenance standards, designed to ensure safe conditions. This is achieved with the help
of periodic road maintenance.
Simple, inexpensive solutions often are adopted for the building of minor rural roads.
This inevitably results in slightly higher maintenance costs. If it is possible to increase the
102 Rural Roads
Figure 3.19. Life cycle of a road. Source: [29].
Figure 3.20. Construction and maintenance costs as a

function of road standard (economic decision-making
model). Source: [29].
service life of a road by proper maintenance, this will also reduce interest and depreciation
costs. So, maintenance makes economic sense too (see Fig. 3.20).
The main objectives of road maintenance can be summed up as follows (key items in
bold):
• Structural maintenance;
• Upholding required traffic safety standards;
• Observing adequate standards of user comfort;

• Ensuring permanent readiness for service;
• Preventing harm to the health of users or damage to vehicles through vibration or
shocks;
• Keeping overall economic costs (construction and maintenance) to a minimum;
• Keeping environmental impacts (environment-friendly maintenance, economic use
of material resources, recycling) to a minimum.
The networks of minor rural roads intended for agricultural and forestry use in dif-
ferent countries are often quite extensive. Total investment costs can amount to several
billion ECU in the larger countries, and even in densely populated smaller countries.
The associated maintenance costs can quickly add up to several hundred million U.S.
dollars. In Switzerland, for example, the network covers a total of 60,000 km, for which
the maintenance costs amount to about U.S. $70 million a year, to be paid for by the own-
ers (individuals, cooperatives, local authorities). In such circumstances, it is worthwhile
observing basic road maintenance planning principles, which will allow a clear overall
view of the size, extent, and conditions of the road network. These are particularly useful
when it comes to the technical and financial planning of the annual maintenance program.
It is equally essential to make the road owners and political and public authorities aware
of the importance of professional maintenance services, so that the necessary funds will
be made available to protect the value of such a large investment, through proper main-
tenance. However, this will be possible only if a comprehensible model is available for
the construction, maintenance, and refurbishment of simple roads. Although there are
no spectacular ready-made recipes on the market, researchers have been looking into
this matter for some time now, and so, there is at least a solid basis on which to work
[29, 34].
The main thrust of maintenance on minor rural roads concerns the actual road surface,
the essential requirement being maintaining practicability. On roads with little traffic, this
involves such factors as the evenness of the surface, both lengthwise and crosswise; the
extent of cracked, damaged, or patched spots; surface condition; and so on. The prac-
ticability is measured or estimated as a practicability value p, so that, depending on
the significance, the burden of traffic, and the practicability requirements, review of the
practicability may become necessary. The initial practicability of newly built or extended
roads is gradually lost through wear and tear and damage, at first slowly, but if mainte-
nance is neglected, with increasing speed until it falls below an acceptable level. Work
then will be urgently needed to restore the road’s initial practicability and user safety.
3.5.1 Different Concepts

Distinctions should be made between the four different concepts (see Table 3.13).
The first two are the only ones that can be defined as maintenance in the strict sense of
the term:
• Continuous maintenance. This is designed to ensure the road’s continuing prac-
ticability and user safety. It requires constant monitoring, cleaning, the repair of
damage as and when it occurs under the supervision of the surveyor (put in charge
of road maintenance by the local authority or the cooperative). Maintenance must
104
Table 3.13. Outline of maintenance and repair work
Continuous
Maintenance Periodic Maintenance Reinforcement Repair
Cause of damage • Traffic • Traffic • Traffic, very heavy • Natural events
• Weather • Weather:
• Forestry and rain, snow
agricultural activity
Damage • Pollution • Wear and tear • Destruction of road body • Landslides
• Local damage • Erosion of surfacing course • Major deformations • Destruction by landslips,
(potholes, • Drainage works avalanches, etc.
isolated cracks) • Engineering works
Measures • Inspection • Renovation of surfacing course • Reinforcement of • Repair
• Cleaning • Rebuilding of profile bearing course
• Repairs (dirt roads) • Laying of pavement
Objective • Conservation: • Improvement: • Repair: • Repair:
practicability, practicability, practicability, practicability,
traffic safety traffic safety traffic safety traffic safety
• Conservation of material
Extent of work • Localized • Large surfaces • Entire road surface • Damaged areas
• Small surfaces • Usually entire vehicle track
Execution of work • Road maintenance crew • Construction company • Construction company • Construction company
• Responsible persons • Forestry service or
local-authority
maintenance crew
Time of execution • Whenever required, at least • On a periodic basis, every • At the end of the calculated • After the event
once a year 6–12 years life cycle, e.g.,
40 years
Financing • Owners • Owners • Owners + subsidies • Owners + subsidies
Source: [29].
Rural Roads
be carried out before the onset of winter, after the last snows have melted, after
storms, or after heavy use (harvesting or transport of timber), and in any case at
least once a year. The damage that occurs in such conditions will not have been
caused by any insufficient bearing capacity of the road. The structural integrity of
the road and its various courses will not be in any danger.
• Periodic maintenance. This has the additional aim of upholding the substance and
value of the construction as a whole, and improving the road’s practicability, that is,
increasing the practicability p value. Restoration of the surface profile, resurfacing
or retouching of the surface course (wear course, pavement), drainage installations,
and engineering work have to be done in a cycle of 8 to 12 years. As a result of wear
and aging of the construction materials, the surface course may no longer be in a fit
state to fulfill its purpose, putting the bearing bed at risk. In this case, a new surface
course will have to be laid, to restore protection of the bearing bed. The need for
periodic maintenance, that is, for refurbishing of the surface course, applies to the
entire road surface. The length of the maintenance cycle will depend on several
factors: the wear resistance, the nature and thickness of the surface course, and the
intensity of traffic- and climate-related stress and strain. In most cases, these works
are beyond the means of the surveyor in charge and will have to be taken on by
small companies or road maintenance groups. It is up to the surveyor, however, to
decide on what measures are needed, and when. Once the construction has lost its
suitability for traffic, falling below the minimum requirements of practicability, its
condition must be restored by means of reinforcement work designed specifically to
bring the road back to the required standard for traffic use. This work of restoration
and reinforcement, as well as the repair of basic damage, is usually beyond the
financial means of the road owners. The appropriate public authorities therefore
should be able and willing to provide any additional funds necessary.
• Repairs. This term covers all unforeseeable, exceptional damage caused by major
storms, avalanches, landslides, or other events that cannot be met from the normal
maintenance budget. The work often has to be organized in projects, and execution
might be placed in the hands of a private-sector company, or a state-controlled
consortium, often with the involvement of civil protection or military units.
• Improvements. This concept covers adaptation of the road to new and generally more
demanding requirements. It calls for wide-ranging project planning and engineering,
often requiring a full review of the existing construction.
3.5.2 Causes of Damage

Right from the start, a road can be subject to certain external influences that will cause
extra wear and damage. These include the following:
• Conditions of use. Excessive driving speeds or vehicle weight, particularly in hu-
mid conditions or during thaw, as well as dense traffic, inevitably lead to excessive
wear of the surface course and the formation of potholes, cracks, and similar evi-
dence of damage; crushing and subsidence of the road body, verges, and drainage
installations; and pollution. Mechanical clearance of snow from the road results in
cracking of the surface course and damage to the verges, not to mention the harm
106 Rural Roads
caused by road salt. Timber harvesting causes abrasion wear and compaction, and
agricultural use leads to pollution from dung and urine (livestock) and from soil
material (farming).
• Climate. Precipitation and melting snow cause erosion, leaching, landslips, and drip
damage. Frost and dew cause cracks, whereas strong sunshine, wind, and heat result
in a loss of fine matter and of binding materials.
• Vegetation. The fall of leaves and pine needles pollutes the road surface, and veg-
etation grows from cracks in the road and from drainage installations. Trees and
bushes reduce the profile and the visibility and cause drip damage.
• Civil engineering defects. Faulty or inappropriate drainage installations increase
the risk of erosion, whereas insufficient bearing capacity increases the likelihood
of subsidence and of damage by vehicles.
• Natural aging. All construction materials are subject to natural aging, which leads to
thinning of the surface course, segregation, aging of the concrete, and the structural
disintegration of the bearing and surface courses.
3.5.3 Planning and Execution of Work

So that the necessary organizational and financial planning arrangements can be taken
care of in an optimum way, and to ensure the most rational execution and supervision of
the maintenance work in hand, it is best to have all relevant data on the conditions of the
existing road network readily available in a data bank. A file card is shown in Fig. 3.21.
At the local-authority level, the data can be integrated into existing information systems
such as LIS or GIS. For cooperatives that are not able to call on electronic data processing
facilities, card file systems remain a practical solution.
Maintenance tasks can be subdivided into the following categories:
• Inspection. Routine visual inspections (on foot by difficult road conditions) are
the best way to keep check on the condition of a road, and are the main task
of the surveyor in charge. Such inspections are especially important during and
after periods of snowfall and bad weather, to make sure the drainage systems are
working properly. The aim is to discover damage and its causes at as early a stage
as possible, in order to draw the necessary conclusions and take remedial action
in good time. Note, however, that visual inspection alone is not always a sufficient
basis on which to make a clear-cut decision as to the best way to deal with damage
of a given type and extent, that is, whether periodic maintenance will be enough
to guarantee the necessary practicability, or whether extensive reinforcement is
required. Where there is doubt, measurements of the road’s bearing capability can
help to clarify matters. Well-grounded experimental values for this assessment can
be obtained with the help of the Benkelman beam deflection measurements. These
should reveal whether or not the bearing capacity values measured (see deflection
in Fig. 3.22) are still in a permissible range.
• Cleaning. Road cleaning work, such as ensuring that water drainage systems are
not blocked, cleaning shafts, removing harmful contaminants (especially after
agricultural activities), and eliminating unwanted vegetation, should be carried out
during tours of inspection.
Figure 3.21. Example of file card. Source: [29].
• Simple repair work. For this work, the surveyor usually will require additional
equipment and construction materials. Attention should be paid above all to the
proper functioning of the drainage installations because unchecked water flows
present the greatest danger of rapidly spreading destruction. Care also should be
taken to remedy any cracks and potholes found in the road surfaces.
• Comprehensive repairs and work of renovation. This is also an essential part of
108 Rural Roads
Figure 3.22. Permissible deflection in relation to the traffic factor W and the regional
factor R. Source: [24].
periodic maintenance, calling for a certain amount of planning and for the help of
specialists. Such repairs also require a considerable investment in both time and
money.
In addition to these active measures, certain passive measures, which can also help
to prevent or limit damage, often are overlooked. These include general or time-limited
restrictions on traffic or on certain axle weights (e.g., during periods of frost or humidity).
These should always be seen as companion measures, for use when the amount of traffic
and the burden it causes begins to go out of control. Such cost-free measures help to
protect against excessive stress, thereby lowering the amount that needs to be budgeted
for maintenance, while increasing the service life of the roads.
General restrictions on road use also can be in the interest of nature and the envi-
ronment, and indeed of the users. When minor rural roads built to make life easier for
agricultural and forestry workers are overrun by weekend tourists, they are far less able
to fulfill their original purpose. Nature and landscape protection groups tend to look on
such developments with suspicion. General restrictions therefore should be discussed
with those concerned including the authorities at the earliest possible project stage.
Otherwise, they will be difficult to implement.
3.5.4 Financing
Tolls on public roads are not acceptable in most countries. However, there can be,
legal grounds for collecting tolls on motorways: at the entrance to long tunnels and prior
to passage across large and expensive civil engineering works. When tolls are to be
considered for minor rural roads, the legal aspects should be clarified immediately. The
appropriate location of the toll booth (as with a parking lot) and the provision of a barrier
must be given careful consideration. Should a toll be unacceptable, however, it might be
worthwhile to consider charging for parking space, and earmarking the funds gathered
from road users in this way for the upkeep and renovation of the road.
References 109
Experience has shown that it is advisable to arrange for enforcement by the police. Pri-
vate individuals, even if they have the necessary abilities, do not have the legal authority
to force people to obey the rules.
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4 Land Reclamation and
Conservation
4.1 Soil Reclamation

D. De Wrachien and G. Chisci
4.1.1 Assessment of the Problem
There is an increasing awareness that the world’s resources are not boundless. In many
countries, there is now a concern about husbanding and protecting the environmental
resources upon which life depends. Among the most basic resources is the soil.
Reclamation, in its broad sense, means modifying the physical, chemical, and biolo-
gical characteristics of the soil to restore its capacity for beneficial use while protecting
the environment. The soil could have lost its suitability for cropping or other use by means
of natural or anthropogenic causes. In any case, we have to deal with an ecosystem in
which normal biological processes are at a standstill. These processes must be restored
so that a normally functioning ecosystem of soil, plants, and animals is reactivated, such
that the natural processes of nutrient release, plant growth, and nutrient cycling proceed
at a natural rate. However, the soil is a complex biological system built up over long
periods of time. If we are to restore it, we must understand how it functions biologically,
physically, and chemically. It also involves understanding the requirements of plants and
the other organisms that interact with soil processes.
Soil restoration can take a long time and generally depends on the actual conditions
of the soil and on the processes employed in restoring it. Modern methods can hasten the
process considerably. The key is the identification and correction of the problems that
brought the soil into its degraded state. This identification process requires imagination
and sensitivity as well as science.
Drainage of wetlands, amendment of saline soils, restoration of soil contaminated
with urban waste materials, and the rehabilitation of floodplains and tidal forelands
are all reclamation processes. In some cases they may not lead to complete restora-
tion of the soil and landscape, although a self-sustaining ecosystem always must be
created.
Figure 4.1 shows the steps involved in the planning of a thorough soil reclamation
scheme [1].
113
114 Land Reclamation and Conservation
Figure 4.1. Steps involved in the planning of a soil reclamation scheme. Source: [1].
4.1.2 Wet Soils

Problems
In general terms, wet soils are defined as soils where saturation with water is the
dominant factor determining the nature of soil development and the types of plant and
animal communities living on the surface [2]. Wetness occurs whenever the water supply
by rainfall, overland flow, and seepage from upslope exceeds the water loss by drainage,
throughflow, and evapotranspiration. Poor drainage usually is associated with soils that
have low permeability. Often, soils are shallow and/or overlie an impermeable barrier
such as rock or very dense clay pan. The impermeable subsoil prevents the water from
moving downward and the natural subsurface drainage system from functioning properly.
Many of these areas have flat topography with depressions and, in some instances, the
areas may lack adequate drainage outlets. Representative examples include the basin
clay soils of fluvial deposits, pseudogley soils of central and eastern Europe, planosols
of the semihumid or semiarid tropics, vertisols of the semiarid tropics, and glacial till
soils.
Experiments that have been conducted to determine the effect of soil wetness on crop
yield generally show a reduction in yield at shallow water-table depths (see Fig. 4.2).
Frequency and duration of high water tables as well as the crop sensitivity to waterlogging
Soil Reclamation 115
Table 4.1. Relative tolerance of plants
Tolerance High Groundwater

Level Levels Waterlogging
High Sugarcane Plums
Potatoes Strawberries
Broad beans Several grasses
Medium Sugar beets Citrus

Wheat Bananas
Barley Apples
Oats Pears
Peas Blackberries
Cotton
Sensitive Maize Peaches

Cherries
Raspberries
Date palms
Olives
Source: Modified from [4].
Figure 4.2. Yield depression as a function of mean

water-table depth during the growing season for two types
of soil. Source: [3].
also have a relevant impact on yield (see Chapter 5, Section 5.5). Table 4.1 gives some
indications of the relative tolerance of some plants to waterlogging.
Wet soils are an obstacle to man’s use of land resources for cropping and, in general
terms, for economic development. However, wetlands play a major role as a natural
resource, which may be superior to the benefits from agricultural resources. To bring
these soils back into beneficial agricultural use, they must be reclaimed. To this end, it
is necessary to eliminate the depressions, to provide sufficient slope for overland flow,
and to construct channels to convey the water away from affected areas.
Table 4.2. Drainage coefficients for typical agricultural basins
Drainage
Water Slope of Coefficient
Region Crop Source P5 a land (%) (s−1 · ha−1 )
Netherlandsb Grasses, crops Rain 31–44 0.05–0.20 1.0–1.3
Yugoslaviac Grasses, crops Rain 52–64 0.25–0.50 3.5
Sudan Cotton Furrow irrigation 64–90 0.05–0.10 4.0
Japan Rice Flooded 80–115 0.05–0.20 5.0
Tanzania Sugarcane Sprinkler irrigation 145–165 0.20 7.0
a 24- to 28-hr rainfall for a recurrence interval of 5 years.
b Subsurface drainage.
c Subsurface and surface drainage.
Source: From [6].
Reclamation Procedures
The reclamation practice, known as surface drainage, can be defined as the diversion
or orderly removal of excess water from the land through ditches or by shaping of the
ground surface. Sometimes, a subsurface system of drain pipes is needed in conjunction
with the surface drainage measures (see Chapter 5, Section 5.6).
Design discharges generally are based on rainfall intensity because this is almost
always the most critical source of excess water. Rainfall–runoff relationships are a clas-
sical problem in hydrology, for which several approaches have been proposed. These
range from simple formulas that give only the peak discharge value, such as the ratio-
nal formula method, to complex physically based models that allow the simulation of
distributed hydrological processes [5].
The rate of removal is called the “drainage coefficient,” which usually is expressed
in terms of flow rate per unit area and varies with the size of the area. Table 4.2 gives an
idea of the order of magnitude of drainage coefficients for flat, medium-size (10,000–
25,000 ha) agricultural basins [6]. The values given for the Netherlands apply to basins
with predominantly subsurface drainage, whereas those for Yugoslavia apply to a com-
bination of subsurface and shallow drainage.
Surface drainage, when properly planned and designed, eliminates ponding, pre-
vents prolonged saturation, and accelerates flow to an outlet without siltation or soil
erosion.
Surface Drainage Systems
Surface drainage systems can be described and classified in several ways. However,
there are basically three types of systems that are in common use today [7]: parallel, ran-
dom, and cross slope. Under some circumstances encountered in the field, combinations
of two or more of these systems may be required.
All these systems should
• fit the farming layout;
• remove water quickly from land to ditch, avoiding erosion and siltation;
• have adequate capacity to carry the flow;
Figure 4.3. Layout of parallel system. Source: [7].
• be designed for construction and maintenance with appropriate equipment locally

available.
Parallel System. This system is predominantly applicable to fairly regular, even-sur-
faced, flatland, which adapts well to a parallel alignment of field ditches, which least
hinders farm operations. The field ditches are dug in a parallel, but not necessarily
equidistant, pattern, as shown in Fig. 4.3. The orientation of field ditches normally
depends on the direction of surface slope, location of diversions, cross-slope ditches,
and access of the drained lands to farming equipment. The ditches are well incised
and definitely aimed at achieving considerable profile drainage together with collecting
excess surface water. Usually, the field ditches discharge into lateral ditches, which
should be deeper than the field ditches to allow free outflow. The land surface should be
shaped and smoothed to favor overland flow. Spacing of parallel field ditches depends
mainly on soil and slope characteristics and on the water tolerance of the crops grown.
Design specifications for this system are given in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3. Ditch specifications for water-table control
Sandy Other Mineral Organic Soils,

Dimension Soil Soils Peat, and Muck
Maximum spacing (m) 200 100 60
Minimum side slopes 1:1 1 12 :1 up to 1:1
Minimum bottom width (m) 1.2 0.3 0.3
Minimum depth (m) 1.2 0.8 0.9
Source: From [8].

Figure 4.4. Layout of random system. Source: [7].
For water-table control during dry seasons, namely in cases of peat and acid sulfated
soil, adjustable weirs or gates are placed at various points in the ditches to maintain the
water surface at the required level. During wet seasons these controls may be removed,
to let the system provide surface drainage.
Random System. This system, also called a depression ditch system, is applicable to
fields in which a limited number of pronounced depressions exist, lending themselves
to drainage by means of ditches. The depressions may be drained individually or linked.
The layout of the field ditches has to be such that as many depressions as possible are
intersected along a path through the lowest part of the field toward an available outlet
(Fig. 4.4). The path should be chosen so as to provide the least interference with farming
operations and a minimum of deep earth cuts. Therefore, only the main depressions
should be provided with ditches; the small depressions should be filled in with, for
example, the spoil from the excavated ditches. Where the overland flow rate toward the
outlets is too slow, land shaping will be necessary to ensure complete surface water
removal.
The design of the field ditches is similar to the design of waterways (see Section 4.4
of this chapter). Where farming operations cross the channel, the side slopes should be
flat [8]: 8:1 or greater for depths of 0.3 m or less and 10:1 or greater for depths over
0.6 m. Minimum side slopes of 4:1 are allowed if the field is farmed parallel to the ditch.
The depth is determined primarily by the topography of the area, outlet conditions,
Table 4.4. Limitations on flow velocity and on side

slope in unlined drainage canalsa
Max. Permissible
Mean Flow Velocity Max. Permissible
Soil Type (in m/s) Side Slope
Fine sand 0.15–0.30 1:2 to 3
Coarse sand 0.20–0.50 1:1 12 to 3
Loam 0.30–0.60 1:1 12 to 2
Heavy clay 0.60–0.80 1:1 to 2
a Highest velocities and steepest side slopes apply to well-
vegetated canals.
Source: [6].
and capacity of the channel. The grade in the ditch should be such that the velocity
does not cause erosion or sedimentation. Maximum allowable velocities for various soil
conditions are given in Table 4.4.
Cross-Slope System. This system, also called a diversion system, is applicable on gently
sloping land where sufficient runoff may occur but where water also may remain ponded
on the land. The system consists of one or more diversions, terraces, or field ditches built
across the slope, as shown in Fig. 4.5. As water flows downhill, it is intercepted and
Figure 4.5. Layout of cross-slope system. Source: [7].

carried off. The cross-slope system is used mainly with the aim of
• draining gentle sloping land that may get wet because of slowly permeable soil,
• preventing the accumulation of water from upslope areas,
• avoiding the concentration of water in shallow pockets within the field.
Such ditches usually provide both surface drainage and erosion control. When designed
specifically for the control of erosion, they are called terraces (see Section 4.4). Diversion
ditches sometimes are used to divert runoff from low-lying areas, thus reducing the
drainage problem.
Design and Construction Procedures. A general description of design and construction
criteria is given here. For more detailed information the reader is referred elsewhere
[9–14].
Design. Generally, the first stage of the design procedures involves identification of the
study area, the definition of natural catchment basins and natural drainage lines, and the
characterization of the areas requiring surface drainage. The latter step may involve field
investigations, including
• soil and land-use surveys,
• monitoring of groundwater levels,
• soil and groundwater salinity assessment,
• characterization of rainfall intensities and establishing rainfall patterns,
• topographic surveys and mapping,
• identification of approximate locations for drains and outlets, and
• examination of aerial photographs and remote-sensing information.
The next stage consists in the definition of the hydraulic design criteria, which may
include a range of options, accompanied by preliminary estimates of costs and benefits.
A community involvement strategy also should be developed, paying attention to the
possible involvement in drainage responsibilities of both public and private groups.
Particular attention has to be paid to the perceived social and environmental impacts.
The final choice among different options leads to the selected design solution, which
has to include
• detailed design for construction;
• evaluation of risks of flooding or drain failure;
• hydrogeological characteristics;
• assessment of environmental impacts relative to nutrient loads, hydrological impacts
on waterways, lakes, and estuaries; and
• effects on wildlife and biodiversity.
The design of drains and ditches will take into account the area and slope of the catch-
ment, soil permeability, storm characteristics, groundwater interactions, crop require-
ments, landholdings to be served, construction and maintenance costs and benefits, and
maintenance and management requirements.
Construction. The selection of equipment and procedures for drain construction varies
with the drainage depth and the land and soil characteristics.
Blade graders, scrapers, and heavier terracing machines are suitable for depth of cut
up to 0.75 m. For cuts deeper than 0.75 m, bulldozers equipped with push or pull back
bladers and carryall scrapers can be employed to fill the pothole area or other depression
near the point of excavation.
Land Forming
Soils that require surface drainage may have depressions, which vary in size and
shape. To prevent ponding and to keep the water moving at a uniform rate over the
ground, it is necessary prior to the digging of the ditches to fill the depressions and
to smooth out the high points in the field. This procedure is called land forming and
consists in mechanically smoothing, grading, and bedding the soil surface. This allows
better drainage and more efficient operation of farm equipment, cuts down the cost of
ditch maintenance, and reduces ice crusting.
Shaping land to a smooth surface improves surface drainage. In general terms, land
smoothing does not change the main contour of the land but it does eliminate minor
differences in field elevation. Soil to be smoothed must have such a profile that small
cuts can be made without hindering the soil itself and plant growth.
Land grading consists of shaping the land by cutting, filling, and smoothing until
continuous surface grades are reached. The purpose is to prevent ponding and prolonged
saturation of the soil. Land grading for drainage normally does not require shaping of
the land into a plane surface with uniform slopes, but special care must be taken in filling
depressions with soil from neighboring ridges and mounds. In areas with little or no
slope, grades can be established to direct surface runoff into the ditches.
Bedding is the classical land-forming method for flat, heavy land in humid climates.
It resembles a system of parallel field ditches with intervening lands shaped to a convex
surface. The excess surface water is drained by lateral overland flow toward the field
drains (Fig. 4.6). For the typical conditions under which bedding is used, flat beds
generally should be no wider than 10 m to obtain good drainage. The beds are made by
plowing, blading, or otherwise elevating the surface of flatland into a series of broad,
low ridges separated by shallow, parallel furrows.
Optimal land-forming design aims at obtaining a properly graded surface of concave,
convex, or plane shape from a natural ground surface, with the minimum volume of
earthwork involved [15–19]. The slope of the graded surface may be different in the
longitudinal and transversal directions and there may be restrictions on the slope in
Figure 4.6. Drainage in a bedding system. Source: [6].

either or both directions. These factors make land-grading design a difficult problem to
solve. Systematic procedures for land grading were introduced first by Givan [20] for
rectangular fields and by Chugg [21] for irregularly shaped fields. Both authors applied
least-squares methods to define a plane surface that fits the natural ground surface with
minimum earthwork.
Hamad and Ali [22] proposed a method using the box-complex approach. Although
this method is better than those based on the least-squares techniques, it lacks robustness
and requires an initial feasible set of decision variables. Recently, Reddy [23] devised
a new method for optimal land-grading design, based on a nonlinear genetic algorithm,
suitable for both plane and curved surfaces while minimizing the total volume of earth-
work. The application of this procedure shows that the optimal search is carried out
simultaneously in several promising zones of the decision plane and a variety of design
constraints can be considered, including curved surfaces. Pareto-optimal solutions, in
addition to the best solution, are produced. Pareto-optimal solutions give an opportunity
to the designer to use his/her judgment in selecting the most suitable surface based on
practical considerations.
4.1.3 Salty Soils

Problems
Salts occur in the soil in one of the following three forms: salt ions dissolved in the
soil water (the soil solution), cations adsorbed on the negatively charged surfaces of the
soil particles (adsorption complex), and precipitated salts.
The principal salts are sodium, magnesium, and calcium chlorides; sodium and mag-
nesium sulfates; sodium carbonates and bicarbonates; and nitrates and borates. These
originate from rocks as they weather into soil. In this process the salts are carried down-
ward (leached) with the percolating water. In the lower layers of the soil, they may either
precipitate or continue to be transported in solution, eventually ending up in the sea. In
certain cases, a high salt content in the soil may be related directly to the soil’s parent
material. This type of soil salinity is normally termed “primary” or “residual” salinity.
The most common cause of high soil salinity is salinization, that is, the accumulation
of salts in the upper layers of the soil from some outside source. Salinization can be
either a natural or an anthropogenic process.
The latter type is often the result of irrigation in regions with low precipitation, high
rate of evaporation, and without artificial leaching or drainage. The result is a rather
rapid accumulation of salts, which influence the growth of crops. The main effects are
physiological drought, disturbance of the ion balance in the soil solution, degradation
of the soil structure, and decrease of the biological activity of the soil (see Chapter 5,
Sections 5.5 and 5.8).
The intensity of crop damage depends on the type and combination of salts in the
soil solution, the soil management system, and the crop’s tolerance to saline conditions.
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) gives the threshold values
of the electrical conductivity of soil (ECe ) and water (ECw ) at which potential yield of
various crops normally is expected to be 100%, 90%, 75%, and 50% of the maximum
yield [24].
The term “salty” generally refers to a soil that contains sufficient salts to impair its
productivity.
There are several methods of soil analysis to determine the salt content. Most of them,
however, are insufficient for characterizing salinity status because the influence of the
salts on the crop growth depends on many factors. These include the composition and
properties of the different soil layers and horizons, seasonal variations of the capillary
zone and the depth of groundwater, soil temperature and its seasonal fluctuations, and the
stage of development of crops. Moreover, salinization is a dynamic process, changing
with time and varying over short distances in the field and along the soil profile.
The system developed by the U.S. Salinity Laboratory is currently the most commonly
used for the classification of salty soils [24]. The diagnostic parameters in this system
follow:
• The electrical conductivity of the saturated soil extract, ECe (dS/m), is a temperature-
sensitive measurement and therefore is standardized at 25◦ C.
• The exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) can be written as
100(0.015 adj RNa )

ESP = , (4.1)
1 + 0.015 adj RNa
where adj RNa (adjusted sodium adsorption ratio) is defined as [24]
Na
adj RNa = q (4.2)
Cax +Mg
2
in which Na and Mg are the concentrations (in me/L) of sodium and magnesium
in the soil extract and Cax is a modified value of the calcium concentration, which
takes into account the effects of carbon dioxide (CO2 ), bicarbonate (HCO3 ), and
salinity of the soil water (ECw ) upon the calcium originally present. Values for Cax
are given in Table 4.5.
With reference to the reclamation procedures, the salty soils have been separated into
the following three groups [25]: saline, saline-sodic, and sodic.
Saline Soils
Saline soils are those for which the conductivity of the saturated soil extract ECe > 4
dS/m at 25◦ C and ESP < 15. Ordinarily, the pH is less than 8.5.
The chemical characteristics of saline soils are the following:
• Sodium seldom comprises more than half of the soluble cations and hence is not
adsorbed to any significant extent.
• The amounts of calcium and magnesium may vary considerably.
• Soluble and exchangeable potassium are ordinarily minor constituents, but some-
times they may appear as major constituents.
• The main anions are chloride, sulfate, and nitrate.
Because of the presence of excess salts and the absence of significant amounts of ex-
changeable sodium, saline soils generally are flocculated and therefore have permeabil-
ities similar to those of nonsaline soils.
Table 4.5. Modified calcium concentration Cax (meq/L) as function of electrical conductivity of soil water and of ratio of bicarbonate to calcium
124
Ratio of Bicarbonate
Electrical Conductivity of Applied Water, ECw (dS/m)
(meq/L 3 ) to
Calcium (meq/L 3 ) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
0.05 13.20 13.61 13.92 14.40 14.79 15.26 15.91 16.43 17.28 17.97 19.07 19.94
0.10 8.31 8.57 8.77 9.07 9.31 9.62 10.02 10.35 10.89 11.32 12.01 12.56
0.15 6.34 6.54 6.69 6.92 7.11 7.34 7.65 7.90 8.31 8.64 9.17 9.58
0.20 5.24 5.40 5.52 5.71 5.87 6.06 6.31 6.52 6.86 7.13 7.57 7.91
0.25 4.51 4.65 4.76 4.92 5.06 5.22 5.44 5.62 5.91 6.15 6.52 6.82
0.30 4.00 4.12 4.21 4.36 4.48 4.62 4.82 4.98 5.24 5.44 5.77 6.04
0.35 3.61 3.72 3.80 3.94 4.04 4.17 4.35 4.49 4.72 4.91 5.21 5.45
0.40 3.30 3.40 3.48 3.60 3.70 3.82 3.98 4.11 4.32 4.49 4.77 4.98
0.45 3.05 3.14 3.22 3.33 3.42 3.53 3.68 3.80 4.00 4.15 4.41 4.61
0.50 2.84 2.93 3.00 3.10 3.19 3.29 3.43 3.54 3.72 3.87 4.11 4.30
0.75 2.17 2.24 2.29 2.37 2.43 2.51 2.62 2.70 2.84 2.95 3.14 3.28
1.00 1.79 1.85 1.89 1.96 2.01 2.09 2.16 2.23 2.35 2.44 2.59 2.71
1.25 1.54 1.59 1.63 1.68 1.73 1.78 1.86 1.92 2.02 2.10 2.23 2.33
1.50 1.37 1.41 1.44 1.49 1.53 1.58 1.65 1.70 1.79 1.86 1.97 2.07
1.75 1.23 1.27 1.30 1.35 1.38 1.43 1.49 1.54 1.62 1.68 1.78 1.86
2.00 1.13 1.16 1.19 1.23 1.26 1.31 1.36 1.40 1.48 1.54 1.63 1.70
2.25 1.04 1.08 1.10 1.14 1.17 1.21 1.26 1.30 1.37 1.42 1.51 1.58
2.50 0.97 1.00 1.02 1.06 1.09 1.12 1.17 1.21 1.27 1.32 1.40 1.47
3.00 0.85 0.89 0.91 0.94 0.96 1.00 1.04 1.07 1.13 1.17 1.24 1.30
3.50 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.85 0.87 0.90 0.94 0.97 1.02 1.06 1.12 1.17
4.00 0.71 0.73 0.75 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.86 0.88 0.93 0.97 1.03 1.07
4.50 0.66 0.68 0.69 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.79 0.82 0.86 0.90 0.95 0.99
5.00 0.61 0.63 0.65 0.67 0.69 0.71 0.74 0.76 0.80 0.83 0.88 0.93
7.00 0.49 0.50 0.52 0.53 0.55 0.57 0.59 0.61 0.64 0.67 0.71 0.74
10.00 0.39 0.40 0.41 0.42 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.48 0.51 0.53 0.56 0.58
20.00 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.30 0.32 0.33 0.35 0.37
30.00 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.27 0.28
Land Reclamation and Conservation
Source: [24].
Reclamation techniques normally depend on suitable irrigation water, appropriate

means of water application, and good drainage. Large quantities of water with low
salt content are needed to leach salts from the soil profile. Surface basins and sprinkle
irrigation are usually appropriate because these apply water on the entire soil surface. Salt-
tolerant vegetation can help to reclaim saline soils, especially those with fine textures.
Plant roots help to keep the soil permeable and the top growth prevents erosion. Good
drainage is required to remove the leaching water fast enough and to keep groundwater
levels from rising. Sometimes leaching is done intermittently both to save water and to
give more time for drainage.
Reclamation requires that land be well managed afterward. The water table has to
be kept low enough to keep from making the soil saline again. Suitable amounts of
irrigation water have to be applied to let drainage remove the salt brought in by the
irrigation water.
Saline-Sodic Soils
The term “saline-sodic” is applied to soils for which ECe > 4 dS/m at 25◦ C and ESP
>15. Normally, the pH is seldom higher than 8.5. These soils form as a result of the
combined processes of salinization and sodification.
As the concentration of salts in the soil solution decreases, some of the exchangeable
sodium hydrolyzes and forms sodium hydroxide. This salt may change to sodium car-
bonate on reaction with carbon dioxide absorbed from the atmosphere. Upon leaching,
the soil may become strongly alkaline, and after the consequent dispersion of the fine
particles, unfavorable for the entry and movement of water and for tillage. Although the
return of the soluble salts may help particles to flocculate, the management of saline-
sodic soils continues to be a problem until the excess salts’ exchangeable sodium is
removed from the root zone.
When gypsum is added to saline-sodic soils and such soils are leached, the excess salts
are removed and calcium replaces the exchangeable sodium. The reclamation of saline-
sodic soils requires amendments—normally gypsum, sulfur, or calcium chloride—to
replace sodium. Amendments have to be applied prior to the leaching process.
The amendment requirement (AR) can be calculated from the following formula [4]:
µ ¶
ESPin − ESPfn
AR = CEC (4.3)
100
where CEC is the cation exchange capacity in meq/100 g of soil; ESPin and ESPfn are,
respectively, the initial and final exchangeable sodium percentages (before and after the
reclamation); and AR is the amendment requirement in meq/100 g of soil.
CEC usually is measured by saturating the soil complex with one type of cation
(e.g., Na+ ), then replacing this cation and measuring the displaced quantity in the soil
water extract (standardized at pH = 7.0). If, for example, ESPin = 30, ESPfn = 10, and
CEC = 24, then AR = 4.8 meq of amendment/100 g of soil.
When the amendment is gypsum [1 meq of gypsum/100 g of soil equals 860 ppm
(parts per million) of gypsum], the amount of gypsum required for 1 ha to depth of 20
cm (roughly 3.106 kg) will be 12,384 kg.
This calculation is based on 100% replacement of sodium by calcium. Because of

the presence in some saline-sodic soils of free soda, the actual efficiency is lower. Thus,
it is recommended that the amount of applied gypsum be increased in accordance with
equivalents of free sodium carbonate and bicarbonate.
Reclamation with gypsum—sometimes added to the irrigation water—is usually less
expensive than with other amendments, but the amount required is larger and the process
is slow. Sulfur also is cheap and widely used, but also has it own limitations. Soil bacteria
must first oxidize the sulfur to sulfuric acid. The hydrogen ion of the acid then must react
with the soil lime to release calcium, which, in turn, exchanges for the soil-adsorbed
sodium. Only then is the sodium ready for leaching and the whole process may take
months or years.
Sodic Soils
Sodic soils are those for which the percentage of exchangeable sodium is greater than
15 and the conductivity of the saturated soil extract is less than 4 dS/m at 25◦ C. The
pH readings usually range between 8.5 and 10. These soils frequently occur in small
irregular areas of arid and semiarid regions, which often are referred to as “slick spots.”
The removal of excess salts due to leaching tends to increase the rate of hydrolysis
of the exchangeable sodium and can lead to a rise in soil pH. Moreover, evaporation
may deposit organic matter present in the soil solution on the ground surface causing the
formation of a dark crust.
These soils are characterized by the presence of sodium carbonates, sodium hydrogen-
carbonates, and other sodium salts in the soil solution. These salts are very harmful,
particularly if the soil does not contain gypsum. Physical properties are affected by the
presence of exchangeable sodium in the soil. As ESP increases, the soil tends to become
more dispersed. The pH may increase, sometimes becoming as high as 10. At these high
pH values and in the presence of carbonate ions, calcium and magnesium are precipitated,
resulting in an increase in the concentration of sodium in the soil solution.
Sodic soils are difficult to reclaim because their permeability is too low for water to
carry amendments to the soil colloids. Mechanical mixing and deep plowing may help
because they get the amendment directly into the soil and open up some passages for
water percolation.
Few plants will grow in sodic soils until some reclamation has been achieved. To this
end, even weeds should be encouraged because their roots open channels and crevices
that improve soil permeability.
In the initial stages of sodic soil reclamation, the application of salty water is much
better than pure water because salts help to flocculate the soil colloids and increase
the soil permeability, often by one or two orders of magnitude. In this regard, water
containing calcium is especially helpful because this ion replaces exchangeable sodium.
4.1.4 Derelict and Degraded Soils

Problems
A soil that was once biologically productive and has suffered to such an extent from
human activities that it is less capable or incapable of beneficial uses (even for leisure or
recreation) is described as “derelict.” Attempts at renewal of the degraded resource are

sometimes given different names such as redemption, rehabilitation, and restoration.
Reclamation often is used as a blanket term to describe all of the activities that seek
to upgrade damaged soil and to bring it back into beneficial use.
Soils may be degraded in a variety of ways and to very different degrees. Productive
areas have been spoiled by acid precipitation, or have been covered by mining loads,
smelter slags, or by the waste of chemical and manufacturing industries.
When a human activity adversely affects the land, it is generally the biologically
active surface layer—soil—that is most easily destroyed or degraded. In addition to the
impairment of biological activity, the handling and tipping of loads often can lead to
compaction and degradation of soil structure, rendering the environment inhospitable
for plant growth.
These problems must be overcome if a derelict soil is to be upgraded so as to ap-
propriately support plant and animal communities. When this process begins, some of
the features of a fertile soil will reappear in deeper layers. Plant growth will improve
steadily and, in turn, will introduce residues that will improve the physical and chemical
characteristics of the soil. The initiation of degraded resource renovation is the broad
aim of derelict soil reclamation.
Methods of reclamation have to be tailored to the specific problems at hand. However,
there are some principles that are common to all reclamation procedures. Figure 4.7 shows
the steps and the considerations that are necessary in the design of a suitable reclamation
scheme. We have to bring back to full life an ecosystem in which normal biological
processes are at a standstill. The natural development of such an ecosystem normally
takes a long time, and so, the key to improvement is upgrading all of its activities by
the input of materials that the soil has in short supply. This can be done directly with
nutrients and/or fertilizers, or indirectly with organic matter built up by the growth of
plants.
Once the soil is charged adequately, it has the nutrients and the physical properties that
allow plants and soil organisms to grow and develop. The cycling of materials can begin
and a self-sustaining ecosystem results. The soil structure also improves with the input
of organic matter and the concurrent increase in the activities of soil microorganisms.
The most common techniques are topsoil conservation, topsoil application, applica-
tion of other materials, hydraulic seeding, and revegetation.
Topsoil Conservation
If a land is expected to be disturbed by anthropogenic activities, the fertile topsoil
and sometimes the subsoil have to be removed, stored, and replaced later when the
disturbance has finished. This technique is suitable mainly for progressive, fast-moving,
strip-mining operations taking a relatively thin layer of material, such as coal, bauxite,
or sand. Generally, if the procedure is carried out adequately, the topsoil loses very little
of its original properties and, provided that care is taken to prevent consolidation, crops
and other vegetation can be reestablished immediately [26].
Figure 4.7. Steps involved in the development of a

soil reclamation scheme. Source: Modified from [1].
In many sites, however, the depth of work may be considerable and/or the area for
storage small. In these cases the topsoil has to be stripped at the outset, stored in large
heaps, and replaced later. This procedure tends to cause a deterioration in the topsoil
structure and some loss of fertility. Therefore, the topsoil has to be removed and replaced
carefully, preferably during dry conditions, without being mixed with other materials if
the natural processes are to be restored quickly.
Topsoil Application
Sometimes, it may be possible to remove the top layers of a good soil from the site
and spread it over an another area where the soil has been degraded. This procedure
may provide a fully developed and fertile soil of good structure and texture. Generally,
the establishment and growth of plants when topsoil is used as a covering material are
satisfactory, usually with fertilizer addition. However, there always will be a limit to the
depth of topsoil that can be applied. The underlying layers will be part of the rooting zone
of the plants, and their characteristics, therefore, cannot be disregarded totally [27]. If
they are toxic or impermeable, the roots will be confined to the topsoil. Whereas imper-
meability of the underlying material can be ameliorated by ripping operations, problems
of toxicity are more difficult to overcome. Moreover, some wastes, such as chemical
refuse, are not only toxic in themselves but can release substances that will poison added
soil above. In these cases, a deeper layer of soil will be necessary as a covering.
On the whole, topsoil application is recommended in small sites where high quality
and rapid solutions are required and when it is necessary to restore the original ecosystem
as faithfully as possible.
Application of Other Materials
This technique is based on the idea of using some waste products to deal with the
problems caused by others [1]. As a matter of fact, there are many waste products that
are good media for plant growth, such as sewage sludge, mushroom compost, farmyard
manure and pig slurry, domestic refuse, fuel ash, and mining and chemical wastes. These
materials, notwithstanding their different origins, are similar in the sense of being non-
toxic and water-and nutrient-retaining.
Hydraulic Seeding
Hydraulic seeding or hydro-mulching is a technique which consists of spraying seeds
and nutrients over the ground in the form of a slurry. Normally the seed is suspended
in an aqueous solution that can be sprayed over distances of as much as fifty meters or
more, from a machine that does not have to pass over the ground. When the seed reaches
the ground surface it is carried into crevices by the liquid. To keep the solution properly
mixed, starch derivatives or oil-based emulsions are added to increase the viscosity of
the mixture. These substances also play an important role in improving the adhesion of
the seeds to the soil when they hit the ground. Adequate nutrients—provided either by
fertilizer or by a liquid manure—must also be added to prevent the young plants from
failing to establish due to unfavorable soil conditions.
Normally, not more than 200 kg/ha of a compound fertilizer, containing about 30
kg/ha of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, can be added to the mixture containing
Table 4.6. Hydroseeding indicative application rates of materials suitable

for the establishment of grass–legume cover in temperate climates
Material Application Rate

Grass-seed mixture appropriate for situation 70 kg/ha
Wild white clover or other inoculated legumes 10 kg/ha
Mulch: wood fiber, chopped straw, or glass wool 1–2 t/ha
Stabilizer: alginate, PVA, or latex Depends on stabilizer
Fertilizer: complete 15:15:15 200 kg/ha, followed by
300 kg/ha after 8 weeks
Dry organic manure 500 kg/ha
Lime 0–5,000 kg/ha
Source: [1].
the seed. Table 4.6 gives indicative application rates of some materials suitable for
the establishment of grass/legume cover in temperate climates. This technique is quite
expensive and not yet totally reliable for all situations. On the whole, it is cost effective
mainly on steep, less accessible slopes or where there is a serious erosion problem
requiring the use of a soil-binding material [28].
Re-vegetation
One of the most common components of all reclamation schemes is the establishment
of vegetation. Soils drastically disturbed by anthropogenic activities are often difficult to
revegetate because the soil layers have been compacted to the extent that plant roots are
unable to penetrate them. Essential plant nutrients may not be present in an available form
or in properly balanced proportions. Nitrogen is invariably deficient and phosphorus is
generally in short supply. Moreover, the sites may be too dry or too wet. In spite of these
problems, considerable success has been attained in vegetating degraded soils on mining
dumps and air fields, along highways and pipelines, or around buildings. The first step
is normally the establishment of a grass cover, usually containing legumes. Legumes, in
fact, are of paramount importance in almost all grass mixtures because they provide and
maintain an adequate supply of nitrogen and ensure the build up of an suitable amount
of organic matter in the newly forming soil. The choice of the proper legumes depends
on soil conditions and on climate. Generally, the most valuable legumes are those which
are used in agriculture since they have high rates of nitrogen fixation. A list of these
plants on a world-wide basis is given in Table 4.7.
An alternative to sowing grass and legumes is to establish trees or shrubs. These can be
planted on ground where agriculture is impossible, such as steep-sided heaps and mining
loads. However, they are less effective than grasses in stabilizing soils against erosion.
To overcome this problem, because trees and shrubs are established at low density and a
lot of surface is left unprotected, a grassy ground cover (grass–legume mixture or pure
legume) may play an important role.
In any case, the establishment of either perennial vegetation or cultivated crops re-
presents the final step in the development of any successful derelict soil reclamation
procedure.
Table 4.7. Perennial legumes suitable for derelict soils
Soil Climate
Legume Species Preferencea Preferenceb
Amorpha fruticosa (indigo bush) NC W
Centrosema pubescens (centro) AN W
Coronilla varia (crown vetch) AN CW
Desmodium uncinatum (silver leaf desmodium) AN W
Lathyrus sylvestris (mat peavine) NC W
Lespedeza bicolor (lespedeza) AN W
Lespedeza cuneata (sericea lespedeza) AN W
Lespedeza japonica (Japanese lespedeza) AN W
Lotus corniculatus (birdsfoot trefoil) NC CW
Lupinus arboreus (tree lupin) ANC CW
Medicago sativa (lucerne [alfalfa]) NC CW
Melilotus alba (sweet clover [white] ANC CW
Melilotus officinalis (sweet clover [yellow] ANC W
Phaseolus atropurpureus (siratro) ANC W
Stylosanthes humilis (Townsville stylo) AN W
Trifolium hybridum (alsike clover) ANC C
Trifolium pratense (red clover) NC C
Trifolium repens (white clover) NC CW
Ulex europaeus (gorse) ANC C
a A = acid, C = calcareous, N = neutral.
b C = cool, W = warm.
Source: [1].
4.1.5 Tidal Soils

Problems
Soil in coastal areas, along river margins, in estuaries and bays, and on land reclaimed
from the open sea are subjected in varying degrees of overflow and restricted drainage
caused by tidal water. The extent and frequency of overflow and drainage inpairment
may vary widely, depending on the elevation and exposure of the sites to tidal water. The
action of waves may cause erosion in some regions and the deposition of sand, silt, an
clay in others. For centuries efforts have been made to rescue parts of these coastal areas
from the sea and turn them into productive land. In this regard, perhaps the most famous
project is the impoldering of the former Zuiderzee in the Netherlands, which began in
the 1920s and continues to the present day.
Reclamation and drainage of tidal soils are closely related. Infact, during the initial
stages of the process, they are largely synonymous.
In low-lying coastal soils, outflow from interior areas is blocked temporarily by high
tides when it does not have free outlet to the sea. Thus, in these areas, draining water is
ponded (stored) twice daily in drainage channels and adjacent low areas. This water may
be fresh, salty, or a mixture of the two, depending on the hydraulic gradient between the
sea and the ponded water. The basic purpose of reclamation in these areas is to prevent
seawater from moving landward during high tide and to provide for the disposal of stored
fresh water during periods of low tide.
Protection from overflow usually is achieved by enclosing such areas with dikes.
Drainage may be obtained by establishing a system of internal drains with water dis-
charged over the dikes by pumps, by gravity flow through gates, or by a combination of
pumps and gates.
Pumps are necessary when storage for accumulating drainage water within ponding
areas is not available; when flow through gates is prevented over long periods by tides,
floods, or inadequate outlets into the sea; or when the construction and maintenance of
foreshore channels are impractical.
The exact steps to be followed in the reclamation of a particular tidal area depend
upon local conditions, but in all cases, when the area on the land side of the dike is
wholly dried up, the initial overall appearance of the soils is that of soft mud. These
soils, generally called “unripened soils” consist of loose alluvial deposits that have very
little stability. Upon drainage, changes take place in the mud, which together are referred
to as “ripening.” Ripening precedes the common soil formation processes leading to full
development of a soil profile [6].
Soil Ripening Processes
Soil ripening of fresh subaqueous deposits starts with the loss of excess water from the
mud, by evaporation and drainage. The water table falls and the soil above the phreatic
surface becomes exposed to capillary forces that pull the soil particles into a closer
packing arrangement. This induces a reduction of the soil volume, subsidence, and, in
the end, the structural development of the soil. Together, these processes comprise the
physical ripening of the soil.
The ripening process normally begins at the surface and slowly extends to the deeper
soil layers. At the same time, chemical and biological changes occur in the soil (respec-
tively referred to as “chemical” and “biological” ripening). Chemical ripening consists
of oxidation processes and adjustments in the cation composition of the adsorption com-
plex. Biological ripening involves the development of aerobic microbial life within the
soil.
During the first steps of the ripening process, the hydraulic conductivity of the soil
is usually very low and only artificial drainage keeps the surface clear of ponded water.
To this end, the most suitable system is that of parallel field ditches, with spacing of the
order of 10 m or more. The field ditches should be deepened gradually, in parallel with
the progress of the ripening. Starting with depths of 30–40 cm, a depth of 60–70 cm
normally is reached over a period of about five years.
By the time the ripening front has reached well into the subsoil (e.g., to about 60- to
70-cm depth) pipe drains also may be installed. In this way, during the rain period, the
excess rainwater flows vertically through the cracks and then flows laterally, over the
impermeable unripened layers, to the trenches and then down to the pipes.
The spacing to be used depends very much on the changes of the values of the
hydraulic conductivity during the development of the ripening process. When a good
number of ripening cracks are established, a spacing of up to 30–50 m may be used. On
References 133
the whole, drainage can only remove the soil water above the field capacity. The removal
of the pore water held below field capacity depends mostly on evaporative drying. This
process is enhanced if there is a vegetative cover with a deep and extensive root system.
Reclaimed land in northern Europe (the Netherlands, England, and parts of Germany)
often is sown with reed just before emergence mainly for this reason. Reeds are followed
in turn by the first crops. A grass ley, with legumes, may be sown and used for grazing
sheep or cattle for some 10 years. During this time, soluble salts are leached from the
surface layers to lower levels. Calcium gradually replaces sodium as the dominant ion in
the cation exchange complex, organic matter accumulates, and soil structure is improved
greatly. Sometimes, ripening may be considerably retarded by seepage of brackish water
or seawater into the land. In such areas the process can be accelerated by intercepting
the seepage in flow.
Coastal Sands and Dunes
Coastal sands represent a valuable resource not only for their own sake as wild
open country with an interesting vegetation, but also as a support area for beaches and
other resort facilities. Recently, they have been subjected to an enormous pressure from
recreation and even mining activities.
Sand dunes generally are made up almost entirely of silica particles and usually are
lacking in water, organic matter, and nutrients. Moreover, they are unstable and shift
under the influence of wind and waves.
When dune areas are being reclaimed, the first step is to ensure protection from sea
erosion, by wave screens or groines. At the same time, the original vegetation must be
reestablished in places where it has been removed or destroyed [29, 30]. Sea lyme grass
is valuable for building foredunes because it can tolerate a high degree of salinity. A
number of other species that are adapted to the unfavorable coastal environment also can
be planted or sown. These include sea couch, red fescue, sea oats, and beach bean. After
planting, the sand surface often requires stabilization. Bituminous stabilizers are suitable
for this purpose and can be very effective if applied properly. To this end, cover crops
of large-seeded annuals such as cereal rye and sorghum can be very valuable if sown
at a low density along with fertilizer dressings. Experience from many different parts
of the world shows that, in the first year, about 100 kg/ha of nitrogen and 25 kg/ha of
phosphorus (given in two or three applications) are imperative. Where it is not essential to
reestablish the native vegetation, attention should be focused on shrubs, mainly legumes,
that grow rapidly and can act as slow releasers of nutrients for subsequent tree planting.
References
1. Bradshaw, A. D., and M. J. Chadwich. 1980. The Restoration of Land. The Ecology
and Reclamation of Derelict and Degraded Land. Berkeley, CA.: University of
California Press.
2. Cowardin, L. M., V. Carter, F. C. Golet, and E. T. La Roe, 1979. Classification
of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats in the United States, Rep. FWS/OBS-79/31.
Washington DC: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
3. Skaggs, R. W. 1985. Drainage. Water and Water Policy in the World Food Supply.
ed. Jordan, W. R. College Station: Texas A&M University Press.
4. Food and Agriculture Organization and United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization. 1973. Irrigation, Drainage, and Salinity. London: Camelot
Press.
5. Maidment D. R. (ed.). 1992. Handbook of Hydrology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
6. Smedema, L. K., and D. W. Rycroft. 1983. Land Drainage. Planning and Design
of Agricultural Drainage Systems. London: London Batsford Academic and Edu-
cational.
7. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1973. Drainage of Agricultural Land. Washington,
DC: Water Information Center.
8. Schwab, G. O., R. K. Frevert, T. W. Edminster, and K. K. Barnes. 1981. Soil and
Water Conservation Engineering. New York: Wiley.
9. Food and Agriculture Organization. 1980. Drainage design factors. Paper No. 38.
Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization.
10. De Wrachien, D. 1991. Short guidelines on the hydraulic design of drainage canals.
J. Irrigat. Drain. Eng. 1:33–39.
11. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage - Australian Committee. 1991.
Guideline on the Construction of Surface Drainage Systems. Riverland: (Australia)
Engineering and Water Supply Department.
12. Easa, S. M. 1992. Probabilistic design of open drainage channels. J. Irrigat. Drain.
Eng. 94(5): 949–956.
13. Barua G., and K. N. Tiwari. 1996. Ditch drainage theories for homogeneous
anisotropic soils. J. Irrigat. Drain. Eng. 122(5):276–285.
14. Barua G., and K. N. Tiwari. 1996. Theories of ditch drainage in layered anisotropic
soil. J. Irrigat. Drain. Eng. 122(6):321–330.
15. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1970. Land leveling. SCS National Engineering
Handbook. (USDA) Washington, DC.
16. Scaloppi E. J., and L. S. Willardoson, 1986. Practical land grading based upon least
squares. J. Irrigat. Drain. Eng. 112(2):98–109.
17. De Wrachien, D. 1991. Lay-out of surface drainage systems. J. Irrigat. Agric. n.3:
168–173.
18. Schorn, H., and D. H. Gray. 1995. Landforming, grading, and slope evolution.
J. Geotech. Eng. 121(6):729–734.
19. Gray, D. H., and R. B. Sotir. 1996. Biotechnical and Soil Bioengineering. Slope
Stabilization: A Practical Guide for Erosion Control. New York: Wiley.
20. Givan, C. E. 1940. Land grading calculations. Agric. Eng. 21(1):11–12.
21. Chugg, G. E. 1947. Calculation for land gradation. Agric. Eng. 28(10):461.
22. Hamad, S. N., and A. M. Ali. 1990. Land grading design by using nonlinear pro-
gramming. J. Irrigat. Drain. Eng. 116(2):219–226.
23. Reddy, S. L. 1996. Optimal land grading based on genetic algorithms. J. Irrigat.
Drain. Eng. 122(4):183–188.
24. Ayers, R. S., and D. W. Westcot. 1985. Water quality for agriculture, irrigation and
drainage. Paper No. 29, Rev. 1. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.
Soil Regeneration and Improvement 135
25. Troeh, F. R., J. A. Hobbs, and R. L. Donahue. 1980. Soil and Water Conservation
for Productivity and Environmental Protection. London: Prentice-Hall.
26. Knabe, W. 1965. Observations on worldwide efforts to reclaim industrial waste
land. Ecology and Industrial Society. ed. Goodman, G. T., R. W. Edwards, and
J. M. Lambert, pp. 263–296. Oxford: Blackwell.
27. Cooke, G. W. 1967. The Control of Soil Fertility. London: Crosby, Lockwood.
28. Sheldon, J. C., and A. D. Bradshaw. 1978. The development of a hydraulic seeding
technique for unstable sand slopes. I. Effects of fertilisers, mulches and stabilisers.
J. Appl. Ecol. 14:905–918.
29. Coaldrake, J. E. 1973. Conservation problems of coastal sand and open-cast mining.
Nature Conservation in the Pacific, ed. Costin, A. B., and R. H. Groves, pp. 299–314,
Canberra, Australia.
30. Zak, J. M. 1965. Sand dune erosion control at Provincetown, Massachusetts. J. Soil
Water Conserv. 20:188–189.
4.2 Soil Regeneration and Improvement

G. Chisci and D. De Wrachien
4.2.1 Soil Degradation
For a soil to provide the most desirable hydraulic and mechanical properties as an
ideal medium for crop production, it is necessary that all of the different hierarchical
orders of its solid-phase components be well developed and stable against the action
of water and external mechanical stresses. According to Dexter [1], to accommodate
almost all of the different soil aspects affecting a soil’s capability to provide an ideal
medium for crop production, it is convenient to widen the definition of soil structure to
the “spatial heterogeneity of the different components or properties of the soil.” Such a
definition accommodates many aspects of the soil that manifest themselves at different
scales and their variable distribution in time and space (soil anisotrophy).
Synthetically, Dexter considers soil structure as the spatial variability of its compo-
nents and lists a number of soil features with different dimentions (Fig. 4.8). It follows
that structure, in the broad sense outlined above, is the most important feature of a soil
in relation to plant growth and crop production. Consequently, soil degradation can be
envisaged as the consequence of any process or human action negatively influencing soil
structure. Conversely, soil regeneration is the result of any natural process and/or human
action capable of recovering soil structure from a deteriorated condition and possibly
aimed at an improvement of soil structure by ameliorative measures.
The main factors involved in the physical degradation of a soil, in the short and
medium term, are
• compaction,
• microstructure degradation, and
• crusting.
Such processes (alone and/or in combination) depend on many factors that are discussed
later and are responsible not only for reducing the suitability of a soil for plant growth and
Figure 4.8. Spatial variability of soil components and soil features with
different dimensions. Source: [1].
crop production, but also for impairing the soil system in its capabilities as a depurator
and water regulator.
Compaction
Compaction can be defined as the response of a soil to external forces and implies
a decrease in its volume (or an increase in its density). The extent of the compaction
depends on both the soil and the forces applied. Several soil parameters can be used to
characterize soil compaction, such as bulk density, void ratio, specific volume, or bulk
weight volume [2]. The compactability of the soil (i.e., its response to compaction forces)
depends on soil type, moisture content, and initial state of compaction.
The resistence of each soil to compaction (soil strength) decreases rapidly when
soil moisture content increases. Soil strength generally increases with depth so that the
strength of the subsoil is generally higher than that of the topsoil, which may be loose
and soft under certain operative conditions and therefore more compactable. A moderate
recompaction of a plowed soil may be favorable to plant growth, but intensive traffic fre-
quently causes excessive compaction. The tilled layer often undergoes an annual cycle of
loosening by tillage and recompaction by natural processes and machinery traffic [3–6].
The extent of recompaction by machinery traffic depends on many factors. It tends
to increase with the soil moisture content, the wheel load, the inflation pressure of tires,
the number of machinery passes, the wheel slip, and the velocity of the vehicle [6–8].
As previously stated, soil compaction for a specific site can be characterized by the
bulk density or by the porosity of the soil. However, it is extremely difficult to identify
all of the effects of soil compaction on crop growth and yield. So far, the experimental
measurement of crop response in field experiments is probably the only way to assess the
integrated effect of soil compaction on crop yield. Generally speaking, yields decrease
in overly dense soils, probably as a consequence of poor aereation and mechanical
impedence to root growth. In overly loose soils, the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity,
the volumetric water content, and the concentration of nutrients are often lower. These
conditions may restrict water and nutrient transport to roots.
Other soil properties besides bulk density or directly related quantities also have been
used for characterizing soil compaction. Among these, penetration resistence is the most
common. Provided that soil water content is uniform, penetrometer resistance may be
a more sensitive parameter than bulk density [9]. Nevertheless, this parameter has the
disadvantage of having high variability and is unsuitable for use in stony soils.
A more universal method for measuring soil compaction was devised by Eriksson
et al. [10] and Hakansson [2], by normalizing the bulk density values so that they are
comparable in their effect on crop production. The maximum bulk density obtained in
the laboratory using a long-term, confined, uniaxial compression test and a static pressure
of 200 kPa was established as a reference point; the bulk density of the same soil in the
field, expressed as a percentage of the reference maximum bulk density, was adopted as
the degree of compaction. This parameter has been shown to have biological significance
in experiments carried out by Hakansson [2], which indicated that maximum crop yield
can be attained at the same degree of compactness irrespectively of soil type.
Scientists, technicians, and farmers are much more concerned about soil compaction
today than in the past, because of the increasing mechanization of crop production in most
parts of the world. This trend has enhanced the risks of soil physical degradation when
wheels pass over soil used as growing medium for crops [10–12]. Nowadays, farming
almost invariably involves the passage of wheeled and/or tracked vehicles for primary
and secondary cultivation, sowing, spraying, and harvesting operations. However, soils
that have been cultivated for a long time often will not conserve the strength to support the
most modern vehicles without considerable compression and rutting. Continuously tilled
soils that are less suited to crop growth often need corrective treatments between crops,
such as more intensive or deeper primary tillage operations, thus increasing the costs of
production. In addition, such operations are rarely completely effective. Compaction is
becoming a very serious soil degradation problem where heavy wheeled vehicles are used
in crop production, with the possible exception of arid nonirrigated areas. As a result,
it has become increasingly necessary to relate the compaction produced by agricultural
vehicles to the complete system of soil management.
Crop rotation also may be important in relation to compaction under vehicles. Garwood
et al. [13] found that a free-draining sandy-loam soil was considerably more compact fol-
lowing 20 years of arable cropping then after a similar period of grass pasture (Fig. 4.9).
Wheeled vehicles are becoming larger and more powerful. McKibben [14] reported
that the average mass of tractors increased from 2.7 t in 1948 to 4.5 t in 1968. Since then,
the average power has increased at a rate of about 5% to 7% per annum. Vehicles used
for transporting and spreading lime and slurry now have a mass that sometimes exceds
20 t [15]. Furthermore, the development of combine machinery has increased the risk of
soil compaction in the actual crop management systems.
Traditionally arable soils pass through an annual cycle of loosening and compaction.
Loosening generally is obtained by primary tillage operations or by subsoiling, whereas
compaction may occur at several stages of the crop cycle, for instance at seed-bed
preparation or at harvesting. In relation to seed-bed preparation, the soil density at the
time of sowing is often as high as it is prior to plowing [3]. The mechanism of compaction
that occurs during seed-bed preparation is related to the passage of both the implement
Figure 4.9. Soil compaction resulting from two different crop rotation
systems. Source: [13].
itself and the tractor tires. The ability of a soil to support such traffic without structural
damage beyond the limits for good crop growth has been used as a definition of the
“trafficability” of an agricultural soil [16].
Subsoil compaction represents a very serious problem in that it is much more perma-
nent and recovery from it is more difficult, and its negative influence on soil hydrology,
microbial activity, and root development may be very consistent, especially for deep-
rooting crops.
It has been demonstrated that subsoil compaction under a tractor tire is related to the
bulk density of the subsoil at the moment of the passage and to the width of the tire [17].
In practical situations, however, the above postulates will be dependent on the relative
compactability of the surface soil and of the subsoil.
Under continuous zero-tillage systems, the cycle of compaction and loosening, typ-
ical for arable soils subject to annual tillage operations, does not occur. Similarly, in
continuous direct drilling systems, there is not evidence of a progressive increase in
bulk density or of a variation in relation to soil type [18]. Soils subject to continuous
direct drilling for more than two years are likely to become compacted but may acquire
sufficient strength to carry normal agricultural traffic without any further compaction.
Figure 4.10. Soil compaction as a result of different management systems. Source: [19].
However, if during harvesting or other mechanical operations the soil is moist, rutting
may occur and this may be particularly deleterious if the subsequent crop is still to be
planted by direct drilling. Moreover, the decrease of both macropores and permeabil-
ity below machinery wheel tracks produces much less favorable conditions for crop
establishment than wheel-free areas (Fig. 4.10) [19].
Many soil microorganisms, both beneficial and pathogenic to crops, are known to be
sensitive to change in aereation, pore-size distribution and soil-water status, which may
result from the passage of vehicle wheels. For instance, a reduction in the number of
soybean nodule bacteria has been observed in compacted soils [20].
Tractor wheeling on silty-loam and clay soils was found to decrease the number of
soil fauna (Collembula, Acari, and earthworms) due to direct physical damage to the
fauna more that to unfavorable soil physical conditions.
Microstructure Degradation
Quirk [22], in reporting a quotation of Bradfield [23], emphasized that soil “granula-
tion is flocculation plus” with the intent to stress that soil aggregation depends not only
on flocculation of clay particles but on many natural and unnatural factors.
Mineral Soil Microstructure
When the stability of the aggregates of different sizes is considered, it can be said
that such stability is primarily dependent on the flocculation of the clay particles by
electrolites of the soil solution developing a mineral structure, which, in turn, depends,
among other things, on the cations adsorbed on the surfaces of clays and on the electrolyte
concentration in the soil solution.
Adsorbed iron and calcium cations are highly desirable because they make the clay
particles form stable flocculated particles, whereas sodium cation is undesirable because
it make clay particles repel and disperse. A high electrolyte concentration also imparts
stability to soil aggregates but only as long as the concentration remain high in the soil
solution [24]. Mineral soil colloids (clay, oxides), in contributing to aggregate formation,
are relatively static in time.
Organic Binding Agents
Organic binding agents have been grouped in transient, temporary, and persistent
categories according to their endurance in the soil [25]. Moreover, different kinds of
organic binding agents tend to locate themself in different scale dimentions, eventually
justifying the differentiation between macro- and microstructure. At this point, a soil is
structurally stable on the macroscale only if it is structurally stable on the microscale.
On the microscale, roots and microorganisms within the rhizosphere lead to the
production of high-molecular-weight polysaccharides, among other decomposition by-
products. Such components act as transient binding agents lasting for periods ranging
from a few months to a year. Such compounds are responsible for the stabilization of
aggregates greater than about 2 µm [25]. Recent reviews have shown a general agreement
in considering polysaccharides as the main factor of aggregate stability in cultivated soils
[26–28].
Roots and fungal hyphae also act as temporary binding agents at a larger scale,
especially mycorrhizae. Their permanency in soil ranges from months to a few years and
they are generally associated with stable aggregates larger than 250 µm. They are also
quite sensitive to changes of soil environmental conditions prompted by tillage operation.
Persistent binding agents are represented mainly by aromatic humic material in asso-
ciation with amorphous iron, aluminium oxides, and aluminosilicates. Such agents bind
the smallest microaggregates of sizes from about 0.2 to 250 µm [29, 30]. Within these
dimensions, chemical bonds and electrochemical forces (mainly London–Van der Walls)
control the type and number of bonds formed [31]. For instance, in Ultisols and Oxisols,
polycations of iron and aluminium are basic elements in the following microstructural
units [29]:
[clay]–[polyvalent cation]–[humified organic matter].
It follows that the removal of these polycations leads to an high degree of aggregate
breakdown [32, 33]. The amount of clay particles in the soil relative to soil particles of
greater size regulates the frequency of bonding between the two.
In agricultural soils under intensive cultivation, inorganic colloids are more important
as elements of structural stability in comparison to undisturbed soils where, apparently,
humified organic matter becomes the main agent of soil structural stability [25, 34].
Mechanical Structure
The main unnatural process affecting soil structure, particularly soil macroporosity,
is represented by tillage practices. According to Dexter [1, 24, 45], given enough energy
input, a soil with a bad physical condition (nonaggregated, massive, hard, anaerobic) can
be temporarily turned into a soil with an apparently near-perfect structure (seed-bed of

1- to 5-mm diameter aggregates overlying a loosened, well-drained subsoil) by mechan-
ical manipulation. However, a mechanically produced structure may be consistently
unstable. Lacking the intrinsic stability of microstructure, the soil may collapse when
wet and/or subject to mechanical actions (rainfall, wind, animal trampling, machinery
traffic) and become as bad, if not worse, than it was before the tillage operations.
As a consequence of the tillage operations, a soil that has been sheared and molded by
tillage implements and/or beneath vehicle wheels is weaker than an undisturbed soil at
the same density and water content. Hence, a soil that has been disturbed mechanically is
more susceptible to erosion and compaction than an undisturbed soil. However, if a soil
is left after disturbance at constant water content and constant density, then its aggregate
water stability and strength will be regained gradually over time. Such recovery is partly
due to the rearrangement of the clay particles to new positions of lower free energy
and partly to the reformation of cementing bonds between soil particles [52–54]. The
rearrangement of clay particles at constant water content leads to a change in the size of
the micropore distribution and hence to a change in matrix water potential.
Crusting
Over the past few decades, it has been well established that a variety of soils may
develop a layer of reduced permeability at the surface when exposed to rainfall, after
tillage practices have been applied and no cover has been provided. This process is
referred to as surface crusting [59, 60]. The process has been extensively studied for
well-aggregated soils [61–67] and, to a lesser extent also for poorly aggregated, coarse-
textured soils [68–71].
Falling raindrops are the most effective agent of both soil consolidation and soil dis-
persion. Their action is understood easily by considering the momentum of a single
raindrop falling on the soil surface. Such momentum is partly reflected and partly trans-
ferred, each component depending on the slope of the soil. The transfer of momentum
to soil particles has two effects. First, it provides a consolidating force compacting the
soil and, second, it produces a disruptive force as the water rapidly disperses away from
the point of impact and falls again to the surface.
The consolidation effect is seen in the formation of a surface crust, usually only a
few millimeters thick, which results from clogging of the pores by soil compaction.
This is associated with the dispersal of fine particles from soil aggregates and/or clods,
which then fill in the pores between soil aggregates [72]. The most recent studies have
pointed out that crusts have a dense surface skin or seal about 0.1-mm thick formed of
well-oriented clay particles. Beneath this skin, there is a layer 1- to 3-mm thick, where
the larger pore spaces are filled by the finer detached and washed-in material. Whereas
Hillel [73] has tried to explain crusting as the consequence of collapsing of the saturated
soil aggregates, Farres [74] has demonstrated that raindrop impact is the most important
agent of crust development.
A distinction often is made between a crust and a seal. In fact, sealing refers especially
to the reorganization of the surface soil layer during a rainstorm, whereas crusting refers
to the hardening of the surface seals when the soil dries out. Over a number of rainstorms,
a structural crust initially develops in situ following the destruction of aggregates and the
Figure 4.11. Kinetic energy required to detach sediment.

Source: [77].
clogging of pores by finer material. This is followed by the formation of a depositional

crust due to the deposition of the finer laminated sediments transported by the over-
land flow and deposited in soil surface depressions where puddles form during storms
[75]. Generally speaking, larger areas of depositional crusts may form downslope where
the gradient generally decreases and the amount of sediment input is increased by the
deposition of sediment transported by rills.
The most important consequence of the formation of a surface crust is the reduction
of the infiltration capacity and, consequently, an increase in surface runoff. In loamy
soils, a reduction of the infiltration capacity from about 45 mm/h on an uncrusted soil to
about 6 mm/h on the same soil with a structural crust has been observed [76].
In general terms, the intensity of the crusting process decreases with an increase in
the clay and organic-matter content. It follows that loam and sandy-loam soils are the
most vulnerable to crust formation.
Studies carried out by Poesen [77] on the kinetic energy required to detach 1 kg of
sediment by raindrop impact have shown that a minimum energy is required for particles
of 0.125 mm, and particles ranging from 0.063 to 0.250 mm are most vulnerable to
detachment (Fig. 4.11). Coarser particles are more resistant to detachment because of
their weight, whereas the finer clay particles are resistant to detachment because the
raindrop energy has to overcome the adhesive and/or chemical-bonding forces linking
the minerals of the clay particles [78]. This means that the soil with high percentage
of particles within the most vulnerable range (i.e., silty-loams, loams, fine sands, and
sandy-loams) will be the most susceptible to detachment and crusting.
The actual response of a soil to a given rainfall depends upon its moisture content
and structural state on the one side and on the intensity of the rainfall on the other. Le
Bissonnais [79] describes three possible responses:
1. When the soil is dry and the rainfall intensity is high, the soil aggregates dissolve
quickly by slaking due to the breakdown of bonds by air compression ahead of the
wetting front. The infiltration capacity decreases rapidly as a consequence of the
sealing of pores.
2. When the surface aggregates initially are wetted partially or the rainfall intensity
is low, then microcracking occurs, and the larger aggregates break into smaller
ones. Surface roughness thus decreases and the infiltration capacity remains high
because the pore spaces within the microaggregates are not sealed.
3. When the aggregates are initially saturated, the infiltration capacity depends on the
saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil, and a large quantity of rain is required
to seal the surface.
As well as inducing a decrease in infiltration and an increase in runoff, soil crusting
and sealing also represent an impedence to seedling emergence as a consequence of the
dense surface skin or seal of oriented clay particles, which occurs when the surface dries
up. Moreover, the orientation of soil particles produces a continuity in the direction of
macropores, favoring an increase in surface evaporation and, consequently, a greater loss
of water from the rhizosphere.
4.2.2 Soil Regeneration

Soil Compaction
Regeneration from compaction due to machinery use in agricultural exploitation of
the land may be achieved in four primary ways:
1. by reducing the number of passes of conventional machines,
2. by reducing the vehicle mass and/or the contact pressure of the wheel system,
3. by confining the traffic to permanent or temporary wheel tracks (controlled traffic),
4. by modifying the cultivation system, so as to reduce the overall use of machinery.
A diagrammatic representation of the main options in relation to the type of vehicles is
shown in Fig. 4.12 [21].
Traffic reduction also may be achieved by combining several operations in one pass,
such as cultivation and spraying, or certain types of harvesting operations using combines
and common-sense attitudes in machinery management.
Finally, the introduction of a consistent reduction of wheel contact pressure or the
adoption of a controlled traffic system may require the use of special vehicles or wheel
systems, which are still under development.
Mineral Structure
The state and stability of soil structure under different management systems are strictly
connected with several natural processes. The most important are the hydrology and the
biological activity of the soil [24, 35].
An important distinction can be made between natural and human-induced processes
in relation to the amelioration of soil physical conditions dependent on soil structure.
Figure 4.12. Main options for regenerating soil compaction due to machinery use. Source: [21].
Human actions such as tillage practices, crop rotation, crop fertilization, herbicide and
pesticide applications, and use of soil conditioners can affect soil processes. On the
other hand, soil structural features are directly responsible of soil physical conditions
influencing plant growth and crop production as well as soil physical degradation due to
compaction, erosion, and soil crusting and sealing.
In more detail, the status and stability of soil structure influence soil hydrology and
aeration through the pore-size distribution in the soil mass. It follows that soil structural
characteristics also can be assessed by an evaluation of pore-size distribution of the soil

[22].
Porosity assumes different features when a volume of soil is considered. Microp-
orosity is connected to pore-size dimensions ranging from 10−7 to 10−4 m and can be
practically separated from macroporosity, which is associated with pore-size dimentions
greater than 10−4 m. Such a division appears to be functionally useful because micro-
porosity is the soil domain where capillary forces prevail whereas macroporosity is the
domain where gravitational forces prevail in terms of movement of water within the soil.
The other important physical parameter strictly connected with soil structural condi-
tions is soil cohesion, which plays an important role in relation to plant germination and
seedling sprouting and to soil erodibility.
Considering natural processes of structural recovery, cycles of soil wetting and drying
are responsible for macropore dynamics. According to Dexter [24], when a soil of
medium to high clay content dries, it shrinks and vertical desiccation cracks form. If
the drying is rapid, the cracks will be closely spaced and narrow. If the process is slow,
the cracks will be spaced more widely. Cracks form important pathways for rapid water
infiltration, aereation, and deep penetration of roots through the soil layers, which may
otherwise exert mechanical impedence. When these vertical (primary) cracks become
wider than about 4 mm, significant convection of air currents may occur within them
so that drying occurs on their faces, producing secondary cracks at right angles to the
primary cleavage direction. Occasionally, tertiary cracks also can form on the surface of
secondary cracks in the same way.
When the soil becomes wet, it swells and the desiccation cracks close. The rate
at which cracks close varies widely. In some soils it happens almost immediately after
wetting whereas in others it may take days or even weeks before some cracks finally close.
When a soil is wetted rapidly, for example during an intense rainstorm, the combined
effect of differential swelling and pressure buildup in entrapped air can cause mechanical
failure of aggregates, sometime to the point of complete slaking into microaggregates
and/or primary particles <250 µm. Such a phenomenon was described many years ago
for clay soils and designated as hydromolecular aggregate disruption [36–38]. With
slower wetting, complete slaking may not occur. Instead, there may be only partial
slaking or mellowing in which arrays of microcracks form throughout the soil mass,
which retains its coherence and shape [39]. Soil that has been wetted rapidly appears
to offer less resistence to root penetration [40]. Slaking of a compacted layer caused by
rapid wetting seems to make the soil more penetrable to growing roots.
Cycles of freezing and thawing also influence soil structural dynamics. When soil
water content is less than 20%, ice crystals that form during freezing are often smaller
than pores and therefore cause little disruption of particle-to-particle bonds. However,
when water contents are higher and freezing takes place slowly, some of the crystals
become larger than the pores and exert stresses that break many of the bonds between
soil particles.
In fall, as the soil surface cools, moisture moves to the surface layers from both the
atmosphere and the underlaying warmer soil layers. Consequently, the water content of
the soil near the surface, at the moment when it starts to freeze in winter, is often higher
than 20%, even in arid climates. Major disruption of the soil aggregates, therefore, may
take place.
Plant roots have an important role in soil structural dynamics, directly affecting the
macrostructure by the formation of biopores. The mean soil density remains constant
while the volume of roots is accommodated by the loss of pore space of the sorrounding
soil. Thus, the soil around the roots can be compacted to some extent for a distance of
the order of one root diameter beyond the surface of the root.
When roots decompose, which usually occurs within about one year for the nonlig-
nified tissues of annual crops, a biopore remains. The amount of roots and, hence of
biopores, can be quite impressive. For the soil profile of wheat crops in South Australia,
a development of 15 km of roots was estimated per square meter of soil surface.
Roots play a double role in aggregate formation and soil stabilization. A well-
known example is the increase in aggregation of soil particles observed under grass-
based pastures [41]. In such systems, an improvement of aggregation occurs as a con-
sequence of the high density of the grass roots that bind the aggregates. In addi-
tion, soil structural stabilization is enhanced as a consequence of the organic-matter
turnover in a well- balanced aerobic/anaerobic soil environment. This is the case of the
grass/legumes perennial swards, which favor the production of humified organic com-
pounds by microbial activity, capable of binding soil particles at the microscale level
[42, 43].
Besides grass roots, fungal hyphae also may play an important role in binding larger
aggregates. Moreover, exudates from roots are important in the stabilization of microag-
gregates (<250 µm), whereas other exudates also are produced by bacteria and fungi
involved in the decomposition of root material.
Biopores formed by one crop often can provide channels for deep rooting of a sub-
sequent crop [44]. There is also evidence that roots grow preferentially toward biopores
under conditions of poor aeration [45].
Soil fauna is another important natural factor in structural amelioration. Earthworms
can have a profound effect on soil structure both via their production of burrows (macro-
structure) and via the casts that they excrete (microstructure). There are numerous species
of earthworms, which behave in different ways. Worm number is greatest in clayey soils
of humid regions and it is virtually zero in sandy soils in arid regions. At the Waite
Institute in Australia, 250 to 750 worms per square meter were observed in old pastures,
compared with only about 20 worms per square meter in a wheat–fallow rotation [46].
Tillage exerts a rather drastic effect on earthworm number, reducing population density to
about 15% of its value in nontilled soils [47]. Worms can move around in the soil either by
pushing soil aside or by ingesting the soil, having the overall effect of making tunnels into
the soil mass. McKenzie and Dexter [48, 49] have reported that earthworms can exert a
mean maximum axial pressure of 73 kPa and a mean radial pressure of 230 kPa. Ingested
soil is molded in the guts of earthworms at pressures of about 260 Pa and cast, when
excreted, at much lower bulk density (around 1.15 t/m3 ) in comparison withe the soil in
which the worms live (1.5–1.6 t/m3 ). Earthworm burrows provide pathways of reduced
mechanical impedence to root penetration, so that extensive rooting in earthworm tunnels
often is observed [50, 51].
Mechanical Structure
Tillage normally is used to modify the structural organization of the soil by mechan-
ically loosening the soil surface. This loosening results in a reduction of bulk density
and an associated increase in the porosity and hydraulic conductivity. Water retention
is enhanced and root proliferation is encouraged to exploit available soil water and nu-
trients. Although beneficial, the physical soil properties associated with these freshly
tilled surfaces are only temporary because rainfall and other mechanical actions tend to
modify them. The rate at which the permeability, porosity, and surface structural change
is a function of the soil texture, plant cover, previous management, and rainfall charac-
teristics [55]. Amelioration of soil microstructure also can be achieved unnaturally by
the application of soil structural conditioning substances.
Besides the addition of organic matter to the soil by crop-residue incorporation and
organic manuring (force yard manure, organic wastes, sludges), which are converted to
cementing humic substances by soil microorganisms, the main soil stuctural conditioners
include the following:
• organic by-products,
• polyvalent salts,
• various synthetic polymers.
Polyvalent salts, such as gypsum, bring about flocculation of the clay particles,
whereas the organic by-products and synthetic polymers act as cementing substances,
binding the soil particles into more or less stable aggregates. Trivalent iron compounds
may be included in the polyvalent salt group. Flotal and Glotal act as flocculating agents
in slightly acid soil environments. They pass from sol to gel, changing pH and level of
dehydration and can become stable cementing agents of soil particles [56].
Temporary stability can be achieved by using either oil- or rubber-based stabilizers
or conditioners, or polyfunctional polymers, which develop chemical bonds with the
mineral constituents of the soil. Although often too expensive for general agricultural
use, they are helpful at special sites such as sand dunes, road cuttings, embankments,
and stream banks, to provide a short period of stability prior to the establishment of a
plant cover.
Soil structural conditioners fall under the following groups:
• those that render the soil hydrophobic and therefore decrease infiltration and in-
crease runoff; and
• those that make the soil hydrophilic, favoring infiltration and, consequently, de-
creasing runoff.
For instance, hydrophilic conditioners based on bitumen, asphalt, and latex emulsion, can
be used temporarily for controlling erosion and for soil sealing in relation to water har-
vesting. Other applications include the increase of infiltration rate and/or the prevention
of crusting. However, the critical factor is that the size of aggregates that are produced
may be so small that the infiltration rate remains low. A more effective improvement of
the infiltration rate can be achieved with hydrophilic conditioners. In this case, the soil
aggregates should be at least 2 mm and, ideally, larger than 5 mm [57].
Considerable interest has been shown in combining polyacrylamide conditioners with
polysaccharides, which are biodegradable and swell in presence of water, thereby in-
creasing the water-holding capacity of the soil.
Polyurea polymers contain a mixture of hydrophobic propylene oxides in a proportion

determined according to the degree of hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity required. They
have been used successfully, especially in dune stabilization [58].
Numerous other materials have been tested in soil stabilization and structural condi-
tioning. Most are too expensive for generalized agricultural use, except with high-value
crops such as vegetables and flowers.
Organic products, such as slurries and/or sludges, when free of inorganic and/or syn-
thetic organic pollutants, could be disposed beneficially for soil improvement and envi-
ronmental cleansing. Unfortunately, they are unpleasant to handle, create odors, and in the
absence of special soil incorporation equipment, can be applied only in small quantities.
Other products obtained by processing different kind of wastes (including selected
urban wastes) using either wet microbial processing or incineration, also can be used
conveniently to give temporary stability to soil structure of road embankments and/or
construction sites in urban areas.
Soil Crusting
Soil crusting can be prevented by several direct and indirect operations, which account
for the mechanics of soil crusting and sealing due to rainfall impact, splash-erosion
watering of clods, and, eventually, trampling by animals, and machinery compaction of
tilled soil. For example, soil crusting and sealing do not occur or are greatly reduced in
a soil with a dense plant cover. In arable, freshly tilled soils, especially when in seed-
bed condition, all factors favoring soil erodibility exist and make the soil susceptible to
crusting and sealing. It follows that any natural and/or unnatural factor that reduces soil
erodibility is also suitable for crust control.
The soil structural stability is the most important intrinsic condition that can decrease
the risk of crust formation. Clay-particle flocculation and cementation by inorganic and
organic compounds will consistently restrain the formation of a dense crust under intense
rainfall.
Organic fertilization, crop-residue management, rotation including perennial forage
crops or rotational pasture, and soil structural conditioning are also suitable measures
for reducing the risk of soil crusting and sealing.
Another important direct measure for the control of soil crusting, besides cover crops,
is mulching (see Section 4.4).
Direct intervention by cultivation practices (arrowing, disking, chiseling) can be used
extensively to break surface crusts, restore soil infiltration capacity, reduce soil evapora-
tion, and enhance the storage of moisture in the rhizosphere, mainly in semiarid rainfed
agriculture.
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4.3 Assessment of Soil Erosion

V. Bagarello and V. Ferro
4.3.1 Types of Erosion and Its Assessment
Soil is a vital resource for the production of renewable resources for the necessities of
human life, such as food and fiber. Soils, however, essentially are nonrenewable resources
[1].
According to Golubev [2], the area of cultivated land in the world is 14.3 million
km2 . In cultivated areas, drastic changes in vegetation have occurred and instead of
dense natural vegetation cover, bare soil often is exposed for most of the year with
sparse crop vegetation existing for a few months. These changes in vegetation cover
are the main reason for the increase of soil erosion on cropland as compared to that on
natural landscapes. Results of computations by Golubev [2] show that soil erosion in the
world is 5.5 times more than during the preagricultural period. According to Brown [3],
the world is currently losing 23 billion tonnes of soil from cropland in excess of new
soil formation each year [4]; therefore, accelerated soil erosion is a serious problem to
consider for the development of a sustainable agriculture. Other environmental problems
caused by severe soil erosion are reservoir sedimentation, which results in a lowering
of the available surface water resources, and nonpoint-source pollution due to sediment
transport phenomena.
On a global scale, even if the mean annual sediment yield estimate is based on the
available suspended sediment transport measurements, Walling and Webb [5] gave a
reliable assessment of the global pattern of water erosion. This assessment established
that the semiarid and semihumid areas of the world (China, India, western United States,
and Mediterranean lands) are the most vulnerable to soil erosion.
Soil erosion losses are often due to a few severe storms with high rainfall intensity
and/or high rainfall depth [6], or to high wind velocity values. Figure 4.13 shows that,
on a given site, with an invariable land-use and crop management, the long-term average
soil loss is dominated by a few and relatively rare events.
Soil erosion is generally a normal aspect of landscape development in which soil
particles are removed by wind or water. In some parts of the world, other processes of
denudation such as soil mass movement can dominate.
Wind erosion is the process of detachment and transport caused by fluid (air) action on
the soil surface [7]. The process removes the finer particles and the organic matter from
the top soil. Redeposition of the soil particles can bury soil and vegetation. The process
Figure 4.13. Ordered annual soil erosion amounts

measured, for a 24-year period, at Kingdom City, MO.
Source: [6].
operates in a variety of natural environments that lack a protective cover of vegetation.

Such areas include the Great Plains of North America, the fringes of arid Africa, India,
Australia, and the steppes of Russia, Mongolia, and China.
Soil particles are carried by wind into suspension, by saltation, and by surface creep,
depending on their size [1]. Soil particles and small aggregates (<0.05 mm in diameter, φ)
are kept in suspension by air turbulence unless the wind velocity is drastically reduced.
Intermediate-size grains (0.05 < φ < 0.5 mm) move in a series of short leaps, jumping
into the air and bouncing back on the soil surface. Soil particles larger than 0.5 mm are
not lifted. However, grains that are 0.5 < φ < 1 mm are bumped along the surface by
jumping particles.
The wind erosion phenomenon is controlled by soil susceptibility to particle de-
tachment and by the detachment and transport capacity of wind. Factors affecting soil
susceptibility to wind erosion are dry aggregate size distribution, mechanical stabil-
ity of soil structure, surface ridges, rainfall, length of the exposed area, and vegetative
cover.
Grains larger than 1 mm in diameter are non-erodible whereas particles that are
0.5 < φ < 1 mm are only eroded by high wind velocities. Soil particles able to move
into suspension are highly erodible. Obviously, soil properties such as texture, organic
matter, and exchangeable cations, which promote aggregate stability, reduce wind ero-
sion susceptibility. Surface ridges, which increase soil surface roughness, reduce wind
velocity near the ground and promote trapping of the eroded particles. Rainfall moist-
ens the soil surface, which transitorily reduces wind erosion. However, rainfall also can
promote wind erosion by breaking soil aggregates and smoothing soil surface. Because
wind transport capacity at a specific shear velocity u∗ [m/s] can be considered constant,
Figure 4.14. Displacement of the zero

velocity plane due to the vegetation cover.
Source: [1].
the distance the wind must travel to reach its load capacity depends on soil erodibility.
Vegetative cover is the most effective way to reduce wind erosion because plant cover
determines a displacement D + Z 0 (m) of the zero plane, in which Z 0 is the effective
roughness height, that is, the plane at which wind velocity is zero (Fig. 4.14). Plant
protection is affected by the amount of cover and time of year in which it is provided,
plant geometry, and row orientation. Crop residues left on the soil surface act usefully
to reduce wind erosion.
The erosive power of wind is controlled by shear velocity, u∗ = (τ/e)1/2 , in which
τ is the surface shear stress (kg/m2 ) and e is air density (kg s2 /m 4 ); u∗ is related to the
velocity profile and to the drag exerted by wind on the soil surface. For highly turbulent air
flow (for shear Reynolds number Re∗ = u∗ Z 0 /ν > 90, ν being the kinematic viscosity
of the fluid), shear velocity is related to the local mean wind velocity u z (m/s) at height
z (m) by the logarithmic velocity profile:
µ ¶
uz 1 z−D
= ln (4.4)
u∗ k Z0
in which k = von Karman’s constant approximately equal to 0.4. Both the detachment
(Dc ) and the transport (Tc ) capacities of wind depend on u∗. In particular, Dc (kg · s−1
m−2 ) depends on the square of the shear velocity and the size of the erodible particles;
Tc (kg · s−1 m−2 ) is essentially proportional to the third power of the shear velocity [1].
For each soil and surface condition, a threshold shear velocity u∗c , that is, a minimum
wind velocity starting soil particle movement, can be defined. Bagnold [8] and Chepil
[9] showed that the critical shear velocity varies with the particle size (Fig. 4.15). In
particular, finer particles are characterized by u∗c values decreasing for increasing grain
size. In fact, the cohesiveness forces are most effective for small soil particles, which
also are protected by the surrounding coarser particles. For grain sizes greater than 0.1
mm, u∗c increases with the particle diameter because of the increase of the grain weight.
The soil instability process, called “mass movement,” usually is neglected in soil ero-
sion studies because this process generally involves high volumes and deep layers of soil.
Figure 4.15. Relationship between critical shear velocity of

wind and particle size. Source: [29].
The instability mechanism depends on the breaking and mass transport processes (break-
down, sliding, rolling, or mixed mechanism). Mass movement occurs as creep, slides,
rock falls, debris flow, and mudflow, depending on the ratio between the solid and liquid
components of the moving mass. In other words, the different types of mass movement
can be considered as part of a continuum of solid transport phenomena ranging from
slides, in which the solid/liquid ratio is high, to mudflow having a low solid/liquid ratio.
In 1947, Ellison [10, 11] defined soil erosion as “a process of detachment and trans-
portation of soil materials by erosive agents.” For water soil erosion, these agents are
rainfall and runoff. Ellison’s definition can be extended to take into account deposition
processes occurring when the energy of the transporting agent is no longer available to
transport soil particles. The intensity of the erosion process depends on the quantity of
soil supplied by detachment and the capacity of the erosive agents to transport it. When
the agent has the capacity to transport more soil than is supplied by detachment, the
erosion is detachment limited. When more soil is supplied than can be transported, the
process is transport limited.
According to a classic scheme of the erosive process, the following four phases are
distinguished: rainsplash, sheet, rill, and gully erosion.
The impelling force, caused by the raindrops hitting the soil surface, determines soil
particle detachment and transport (splash erosion). Waterdrop impact forces depend on
the number of hitting drops per unit area and time, drop size distribution, and drop fall
velocity. Both rainfall kinetic energy and momentum, which are the most used erosivity
parameters, can be calculated using this basic information. The drop size distribution of
rainfall is represented briefly by the median (d50 ) drop diameter. Figure 4.16 shows that
median drop size increases with rainfall intensity I up to 100 mm/h; at higher intensities,
Figure 4.16. Relationship between median drop diameter and

rainfall intensity. Source: [29].
Figure 4.17. Relationship between fall velocity and drop

diameter for a given fall height. Source: [14].
d50 remains essentially constant [12] or decreases [13] because of drop size instability,
typical of tropical rainfall. In fact, at higher intensities, drop diameter d is unstable and
drop breaks due to both turbulence phenomena and the weight action not counteracted
by surface tension. For these reasons, natural drops have a maximum size equal to 6–
7 mm. Drop fall velocity is also strongly dependent on drop size (Fig. 4.17) because
the drag force of the waterdrops is contrasted by the gravity force. Figure 4.17 also
demonstrates that fall velocity is a function of drop size and fall height; for fall heights
greater than 10 m, the fall velocity, called “terminal,” depends only on drop diameter
[14].
Sharma and Gupta [15] demonstrated that a threshold kinetic energy or momentum
exists before the detachment process can be initiated by raindrop impact. The threshold
erosivity concept assumes that a minimum energy is needed to overcome the inherent
soil strength.
The largest portion of raindrop energy is expended to form an impact crater and to
move soil particles. The mechanical breakdown of soil aggregates due to drop impacting
can induce a surface seal formation. The most important consequence of seal formation
is a reduction of infiltration capacity, which, by increasing surface runoff, can cause
an increase in soil erosion. Splash detachment is higher in soils that are not highly
susceptible to surface sealing.
Drop impact is more effective if a thin water layer covers the soil surface. This is
believed to be due to the turbulence that impacting raindrops induce in the water layer.
However, if water depth is higher than a threshold value, ranging from 0.2d to d [16–18],
the rainfall energy is dissipated in the water and does not have erosive effects.
Soil detachment by rainfall impact is the main process controlling interrill soil erosion
because the detachment capability of sheet flow is negligible compared with that of
rainfall because of the low shear stresses of the thin sheet flow [19, 20]. In fact, for soil
surfaces, the shear stresses of overland flow are on the order of pascals whereas the soil
shear strength is on the order of kilopascals [21].
Soil particles detached by raindrops are encapsulated into the droplets generated after
impact and, for sloping surfaces, carried downslope. Transport by rain is generally low
and is caused by the component of the raindrop velocity parallel to the surface of the
slope.
Rainfall excess occurs on hill slopes when rainfall intensity exceeds soil infiltration
capacity. According to the classic Horton scheme [22], at the top of the hill slope, a
flowless zone occurs. Flow begins at a critical distance downslope from the divide.
Farther downslope, water depth increases and flow becomes channeled and breaks up
into rills. The field-scale runoff process is characterized by rainfall excess dominated
runoff occurring as shallow sheet flow or flow in small concentrated channels. The runoff
response to rainfall is basically controlled by rainfall intensity and soil properties. For
modeling purposes, the rainfall excess approach uses a time-intensity rainfall distribution
and an infiltration equation, such as the Chu’s [23, 24], to compute a rainfall excess
distribution over the field. For field-scale applications, some form of the De Saint Venant
shallow water equations has been used recently to route the rainfall excess over the flow
surface [25].
Moss [26] showed that overland-flow sediment transport is a combined action of
raindrops and flow: the raindrop impact induces the flow to transport particles locally
increasing its turbulence. In other words, without rainfall, the flow would be incapable
of transportation. Flow transport processes associated with raindrop action are called
rain-induced flow transport (RIFT) [27, 28]. RIFT acts for shallow flow depth (less than
3d) impacted by medium to large-size raindrops [21].
The hill-slope flow rarely is distributed evenly on the soil surface. More commonly,
it appears as a mass of anastomosing water courses with no pronounced channels [29].
Rills are ephemeral features, that is, small and intermittent water channels that do not
interfere with conventional tillage operations. Once obliterated, rills will not reform at
the same site [30]. Merritt [31] identified four subsequent stages of rill development:
sheet flow, flow lines (starting of flow concentration), microchannels without headcuts,
and microchannels with headcuts (channeled flow).
Compared with rill erosion, interrill erosion contributes a very small proportion to
the sediment transported downward [20].
Rill initiation usually is described by the threshold value of a variable crucial for
this erosion mechanism. Generally, a hydraulic variable, such as discharge [32], Froude
number [33], shear velocity [34], or unit stream power [35], is used to describe the ability
of the erosive agent to start rilling. Other authors suggest the consideration of the soil
susceptibility to rilling. For example, Savat [36] explained rilling by defining a critical
Froude number Fc depending on the median soil grain size. A more complex approach,
proposed by Boon and Savat [37], includes both Fc and the sediment concentration in
rill flow.
For a recently tilled field, rill initiation also can be induced by piping. When the
topsoil is saturated, in some isolated location an unequal settlement of the surface layer
can take place. This phenomenon may be due to the large pores among clods. Runoff
from the upper area flows into the crevices, resulting from the unequal settlement, and
creates pipes just above the undisturbed, more compact subsoil [35]. The main factors
controlling piping are soil properties, such as porosity and soil erodibility.
Since rill discharge significantly affects the ability of the rill to detach and transport
sediment particles, the knowledge of the number of rills that may form per unit of cross-
sectional area and the variation in flow rate between individual rills is necessary. Gilley et
al. [38] studied partitioning flow between rills and determined the relative frequency of
flow rates among rills on a given plot. Figure 4.18 shows the distribution of the relative
discharge, equal to the discharge for each rill divided by the maximum discharge on
the plot among rills. The figure shows that differences in discharge existed between
individual rills and that 30% of the rills had discharge equal to the maximum value. In
Figure 4.18. Relative frequency of measured

relative discharge. Source: [38].
addition to discharge, identification of other rill hydraulic variables, such as rill width,
hydraulic roughness coefficient, and flow velocity, also may be important [39, 40].
Rill erosion is the detachment and transport of soil particles by concentrated flow. Soil
particle detachment by flow depends on the rill erodibility, the hydraulic characteristics
of rill flow, and the actual flow sediment load. The simplest approach is considering rill
detachment as due only to the scouring processes of the wetted perimeter. The maximum
rill detachment, called detachment capacity, Dc (kg · s−1 m−2 ), occurs when a clear flow
moves on an erodible soil. The soil is characterized by a rill erodibility parameter, K r ,
lumping the effects of different factors such as grain size distribution, rock fragment
cover [41], and soil structure and its stability. For a given soil, the detachment capacity
Dc depends on the excess of flow energy content as related to a threshold value. The
most widely applied equation to estimate Dc is the modified Du Boys sediment transport
equation [42],
Dc = K r (τ − τc )a , (4.5)
in which τ is the bed shear stress (Pa), τc is its threshold value, and a is a constant quasi-
equal to 1 [43, 44]. Other approaches assume as flow variable the discharge or the stream
power [45]. A more detailed approach for estimating Dc needs to take into account scour-
ing, headcutting [46], side-wall sloughing, and slaking [47]. Kohl [48] found that head-
cutting accounted for up to 60% of total rill erosion on some of the soils considered during
Water Erosion Prediction Project development. Flow stream power is used as an indica-
tor of detachment due to headcutting [47]. Side-wall sloughing could be a major erosion
component in freshly tilled soils with low cohesion and high capillary pressures that have
a rill caused by scour or headcut erosion [49]. Slaking affects Dc only for soils with high
clay content, low organic matter, and low antecedent water content [50] or soils with a
weak structural stability [51]. Establishing the influence of the above-mentioned factors
on Dc needs experimental evaluation of soil erodibility parameters corresponding to each
process. Soil structure mostly affects the values of these erodibility parameters [47].
Since sediment generally is carried by runoff water, the actual detachment rate
Dr (kg · s−1 m−2 ) is less than Dc . According to Foster and Meyer [52], the detachment
capacity has to be reduced by a feedback factor f c that depends on the ratio between the
actual sediment transport G (kg · s−1 m−1 ) and the transport capacity Tc (kg · s−1 m−1 ):
µ ¶
G
Dr = Dc f c = Dc 1 − . (4.6)
Tc
Tc expresses the maximum sediment discharge that can be transported by a rill flow with
given hydraulic conditions. Tc generally is assumed to be proportional to the 1.5 power
of the bed shear stress [53]. The feedback factor expresses the physical circumstance that
the rill flow has to detach the sediment amount necessary to make the difference between
Tc and the actual sediment load negligible. From an energy point of view, the flow energy
available for rill detachment is less than the total flow energy because a quota is expended
to carry the actual suspended sediment load G. When the sediment transport capacity
is exceeded by the sediment load, deposition occurs. For small channels, such as rills,
the deposition rate is assumed to be proportional to the difference between the actual
sediment load and the transport capacity. Foster [20] assumed that the proportionality
constant was directly proportional to the settling velocity and inversely proportional to
the discharge.
Gullies are relatively permanent, steep-sided channels in which ephemeral flows occur
during rainstorms [29] and cannot be eliminated by usual tillage operations. Gullies are
usually deep channels with a narrow cross section. In the first stage, the gully cross
section is V-shaped. As the gully develops, its cross section can be modeled by scouring
and side-sliding phenomena for assuming a triangular, trapezoidal, and U-shape. The
gully channel is characterized by an overfall at the gully head, advancing upstream [54].
The initiation and growth of gullies are dependent on a flow concentration sufficient
to form a definable channel. Schumm [55] suggested that the channel length is dependent
on the contributing drainage area.
According to Mitchell and Bubenzer [54], gullies are formed when rills combine
and develop to the extent that they cannot be eliminated by tillage operations. Morgan
[29] established that gully initiation is a more complex process. Small depressions on
the hill slope, for example due to a break in vegetation cover (Fig. 4.19), determine
flow concentration inducing localized erosion processes. In particular, the erosion is
concentrated at the head of the depression where a near-vertical scarp develops. Water
falling from the upstream hill slope into the depression determines scouring at the base
of the headcut leading to collapse and retreat of the scarp upslope. Flow concentration
induces gully floor incision and the development of a stable channel by the scouring
action of a running channel flow.
Gully development is not always due to surface erosion processes. In fact, concentrated
runoff occurring as subsurface pipe flow can determine erosion processes giving rise to
the development of a subsurface tunnel network. Heavy rain can induce subsidence of
the ground surface, so exposing the pipe network as gullies.
Haigh [56] described for a desert gully system a complex mechanism of gully en-
largement (Fig. 4.20a) caused by both scouring surface processes and tunnel erosion.
According to this scheme, an increase of gully cross-sectional area is due to a parallel
retreat of gully walls, an aggradation of gully bed, and an enlargement of soil pipe by
collapse (Fig. 4.20b). Pipe breaks the gully bed, creating a narrow, vertical sided slot
(Fig. 4.20c) inducing a parallel retreat of the former soil pipe and aggradation of the
channel bed (Fig. 4.20d).
4.3.2 Measurement of Soil Losses from Erosion

The characteristics of the experimental site are determined by the experimental ob-
jectives and the type of data to be obtained. Generally, plots are used to study physical
phenomena affecting soil detachment and transport whereas complex hill slopes or small
watersheds are gauged for examining deposition processes and therefore sediment yield.
In an experimental station for soil erosion studies, bounded runoff plots of known
width, slope length, slope steepness, and soil type are monitored. Plot size depends on
the physical process under investigation. Early basic data used for the development of
the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) [57] were often obtained from plots 40.5 m2
in size, having a standard length of 22.1 m [54].
Figure 4.19. Stages of the surface development of a gully on

a hill slope. Source: [29].
Studies on sheet erosion due to overland flow need small plot width (2-3 m) and
length (<10 m). Studies on rill erosion require plot lengths greater than 6-13 m [29].
Sites should be selected to represent the range of uniform slopes prevailing in the farming
area under consideration. Slopes ranging from convex to concave are used to evaluate
the influence of the slope shape on soil loss. Because the plot area is known, soil loss can
be expressed as kg/m2 per unit time, which assumes a uniform soil loss over the plot.
Figure 4.20. Evolution of a gully in a desert system. Source: [56].
The equipment needs for a runoff plot are boundaries around the plot to define the
measurement area, collecting equipment to catch plot runoff, a conveyance system (H-
flume or pipe) to carry total runoff to a sampling unit, and a storage system (Fig. 4.21).
The sampling device may consist of a Coshocton wheel [58] (Fig. 4.22) which has a
water wheel, slightly inclined from the vertical, and a sampling head with a narrow
opening (slot). With each revolution of the wheel, the slot cuts across the jet from the
flume and collects a given portion of the runoff, which is transported to a storage tank.
A recently developed sampler is the Fagna-type hydrological unit [59] (Fig. 4.23).
Runoff, cleaned of the coarser materials by passing it through a sedimentation tank,
falls on a revolving pot supported by two U-shaped forks. When the pot is full, it turns
completely upside down. A few cubic centimeters of the outgoing jet are intercepted by a
sampling hole and conveyed to a small tank, below the hole level. When the pot is empty,
Figure 4.21. Layout of an experimental plot for

soil erosion studies. Source: [29].
two coaxial pivots enable the pot mouth to return in the up position. Both the hydrograph
and the runoff volume are measured by the number of times that the pot is emptied. The
weight of suspended material is determined by the mean sediment concentration in the
small tank and the measured runoff volume.
Both sampling devices (Coshocton wheel and Fagna-type unit) need field tests to
calibrate the measurement system.
A simple method for measuring the sediment concentration is to store all runoff or
to divide it using a sequence of tanks. In each tank the mean concentration Cm (g/L) is
estimated from the concentration profile obtained by collecting samples of given volume
at different depths. If Cm is calculated by integrating the concentration profile measured
along the axial vertical of a tank wall, Bagarello and Ferro [60] illustrated that the actual
concentration C (g/L) is linked to Cm according to the following relationship:
C = bCm , (4.7)
where the coefficient b depends on the eroded soil type, the sampled suspension volume
from each location, the water depth h, the number of sampling locations, and the mixing
time before sampling. Figure 4.24 shows, for three soil types (clay C, loam L, sand S),
the relationship between the coefficient b and water depth.
Investigations of sediment yield are carried out at hill-slope or small-watershed scale.
To measure discharge and suspended sediment concentration, a channel of known cross
Figure 4.22. Coshocton-type wheel sampler. Source: [58].
Figure 4.23. Fagna-type sampler.
section and slope usually is constructed. For channels of low slope, discharge measure-
ment can be carried out using a Venturi meter channel [61] or by a free overfall [62]. The
Venturi meter channel is based on the principle of critical control section in which the
relationship between the critical depth h c (m) and the discharge Q (m3 /s) is definitive,
independent of the channel roughness and of other uncontrollable circumstances. The
Figure 4.24. Relationship between coefficient b of Eq. (4.7)

and water depth. Source: [60].
Venturi flowmeter is useful for water with suspended particles because it does not induce
soil-particle sedimentation. A free overfall establishes in the mild channel a subcritical
flow having a decreasing downstream water depth and a water depth at the overfall equal
to h c (backwater curve type M2) [61].
For a steep-slope channel, the discharge of the uniform flow is calculated by the
Chezy’s law, measuring the flow depth. In this case, the channel length has to be calculated
to avoid the roll-wave formation [63]. The flow-depth measurement can be obtained by
a nonintrusive, ultrasonic-level probe. The probe sends an ultrasonic pulse that, after
partial reflection, is detected by the same sensor and converted back into an electrical
signal. The time between transmission and reception of the pulse is directly proportional
to the distance between the probe and the water surface.
The suspended sediment concentration can be measured by an infrared turbidity
sensor. The excitation radiation is pulsely emitted into the flow at a defined angle by
infrared transmitters. The suspended particles generate a scattered light that is received
by scattered light receivers. The measured signals are processed to produce an output
signal that is proportional to the suspended solid concentration. By coupling this local
measurement to the discharge, the sedimentograph is obtained.
A global measurement of suspended sediment yield can be obtained by a water
flow sample collector. Figure 4.25 shows the operating scheme of a typical portable
sample collector. At the start of every sampling process, the built-in diaphragm pump
pneumatically shuts off the dosing device (Fig. 4.25a) and via the dosing glass, blows
the sample intake hose free. The sample is drawn in until the conductivity probe located
at the top of the dosing glass responds (Fig. 4.25b). Then, the preprogrammed sample
volume V p is withheld and the surplus is returned to the source (Fig. 4.25c). The hose
valve opens (Fig. 4.25d) and the sample under low pressure is drained off into the
sampling bottle. The sampling procedure is controlled by a microprocessor that allows
a sampling event proportional to time or to quantity.
Problems of representativeness arise when plot data are extrapolated to the hill slope
and watershed scales. In fact, measurements from a bounded area provide little informa-
tion on the local variability of erosion rates and the redistribution of soil within a field.
Figure 4.25. Operating scheme of a typical portable

sample collector.
Figure 4.26. Schematic representation of the basis of the 137 Cs

technique. Source: [65].
Tracer techniques afford an alternative to the use of plots and a means of overcoming
the problems of measurement representativeness and spatial variability. The most widely
used tracer, which possesses the greatest potential in soil erosion and sediment yield
studies, is the radionuclide caesium-137, which has a half-life of 30 years. It is a fission
reaction product of atmospheric thermonuclear weapons test and has been released in
significant quantities into the stratosphere. The 137 Cs technique (Fig. 4.26) is based
on the following key assumptions: (1) local fallout distribution is uniform; (2) 137 Cs
fallout is adsorbed rapidly onto soil particles; (3) subsequent redistribution of 137 Cs is
due to sediment movement; and (4) estimates of rates of soil loss can be derived from
measurements of soil 137 Cs inventories.
As shown in Fig. 4.26, 137 Cs fallout reaches the land surface by precipitation. It is
strongly adsorbed onto clay and organic particles and is essentially nonexchangeable
[64]. Adsorption on soil particles is rapid with distribution in undisturbed soil profiles
showing an exponential decrease with soil depth. More than 75% of the total inventory
usually occurs in the top 15–20 cm, indicating that vertical translocation is minimal. The
measurement of the 137 Cs content of the soil in each point of interest is easy to obtain
because it involves collection of a single core sample and a laboratory measurement of
137
Cs activity (mBq/cm2 ) using standard gamma-spectrometry equipment. If little or no
soil loss has occurred, the total 137 Cs loading will remain similar to that at the local
reference site Csrif (an undisturbed site with the original distribution of fallout activity).
The watershed reference site is a little area in which no erosion or deposition processes
occur.
Where soil erosion has occurred, 137 Cs also will have been lost, leading to a re-
duced loading. Conversely, where soil deposition takes place, an increase in 137 Cs ac-
tivity will be found. The geostatistical analysis of local 137 Cs activity measurements
allows establishment of the spatial distribution of the 137 Cs percentage residuals Y =
(137 Cs − Csrif )/Csrif which is correlated with the mean annual sediment yield spatial
distribution [4, 65].
In many laboratory and plot studies, a rainfall simulator is used to reproduce a storm
of known kinetic energy and drop-size distribution. Rainfall simulators are ideal tools
for distinguishing the effects of single factors on soil erosion and for carrying out a large
number of experimental runs in a short time. Desired characteristics of rainfall simulators
[66, 67] include a wide range of intensities, drop sizes, fall velocities, and impact energy
characteristics similar to those of natural rainstorms; uniformity of spray pattern and of
drop-size distribution on the plot area; and continuous application of rain or minimum
time between simulated raindrop applications if intermittent.
In rainfall simulators, developed after 1930, the use of nozzles is practically the only
method available to produce a drop distribution that includes a large range of drop sizes.
Drop size and velocity at impact, equal to the terminal velocity, similar to those of
natural rain can be obtained; however, a high simulated rainfall intensity also is obtained
because water is delivered under pressure. To reduce rainfall intensity without modifying
drop sizes and fall velocities of the simulated rain, intermittent spray is used in many
nozzle rainfall simulators. The main disadvantage of this last solution is that the average
intensity is made up of high-intensity periods and zero-intensity periods.
Recently, Leone and Pica [68–70] demonstrated the need to reproduce a simulated
rainfall with both the same momentum per unit time and surface area ps [N/m2 ] and the
same kinetic energy per unit time and surface area Ps [W/m2 ] as those of natural rainfall.
According to those authors, the rainfall momentum is responsible for soil aggregate
detachment due to the drop impact on the soil surface, whereas rainfall kinetic energy is
responsible for rainfall detachability and transportability.
By reanalyzing the experimental data of Laws [14] and Gunn and Kinzer [71], Leone
and Pica obtained the following relationship between the terminal velocity VD (m/s) and
the raindrop diameter d (cm):
VD = 49d exp(−2d) (4.8)
By using Eq. (4.8) and describing the raindrop size distribution with a Gamma probabilty
distribution (as suggested by meteorological data collected by Ulbrich [72]), Leone and
Pica [68] deduced the following relationships for estimating natural rainfall momentum
pn (N/m2 ) and kinetic energy per unit time and surface area Pn (W/m2 ):
pn = 1.25 × 10−3 I 1.09 (4.9)
Pn = 3.16 × 10−3 I 1.17 , (4.10)
where I is the natural rainfall intensity (mm/h).
Leone and Pica suggested that the same momentum and kinetic energy of the natural
storm event can be reproduced using test duration and rain intensity in rainfall simulation
[69]. The portable rainfall simulator proposed by these authors, which is a modified
version of the Guelph II simulator [73], uses a Fulljet nozzle (Spraying System Co.)
for which the following relationships for estimating momentum ps (N/m2 ) and kinetic
energy per unit time and surface area Ps (W/m2 ) are available:
ps = 0.491 × 10−3 Is1.21 (4.11)
Ps = 0.448 × 10−3 Is1.42 (4.12)
in which Is (mm/h) is the intensity of the simulated rainfall.
By equating natural and simulated rainfall momentum [Eqs. (4.9) and (4.11)], the
following equation for calculating the simulated rainfall intensity is obtained:
Is = 2.16I 0.9 . (4.13)
The ratio between the duration of the simulated rainfall ts (h) and the natural rainfall tn
(h) is obtained by equating the kinetic energy per unit surface:
ts Pn 3.16 × 10−3 I 1.17
= =
tn Ps 0.448 × 10−3 Is1.42
3.16I 1.17 2.363
= = 0.108 . (4.14)
0.448(2.16I 0.9 )1.42 I
For example, a natural rainfall intensity equal to 100 mm/h has to be simulated with
respect to momentum per unit time and area, using a simulated rainfall intensity Is equal
to 136 mm/h. With respect to kinetic energy per unit time and area, the same storm has
to be simulated using a rainfall duration 1.44 times the natural rainfall duration.
Different rainfall simulators have been proposed. For example, Meyer and Harmon
[66] developed an intermittent simulator for small fields or laboratory plots (1 × 1 m2 ).
Moore et al. [74] proposed the Kentucky rainfall simulator for use in field studies, which
also may be used for relatively large areas. Recently, a small rainfall simulator, which
does not allow reproduction of natural rainfall properties, was proposed by Kamphorst
[75] for soil erodibility studies.
4.3.3 Estimation of Soil Losses from Erosion

For evaluating the present extent of soil erosion in a given area, two methods can be
applied: a) soil erosion mapping by surveys; and b) erosion modelling [76].
Mapping from Surveys
The surveys are based on informed opinion, on the analysis of the loss of the original
profile, and on maps in which the soil erosion features found in the landscape are plotted.
Surveys involving informed opinion have been developed by using published research
on the area of interest. For example, informed opinion was used in the Global Assessment
of Soil Degradation (GLASOD) for producing a 1:1,000,000 world map showing the
extent and severity of various types of soil degradation including erosion by water, wind,
and mass movement [76].
According to Morgan [76], one of the best examples of surveys involving informed
opinion is the soil erosion map of western Europe developed by De Ploey [77], using
the published research of many European scientists. In particular, the water soil erosion
map shows the areas with arable land use having a mean annual soil loss greater than
10 t/ha.
Surveys of soil profiles are used for classifying areas using the percentage of eroded
soil profile. For example, in the soil erosion map of Hungary, which is used for soil
conservation policies, the following three categories of erosion are used: weakly eroded
soils (less than 30% of the original profile has been lost), moderately eroded soils (30%–
70%), and strongly eroded soils (>70%) [76].
Soil erosion mapping involves plotting the location of the areas of sheet, rill, and
gully erosion; different types of mass movement using data from field surveys; and aerial
photograph interpretation. If the available information is extremely detailed and difficult
to interpret, the map can be simplified by categorizing the information in erosion severity
classes. The main limit of a survey-based map is that it shows the situation for only one
time period and gives no information about the rate of erosion [76]. The erosion survey
maps become dynamic if the mapping work is repeated at regular time intervals using
aerial photography or field survey data corresponding to different dates.
Soil erosion modeling is used for assessing the erosion risk of a given area. The
potential risk can be evaluated by climate, soils, and morphological information. Land
cover, land use, and management information also are needed for establishing the actual
risk. To this aim, two main approaches can be used, one based on factorial scoring,
which gives a qualitative assessment, and the other based on modeling, which gives a
quantitative result.
Factorial scoring, applicable at different scales, allows the studied area to be divided
into subareas for which the different factors affecting soil erosion have a numerical scale,
for example, from 1 (low risk) to 5 (high risk). The factorial scoring system is simple and
allows the consideration of all erosion processes and of qualitative influencing parameters
like human activity [76]. Factorial scoring is based on both numerical and descriptive
information. The numerical information is based on either at site measurement (soil

erodibility and rainfall erosivity) or areal information (slope steepness and length, land
use, and vegetation cover). The areal information can be obtained by topographic maps
or digital terrain models (slope and length) and by analyzing remote-sensing images
(land use and vegetation cover) [78, 79].
The descriptive information involves evaluating areas affected by different evolving
phases of the erosion phenomenon. This last information is achieved by direct surveys
or aerial photogrammetry.
All of the described data, having different sources, can be organized into different in-
formatic layers of a geographical information system (GIS). The GIS database allows for
the management of information and for the production of thematic maps, by overlaying
the different layers.
Preliminarly, the studied area has to be divided into homogeneous areas of a given
character (land use, slope, or aspect). Using a GIS, the subdivision of the area can be
carried out automatically by a square mesh (grid format), which is useful for employing
matrix calculus. In each square cell, a score is attributed to each factor that is considered.
Overlaying allows for the automatic calculation of the total score of each cell and for its
classification according to preestablished soil erosion classes (very low, low, moderate,
or high). A map based on factorial scoring is not useful for evaluating the rate of soil
erosion.
Use of Models
Erosion modeling is the most widely applied method for producing a soil erosion
map and for estimating future soil loss using present information. The main problems of
using a mathematical model, especially if it is empirically based, are the knowledge of
the input data and the need for calibration in the area studied.
For estimating soil erosion, physically based and empirical models are available.
Physically based models simulate different hydrological (infiltration and runoff) and
erosive (soil detachment, transport, and deposition) components of the erosive process
even if empirically derived relationships are often used. Although the physically based
models represent the future of soil erosion prediction, at present they are useful only for
research purposes or in highly controlled experimental areas.
The most widely applied soil erosion model, which represents the best compromise
between applicability in terms of input data and reliability of soil loss estimate [80], is
the empirically derived USLE by Wischmeier and Smith [57], which has been revised
recently [81]. Note that most of the available soil erosion models put some elementary
factors of the USLE into their basic equations to estimate the soil loss or to simulate the
subprocesses contributing to soil erosion.
Field or Plot Scale

The USLE was developed to predict average annual soil loss A (t · ha−1 · year−1 ) and
is based on more than 10,000 plot years of runoff/erosion measurements:
A = R K L S C P. (4.15)
R is the rainfall factor (MJ · mm · ha−1 · h−1 · year−1 ), K is the soil erodibility factor
(t · ha · h · ha−1 · MJ−1 · mm−1 ), L is the slope length factor, S is the slope steepness
factor, C is the cropping management factor, and P is the erosion control practice factor.
L , S, C, and P factors are dimensionless. C and P generally range from 0 to 1 even if
C can be as high as 1.5 for a finely tilled, ridged surface that produces much runoff and
leaves the soil highly susceptible to rill erosion [81].
The storm erosion index of each event, Re , is calculated as
X
n
Re = I30 (0.119 + 0.0873 log I j )h j (4.16)
j=1
in which I30 is the maximum 30-min rainfall intensity for the storm (mm/h), h j and I j
are the rainfall depth (mm) and intensity (mm/h) for the jth storm increment, and n is
the number of storm increments. The R factor is calculated by adding the Re values of
all erosive events occurring in a period of N years (N = 25–30 years) and dividing by
N . For many regions of the world, isoerodent maps and simplified criteria for estimating
R are available [82–85].
The K factor has to be estimated by the nomograph of Wischmeier et al. [86], which
uses five parameters for estimating the inherent soil erodibility: percentage silt (0.002–
0.05 mm) plus very fine sand (0.05–0.10 mm), F; percentage sand (0.10–2 mm) G;
organic matter content OM (%); a structural index SI; and a permeability index PI. The
nomograph uses a particle size parameter M = F(F + G) that explains 85% of the varia-
tion in K . The full nomograph expression for the calculation of K (t · ha · h · ha−1 · MJ−1 ·
mm−1 ) is given by Rosewell and Edwards in [87] as
K = 2.77 × 10−7 M 1.14 (12 − OM)
+ 4.28 × 10−3 (SI − 2) + 3.29 × 10−3 (PI − 3). (4.17)
In the revised equation (RUSLE) [88], a new estimate procedure for K factor takes into
account seasonal variability of soil erodibility due to freezing and thawing, soil moisture
variation, and soil consolidation. The proposed procedure is complex and needs the
evaluation of the annual minimum and maximum value of the soil erodibility factor and
the knowledge of the seasonal distribution of rainfall erosivity. The strongly empirical and
geographical dependent nature of the procedure needs further verification for different
zones. At present, it seems that the difference between the new and the old K evaluation
can be more than 20% [89].
The slope length factor L is defined as
µ ¶
λ m
L= , (4.18)
22.1
where λ is the slope length (m) and the m exponent depends on the slope steepness
s (m = 0.5 for s ≥ 0.05). In RUSLE, the following expression for m is used:
f
m= (4.19)
1+ f
where f , which is the ratio between rill and interrill erosion, can be evaluated by the
following relationship [90]:
sin β 1
f = (4.20)
0.0896 (3 sin0.8 β + 0.56)
in which β is the slope angle. The values of f obtained from Eq. (4.20) have to be
multiplied by 0.5 if the ratio of rill to interrill erosion is low or by 2 if this ratio is high.
Soil loss is much more sensitive to changes in slope steepness than to changes in
slope length. In USLE, the S factor is evaluated by the following relationship:
0.43 + 0.30s + 0.043s 2

S= (4.21)
6.613
in which s is slope steepness expressed as a percentage. The RUSLE has a more nearly
linear slope steepness relationship than the USLE [90]:
S = 10.8 sin β + 0.03 if tan β < 0.09, (4.22a)
S = 16.8 sin β − 0.5 if tan β ≥ 0.09. (4.22b)
On steep slopes, computed soil loss is reduced almost by half with RUSLE [81].
The cropping management factor represents the ratio of soil loss from a specific
cropping or cover condition to the soil loss from a tilled, continuous-fallow condition
for the same soil and slope and for the same rainfall. The procedure for calculating the
C factor requires a knowledge of crop rotation, crop-stage periods, soil loss ratio (SLR)
for each crop period, and temporal distribution of rainfall erosivity. SLR values for the
most crop rotations in the United States have been given by Wischmeier and Smith [57].
To compute C, SLRs are weighted according to the distribution of erosivity during a
year. The main limitations of this approach are the unavailability of SLRs for all crop
covers (e.g., fruit trees) or vegetable crop rotations and the difficulties of transfering the
SLR values calculated for American conditions to other regions.
To estimate the C factor for forest conditions, the procedure proposed by Dissmeyer
and Foster [91] can be used. This is based on an evaluation of nine subfactors: amount of
bare soil, canopy, soil reconsolidation, high organic content, fine roots, residual binding
effect, onsite storage, steps, and contour tillage.
In the RUSLE, SLR values are computed using five subfactors expressing the prior
land use, the canopy, the surface cover, the surface roughness, and the soil moisture status.
The subfactor approach permits application of SLRs where values are not available from
previously published experimental analyses [92].
The P factor mainly represents how surface conditions affect flow paths and flow
hydraulics. The erosion control practices usually included in this factor are contouring,
contour strip-cropping, and terracing [57]. In the RUSLE, an update of the evaluation
procedure for the P factor has been proposed [81].
Soil loss tolerance T is defined as the maximum rate of soil erosion that permits a
high level of productivity to be sustained. The soil loss tolerance for a specific soil is
useful for establishing soil conservation planning. The most common T value is equal to
10 t · ha−1 · year−1 . If the USLE or the RUSLE is used for estimating soil loss, it results
in
T
= LCP (4.23)
RKS
Equation (4.23) shows that slope length, land use, and erosion control practices are the
three factors that can be practically modified for obtaining a given T value.
Watershed Scale
The prediction of sediment yield (i.e., the quantity of transferred sediments) in a given
time interval, from eroding sources through the channel network to a watershed outlet,
can be carried out using either an erosion model (USLE, RUSLE) with a mathematical
operator expressing the sediment transport efficiency of the hill slopes and the channel
network or a sediment yield model (MUSLE, WEPP) [93–95].
A physically based model is theoretically preferable, but its parameters, which are
often numerous, may not be easy to measure or estimate. In addition, the measure-
ment scale may not be at the same level as the scale of the watershed discretization
for applying the model. Moreover, watershed soil erosion estimates obtained from
physically based models are affected by the uncertainties in the equations used to
simulate the detachment, transport, and deposition processes in morphologically com-
plex areas. For this reason, a parametric approach, such as USLE and RUSLE, is a
more attractive method even if the parameters have little or no physical meaning be-
cause they lump together both the effects of several different processes and inaccuracy
[96].
Two different strategies can be followed for applying a soil erosion model at the
watershed scale: (1) modifying the calculating procedure of the model factors in order to
transform a watershed into an equivalent plot [94, 97]; or (2) dividing the watershed into
morphological areas, that is, into areas for which all elementary factors of the selected
erosion model can be evaluated [98, 99].
The first procedure allows the evaluation of total watershed soil loss, which then has
to be coupled with an estimate of the sediment delivery ratio (SDRw ) for the whole
watershed to predict total sediment yield. The second procedure allows the calculation
of soil loss in each morphological area, which has to be coupled with a disaggregated
criterion for estimating sediment delivery processes to obtain sediment yield spatial
distribution.
SDRw (% or dimensionless) generally decreases with increasing watershed size, in-
dexed by area or stream length; the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) [100]
has suggested the use of the following power function (Fig. 4.27) [101]:
SDRw = k Swn (4.24)
in which k and n are numerical constants and Sw (km2 ) is the watershed area.
Spatial disaggregation of sediment delivery processes requires that the watershed be
discretized into morphological units that have an irregular shape if they are bounded
in such way as to define areas with a constant steepness and a clearly defined length
Figure 4.27. Comparison of different relationships between SDRw and watershed

area Sw . Source: [101].
Figure 4.28. Discretization of a watershed into morphological units. Source: [103].
(Fig. 4.28). Discretization can be simplified by superimposing a regular grid with square
or triangular cells onto the watershed area.
For each morphological unit, the sediment delivery ratio SDRi (dimensionless) has
to be evaluated according to the following equation [102, 103]:
· ¸
l p,i
SDRi = exp −ϕ √ (4.25)
s p,i
in which ϕ is a coefficient that is constant for a given watershed, l p,i (m) is the length of the
hydraulic path from the morphological unit to the nearest stream reach, and s p,i (m/m)
is the slope of the hydraulic path. For evaluating ϕ coefficient, the sediment balance
equation for the watershed outlet, which states that the watershed sediment yield Ys (t)
is the sum of the sediment produced by all morphological units in which the watershed
is divided, can be used:
X
Nu X
Nu · ¸
l p,i
Ys = SDRi Ai Su,i = exp −ϕ √ Ai Su,i , (4.26)
i=1 i=1
s p,i
where Ai is the soil loss (t/ha) from a morphological unit that has to be estimated by
a selected erosion model, Su,i is the area (ha) of the morphological unit, and Nu is the
number of units into which the watershed is divided. To apply Eq. (4.26), a soil erosion
model at the plot scale has to be selected and measurements of Ys are necessary.
Using soil-loss data from plots or sediment yield estimates from a selected model, a
potential relationship between radionuclide loss Y and sediment yield can be established
[104, 105]. Thus, the spatial distribution of the sediment yield also can be deduced by
the measured spatial distribution of 137 Cs residual percentages Y .
Assessment for Planning Erosion Control Strategies
Once soil erosion risk has been assessed using techniques described in the preced-
ing paragraphs, a sound land-use plan can be developed, based on the best-suited op-
tions, under given economic and social conditions (present or proposed), land tenure
arrangements, and production technology. The land use also must be compatible with
the maintenance of environmental stability.
Initially, land capability (Fig. 4.29) [29] can be used to establish whether erosion
occurs in the examined area when soil is used in accordance with its capability or if
it is misused. Then, after determining the most appropriate land use, soil conservation
strategies that are suitable for the land use selected are established. The next stage is
to quantify the impacts of the proposed land use and conservation strategies on the
environment and on crop productivity.
The examined problems also are characterized by a socioeconomic aspects because,
in the short term, land use is economically profitable whereas soil conservation is not.
However, long-term forecasting also must be considered in order to ensure soil use for
future generations.
Figure 4.29 shows the general sequence of stages for soil conservation planning
described above. This sequence can be specified for a particular land use (crop rotation,
pasture, forest, rangeland, and urban areas).
4.3.4 Conclusions
Conserving soil for future uses has to be linked to the development of sustainable
agriculture.
The phenomenological aspect of the soil erosion process is well understood and many
recent developments (RIFT mechanism, overland flow hydraulics, rill flow velocity and
rill shear stress studies, and gully initiation criteria) have increased the body of the
knowledge.
Figure 4.29. Sequence of stages in planning soil conservation. Source: [29].
The erosion phenomenon is very complex and the numerous hydrological subpro-
cesses (infiltration, runoff, sediment transport) make very difficult an accurate physically
based model.
The existing difficulties of the physically based models, such as the numerous input
parameters, differences between the scale of measurements of the input parameters and
the scale of the discretization, and uncertainties in the selected model equations, increase
the attractiveness of a parametric, even if empirically derived, soil erosion model such
as USLE or RUSLE.
For a physically based model, the knowledge uncertainty, due to the incomplete
understanding (equations and parameters used) or inadequate measurement or estimate
of system properties, and the stochastic variability (temporal and spatial), which is due
to random variability of the natural environment studied and is a property of the natural
system, can be so high that it jeopardizes the quality of the estimate.
Actually, the physically based model is the future and needs further theoretical deep-
ening of the basic equations and high-quality experimental data, at different temporal
and spatial scales, for testing its applicability.
Contemporaneously, simplified mathematical models, such as RUSLE, could be im-
proved to allow a stochastic representation of annual soil loss. The soil loss value and/or
sediment yield of given return period is more useful for decision making than a sin-
gle estimate of the mean annual value that is influenced strongly by extreme values. A
probabilistic estimate allows for management based on the level of risk acceptable to
resource managers.
Hopefully, high-quality measurements of soil erosion and sediment yield presuppose
the definition of standard measurement procedures which have to be established at world
scale and that necessarily vary with the spatial (plot, field size, watershed) and temporal
(event, monthly, annual) scale.
Finally, the spread of distributed or semidistributed modeling, coupled with GIS
employment, needs further developments of soil erosion distributed measurement tech-
niques.
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4.4 Soil Conservation: Erosion Control

D. De Wrachien and G. Chisci
In most cases a combination of measures is needed to reduce the effects of the pro-
cesses that cause erosion and to stimulate land use so that the soil is kept permanently pro-
ductive. However, it must be emphasized that none of these methods has universal appli-
cation. In selecting from possible measures, the following issues must be considered [1]:
• Any measure must be suitable for the intended land use and cropping systems.
• The objectives must be relate to rainfall and soil. In high-rainfall areas, a common
goal is to lead unavoidable runoff safely off the land using drains and ditches. In
semiarid regions the objective is that of slowing down the runoff to nonscouring
velocities to encourage infiltration or deposition of silt.
• The inputs, especially of labor, must be affordable and the benefits must be sufficient
to justify the inputs.
Anyway, the final choice, among possible conservation procedures, should depend on
the social and economic conditions of those involved.
There are so many different measures used in erosion control that some form of
grouping is needed to describe them. Mechanical methods encompass all techniques that
involve earthmoving, such as digging drains, building banks, and leveling sloping land.
Anything else, nowadays, is lumped under agrobiological measures. This is appropriate
for large mechanized farms where machines are used to do the earthmoving and this is
followed up with improved farming methods. But the division does not suit the concept
of erosion control through better land husbandry by means of mechanical protection.
Moreover, it becomes artificial when it deals with progressive terracing using grass strips
or live hedges. Anyway, for want of better terms, the above-mentioned approach is kept
is this section. Measures special for wind erosion control are descibed in Section 4.4.3
of this chapter.
4.4.1 Mechanical Methods

Table 4.8 summarizes the main mechanical practices used for soil, water, and crop
management, normally in conjunction with agronomic measures. These practices can be
subdivided into the following mechanical methods:
• contouring,
• terraces,
• waterways,
• stabilizing structures.
Soil Conservation: Erosion Control 185
Table 4.8. Mechanical methods for soil, water, and crop management
Main Objective Function Measure

Soil management To modify soil slope Bench terraces
To slowly reduce soil slope Progressive terracing
To contain erosion with low Ladder terraces,
inputs Trash lines
To contain erosion with Step terraces,
minimal earthmoving on Hillside ditches,
steep slopes Intermittent terraces
Water management To multiply effective rainfall Conservation bench terraces
To catch and hold all runoff Absorption ridges
To absorb some runoff Contour furrows,
with emergency overflow Contour bound
To control unavoidable runoff Graded channel terraces
To control reduced runoff Ridging,
Tied ridging
To reduce the velocity Strip cropping,
of runoff and promote Grass strips,
infiltration Permeable barriers
Crop management To provide level areas on steep Step terraces,
slopes, or to ease cultivation Hillside ditches,
according to whether by hand, Orchard terraces,
ox, or machine Platforms
To ease harvesting according Footpaths and farm tracks
to whether the crop is heavy associated with orchard
damageable, harvested terraces or hillside
regularly or seasonally ditches
Drainage for crops that Ridges on 2% grade,
suffer from wet feet Up- and downslope beds,
Small open drains up to 15%
Source: [1].
The reader is referred to the literature [2–10] for more detailed information on design,
construction, and maintenance criteria.
Contouring
This technique involves plowing, tilling, planting, and cultivating across the slope of
the land so that elevations along rows are as near constant as is practical. In conjunction
with contouring, protected waterways must be used in all drains or drainageways, where
gullies tend to start. Contouring, or contour farming, does best on fields that slope uni-
formly in one or both directions. Its effectiveness varies with the length and steepness
of the slope and with storm intensity. This measure is inadequate as the sole conser-
vation procedure for lengths greater than 180 m at 1◦ steepness [11]. The allowable
length declines with increasing steepness to 30 m at 5.5◦ and 20 m at 8.5◦ . Moreover,
it provides almost complete protection against erosion from storms of low to moderate
intensity, but little or no protection against occasional heavy storms that cause extensive
Table 4.9. Slope-length limits

for contouring
Land Slope Maximum Slope

(%) Length (m)
1–2 330
3–5 125
6–8 65
9–12 40
13–16 25
17–20 20
20–25 15
Source: [12].
overtopping and breaking of the contour lines. Contouring is most efficient in reducing
erosion on gentle slopes. On steeper slopes, erosion becomes progressively more severe.
Sometimes more erosion actually occurs in gullies developed in contoured areas than
in the rills between crop rows on the noncontoured land. Ridge height is an additional
factor affecting the effectiveness of contouring. Data from field studies indicate that con-
touring is more effective with high ridges, whereas limited heights may greatly reduce
its effectiveness, especially under severe storms. Table 4.9 gives the slope-length data
for successful contouring in the case of moderate ridge height and storm intensity [12].
The slope length varies with soil properties (length can be greater on more permeable
soils), with type of crop grown (longer for more protective crops, such as small grains),
and with the area’s rainfall characteristics (longer with less intense storms). Experience
with no-till and other reduced-tillage systems that leave the soil surface well protected
with crop residue has shown that field lengths far in excess of those given in Table 4.9
can be used safely [4, 6, 8, 10].
Wherever possible, the upper and lower field boundaries should be changed to follow
the contour. This reduces the number of short rows in the field and makes it more
convenient to farm. Natural drainage ways should be prepared to handle the water that
will be guided onto them by tillage marks and crop rows. Any water flowing onto the field
from higher land should be intercepted by a diversion built along the upper field boundary
to catch the foreign water and carry it away from the field. To meet this requirement, a new
waterway has to be installed or an existing one widened and reshaped to accommodate the
diverted water. On silty and fine sandy soils, erosion may be greatly reduced by storing
water on the surface rather than letting it run off. Limited increases in storage capacity
can be obtained by forming ridges at regular intervals according to the slope steepness.
The ridge-furrow system is usually stable for gentle slopes of up to about 7◦ and for soils
that have a relatively stable structure [13]. Contour ridging is generally ineffective on its
own as a soil conservation measure on slopes steeper than 4.5◦ . Filed data collected from
trial plots in Venezuela showed that contour ridges reduced soil losses under cabbage
and cauliflower to 9.9 t/ha compared with 15 t/ha without ridges [14].
Contouring has no direct effect in controlling wind erosion unless ridges formed by
tillage increase surface roughness. Thus, where the risk for wind erosion is much greater
Table 4.10. Types and functions of terraces
Type Function
Diversion terraces Used to intercept overland flow on a hillside and
channel it across a slope to a suitable outlet.
Magnum Formed by taking soil from both sides of
an embankment.
Nichols Formed by taking soil from the upslope sides of
an embankment only.
Broad-based Bank and channel occupy width of 15 m.
Narrow-based Bank and channel occupy width of 3–4 m.
Retention terrace Level terraces used where water must be conserved
by storage on the hillside.
Bench terraces Alternating series of shelves and risers used to
cultivate steep slopes.
Source: [11].
than that for water erosion, ridges formed by tillage should be at right angles to the
prevailing wind direction without regard to the land slope.
Terraces
Terraces are earth embankments designed and constructed to intercept runoff and
convey it to a protected outlet. They reduce soil erosion by shortening slope length,
slowing the velocity of the running water and improving infiltration. Terraces can be
classified into the following main types:
• diversion,
• retention,
• bench,
• hillside ditch.
The characteristics and functions are given in Table 4.10 and Fig. 4.30.
Diversion terraces are designed primarily to intercept runoff and divert it to a suitable
outlet. Broad-based diversion terraces (Nichols and Magnum), with the embankment
and channel occupying a width of about 15 m, are wide enough to be cultivated if bank
slope does not exceed 14◦ . Narrow-based terraces do not exceed 4 m in width. Diversion
terraces are suited mostly for moderate ground slopes (<7◦ ) that allow a sufficient spacing
and reasonable expense of construction. Modest slopes (<4.5◦ ) and permeable soils are
recommended also for the use of retention terraces, which are aimed at the conservation
of water by storing it on the hillsides. They are generally level and the design storm has
about a 10-year return period. Bench terraces are suited for cultivation of steep slopes
(up to 30◦ ). They consist of an alternation of shelves and risers. The latter are protected
from erosion by vegetation cover or by concrete or stone facing. For several thousand
years, bench terraces have been widely adopted over the world, particularly in Europe,
Australia, and Asia. A special type of bench terrace is the orchard terrace. Orchard
terraces are narrow bench terraces built on very steep slopes, from 25◦ to 30◦ , and their
spaces are determined by the planting distance of the fruit or food trees. Because of
steepness, the spaces between should be kept under permanent grass.
Figure 4.30. Types and main characteristics of terraces. Source: [11].
Another practice used on steep slopes is hillside ditches. The hillside ditch is a dis-
continuous kind of narrow, reverse-sloped terrace built across the land in order to break
long slopes into a number of short slopes so that the runoff will be safely intercepted
and drained before causing erosion. The cross section of this kind of narrow bench is
more convenient for maintenance than the conventional type of ditch. They also can
be used simultaneously as roads. The distance between two ditches is determined by
the degree or percentage of the corresponding slope. The cultivable strip between two
ditches should be supplemented with agronomic conservation measures.
As technology has advanced, terrace design (spacing, length, location of outlets) has
been scientifically adapted to the hydrologic and erosion control needs of the treated
areas. Channel cross sections have been modified to become more nearly compatible
with modern mechanization. Table 4.11 gives some criteria that can help in decision
making about slopes and dimensions for terraces [1]. Many formulas also have been
Table 4.11. Design criteria for terraces
Criterion Dimension
Maximum length
Normal 250 m (sandy soils) to 400 m (clay soils)
Absolute 400 m (sandy soils) to 400 m (clay soils)
Maximum grade
First 100 m 1:1000
Second 100 m 1:500
Third 100 m 1:330
Fourth 100 m 1:250
Constant grade 1:250
Ground slopes
Diversion terrace Usable on slopes up to 7◦ ; on steeper
slopes the cost of construction is too
great and the spacing too close to
allow mechanized farming
Retention terraces Recommended only on slopes up to 4.5◦
Bench terraces Recommended on slopes of 7◦ to 30◦
Source: [1].
developed for determining the so-called vertical interval (VI), that is, the difference in
height between two consecutive terraces [11]. Several empirical formulas have been
calibrated on a national basis [11, 12]. To know what formula is most suitable in a given
situation, one should find out which design criteria are successfully used in an similar
situation (if possible in the same area). The most important design parameters are the
width of the terrace and the height and the slope of the riser [1, 15]. From a theoretical
point of view, terraces can be built on any slope with deep soil but, in practice, on
very steep slopes the riser becomes too high and therefore difficult to maintain, and
the terrace becomes too narrow. Practical limits are about 20◦ for terraces built by
machine, and 25◦ to 30◦ when handmade. The width of the bench depends on three
factors:
• the cost,
• what is desirable for ease of cultivation,
• what is practical for construction.
For a given slope, increasing the width of the terrace increases the amount of both earth-
work and fill. Narrow terraces are therefore cheaper than wide terraces. For terraces
cultivated by hand or walking tractor, bench width of 2 to 5 m is feasible. For animal
draft or four-wheel tractor cultivation, a minimum width of 3 or 4 m is desirable. It is
not practical to excavate down into the subsoil or bedrock, because of both the increased
cost of excavation and the lower fertility of the exposed subsoil on the inner edge of the
terrace. This may be avoided by building a terrace and then putting the topsoil removed
from the next terrace on it [1].
A variety of equipment is available for terrace construction. Terracing machines
include the bulldozer, pan or rotary scraper, motor patrol, and elevating grader. Smaller
equipment, such as moldboard and disk plows are suitable for slopes of less than 8%.
The rate of construction is affected chiefly by the following factors:

• equipment,
• soil moisture,
• crops and crop residues,
• degree of regularity of land slope,
• soil tilth,
• gullies and other obstructions,
• terrace length,
• terrace cross section,
• experience and skill of the operator.
Proper maintenance plays an important role in the terrace conservation practices.
The procedures must not be expensive; normal farming operations usually will suf-
fice. The work should be watched more carefully during the first years after construction
because tillage tends to increase the base width of the terrace. Therefore, tillage prac-
tices such as stubble-mulch operations, disking and harrowing, and planting have to be
performed parallel to the plow furrows.
On the whole, the main features required for terrace conservation are [1]:
• A gentle slope of 0.5%–1.5% is most desirable.
• A deep soil is required, both to provide sufficient soil moisture storage and to lessen
the effect of cutting down during the construction process. Good permeability is
required so that the contained runoff can be absorbed quickly.
• Smooth slopes are an advantage where mechanized farming can be made more
convenient by constructing all of the terraces parallel to each other and of equal
width.
• Precise leveling of the terrace is important to ensure uniform infiltration.
• If there is a risk that runoff from the catchment area will be greater than can be
absorbed and stored on the terrace, there must be outlets at the end of the terrace.
• Typical ratios of catchment area to terrace area are from 1:1 to 2:1.
Waterways
Water that overflows from terraces and contoured fields or requires draining must
be conveyed in a non-erosive manner for overall soil conservation. The runoff must be
discharged into either natural streams, watercourses, or artificial excavated waterways.
Their purpose is to convey runoff to a suitable outlet. Normally, their dimensions must
provide sufficient capacity to cope with peak runoff rates with a 10-year return period.
There are three types of waterways (Fig. 4.31):
• diversion channels,
• terrace channels,
• artificial watercourses, (grass) waterways.
The characteristics and aims are described in Table 4.12. More detailed information on
design criteria can be found in the literature [16–22]. Waterways are surface drainage
devices. Therefore, for design criteria, reference should also be made to Chapter 5,
Section 5.6, “Drainage.”
Artificial watercourses may need special attention, depending on the topographic
conditions and the equipment available. The major types of waterways are
Table 4.12. Types and functions of waterways
Type Function
Diversion ditches Placed upslope of areas where protection is
required to intercept water from top of
hillside; built across slope at a slight grade
so as to convey the intercepted runoff to a
suitable outlet.
Terrace channels Placed upslope of terrace bank to collect
runoff from interterraced area; built
across slope at a slight grade so as to convey
the runoff to a suitable outlet.
Grass waterways Used as the outlet for diversions and
terrace channels; run downslope, at grade
of the sloping surface; empty into river
system or other outlet; located in natural
depressions on hillside.
Source: [11].
Figure 4.31. Layout of waterways. Source: [11].
• Grass waterway, a parabolic-shaped channel planted with low and rhizome-type

grasses. The channel should be shaped as uniform cross section and as consistent
in gradient as possible. It is the most inexpensive type of waterway on gentle slopes
and its maintenance is easy.
• Grass waterway with drop structures. On moderately steep slopes or in a discon-
tinuous type of channel, small drop structures and check dams can be used in
conjunction with grass to take care of the steep sections.
• Ballasted waterway. On moderately steep slopes where large quantities of head-

size stones are available, ballasting the parabolic channel with stones keyed in the
ground can provide good protection.
• Prefabricated concrete waterway. On very steep slopes and where it rains so fre-
quently that normal construction is hampered, these prefabricated structures, para-
bolic or V-notch type, can be used readily to protect the center part of a waterway
and leave two sides protected by grass. They also can be used in these channels
where there are constant small flows due to seepage or groundwater.
Maintenance procedures prevent the failure of waterways due to insufficient capacity,
excessive water velocity, or inadequate vegetation cover. The solution to the first two of
these problems is largely a matter of design. The condition of the vegetation is affected by
both the construction criteria and the subsequent management procedures. With reference
to this issue, grass waterways should be mowed and raked several times a season to
stimulate new growth and control weeds. Annual application of manure and fertilizer
maintains a dense sod, any break of which should be repaired. When land adjacent to
the waterway is being plowed, the ends of furrows abutting against the vegetated strip
should be staggered to prevent flow concentration down the edges of the water course.
Sometimes, underground outlets are necessary to take runoff from low points in terrace
or diversion channels and carry it through a pipeline to a place of safe discharge. This
procedure normally is used where the slope is too steep for non-erosive water flow.
Good conservation practice at the watershed level is, however, the most effective
means of waterway maintenance. As a matter of fact, accumulated sediments smother
vegetation and restrict the watercourse capacity. Extending vegetal cover well up the side
slopes of the work and into the outlets of terrace channels helps to prevent sediment from
being deposited in the waterway. Control of vegetation also reduces the accumulation
of sediment. Often the opportunity to provide protective cover by natural revegetation is
overlooked, and unnecessary expenditures are made for structures and planting.
Stabilizing Structures for Gullies and Embankments
The mechanics of gully erosion can be reduced to two main processes [24]: down-
cutting and headcutting. Downcutting of the gully bottom leads to gully deepening and
widening. Headcutting extends the channel into ungullied headwater areas and increases
the stream net and its density by developing tributaries. Thus, effective gully control
must stabilize both the channel gradient and the channel headcuts. Where an effective
vegetation cover will grow, gradients can be controlled by the establishment of plants
without supplemental mechanical measures. If growing conditions do not permit the
direct establishment of an effective vegetation cover, engineering measures will be re-
quired at the critical locations where the erosion processes take place. The main objective
of these structures is to stabilize the gully gradient. Once the gully gradient is stabilized,
vegetation can establish and gully banks can stabilize. Because of sediment accumulation
in the gully above the structures, the storage capacity of the channels increase, channel
gradients decrease, and thus peak flows decrease.
In practice, the control of gully erosion is difficult and expensive. Therefore, the
decision whether control structures are justified depends on other objectives, such as the
prevention a storage dam downstream from being silted up by sedimentation.
The structures consist in small dams and weirs built across gullies to trap sediment
and thereby reduce channel depth and slope. These works can provide temporary or
permanent stability and are normally used in association with agronomic treatment of
the surrounding land where grasses, trees, and shrubs are well established.
The spacing of the dams can be obtained from the following formula [24]:
HE
DS = (4.27)
K tan θ cos θ
where DS = dam spacing (m); HE = dam height, measured from the crest of the spillway
to the gully floor (m); and K = constant coefficient that depends on local conditions.
The equation is based on the assumption that the gradient of the sediment deposits is
(1 − K ) tan θ, with θ = slope angle (degree). In Colorado, for example, the estimated
values for K are 0.3 for tan θ ≤ 0.2 and 0.5 for tan θ > 0.2.
The height not only influences structural spacing but also volume of sediment deposits.
The structures are provided with spillways to deal with overtopping during storms. The
spillway or notch must be big enough to pass the whole of the flood; otherwise, the
water will pass over the whole width of the structure and erode the vulnerable banks on
either side of the structure. At the foot of the structure, where the flood water falling over
the structure strikes the ground with a destructive force, an adequate protection must be
provided to prevent scour and undercutting of the structure.
The danger of scouring and tunneling around the check dam can be minimized by a
key in such way that lateral seepage around the end of the dam is prevented. Therefore
the route of seepage must be considerably lengthened. The dam stability will be greatly
increased by keying the dam into the sides and floor of the gully by digging a trench,
usually 0.6 m deep and 6 m wide. Where excessive instability is demonstrated by large
amounts of loose materials on the lower part of the channel side slopes or by large cracks
and fissures in the bank walls, the depth of the trench should be increased to 1.2 or 1.8 m
[24]. The trench is filled with loose rock in such way that no large voids will remain
in the key. If available, use a mixture of pebbles with 80% smaller than 14 cm. When
log dams are used, the bottom layer should be sunk below ground surface or long posts
driven deep into firm soil.
Based on the cost of construction, the type of dams best suited for different depths of
the gully are listed in Table 4.13. The dividing line between temporary and permanent
structures is quite arbitrary. Many works could have a variable life depending on how
they are constructed and maintained, and what pressure of use they had to withstand. As
a general rule, low cost and simplicity are often principal objectives. The materials and
Table 4.13. Types of dams for gully stabilization
Dam Type Recommended Height (m) Gully Depth (m)

Loose rock ≤0.45 ≤1.2
Single fence 0.45 ÷ 0.75 1.2 ÷ 1.5
Double fence 0.75 ÷ 1.70 1.5 ÷ 2.1
Source: Modified from [11].

Figure 4.32. Types of small stabilizing structures for gully

erosion control. Source: [1].
the design must be chosen ad hoc to suit the individual conditions of each site. Some
simple designs are shown in Fig. 4.32.
The shape that gives the best strength/weight ratio is the arch weir. However, in the
situation of a rock that runs across the bed of the gully, a straight gravity wall also is
indicated. More detailed information on structure designs and design criteria can be
found in the literature [1, 23–31].
Stabilization structures are also used for erosion control on steep slopes. A special
case is represented by soil bioengineering measures where stabilization is achieved
primarily by imbedding and arranging in the ground plants and plant parts [32]. For
example, driving live willow stakes into the soil along the contour to a depth of 0.2 m
may guarantee stability for short time periods, to allow growing of a denser vegetation
cover. Stakes should be placed approximately 1 m apart and form rows with a distance
from 10 to 20 m, according to the slope steepness.
Stabilization structures as a component of biotechnical slope protection may be nec-
essary in areas of potential mass movement. A structure placed at the foot of a slope
helps to stabilize the slope against mass movement and protects the toe and face against
scour and erosion. Selection of a suitable retaining structure entails a variety of choices.
Several basic types are available, each with its particular advantages, requirements, and
limitations. Selection of a suitable retaining wall will depend upon such considerations
as site constraints, availability of materials, appearance of the wall, ease of construction,
opportunities for incorporation of vegetation into structure, and cost [28]. Figure 4.33
shows the two basic types: the toe wall and the toe-bench structure. More detailed infor-
mation on structure designs and design criteria can be found in the literature [1, 28].
4.4.2 Agrobiological Measures

Agroecosystem management is one of the most important factors controlling soil
erosion at field, farm, and watershed scales.
In natural vegetation systems, such as forest, savannah, and prairie, soil erosion de-
pends on the interaction between climatic parameters (rainfall, wind, humidity, solar
radiation, and temperature) and vegetation growth, provided that other conditions such
as geomorphology and soil type are constant.
Figure 4.33. (a) Low toe wall, which permits slope flattening and
establishment of vegetation on slope above. Encroachment on land use or right
of way at foot of slope is minimized.
(b) Toe-bench structure, which buttresses base of slope and creates level bench
on which to establish vegetative screen. Bench also catches debris coming off
the slope above. Source: [28].
In agricultural systems, on the other hand, vegetation cover and soil conditions can
assume different (management-derived) characteristics with the seasons of the year,
depending on the
• crop rotation,
• choice of annual and/or perennial crops,
• crop stage from sowing to harvest,
• cropping system (monoculture, intercropping, or mixed cropping),
• planned spatial geometry of the plants on the soil,
• soil type and crop management technology.
Seeking the maximum economic productivity of any crop, it is fundamental to avoid
competition between plants of the same cultivated species (intraspecific competition),
and between cultivated plants and weeds (interspecific competition).
Plant architecture represents a specific manifestation of an interaction between geno-

type and environment, whereas the geometry of plant distribution in a field and the soil
management system employed are a consequence of crop cultivation technology. The
latter usually has the ultimate aim of maximizing economic productivity with respect to
costs. Sometimes there is a conflict between soil protection and optimal soil and crop
management for maximum production. Sowing of annual crops, for example, is tradi-
tionally done on a bare seedbed of plowed soil, which means that the whole period of
soil preparation and crop establishment is particularly vulnerable to soil erosion.
In agricultural systems, soil erosion depends on the interaction between the following
factors:
• the variability in the protection of soil cover during the crop cycle,
• the variability of soil surface conditions due to tillage practices during the crop
cycle,
• The residual effects of soil and crop management from preceding crops.
Specific soil conservation technology for water erosion control, therefore, concerns both
soil and vegetation management measures.
Soil Management
Reconsolidation
A naturally consolidated soil state is that found in an undisturbed topsoil of forest,
savannah, prairie, or steppe. In such soils, an environmentally dependent natural plant
community is established and a natural balance between the soil-forming processes
and soil erosion is achieved. At the same time, a semistationary equilibrium between
organic-matter production by plants, and its turnover and humification in the soil by
biological activity, has produced a certain stable soil structure. All other factors being
equal, natural vegetation cover and the structural conditions of the topsoil maintain soil
erosion at a certain stable level, which allows soil development and plant dynamics that
are characteristic for the site in question.
Reconsolidation, on the other hand, is the reduction of soil disturbance caused by
cultivation practices. Generally speaking, the reconsolidation process is characterized
by compaction and rearrangement of the soil particles, after a period during which the
soil is loosened by plowing or other tillage practices, into aggregates. Reconsolidation
processes are characterized by the type of vegetation involved and the length of time
from initiation to new plowing (sod turning).
A grass sod protects the soil and reduces the effects of raindrop impact and scouring
by overland flow. Furthermore, the improvement of soil structure and infiltration will
decrease runoff generation with the overall effect of a very consistent abatement of soil
erosion.
In natural reconsolidation, the vegetation cover depends on the types of weed seeds
that the soil contains. This cover affords variable protection for soil erosion, related
to the prevailing environmental conditions and to the proceeding cultivation history. In
general, soil protection will be scarce in the first year of reconsolidation, especially on
marginally arable land. In fact, natural vegetation recovery on abandoned fields often
is represented by weeds of modest growth that offer sparse cover to the soil, especially
Figure 4.34. Runoff and soil loss responses as related to

lucerne ley in the first, second, and third years.
Source: [33].
in extreme climatic conditions. Where climatic and soil characteristics allow the quick
development of a good natural vegetation cover, soil protection against erosion will be
much better and will reach a stationary equilibrium after a few years.
The reconsolidation process may be aided greatly by sowing a mixture of good
grasses that are well adapted to the local environment. The use of an artificial mix-
ture of well-adapted perennial forage grasses and legumes in land reconsolidation is
defined as “steered reconsolidation.”
Reconsolidation may represent a permanent change in the state of the soil or simply
a period of repose for the soil between successive phases of arable cultivation, as in agri-
cultural rotations with perennial forage crops. Although perennial forage crops, such
as lucerne and clover leys, can provide considerable soil protection in the years after
the first one (Fig. 4.34) [33], they are somewhat less protective than close permanent
grassland.
Reconsolidation by forage crops used in rotational agriculture is sometimes called
“rotational reconsolidation.” This term covers systems ranging from the shifting culti-
vation of the tropics to the fallow agriculture of the semiarid zones and to the dynamic
rotations of arable crops and perennial forage species in temperate areas.
In agricultural systems based on trees, a “grass-sodding” type of steered reconsol-
idation is being adopted increasingly as a very promising solution to erosion control
or for ameliorating soil carrying capacity for machinery traffic. Where competition
problems for water and nutrient uptake arise between cultivated trees and grasses,
grass-sod management that follows the contours has proved to be a valuable measure
for erosion control. Grass-sod management in tree cultivation can be done in several
ways:
• by grazing the phytomass using different species of animals,
• by cutting the phytomass for hay production or for covering the soil with mulch,
• by using herbicides for killing and/or drying the aboveground vegetation.
In grass-sod management, it is particularly important to avoid the formation of up- and
downslope tractor tracks because such tracks may become preferential pathways for
concentrated runoff and erosion.
Organic Matter
Organic matter represents the most important source of energy for soil biological
activity. The different products of organic-matter decomposition are very important in
promoting the formation of stable aggregates from soil primary particles, by flocculation
and cementation phenomena. Moreover, increases in the colloidal organic fraction assist
in the slow release and plant uptake of nutrients.
Organic-matter release and turnover from perennial herbaceous plants in the topsoil
during reconsolidation provide a basic source of soil humus, thereby playing a very
important role for the amelioration of soil structure.
Organic matter can be added to the soil in different forms as green manure, straw,
stubble, industrial residues, sludges, or animal manure. This may have already undergone
some form of fermentation, as in the case of fermented urban garbage and farmyard
manure (FYM).
The addition of raw organic material that contributes to the soil in building up the
humus content is expressed in the isohumic factor, as shown in Table 4.14 for some raw
organic materials [34].
When green manures (often leguminous crops) are added to soil, they may be sub-
ject to a high degree of fermentation and rapid mineralization. Low amounts of humic
substances (low isohumic factor) probably will be produced in these cases. The possi-
ble increase in soil structural stability will be of short duration and the main effect of
the addition of such material is to increase the medium-term supply of nutrients in the
soil.
Straw, on the other hand, decomposes more slowly because it is richer in cellulose and
lignin. The rate of decomposition depends, to a large extent, on the availability of soil
nitrogen sources for the nutrition of cellulolytic microorganisms. The C/N ratio dynamics
of organic matter in the soil are mediated primarily by microorganisms. The higher the
C/N ratio, the more stable the humic acids binding the soil particles in structural crumbs.
Low C/N ratios may favor microorganisms producing humic acids that have little or no
effect on soil structural stability. The isohumic factor of this material is high and the
buildup of humic acids increases soil structural stability to a higher degree than that
achieved with green manure.
Table 4.14. Examples of isohumic

factors for several organic materials
Organic Material Isohumic Factor

Plant foliage 0.20
Green manure 0.25
Cereal straw 0.30
Roots of crops 0.35
FYM 0.50
Deciduous tree litter 0.60
Coniferous tree litter 0.65
Peat moss 0.85
Source: [34].
The influence of the organic matter on soil structure is enhanced by the presence of
base minerals in the soil. Such minerals, in fact, favor the flocculation of colloidal clay
and humus to form compounds that comprise soil aggregates.
Tillage Practices
Tillage is a fundamental soil management technique in agricultural systems to provide
a suitable seedbed for plant germination and growth, helping to control weeds and
assisting the infiltration of fertilizers and pesticides into the soil.
Tillage loosens compacted soil, regenerates porosity, and increases permeability,
thereby generally improving soil physical conditions for plant growth, especially where
intrinsic soil physical characteristics are particularly adverse. For instance, the formation
of a temporary mechanical structure in a compacted clay soil is a prerequisite condition
for the cultivation of annual crops. There are, in fact, a number of different techniques for
tilling the soil. All of them, however, represent some degree of soil disturbance which,
although necessary for agricultural exploitation of the land, often produce an increase in
potential erodibility of the soil.
The most common system of preparing the soil for cultivation is by plowing the
soil to loosen it and to turn over weeds, previous crop residuals, organic matter, and
remaining pesticides and chemical fertilizers in the plow layer. Subsequent seedbed
preparation consists of arrowing the soil with disk or dent cultivators, to eliminate any
weed seedlings that may have sprouted in the meantime and to produce a mechanical
structure suitable for sowing the crop.
The conventional system of tilling the soil, recognized in principle since the origins
of agriculture, has been subjected to many improvements over time in terms of the
implements used, the mode of execution, and the kind of power employed to operate
the implements. The average plow-layer depth ranges from 100 mm to 1,000 mm. Deep
plow layers are common in clay soils where plowing also has the function of improving
infiltration.
Different implements may be used to plow the soil. Examples include the moldboard
plow, the disk, the chisel, and the rotovator. Sometimes, the work is done using a com-
bination of implements as, for instance, in double-layer plowing. This allows subsoiling
and an inversion of the surface layer (to imbed fertilizers, weeds, and crop residues) to
be achieved simultaneously.
Plowing generally produces a more or less rough cloddy surface, depending on soil
characteristics and moisture content. A clod height of 400–600 mm may be produced
in clay soils plowed to a depth of 400–500 mm in dry tilth. In loamy soils, on the other
hand, a clod height of 120–160 mm is observed more commonly.
Secondary cultivation consistently reduces the roughness of the soil surface in the
same way as raindrop impact and wind action. Seedbed formation through secondary
cultivation, however, generates a finer mechanical aggregate distribution in sandy-loamy
soils than in clay soils.
Rougher freshly plowed soils are less susceptible to erosion. Cogo [35], in fact,
has demonstrated that soil loss by water erosion will decrease with increasing rough-
ness.
In conclusion, it is generally accepted that, all other factors being equal, a tradi-
tional seedbed preparation is the most susceptible condition for soil erosion. For this
reason, tilled bare fallow is taken as the standard condition with which other cover and
management situations are compared [36].
In some circumstances, tillage practices such as plowing and seedbed preparation may
be less susceptible to soil erosion when practiced on the contour; see also “Contouring”
in Section 4.4.1 of this chapter.
Conservation Tillage
Many studies and experiments have been carried out recently to evaluate the effects
of innovative tillage systems in reducing soil erosion while maintaining adequate soil
conditions for optimal plant growth and crop yield.
Different kinds of conservation tillage practices have been devised, each one more or
less soil specific but also dependent on how well weeds, pests, and diseases are controlled
in the cultivation system under consideration (Table 4.15).
In all cases, the basic principle of conservation tillage is to reduce tillage operations,
thereby avoiding soil disturbance as much as possible and maintaining the most efficient
cover of vegetation and residues throughout the crop cycle in order to reduce soil erosion
but provide appropriate crop germination.
Table 4.15. Tillage practices used for soil conservation
Practice Description
Conventional Standard practice of plowing with disc
or moldboard plow, one or more disc
harrowings, a spike-tooth harrowing,
and surface planting.
No tillage Soil undisturbed prior to planting,
which takes place in a narrow,
2.5- to 7.5-cm-wide seedbed; crop residue
covers of 50%–100% retained on surface;
weed control by herbicides.
Strip tillage Soil undisturbed prior to planting,
which is done in narrow strips using
rotary tiller or in-row chisel, plow-plant,
wheeltrack planting, or listing;
intervening areas of soil untilled; weed
control by herbicides and cultivation.
Mulch tillage Soil surface disturbed by tillage prior to
planting using chisels, field cultivators,
discs, or sweeps; at least 30% residue
cover left on surface as a protective mulch;
weed control by herbicides and cultivation.
Reduced or Any other tillage practice that retains
minimum tillage at least 30% residue cover.
Source: [11].
Generally, the better-drained and well-structured coarse- and medium-textured soils,

with average organic-matter content respond better to reduced tillage. On the other
hand, reduced tillage operations are unsuccessful on poorly drained soils unless the crop
is planted on a ridge.
All conservation tillage practices are characterized by the amount of crop residues left
on the surface of the soil at the time of greatest erosion risk. In any case, it is difficult to
isolate the role of tillage in controlling erosion from that of the residues left on the surface
or incorporated into the topsoil as mulch. The tillage system also may be integrated with
special cover crops, represented by leguminous or grass species, which mainly are used
to provide a cover to the soil and/or to protect the seedling of the main crop against
adverse climatic conditions during the first stages of growth.
Crop and Vegetation Management
Agronomic measures for soil conservation are based on the protective effect of plant
cover as one of the most effective tools for controlling soil erosion.
However, considering the different densities and characteristics of plants in both
natural and agricultural ecosystems, differences in their ability to control erosion can be
considerable. Annual field crops, for instance, are the least effective in protecting the
soil and cause the most serious erosion problems. This is due to the high percentage of
bare ground exposed under these systems, especially in the early stages of crop growth
and during the preparation of the seedbed.
Crop Rotations
Annual field crops must be combined with protection-effective crops, such as multian-
nual or perennial forage crops. The frequency with which row crops are grown depends
upon the severity of erosion. A high rate of soil loss under a row crop is acceptable
when it is counteracted by low rates under the other crops so that, averaged over the total
rotation period, the annual erosion rate remains low.
Row crops represent a planting system that currently is used because it facilitates
mechanized farming operations. Row crops are planted in wide or narrow rows, depend-
ing on plant architecture and the economic characteristics of production. Soil erosion
problems are associated mainly with wide-row crops such as maize, sugar beets pota-
toes, sunflower, sorghum, and soybeans because of the large amount of bare soil left
per unit area and because they are tilled and subjected to clean weeding during the crop
production cycle. Crops such as wheat, oats, and barley are more protection effective in
relation to soil erosion.
All crop types are particularly subject to erosion risk during the period from sow-
ing to complete canopy development. The extent of the risk depends on the seasonal
distribution of the erosive rainfall events in relation to the absence of protective cover
during the first stages of crop growth. For instance, in Mediterranean areas, erosive
rainfall events are concentrated during the fall, which corresponds to the period when
the seedbed usually is prepared for sowing winter grains. Another case is that of the
corn belt in the United States, where the erosive summer rainfall events also coin-
cide with bare seedbeds or fields characterized by the first stages of maize or soybean
growth.
Suitable crops for use in rotation are legumes and grasses. These provide good ground
cover, help to maintain or even improve the organic status of the soil, thereby contributing
to soil fertility, and enable the development of a more stable aggregate structure. In
temperate climates, this process is slow but the effects last for several years of cropping.
Hudson [1] found that, under tropical conditions, this process is fast; however, the effects
are often sufficiently long-lasting to reduce erosion and increase yield during the first
year of row-crop cultivation, and they rarely extend into the second year. Therefore, two
continuous years of planting with a row crop should be avoided.
Cover Crops
Cover crops are grown as a conservation measure as annual crops or as perennial stands
of natural species or sown perennial grasses, legumes, and/or mixtures. They are grown
either during the off-season period or as ground protection under trees. Leguminous
crops, grown as winter catch crops, often are plowed into the soil as green manure. In
other situations the crop is harvested as forage or used for seed production.
Different climates, soils, and agricultural situations demand different species for an-
nual cover crops. Typical winter cover crops, where winter vegetation is possible, include
rye, oats, Italian ryegrass, hairy vetch, crimson clover, sweet clover, lupins, and winter
peas. In milder climates, common vetch, field beans, Egyptian clover, and alsike clover
also are commonly used. In warmer climates, Crotalaria, Lespedeza, and Dolichos can
be utilized conveniently. Finally, in tropical climates, Pueraria phaseoloides, Calopogo-
nium mucunoides, and Centrosema pubescens are better adapted.
Perennial cover crops under cultivated trees may be a very good measure to consis-
tently reduce erosion. In tropical areas, under oil palms, a reduction of erosion from
20 t · ha−1 · year−1 on bare soil to 0.05 t · ha−1 · year−1 with a cover crop has been re-
ported [37]. In the Apennine area of Italy, soil loss from a vineyard was reduced from
95 t · ha−1 · year−1 to 0.05 t · ha−1 · year−1 by a perennial cover crop [38].
One major disadvantage of cover crops, especially perennial grass sod in orchards, is
that, although they can increase the carrying capacity of the soil for machinery traffic,
they may compete for available moisture and nutrients with the main crop.
Strip Cropping
In some situations, strip-crop cultivation, which follows the contours (Fig. 4.35), may
increase storage and reduce competition for available soil water and nutrients and/or
reduce soil erosion because the grass-sod strips act as traps for runoff and sediments
[11, 39]. Sediment deposition behind the grass-sod strip produces a gradual buildup of
soil over time and leads to the formation of bench-type terraces, reducing the overall
gradient of the slope.
Strip cropping is especially suited for well-drained soils. In clay soils, the reduction
in runoff velocity, combined with a low infiltration rate, may produce ponding and
waterlogging.
Grass-sod contour strips are not required on slopes below 5%. On slopes of about 9%,
the grass strip retards runoff by increasing the infiltration rate. The control of erosion
by deposition of sediment on the grass strips may be effective on slopes between 9%
and 15%. Grass stripping may be insufficient as a single measure of erosion control on
Figure 4.35. Contour strip-cropping design for (a) a

5-year crop rotation and (b) the use of buffer strips. The
contour lines are in meters above an arbitrary datum.
Note the use of a grass waterway to evacuate excess
runoff from the strip-cropped area and the inclusion of
rocky areas that cannot be farmed within the buffer
strips. Source: [39].
slopes above about 15% [40]. However, these limits for slopes largely vary with soil
characteristics: texture, structure, and stability of aggregates.
Plants utilized for buffer-strip formation must be well adapted to the specific location
in which they are used. Normally, they are perennial grasses and/or legumes that have
deep-rooted systems. The species must be perennial, quick to establish, and able to
survive flooding and/or drought periods [11].
Mulching
Mulching is another agrotechnical practice that has been widely subjected to experi-
mentation in relation to soil protection against erosion, particularly in the United States.
It consists of covering the soil surface with green and/or dry plant material such as grass
or crop residues (straw, maize stalk, standing or chopped stubble, residual leaves and
stems) after harvesting by combine machinery.
The mulch cover protects the soil against raindrop impact and reduces the velocity
of runoff. From the soil conservation point of view, mulch simulates the effects of plant
cover and may be used as a substitute for a cover crop, especially in dry areas.
When the slope gradient increases, it may be a problem to keep the mulch spread
uniformly on the soil surface, given its tendency to be transported by wind and overland
flow.
There is consistent experimental evidence supporting the very important role of mulch
in decreasing soil erosion. In fact, the rate of soil loss decreases exponentially with the
percentage of soil surface covered by mulch [41–44].
This can be expressed as a mulch factor (MF), defined as the ratio of soil loss from
a soil covered with mulch to that from a soil without mulch [42]. The MF is similar to
the residue cover (RC) subfactor used in the estimation of the C factor in the USLE (see
also Section 4.3 of this chapter).
Optimal protection requires that an average of 70%–75% of the soil surface is covered
by mulch. A reduction of mulch cover below this threshold may decrease the protective
value of the cover against erosion. On the other hand, considerable increases in the mulch
cover above this value may reduce plant growth.
The control of erosion by mulching gives some problems in relation to farming
operations. Tillage implements may become clogged with mulch residue. Weed and pest
control, which require special care, become more difficult, and sowing and/or planting
under a mulch residue is sometimes unsuccessful and can be done only using specifically
designed machinery for sod-seeding under mulch. However, where problems of mulching
in relation to crop performance can be overcome, it remains a very useful technique in
reducing soil erosion.
Small rock fragments on the soil surface may offer very good protection against
erosion. Special attention should be paid to the fact that, although organic mulching
decomposes reasonably quickly on the soil surface or when embedded in the soil, rock
fragments become a permanent soil feature. When the amount of rock material is above
a certain threshold (about 20%), the volume of soil available to roots and the nutrients
available to plants are reduced.
Although mulching with small rock fragments is of limited value in arable land,
making tillage and seedbed preparation more difficult, it is a traditional soil cover in
long-duration tree crops in semiarid areas. The rock cover on the soil surface does not
interfere significantly with root development in the soil beneath the rock layer. Instead,
it has several favorable effects, not only protecting the soil against erosion, but also
enhancing water collection from dew and water concentration in the tree root zone,
besides keeping weeds under control.
Rotational Grazing and Rangelands

Considering briefly other kinds of land exploitation (for instance pastures and/or
forests), the management system of the vegetation cover is also very important in relation
to erosion risks.
Rotational grazing (e.g., moving livestock from one plot to another in turn) is, gener-
ally speaking, the best system because it allows the grass to recover and thereby maintains
a continuous protective cover against erosion.
Grazing must be carefully managed, by adjusting the stocking density to the available
biomass of the pasture. In fact, whereas overgrazing leads to a deterioration of the
vegetation cover and topsoil structure and to an increase in erosion risk, undergrazing
results in the loss of nutritious grasses and legumes in favor of thorny weeds and shrubs
of low palatability.
Pasture burning is one of the most commonly employed methods for the removal of
undesirable species and for favoring regrowth of palatable species. Burning modifies
the density, stature, and composition of bush species within a plant community but
kills only a few species outright. Most brush species sprout vigorously again after fire
to the detriment of grasses. Grasses, however, fill the gaps between the brushes and
reach their maximum development within a year after burning. In any case, the increase
of bare ground due to burning enhances the erosion process in the period before the
vegetation cover is reestablished. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that, in the long
run, continuous cycles of uncontrolled burning and natural vegetation recovery cause
progressive deterioration of the composition of the vegetation and topsoil.
Controlled burning on a rotational basis may be more profitably used to remove
undesirable species, especially in temperate areas. In the Mediterranean area, on the
other hand, uncontrolled pasture burning is always dangerous, not only in relation to
pasture deterioration and soil erosion, but also in relation to its potential to burn forests
and settlements.
The use of mechanical brush clearing for pasture renewal is much safer than burning
in the semiarid and Mediterranean areas. Such a technique has, in fact, given interesting
results in the renewal of pastures in Sardinia (Italy). Leaving the chopped plants on the
surface of the pasture as a mulch after mechanical brush clearing is also a very effective
system of soil protection against erosion.
Forests
In forest management for the exploitation of timber resources, the principle of rotation
also can be conveniently applied. The commercial exploitation by patch cutting on a
rotational basis is safer than the complete logging, or clear-cutting, of a forest area. The
elimination of forest undergrowth is especially dangerous in relation to the acceleration
of soil erosion.
Erosion rates are generally higher in the period immediately after logging but decrease
consistently in subsequent years with the regrowth of natural vegetation.
Generally, reforestation is a good protection measure against erosion but it takes an av-
erage of 7–12 years or more to become effective. However, reforestation plays a detrimen-
tal role in soil protection related to the extent of soil disturbance that sometimes occurs
during the planting of new trees. Planting on undisturbed land is the most protection-
effective practice because of the quick regrowth of natural grass and bush vegetation.
However, the planted tree growth may be reduced in such conditions in comparison to
the growth of trees planted on tilled soil, because of the competition with natural grasses
and bushes.
Forest fires represent an additional hazard for increased soil erosion, not only in
terms of the elimination of the vegetation cover, but also in terms of the increase in the
hydrophobicity of the soil that occurs (depending on burning temperature). The latter
effect produces higher runoff generation and increases soil erodibility [45].
Agroforestry is a system of land management based on the alternation of arable crops
with reforested areas and/or with pasture and rangeland. Agroforestry may assume dif-
ferent geometries but generally has a consistent effect on protection of soil from erosion.
Rows, bands, or plots of trees producing wood for fire or quality wood for construction
alternate with arable fields for food production and/or with pasture or rangeland.
The system is especially important in tropical countries but it is also part of set-aside
policies in temperate areas for the production of fruits and valuable timber.
Alternation of reforested areas and pastureland also is suggested for optimal animal
husbandry on rangeland in semiarid areas, which allows rotational grazing of the pas-
tureland during the winter season and the grazing of the woodland during the summer.
The implementation of forage shrubs (e.g., Atriplex halymus) in inland Sicily (Italy) was
a measure that resulted on both a higher production of forage available for the grazing
of sheep and a very efficient measure for soil protection against erosion.
4.4.3 Measures for Wind Erosion Control

Wind erosion occurs whenever conditions are favorable for detachment and trans-
portation of soil material by wind. Five factors influence the intensity of soil erosion:
1. soil erodibility,
2. surface roughness,
3. climatic conditions (wind velocity and humidity),
4. length of exposed surface,
5. vegetative cover.
Little can be done to change the climate of an area but it is usually possible to alter one
or more of the other factors to reduce erosion. Regardless of the type of procedure, the
aims or principles for success in control of soil drifting are the same, in all areas where
wind erosion occurs. These are
• to reduce wind velocity near the ground level below the threshold velocity that will
initiate soil movement,
• to remove the abrasive material from the wind stream,
• to reduce the erodibility of the soil.
Any practice that accomplishes one or more of these objectives, therefore, will reduce
the severity of wind erosion. In this section, the most common measures are described.
More detailed information on wind erosion mechanics and methods for wind erosion
control can be found in the literature [1, 11, 39, 46–58].
Cultivated Crops
Vegetation is generally the most effective means of wind erosion control. Cultivated
crops reduce wind velocity and hold soil against the tractive force of the wind. Woody
plants, such as shrubs and trees, can be planted to reduce wind velocities over large areas.
Whenever possible, cultural practices should be used before blowing starts, because wind
erosion is easier to prevent than to arrest.
In general, close-growing crops are more efficient for erosion control than are inter-
tilled crops. The crop effectiveness depends on the following factors:
• kind of crop,
• stage of growth,
• density of cover,
• row direction,
• width of rows,
• climatic conditions.
Pasture or meadow tend to accumulate soil from neighboring cultivated fields that is
deposited by sedimentation. Field studies have shown that close-growing crops in the
Texas Panhandle gained soil, but intertilled crops lost soil by wind erosion [39].
The best practice is to seed the crop normal to prevailing winds. A good crop rotation
that maintains soil structure and conserves moisture is highly advisable. Crops adapted
to soil and climate conditions and providing protection against blowing are also rec-
ommended. Stubble mulch farming and cover crops between intertilled crops in humid
regions help control blowing until the plants become established. In dry regions, crops
with low moisture requirements planted on summer fallow land may reduce the intensity
of wind erosion. Vegetation should have the ability to grow on open sandy soils, the
firmness against the prevailing winds and long life. It should also
• supply a dense cover during critical seasons,
• provide an obstruction to the wind that is as uniform as possible,
• reduce the surface wind velocity,
• form an abundance of crop residue.
Windbreaks and Shelterbelts

Windbreaks can be defined as any type of barrier for protection from wind. Com-
monly, they are associated with mechanical or vegetative barriers for buildings, gardens,
orchards, and feedlots. Living windbreaks are known as shelterbelts. These works consist
of shrubs and trees that form barriers longer than windbreaks. In addition to reducing
wind speed, shelterbelts result in lower evapotranspiration, higher soil temperatures in
winter and lower in summer, and higher soil moisture; in many cases, these effects can
lead to increases in crop yield. A shelterbelt is designed so that it rises abruptly on the
windward side and provides both a barrier and a filter to wind movement. Such struc-
tures can reduce wind speed to less than half of that in the open, as show in Fig. 4.36
[39].
A complete belt can vary from a single line of trees, to two or three tree rows and up
to three shrub rows, one of which normally is placed on the windward side. Belt widths
may vary from about 9 m for a two-row tree belt, to about 3 m for a single-row hedge
belt. Shelterbelts should be moderately dense from ground level to tree tops if they are
Figure 4.36. Wind velocity distribution (40 cm above ground level) in the vicinity of a
windbreak as a percentage of what it would be without the structure. Source: [39].
to be effective in filtering the wind and lifting it from the surface. The correct density is
equivalent to a porosity of 40% to 50%. Less-dense barriers do not reduce wind velocity
sufficiently. Field investigations have shown that, with the increase of the density, there is
a greater reduction in wind speed initially. However, because the velocity increases more
rapidly with distance downwind than in the case for more porous barriers, these works are
effective only for very short distances [11]. Moreover, taking into account that the wind
velocity at the ends of the belts is as much as 20% greater than velocities in the open, long
shelterbelts are more effective than short ones [31]. Belt lengths should be a minimum
of 12 times the belt height (H ), which depends on the plant species selected. To allow
for deviations in wind directions, a longer length is desirable and a length of 24 times
the height is generally recommended [11]. In establishing the direction of shelterbelts,
records of wind direction and velocity, particularly during vulnerable seasons, should be
considered, and the barriers should be oriented at right angles to the prevailing direction
of winds. Where erosive winds come from several directions, grid or herringbone layouts
may be necessary. The requirement is to provide maximum protection, averaged over all
wind directions and all wind velocities, above the threshold level.
Wind-tunnel tests have shown that the effectiveness of these works depends on porous
break. Hagen [59] determined the relative wind speed and erosion for 20% and 40%
porous windbreaks. According to Hagen’s experiments, the velocity and erosion were
reduced from 6H windward to 24H leeward with the 20% porous windbreak and from
6H windward to 32H leeward with the 40% porous break. Erosion in the protected area
was less than 50% of that in the open from 2H windward to 16H leeward, and from 2H
windward to 17H leeward, respectively.
The plant species selected should be rapid growing and resistant to wind, light, and
frost. The branches should be pliable and the roots should provide a firm anchorage to
the soil. In any case, preference should be given to local rather than imported species.
These works need to be protected in their early years against livestock and spray drift.
References 209
At intervals of every three or four years, mechanical cutting is required to maintain the
sharp rise from the ground on the windward side.
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5 Irrigation and Drainage
5.1 Crop Water Requirements

L. S. Pereira and R. G. Allen
5.1.1 Main Concepts

The utilization of water for crop production has been recognized as essential since
agricultural practices began to be developed. Irrigation was practiced in old civilizations,
mainly in the Orient and the Mediterranean basin.
A few centuries ago, agricultural production changed, mainly because new crops
began to be cultivated and agricultural production became progressively oriented toward
the market. Farmers soon recognized that yields could be increased when water was
applied in larger amounts. The concept of crop water requirements (CWR) probably did
not exist when irrigation was practiced for subsistence purposes but surely developed
as evidence began to accumulate on the dependency of yields on the water applications.
These concepts became important when large engineering works began to be built to
provide for water supply to newly irrigated areas and it became necessary to estimate
the water volumes to be supplied.
The empirical concept of CWR became progressively better described through the
combination of scientific progress in physics and physiology. The following definitions
are utilized in describing crop water requirements [1, 2]:
• Evaporation is the physical process by which a liquid is transferred to the gaseous
state.
• Transpiration is the evaporation process of liquid water within a plant through the
stomata and plant surfaces into the air.
• Evapotranspiration (ET) is the combined process by which water is transferred
from a vegetative cover and soil into the atmosphere through both transpiration
from plants and evaporation from the soil, from dew, and from intercepted water
on the plant surfaces.
The concept of CWR is still diverse according to the discipline that approaches the
question. However, an agreement on this concept is essential because it is in the basis
of irrigation planning, irrigation scheduling, and water delivery scheduling, as well as
water resources planning and management. A well-accepted concept was introduced
by Doorenbos and Pruitt [3], who defined CWR as the depth of water (mm) needed
213
to meet the water loss through evapotranspiration from a disease-free crop, growing in
large fields under nonrestricting soil conditions including soil water and fertility, and
achieving full production potential under the given growing environment.
This concept accommodates all processes affecting the water use by a crop but ex-
cludes the influences of local advection, water stress, poor soil and poor fertility man-
agement, or inappropriate farming conditions. Thus, a complementary concept is used
when actual crop and field conditions are considered. This is the consumptive crop water
use (CWU) defined as the depth of water (mm) utilized by a crop through ET and culti-
vated under given farming conditions in a given growing environment. Therefore, when
optimal cropping conditions are met, CWU = CWR. Both CWR and CWU apply to
irrigated and rainfed crops. However, the first corresponds to potential yield production
whereas the second relates to the real crop condition.
The concept of crop evapotranspiration (ETc ) is intimately connected with CWR
and CWU. It is defined as the rate of ET (mm day−1 ) of a given crop as influenced by
its growth stages, environmental conditions, and crop management. To determine the
crop ET, the reference evapotranspiration (ET0 ) is used and it refers to a reference crop
cultivated in reference conditions such that its rate of ET (mm day−1 ) reflects the climatic
conditions characterizing the local environment. The transfer from ET0 to ETc is done
by adopting the crop coefficients (K c ), which represent the ratio between the rates of ET
of the cultivated crop and of the reference crop, that is, K c = ETc /ET0 .
For irrigated crops, another main concept is the irrigation water requirement (IWR),
defined as the net depth of water (mm) that is required to be applied to a crop to fully
satisfy its specific CWR. The IWR is the fraction of CWR not satisfied by rainfall, soil
water storage, and groundwater contribution.
When irrigated crops are grown under suboptimal conditions, particularly deficit
irrigation—that is, they do not achieve full production potential—the net depth of water to
be applied then is termed deficit irrigation water requirement (DIWR), which corresponds
to the adoption of a given allowable deficit in the water supply to the crop.
Depending on the irrigation supply conditions, irrigation method, equipment utilized,
irrigation scheduling, and the ability of the irrigator, the amounts of water to be applied
have to compensate for all system losses and lack of efficiency. These include losses
through percolation, seepage or leakage in the conveyance and distribution systems,
management spills of excess water in canal systems, and runoff and deep percolation in
the fields. Therefore, the gross irrigation water requirement (GIWR) corresponds to the
gross depth of water (mm) to be applied to a crop to fully satisfy its CWR. When it is
necessary to add a leaching fraction to ensure appropriate leaching of salts from the soil
profile, this depth of water is also included in GIWR.
5.1.2 Evapotranspiration: The Penman-Monteith Equation
Background
Evaporation of water requires relatively large amounts of energy, either in the form of
radiant energy or sensible heat. Therefore, the evapotranspiration process is governed by
energy exchange at the vegetation surface and is limited by the amount of energy avail-
able. It is therefore possible to predict the rate of ET given a net balance of energy fluxes.
Crop Water Requirements 215
The primary energy components which supply (or diminish) energy at a vegetation
surface are net radiation from the atmosphere (Rn ), sensible heat to the air or the equi-
librium boundary layer (H ), sensible heat to or from the soil (G) and evaporation or
evapotranspiration expressed as a flux density of latent heat (λET). Other fluxes or sinks
are present, such as energy requirements for photosynthesis, but these are quite small
relative to Rn , λET, H , and G. All terms are expressed in units of energy per horizon-
tal area per unit of time. λET is the latent heat required to vaporize one unit of water
[MJ Kg−1 ]. Therefore the energy balance can be written in terms of these four compo-
nents as
λET = Rn − H − G (5.1)
The terms on the right side of this equation can be computed from measured or
estimated climatic and vegetation factors. The climatic factors include short wave and
long wave radiant fluxes from and into the atmosphere (Rn ), effects of horizontal air
movement (wind speed) and air and surface temperatures on H , and soil heat fluxes (G).
Vegetation factors include the resistance to diffusion of vapour from within plant leaves
and stems and the resistance to diffusion of vapour from near the vegetation or soil
surface upward into the atmosphere.
For general prediction purposes, the complex turbulent structures within and above
vegetation canopies and the effects of partitioning of net radiation and energy within
the canopies can be described in terms of simple exchange coefficients or their inverses,
resistances. Generally this is accomplished using the linear “big leaf” model of Monteith
[4, 5] and Rijtema [6] where two resistances, canopy and aerodynamic, operate in series
between leaf interiors and some reference height above the vegetation (Fig. 5.1). Canopy,
Figure 5.1. Schematic representation of the “big leaf ” model with representations of the
aerodynamic resistance for heat and vapor rah = rav = ra and the surface resistance rs .
or bulk surface resistance (rs ) can be computed from the resistance of vapour flow through
individual stomata openings (rl ) and total leaf area of the vegetation.
The aerodynamic resistance (ra ) describes the resistance to the random, turbulent
transfer of vapour from the vegetation upward to the reference (weather measurement)
height and the corresponding vertical transfer of sensible heat away from or toward the
vegetation.
The energy balance equation can be arranged in terms of parameters Rn and G
and parameters within the H and λET components. If one assumes that eddy-diffusion
transfer factors for λET and H are the same and that differences between transfer factors
for momentum and those for heat can be quantified through a simple ratio, then the
Penman-Monteith (PM) form of the combination equation [4] results:
1(Rn − G) + ρc p (es − ea )/ra
λET = (5.2)
1 + γ (1 + rs /ra )
where (es − ea ) represents the vapor pressure deficit (VPD) of air at the reference (weather
measurement) height (kPa), ρ represents mean air density (kg m−3 ), c p represents specific
heat of air at a constant pressure (MJ kg−1 ◦ C−1 ), 1 represents the slope of the saturation
vapor pressure–temperature relationship at mean air temperature (kPa ◦ C−1 ), γ is the
psychometric constant (kPa ◦ C−1 ), rs is the bulk surface resistance (s m−1 ), and ra is the
aerodynamic resistance (s m−1 ).
Crop Parameters in the Penman-Monteith Equation
The fluxes of sensible and latent heat between the evaporative surface and the at-
mosphere depend upon the gradients of temperature and vapor from the surface to the
atmosphere. However, these processes are also governed by the momentum transfer,
which affects the turbulent transfer coefficients.
Assuming thermal neutrality, the wind velocity profile u(z) (m s−1 ) above a plane
surface (Fig. 5.2a) can be described by a logarithmic function of the elevation z m (m)
above that surface.
When the evaporative surface is a vegetated one, the height and architecture of the
vegetation bring the zero reference level to a plane above the ground (Fig. 2b), the
zero plane displacement height, d (m). Then, the generalized form for the wind profile
becomes
µ ¶
u∗ zm − d
u(z) = ln (5.3)
k z om
where z om is the roughness length (m) relative to the momentum transfer and depends on
the nature of the surface, u ∗ is the friction velocity due to the eddy momentum transfer,
and k is the von Kármán constant.
Both parameters, d and z om , depend on the crop height, h (m), and architecture. The
determination of z om and d from field micrometeorological measurements is presented
by several authors [9, 10]. Information exists relating d and z om to h. Most of the
proposed relationships are crop specific and represent unique functions of crop height
[10]. However, more general functions also consider the leaf area index (LAI) [11, 12]
or a plant area index [13].
Figure 5.2. Wind-speed profiles above bare soil

(a) and above a cereal-crop canopy (b) when wind
speed at 4-m elevation is the same for both
conditons. Source: [8].
From the preceding assumptions, the transfer of heat and vapor from the evaporative
surface into the air in the turbulent layer above a canopy is determined by the aerody-
namic resistance ra between the surface and the reference level (at height z m ) above the
canopy; that is,
¡ −d ¢ ¡ z h −d ¢
ln zmzom ln zoh
ra = , (5.4)
k2u z
where ra is the aerodynamic resistance (s m−1 ), z m is the height of the measurements of
wind velocity (m), z h is the height of air temperature and humidity measurements (m), d is
the zero plane displacement height (m), z om is the roughness length relative to momentum
transfer (m), z oh is the roughness length relative to heat and vapor transfer (m), u z is the
wind velocity at height z m (m s−1 ), and k is the von Kármán constant (= 0.41).
Equation (5.4) assumes that the evaporative surface represented by the “big leaf” is
inside the canopy. However, exchanges in the top layer of the canopy, between heights
d +z om and h, are important as a source of vapor fluxes. Adopting the height d +z om as the
level of the evaporative surface would lead to overestimation of ra and underestimation
of rs [7]. Thus, in the alternative, ra can be computed from the top of the canopy [14]:
¡ −d ¢ ¡ z h −d ¢
ln zmzom ln h−d
ra = 2
. (5.5)
k uz
The application of Eqs. (5.4) and (5.5) for short time periods (hourly or less) us-
ing aerodynamic approaches requires the inclusion of corrections for stability [10, 12,
15–18]. These corrections are not considered when weather factors are measured at only
one (reference) level, that is, under the assumption of neutral conditions stated earlier,
and are less important under well-watered conditions.
The height z oh is estimated as a fraction of z om , commonly z oh = 0.1 z om , for short

and fully covering crops (see [2, 19–21]). However, the factor 0.2 is prefered by some
authors for tall and partial cover crops (see [17, 22]) whereas the ratio 1:7 is assumed
by others (see [23–26]). Computation of the roughness length z oh for heat and vapor is
not a problem in itself because there is relatively little effect on the ET calculations from
selecting a z oh /z om ratio between 0.1 and 0.2.
The surface resistance for full-cover canopies is often expressed [4] as
rs = rl /LAIeff , (5.6)
where rs is the surface resistance (s m−1 ), rl is the bulk stomatal resistance of a well-
illuminated leaf (s m−1 ), and LAIeff is the effective leaf area index ( ). A common
formulation is that assumed by Szeicz and Long [27] and reviewed by Allen et al. [21],
LAIeff = 0.5 LAI, (5.7)
which takes into consideration that only the upper half of a dense canopy is actively con-
tributing to the surface heat and vapor transfer. Other formulations have been proposed,
namely by Ben-Mehrez et al. [28],
LAIeff = LAI/(0.3 LAI + 1.2). (5.8)
This equation provides for a somewhat higher effective LAI for the initial crop stages
(small LAI) and somewhat smaller values when the crop develops and LAI increases.
Applicability of the Penman-Monteith Equation
The PM equation (5.2) can be utilized for the direct calculation of crop ET because
the surface and aerodynamic resistances are crop specific. However, despite research,
data are available only for a limited number of crops. Typical values for rl and rs are
given in reviews by Garratt [29] and Allen et al. [10]. For z om and d and information on
predicting LAI, see Allen et al. [10].
The computation of ra with Eqs. (5.4) and (5.5) for partial cover crops presents some
problems relative to the predictive calculation of the roughness length z om and the zero
plane displacement height d. For partial cover crops, it is necessary to treat the soil and
the crop separately, thus considering two surface resistances [30, 31]. Shuttleworth and
Wallace [32] developed a specific model for partial cover crops, which considers a more
complex but rational separation of fluxes from the soil surface up to the canopy boundary
layer. Good results have been obtained with that model [33]. The applicability of the
“big leaf” approach to partial cover crops is questionable.
There is very little information on the early crop growth stages, when LAI is small. For
the partial cover crops, approaches are still insufficient. Information is also scarce for fruit
crops. For conditions of incomplete ground cover, other problems include the roughness
of the surface and the variable albedo of the surface, which is now a combination of
vegetation and soil, thus affecting the calculation of net radiation Rn .
Other difficulties concern the prediction of the surface resistance rs . There is relatively
little information on bulk stomatal resistances rl characterizing a given crop; rl usually
increases as a crop matures and begins to ripen. The use of prediction equations is
difficult because of differences among varieties and in crop management. Information on
stomatal conductance or stomatal resistances available in the literature is often oriented
to physiological or ecophysiological studies and is not easy to use predictively with
Eq. (5.6). There are also difficulties in measuring or estimating the LAI and plant height h
over time [10].
It is well known that resistances rl and rs are influenced by climate and water avail-
ability to the crop. Influences change from one crop to another and different varieties can
be affected differently. Surface resistance rs increases when the crop is water stressed
or when soil water availability limits crop ET, when the VPD increases, and when ra
is higher. On the contrary, rs decreases when energy available at the surface increases.
However, all factors act together. The dependency of surface resistances on the climate
is described by several authors [4, 11, 34–38]. It can be demonstrated [39] that rs varies
according to
µ ¶
1 ρc p VPD
rs = ra β − 1 + (1 + β) , (5.9)
γ γ (Rn − G)
where all parameters are defined as for the PM equation (5.2) and β is the Bowen ratio,
β = H/λET. In this equation, β plays the role of a water stress indicator. This equation
illustrates that weather variables interact and that their influences are interdependent.
This brings into consideration the difficulties in appropriately selecting the rs to be
utilized predictively, unless appropriate simplifications are assumed.
Despite these difficulties, many recent studies have advocated using the PM formu-
lation for estimating ET. McNaughton and Jarvis [40], Sharma [41], Hatfield and Fuchs
[42], and Burman and Pochop [43] considered the PM equation to be the most acceptable
form of the combination equation for computing crop and reference ET. The PM ap-
proach is commonly utilized in field studies of crop evapotranspiration (e.g., [7, 44–48]).
Several crop–water models use the PM equation predictively, as do environmental mod-
els (e.g., [49–51]). This equation also is utilized widely in hydrology, particularly to
predict ET from forests [52].
The difficulties referred to earlier create challenges in applying the PM equation
or other more complex multilayer resistance equations to directly estimate ET from
complex crop canopies. The algorithms and equations needed to describe changes in
resistances and net radiation require more than a few simple equations. Current work
at research locations around the globe is focusing on improving our ability to directly
apply the PM equation or multilayer ET models to specific agricultural crops. However,
the research community is probably some 10 to 15 years away from producing one-step
procedures that are consistent, predictable, and reliable. When these one-step procedures
do become available, they will likely be in the form of relatively complex computer
models. Meanwhile, at present, full advantage in irrigation practice can be taken of the
PM equation only to compute the reference ET and to determine the crop ET through
use of the crop coefficients.
5.1.3 Description of the Reference Evapotranspiration

Introductory Aspects
The concept of reference ET (ET0 ) was introduced [53, 54] to avoid ambiguities that
existed with the definition of potential ET. ET0 refers to the ET rates from vegetation
over which weather measurements are made. Adopting this concept and grass as the
reference crop, Pruitt and Doorenbos [55] were able to develop and validate methods to
predict ET0 on the basis of actual field measurements in several locations.
Potential evaporation (E p ) is the evaporation from a surface when all surface–atmos-
pheric interfaces are wet (saturated) so that there is no restriction on the rate of evaporation
from the surface, except for atmospheric conditions and energy available at the surface
[1, 2]. Similarly, potential ET (ET p ) is the rate at which water would be removed from
a wet (saturated) complex of vegetated surface and soil so that, without restriction, ET p
depends on atmospheric conditions and energy available at the evaporative surface but is
influenced by the geometric characteristics of the vegetated surface, such as aerodynamic
resistance, vegetative structure, and density. An updated discussion on the above concepts
in reference to actual and crop ET is given by Pereira et al. [14].
Numerous researchers (e.g., [56–58]) have compared measured ET of grass crops with
estimates of ET computed from meteorological measurements and have contributed to
the identification of sources of inaccuracy of standardized methods and of improvements
that could contribute to the consistency of estimation. It has been possible to test and
validate improvements to the reference methodology because it was simple, clear, and
based on solid, knowledgeably made measurements. Meanwhile, research has provided
abundant information that has permited appropriate revision and updating of the reference
ET concept as well as calculation procedures [2, 59, 60].
The reference ET takes into consideration the effects of climate on CWR, but refers
to ET from vegetation over which weather measurements are made and provides for a
consistent set of crop coefficients to be used to determine ET for other crops. Relating ET0
to a specific crop has the advantage of representing the biological and physical processes
involved in the energy balance at the cropped surface. Adoption of ET0 has made it
easier to select consistent crop coefficients and to make reliable crop ET estimates in new
areas. The use of the crop coefficient–ET0 approach has been enormously successful in
obviating the need to calibrate a separate ET equation for each crop and stage of growth. It
also has provided a working model [14] that can be used until more sophisticated methods
become available for direct estimation of actual crop ET. Therefore, it is important to
retain the use of ET0 and to promote its use in making routine estimates of crop ET.
Adopting a living reference grass crop as defined by Doorenbos and Pruitt [55] pro-
vides for a height ranging between 0.08 and 0.15 m, and thus a large variation in bulk
surface resistance rs (100 to 50 s m−1 ). Therefore, the average rs and the associated aero-
dynamic resistances may vary appreciably with time between clippings and locations,
depending on the structural characteristics and regrowth rates of the grass variety and
management schedules. Difficulties with a living grass reference result from the fact that
the grass variety and morphology can significantly affect the rate of ET0 , mainly during
peak periods of water consumption. Maintenance of a living reference crop for use in
computing crop coefficients for other crops is difficult.
The definition and concept of ET0 must be one-dimensional with respect to evap-
oration and energy exchange processes. This means that all fluxes within the energy
balance (net radiation, sensible heat, soil heat, and latent heat) must be uniformly verti-
cal along the horizontal surface so that the reference surface completely represents the
one-dimensional ET processes of large plantings. The requirement that the measurement
of ET0 be one-dimensional often is violated in lysimeter studies, in which the crop in the
lysimeter or measurement area is taller or shorter than that outside the area or extends
beyond the horizontal dimensions of the lysimeter. Various problems and effects of the
maintenance of the necessary environmental, site, and equipment conditions have been
discussed in the literature [57, 61–66]. In the discussion by Allen et al. [59], errors of
20% and up to 30% in measuring ET are reported.
Boundary-layer measurements of ET also can be beset with operational problems.
These systems, which include eddy correlation and Bowen ratio systems, require long
fetch in the upwind direction. In addition, boundary-layer measurement-equipment com-
ponents are delicate and require special maintenance. These requirements often limit
eddy correlation and Bowen ratio systems to research studies. A number of researchers
have analyzed the requirements for and measurements errors in ET boundary-layer mea-
suring systems [47, 56, 67–69].
The measurement of ET by performing a continuous soil water balance from data
collected through the monitoring of soil water has never received the preference of
researchers mainly because of difficulties in instrumentation and spatial variability. An
analysis of the performance of neutron probe readings in estimating ET is given by
Carrijo and Cuenca [70].
In summary, despite progress in measuring ET, it is preferable for irrigation practice,
to compute ET0 from weather data, and hence to use a climatic reference ET definition,
and to adopt a reference grass crop with constant height.
Definition of Reference Evapotranspiration

The primary purpose for developing ET0 equations is to estimate a reference ET by
which a crop coefficient is multiplied to obtain an estimate of crop ET. In many instances,
the ET0 equation has represented a hypothetical living crop reference in order to provide
for a complete record of ET0 during the development of crop coefficients and during
calibration or analysis of other ET equations. Wright and Jensen [53] and Wright [71]
utilized a hypothetical alfalfa ET0 ; Jensen [54] and Jensen et al. [2] used an equation
to represent “lysimeter ET”; George et al. [72], Pruitt and Swann [56], and Feddes [73]
used an ET0 equation to represent a hypothetical grass ET0 ; and Martin and Gilley [74]
also assumed a hypothetical grass reference crop.
Allen et al. [21] and Jensen et al. [2] supported the use of the PM equation to represent
both alfalfa and grass ET0 . The PM method was ranked high among all methods evaluated
in the American Society of Civil Engineers’ (ASCE) study [2], both as a grass and as
an alfalfa reference. Based on results of studies reported here, the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) Expert Consultation on Revision of FAO Methodologies for Crop
Water Requirements [75] recommended the PM method as the primary ET0 method for
defining grass ET0 and for determining crop coefficients. A hypothetical grass reference
crop with constant height and surface resistance was selected to avoid problems with
local calibration that would require demanding and expensive studies.
The surface resistance [Eq. (5.6)] of a grass crop can be well estimated because it
is commonly accepted that the average minimum daytime value of stomatal resistance
for a single leaf is approximated as rl = 100 s m−1 ; the LAI effective for transpiration
can be appropriately calculated using LAIeff = 0.5 LAI; and the LAI for a clipped grass
with height not larger than 0.15 m can be approximated as LAI = 24 h. The above
approximations produce the following relationship for the surface resistance:
100 200
rs = = . (5.10)
0.5 LAI 24 h
If a constant h = 0.12 m is assumed hypothetically [75], Eq. (5.10) yields a constant
LAI = 2.88, which produces the constant value rs = 70 s m−1 . These characteristics, with
the additional standard crop reflectivity factor (albedo), fully characterize a hypothetical
grass reference crop as discussed by Allen et al. [59].
The same assumption is adopted in the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Handbook
[74], where the clipped grass reference crop is considered with constant height h =
0.125 m. This results in also adopting a constant rs = 66 s m−1 .
The selection of constant height and bulk surface resistance parameters is a com-
promise and may not represent reality in all climatic regimes. However, this selection
provides consistent ET0 values in all regions and climates and among research locations.
The PM equation is a close, simple representation of the physical and physiological fac-
tors governing the ET process. By using the PM definition for ET0 , one may calculate crop
coefficients at research sites where ET0 is not measured simultaneously with measured
ET from other crops. In addition, various crops may exhibit variations in rs with climate
that are different from those exhibited by grass. In the K c ET0 approach, the variations in
rs and ra relative to the reference crop are accounted for within the crop coefficient, which
serves as an aggregation of the physical and physiological differences between crops (see
Pereira et al. [14]). The aggregation of various differences and the development of crop
coefficients should be simplified by using the constant rs in the ET0 definition [76, 77].
Therefore, the reference ET (ET0 ) is defined as the rate of ET from a hypothetical
reference crop with an assumed crop height of 0.12 m, a fixed surface resistance of
70 s m−1 , and an albedo of 0.23, closely resembling the ET from an extensive surface
of green grass of uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the ground, and
having adequate water.
The Penman-Monteith ET0 Equation
The grass reference crop in the above definition can be fully described using the PM
approach. The grass reference crop is probably, together with alfalfa, the best-studied
crop regarding its aerodynamic and bulk stomatal characteristics [2, 21, 59, 60].
The aerodynamic resistance ra (Eq. 5.4) can be calculated easily because the zero plane
displacement height can be estimated from the crop height h, d = 0.67h; the roughness
height for momentum transfer can be given by z om = 0.123h; and the roughness height
for heat and vapor transfer can be approximated by z oh = 0.1z om .
From the constant crop height h = 0.12 m, the following standardized grass reference
parameters result: zero plane displacement height d = 0.08 m; roughness height for
momentum transfer z om = 0.015 m; roughness height for heat and vapor transfer z oh =
0.0015 m.
Assuming a standardized height for wind-speed, temperature, and humidity measure-
ments at 2.0 m (z m = z h = 2.0 m), and introducing the above parameters into Eq. (5.4),
the following aerodynamic resistance results:
ra = 208/U2 , (5.11)
where ra is the aerodynamic resistance (s m−1 ), and U2 is the wind-speed measurement

at 2-m height (m s−1 ).
When wind speed is measured at a height higher than 2.0 m, assuming the logarithmic
profile of the wind (Eq. 5.3) the wind speed at 2.0 m (U2 ) can be obtained from the wind
speed at height z m (Uz ) by
¡ ¢
ln 2−d
z om
U2 = Uz ¡ zm −d ¢ . (5.12)
ln zom
For the standard heights d = 0.08 m and z om = 0.015 m, the following simplified
equation results:
4.87
U2 = U z . (5.13)
ln(67.8z m − 5.42)
When ra from Eq. (5.11) is combined with rs = 70 s m−1 , the FAO-PM ET0 equation
for 24-h periods becomes [59, 60, 75]:
0.4081(Rn − G) + γ T +273
900
U2 (es − ea )
ET0 = , (5.14)
1 + γ (1 + 0.34U2 )
where ET0 is the reference ET (mm day−1 ); Rn is the net radiation at the crop surface
(MJ m−2 day−1 ); G is the soil heat flux density (MJ m−2 d−1 ); T is the average temper-
ature at 2-m height (◦ C); U2 is the wind speed measured at 2-m height (m s−1 ); (es − ea )
is the vapor pressure deficit for measurements at 2-m height (kPa); 1 is the slope va-
por pressure curve (kPa ◦ C−1 ); γ is the psychometric constant (kPa ◦ C−1 ); 900 is the
coefficient for the reference crop (kJ−1 kg K day−1 ) resulting from conversion of units
and substitution of variables ρ, c p , and ra ; 0.34 is the wind coefficient for the reference
crop (kJ−1 kg K) resulting from the ratio rs /ra (70/208 = 0.34); and 0.408 is the value
for 1/λ with λ = 2.45 MJ kg−1 . Details on the derivation of this equation are given by
Allen et al. [60].
To ensure the integrity of computations, the weather measurements for this equation
must be taken above an extensive surface of green grass, with shading of the ground and
no shortage of water.
The form of Eq. (5.14) is not very different from other Penman expressions except for
the addition of T in the numerator and U2 in both the numerator and the denominator.
A form of the FAO-PM equation for calculating hourly ET0 is analyzed by Allen et al.
[60].
The FAO-PM equation should not require local calibration or use of a localized wind
function if wind speed is measured at a height of 2 m or is adjusted to this height
[Eq. (5.13)].
No weather-based ET equation can be expected to predict ET perfectly under every
climatic situation because of simplifications in formulation and errors in data measure-
ment. Precision instruments under excellent environmental and biological management
conditions probably will show that the FAO-PM equation (5.14) deviates at times from
true measurements of grass ET0 . However, it has been the opinion of the FAO Expert
Consultation [75] that the hypothetical reference definition of the FAO-PM equation
should be used as the definition for grass ET0 when deriving crop coefficients. This rec-
ommendation is based on the important need to standardize the ET0 concept and its use.
5.1.4 Calculation of the Reference Evapotranspiration

Weather Data Requirements and Availability
The FAO-PM method requires that the following data be available for the daily (or
monthly) calculations:
• temperature, that is, maximum and minimum daily air temperature (Tmax and Tmin );
• humidity, that is, dewpoint temperature (Tdew ), maximum and minimum relative
humidity (RHmax and RHmin ), or dry- and wet-bulb temperature (Tdry and Twet );
• wind speed, daily average (Uz or U2 );
• radiation, that is, net radiation Rn , shortwave incoming solar radiation (Rs ), or
bright sunshine hours per day (n).
An optimal situation occurs when all four types of these observations are made in
a weather station (see “Daily ET calculations with FAO-PM Method,” below). Many
weather stations have only limited instrumentation and do not provide data for all types
of required meteorological variables. This calls for the use of appropriate estimation
methods (see “Estimation of ET0 with Limited Weather Data,” below) or for the appli-
cation of other ET equations (see “Estimation of ET0 with Other Equations,” below).
ET0 also can be estimated from pan evaporation data (see “Pan-Evaporation Method,”
below). Unfortunately, it is not enough that observations be made, but also that integrity
of data be assessed. Often, data sets are incomplete or do not comply with homogeneity
requirements. Although accuracy of measurements is important, errors resulting from
inadequacy of the site may be more important than normal errors of observations.
The quality of reference ET depends upon the quality of the weather data utilized.
It therefore is advisable that the quality of weather data be assessed before these data
are utilized in ET0 calculations. Data integrity screening should be a part of every agri-
cultural weather network to ensure that high-quality and representative data are being
collected and provided to users. Procedures presented by Allen [78] concern the calcula-
tion of clear sky envelopes for solar radiation, computational validation of net radiation
measurements, and expected trends and relationships between air vapor content and air
temperature.
Because the ET0 definition and concept apply to a grass crop that is adequately
watered and actively transpiring, it is important to follow these conditions in selecting and
screening weather data. Any deviations in weather measurements from those expected
within an agricultural situation will violate equilibrium boundary-layer profiles and
energy exchange conditions representative of a grass reference condition.
ET in an arid, nonirrigated environment is low during periods of low rainfall. Air
temperatures T and VPDs in these environments are higher relative to an irrigated
environment because of a greater conversion of net radiation into sensible heat. Use of
data (particularly humidity and temperature) from nonirrigated weather stations may
introduce a bias into ET equations, generally causing overestimation [79]. Differences
in mean daily air temperatures as high as 4-5◦ C on a monthly basis between arid and
irrigated stations located less than 10 km apart caused an overestimation of 16% in
seasonally computed ET0 . Procedures for analysis and correction of weather data from
nonreference sites are presented by Allen [78] and Allen et al. [10].
Daily ET0 Calculations with FAO-PM Method
Several parameters characterizing the state of humidity in the atmosphere and the
vapor transfer from the canopy into the air, and the energy available at the surface are
required in the ET calculations with the FAO-PM. Details on these parameters are given
by Allen et al. [60]. Calculations of ET0 that are made using monthly average weather
data are very similar to calculations made using daily average weather data on daily
calculation time steps and summed over each day of the month [60]. The standardized
daily ET0 calculation procedures are described in the following subsections:
Slope of Vapor Pressure Curve (1)
The relationship between air temperature and saturation vapor pressure is character-
ized by the slope of the vapor pressure curve 1 (kPa ◦ C−1 ) as follows:
£ ¤
2504 exp T17.27T
+237.3
1= , (5.15)
(T + 237.3)2
where T is the mean daily air temperature (◦ C)
Psychrometric Constant (γ )
The saturation vapor pressure at wet-bulb temperature is related to the actual air
conditions by
γ = 0.00163(P/λ), (5.16)
where γ is the psychrometric constant (kPa ◦ C−1 ), P is the atmospheric pressure (kPa),
and λ is the latent heat of vaporization = 2.45 MJ kg−1 .
A simplified equation derived from the ideal-gas law can be assumed for the atmo-
spheric pressure as a function of elevation z (m):
µ ¶
293 − 0.0065z 5.26
P = 101.3 . (5.17)
293
Saturation Vapor Pressure (es )

The saturation vapor pressure is given by
µ ¶
17.27T
e0 (T ) = 0.611 exp , (5.18)
T + 237.3
where e0 (T ) is the saturation vapor pressure function (kPa) and T is the air temperature
(◦ C). For 24-h time periods, es should be computed for the maximum and minimum
daily temperature (Tmax and Tmin ):
e0 (Tmax ) + e0 (Tmin )
es = . (5.19)
2
Computations using the mean daily temperature should be avoided because the
temperature–saturation vapor pressure relationship is not linear, and this would cause
underprediction of es . An estimation of Tmax and Tmin from Tmean is given in Eqs. (5.46)
and (5.47).
Actual Vapor Pressure (ea )
The actual vapor pressure ea is the saturation vapor pressure at dewpoint temperature
(Tdew ). The following approximations [60] are given, in a decreasing order of accuracy,
for daily ea computations.
Dewpoint Temperature. When available, it provides the best estimate:
µ ¶
17.27Tdew
ea = e0 (Tdew ) = 0.611 exp , (5.20)
Tdew + 237.3
where ea is the actual vapor pressure (kPa) and Tdew is the dewpoint temperature (◦ C).
Psychrometer Measurements. Using measurements with dry- and wet-bulb thermome-
ters ea can be approximated by use of of the following equation:
ea = e0 (Twet ) − γasp (Tdry − Twet )P, (5.21)
where γasp is 0.00066 for Assmann aspiration at 5 m s−1 , 0.0008 for natural ventilation
at 1 m s−1 , and 0.0012 for indoor ventilation of 0 m s−1 (◦ C−1 ); Tdry is the dry-bulb
temperature (◦ C); Twet is the wet-bulb temperature (◦ C); P is the atmospheric pressure
(kPa), and e0 (Twet ) is the saturation vapor pressure at wet-bulb temperature (kPa).
Hygrometer (or Psychrometer) Measurements of Relative Humidity (RH). When two
RH measurements are available daily at early morning and at early afternoon, the fol-
lowing equation can be used:
1 0 RHmax 1 RHmin
ea = e (Tmin ) + e0 (Tmax ) , (5.22)
2 100 2 100
where e0 (Tmin ) and e0 (Tmax ) are the saturation vapor pressure (kPa) computed at Tmin and
Tmax , respectively, and RHmax and RHmin are, respectively, the maximum and minimum
daily RH (%).
When only mean daily relative humidity (RHmean ) data are available, average daily
vapor pressure ea can be computed as
RHmean
ea = . (5.23)
50
+ e0 (T50max )
e0 (Tmin )
Calculation of RHmean by averaging hourly readings and calculation of ea from Tmean

are discouraged because computations may be biased.
Vapor Pressure Deficit (VPD)
The VPD (kPa) is computed as
VPD = es − ea , (5.24)
where es is the saturation vapor pressure (kPa) and ea is the actual vapor pressure (kPa).
Net Radiation (Rn )
The net radiant energy Rn available at the evaporating surfaces is a fraction of the
extraterrestrial radiation Ra and is calculated from the radiation balance.
Part of Ra is lost by absortion or reflection when passing through the atmosphere.
The total incoming shortwave solar radiation Rs is termed global radiation. A fraction
of the global radiation is reflected back to the atmosphere, depending on the reflectivity
characteristics of the surface, that is, the albedo α. A part of that which is absorbed by
the surface is reradiated back as long wave radiation Rlu . A fraction of Rlu is returned as
incoming long wave radiation from the atmosphere, Rld . The radiation balance therefore
can be written as
Rn = Rs↓ − α Rs↑ − Rlu↑ + Rld↓, (5.25)
where the arrow indicates when the radiation component is incoming (↓) or outgoing
(↑).
Extraterrestrial Radiation (Ra ). This radiation at the top of the atmosphere can be
computed as a function of the latitude of the site and the day of the year as
Ra = 37.6 dr (ωs sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ sin ωs ), (5.26)
where Ra is the daily total extraterrestrial radiation (MJ m−2 day−1 ); 37.6 is a coefficient
relative to the time duration of calculation and the solar constant (MJ m−2 day−1 ), dr is
the relative distance from Earth to the Sun ( ); δ is the solar declination (rad); ϕ is the
latitude (rad) and is negative for the Southern Hemisphere); and ωs is the sunset hour
angle (rad).
The sunset hour angle is a function of the latitude and the solar declination:
ωs = arccos(−tan ϕ tan δ). (5.27)
The relative distance from Earth to the Sun and the solar declination can be estimated
as functions of the day in the year:
dr = 1 + 0.033 cos(0.0172J ), (5.28)
δ = 0.409 sin(0.0172J − 1.39), (5.29)
where J is the number of the day in the year ( ), with January 1st = 1. For daily values,
J can be determined by
J = integer[275(M/9) − 30 + D] − 2, (5.30)
provided that, if M < 3, then J = J +2 and in a leap year when M > 2, then J = J +1,
where M is the month number (1–12), starting in January, and D is the day in the month.
For monthly values, J can be determined for the middle of the month by
J = integer(30.5M − 14.6). (5.31)
Global Radiation Rs . When not measured, Rs can be estimated from sunshine hours
and Ra as
Rs = [as + bs (n/N )]Ra , (5.32)
where Rs is the incoming solar radiation (MJ m−2 day−1 ), as is the fraction of extrater-
restrial radiation Ra on overcast days, bs is the proportionality factor, n is the bright
sunshine hours per day (h), and N is the total length of the day (h), as = 0.25 and
bs = 0.50 for average climate conditions.
The daylight hours N are calculated from the sunset hour angle as
N = (24/π )ωs = 7.64 ωs . (5.33)
Net Shortwave Radiation Rns . Representing the balance between incoming and reflected
solar radiation, Rns (MJ m−2 day−1 ) is given by
Rns = (1 − α)Rs , (5.34)
where α is the albedo or canopy reflection coefficient ( ); α = 0.23 for the grass reference
crop.
Net Long-wave Radiation (Rnl ). Defined as the balance between the downcoming long-
wave radiation from the atmosphere (Rld↓) and the outgoing long-wave radiation emitted
by the vegetation and the soil (Rlu↑), Rnl (MJ m−2 day−1 ) is computed as
TK4x + TK4n
Rnl = − f ε0 σ , (5.35)
2
where f is the cloudiness factor ( ), ε 0 is the net emissivity of the surface ( ), σ is the
Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 4.90 × 10−9 MJ m−2 K−4 day−1 , and TK x and TK n are,
respectively, the maximum and minimum daily air temperatures (K).
The cloudiness factor f represents the ratio between actual net long-wave radiation
and the net long-wave radiation for a clear-sky day and is computed as
Rs
f = ac + bc , (5.36)
Rso
where Rso is the shortwave solar radiation for a clear-sky day (MJ m−2 day−1 ), ac ≈ 1.35,
and bc ≈ −0.35 for average climate conditions, with ac + bc ≈ 1.0.
Rso for daily periods can be estimated as

Rso = (0.75 + 2 × 10−5 z) Ra , (5.37)
where 0.75 = as +bs Eq. (5.36), z is the station elevation (m), and Ra is the extraterrestrial
radiation (MJ m−2 day−1 ). This equation is valid for station elevations less than 6,000 m
that have low air turbidity. Alternative equations for locations with high air turbidity and
variable humidity are given by Allen [78].
The net emissivity of the surface, ε0 , represents the difference between the emissivity
by the vegetation and the soil and the effective emissivity of the atmosphere and is
computed as
√
ε 0 = 0.34 − 0.14 ea , (5.38)
where ea is the actual vapor pressure (kPa). The coefficients a1 = 0.34 and b1 = −0.14
are recommended for average atmospheric conditions.
Net Radiation Rn . This is computed as the algebraic sum of the net shortwave radiation
Rns and the net long-wave radiation Rnl :
Rn = Rns + Rnl . (5.39)
Soil Heat Flux Density G
For daily calculations, G (MJ m−2 day−1 ) can be estimated using a simplified approach
to the heat balance of the soil profile:
G = 0.1(Ti − Ti−1 ), (5.40)
where Ti is the mean daily air temperature (◦ C), Ti−1 is the mean air temperature (◦ C) of
the preceding three-day period, and 0.1 is an empirical conversion factor (MJ m−2 day−1
◦ −1
C ). Because the magnitude of daily soil heat flux beneath densely planted grass is
relatively small, it can be neglected (i.e., G = 0).
For monthly time-step calculations, G can be computed from the mean monthly
temperatures of the current and preceding months as
G = 0.14(Tmonth i − Tmonth i−1 ) (5.41)
Hourly ET0 Calculations with the FAO-PM Method
It is recommended that ET0 for hourly or shorter time periods be computed using the
FAO-PM equation for hourly calculations (hourly FAO-PM):
0.4081(Rn − G) + γ T +273
37
U2 (es − ea )
ET0 = , (5.42)
1 + γ (1 + 0.34 U2 )
where the units for ET0 are mm h−1 ; Rn and G have units of MJ m−2 h−1 ; U2 is hourly
wind speed at 2 m in m s−1 ; and T (◦ C), es (kPa), and ea (kPa) are measured at 2.0 m
and are relative to the hour period. The only distinction between the daily Eq. (5.14) and
this one is that the 900 coefficient has become 37. Calculation procedures are given by
Allen et al. [60].
Calculation of ET0 on hourly or shorter time steps is generally better than using 24-h
calculation time steps in areas where substantial changes in wind speed, dewpoint, or
cloudiness occur during the day.
The hourly FAO-PM also assumed that bulk surface resistance rs remains constant
throughout a day at 70 s m−1 . As noted by many authors [4, 34, 35, 37], rs has been
observed to change with solar radiation, VPD, leaf temperature, and soil moisture deficit.
However, relationships determined at various sites and with various data sets do not
provide more consistent estimates than a constant rs . This is discussed by Allen et al.
[10, 60]. Thus, assuming a hypothetical grass reference with rs = 70 s m−1 for all hourly
periods is realistic, especially because adjustments for atmospheric stability are also
absent from ra in the FAO-PM equations.
Estimation of ET0 with Limited Weather Data
For both daily and monthly calculations, data for some weather variables frequently
are missing. This requires appropriate procedures to estimate such meteorological vari-
ables and then use these estimates in the FAO-PM calculations presented in the section
entitled “Daily ET Calculations with FAO-PM Method,” above.
Case When Radiation Data Are Missing
Several alternative methodologies can be utilized to estimate shortwave incoming
radiation Rs . These have been evaluated using several data sets, namely those for a large
variety of climates in the world included in CLIMWAT [80] for a total of 918 weather
stations in 20 countries [81].
Use of Rs /Ra Data from a Nearby Weather Station. This method relies on the fact that,
for the same month, very often for the same day, the variables commanding incoming
solar radiation Rs in a given region are similar. This assumption implies that a nearby
station should be at a distance not greater than 300 km; the physiography of the region
should be such that relief is negligible in influencing the movement of air masses, and
the air masses governing rainfall and cloudiness are the same.
Much caution should be used when the method is to be applied to mountainous and
coastal areas, where differences in exposure and altitude could be important or where
rainfall is variable because of convective conditions.
Thus, for locations where a nearby weather station exists within the same homoge-
neous region, the best estimate for Rs is
Rs = (Rs /Ra )nt Ra , (5.43)
where Ra is the daily extraterrestrial radiation (MJ m−2 day−1 ) for the same location
and (Rs /Ra )nt is the ratio of shortwave to extraterrestrial radiation ( ) obtained from
observations at the nearest (subscript nt) weather station.
This estimation method is recommended for monthly and daily calculations. However,
when using it for daily estimates, a more careful analysis of weather data in the importing
and exporting meteorological stations has to be performed to verify if both stations are in
the same homogeneous climatic region. That analysis should include the comparison of
daily data from both stations, particularly concerning Tmax , Tmin , (Tmax − Tmin ), RHmax ,
RHmin , and (RHmax − RHmin ). In fact, similar cloudiness (and similar n/N ratios) are
related to similarities in temperature and humidity trends.
Use of a Relationship with the Temperature Difference (Tmax − Tmin ). It is known that
the difference between maximum and minimum air temperature is related to cloudiness
conditions. Clear-sky conditions correspond to higher Tmax because the atmosphere is
transparent to the incoming radiation, and to low Tmin because long-wave radiation is
returned only in a small fraction. On the contrary, overcast conditions correspond to a
lower Tmax because a larger part of the radiation is absorbed and reflected upward by
the clouds, whereas Tmin is higher because, reflected downward, long-wave radiation
is increased. Therefore, the difference (Tmax − Tmin ) can be used as an indicator of the
fraction of extraterrestrial radiation that becomes available at an evaporative surface.
This principle has been utilized by Hargreaves and Samani [82] to develop estimates of
ET0 using only air-temperature data. Then [83],
Rs = K r (Tmax − Tmin )0.5 Ra , (5.44)
where Rs is the daily shortwave incoming solar radiation (MJ m−2 day−1 ); Ra is the
daily extraterrestrial radiation (MJ m−2 day−1 ), Tmax and Tmin are the maximum and the
minimum air temperatures (◦ C), and K r is an adjustment coefficient (◦ C−1/2 ).
The adjustment coefficient K r is empirical and takes different values for interior or
coastal regions:
• For interior locations, where land mass dominates (i.e., where air masses are not
strongly influenced by a large water body), K r = 0.16.
• For coastal locations, situated on or adjacent to the coast of a large land mass that
is greater than about 20 km wide in the inland direction (i.e., where air masses are
influenced by a nearby water body but depend on the wind direction), K r = 0.19.
This temperature difference method is recommended for locations where it is not
appropriate to import Rs /Ra information from a nearby station [Eq. (5.43)], because
no homogeneous climate conditions occur or because data are lacking in the
region.
Caution is recommended when daily computations are required. Daily estimates
should be used when summed or averaged to a several-day period (7 or 10 days, as
in irrigation scheduling computations).
Case When Wind-Speed Data Are Missing
Two approaches can be utilized to overcome the problem of missing windspeed data.
Use of Wind-Speed Data from a Nearby Weather Station. Importing wind-speed data
from a nearby station, as for Rs discussed earlier, relies on the fact that airflow above a
homogeneous region may have relatively large space variations during the course of a
day but small variation over longer periods or even over the day itself. This occurs when
air masses are of the same origin or when the same fronts govern airflows in the region
where both importing and exporting stations are located. Thus, when a location exists
within a given region where wind-speed data are available (U2 ), it may be possible to
utilize the same U2 at a nearby station where wind-speed data are missing.
The decision to import U2 data from another station has to be taken after checking the
regional climate and relief. In areas with relief, the nearest station may not necessarily
be the best one for providing data but rather more distant a station with similar elevation
and exposure to the dominant winds may be more appropriate. This may vary from one
season to another.
Use of wind-speed data from a nearby weather station is acceptable for daily estimates
if climate homogeneity is checked and if daily estimates are to be summed or averaged
to several-day periods (7 or 10 days, or time intervals between irrigations) in irrigation
scheduling computations. To check validity of imported wind-speed data, trends of other
meteorological variables have to be checked. Strong winds often are associated with a
decrease in air moisture, and low winds are common with high RH. Thus, trends in
variation of daily RHmax and RHmin (or Tdry , Twet , and Tdry − Twet ) should be similar in
both locations.
Use of an Empirical Monthly Estimate of Wind Speed. When it is not possible to find
a weather station within the climatic region from which to import wind-speed data, then
the user may adopt monthly estimates of wind-speed data. Errors in the resulting monthly
ET0 estimates may not be very substantial, particularly when ET is energy driven.
Average wind estimates should be selected from the information available on the
climate of the region [80] and may change with the seasonal changes in climate. Indicative
values (m s−1 ) are
Light wind U2 ≤ 1.0

Low to moderate wind U2 ∼ 2.0
Moderate to strong wind U2 ∼ 3.0
Strong wind U2 ≥ 4.0
U2 = 2 m s−1 is an average value for much of the globe. Lower values are frequent
in humid tropical regions. Caution in selecting an empirical wind-speed estimate is
recommended.
Case When Humidity Data Are Missing
Humidity data are required to compute the actual vapor pressure ea . The daily mini-
mum temperature is suggested as an approximation to the dewpoint temperature:
ea = e0 (Tmin ). (5.45)
This approximation provides better estimates for low values of Tmin and when the
air is moist. It often can be expected that Tmin should be decreased by 2◦ C to overcome
problems resulting from aridity of the weather station [78], namely, outside rainy periods.
Tmin should be decreased by 2◦ C in semiarid climates and by 3◦ C in arid ones.
Case When Only Tmean Is Available
Because of nonlinearity of the e0 (T ) curve, the daily saturation vapor pressure es
should be computed from Tmax and Tmin [Eq. (5.19)]. However, for some data sets, only
the mean daily temperature Tmean is available. Computing es from Tmean would provide
underestimation of es and of VPD, and thus of ET0 . It is then advisible to estimate Tmax
and Tmin from Tmean .
Adopting the general relationship given by the Eq. (5.44), it is possible to compute
1
Tmax = Tmean + (5.9Rs /Ra )2 (5.46)
2
1
Tmin = Tmean − (5.9Rs /Ra )2 (5.47)
2
The empirical coefficient 5.9 corresponds in Eq. (5.44) to K r = 0.17. This coefficient
may be modified for specific regional climatic conditions.
Comments on Using ET0 PM with Estimates of Missing Weather Data
Approaches suggested earlier intend to perform ET0 calculations with only one stan-
dard equation, the FAO-PM, that is, Eq. (5.14), thus avoiding the problems of using
alternative ET equations whose behavior could differ from that of the FAO-PM. Devi-
ations from the approximations proposed to the full FAO-PM are expected to be in the
range of those resulting from the use of an alternative ET equation or even less.
Use of the FAO-PM equation with only maximum and minimum temperature data,
that is, estimating Rs from the nearest station [Eq. (5.43)], Td = Tmin and U2 = 2
m s−1 , provided an average standard error of estimate (SEE) equal to 0.60 mm day−1 for
the monthly estimates of ET0 relative to the FAO-PM equation with full data sets when
applied to 918 locations in 20 countries, using the CLIMWAT database. Application of the
Hargreaves-Samani equation (5.50) to the same data set resulted in a higher SEE = 0.85
mm day−1 . The FAO-PM equation with Rs estimated from (Tmax − Tmin ), Td = Tmin , and
U2 = 2 m s−1 was compared with daily lysimeter data from Davis, California, resulting
in SEE = 1.01 mm day−1 , which was only 6% higher than the SEE = 0.95 mm day−1
obtained from the Hargreaves-Samani equation (5.50). If imported wind could be used, a
lower SEE could be expected. This indicates that a proper application of methodologies
described in the preceding sections also can be used for estimating daily ET0 , mainly
when these values are averaged over several-day periods, as in irrigation scheduling
computations.
Approximations proposed earlier can be validated at the regional level (see “Calibra-
tion,” below). Sensitivity analysis should be performed to check causes (and limits) for
the method utilized to import the missing data.
Estimation of ET0 Using Other Equations
Calibration
As presented above, the FAO-PM equation has been selected together with the updated
definition of reference ET. All calculation procedures have been standardized according
to the weather data observations and the timescale of computations to improve the
accuracy of estimation. Therefore, it is highly recommended that the FAO-PM method
be applied when full data are available and when appropriate estimation procedures are
applied to missing data. Therefore, if a different method is to be used, it should first be
validated and/or calibrated using the FAO-PM.
The validation or calibration of the method should be on a regional basis because

different trends and ranges in the variation of meteorological variables induce different
behavior of the ET equations. These are never linear and may respond with more sen-
sitivity to one variable than to another. Thus, regional validation or calibration should
be performed in large regions, where those trends and ranges in the variation of weather
variables are similar. However, there is less need for climatic homogeneity as is required
when variables have to be imported from one weather station to another to complete data
sets.
For regional calibration of the selected equation, simple calibration factors can be
computed on a monthly basis through linear regression as
ET0 ET0 − a
b= or b= , (5.48)
ETeqn ETeqn
where ET0 is the reference ET as defined by the FAO-PM equation (5.14) and ETeqn is
ET predicted by the equation being calibrated. In general, it is appropriate to perform
a regression through the origin. Regression coefficients b and a are calibration factors.
ET0 then is calculated with the selected equation as
ET0 = b ETeqn or ET0 = a + b ETeqn (5.49)
The ET equation is considered calibrated when the SEE ≤ 20% of the average ET0
estimate.
For these regional validation or calibration studies, it is recommended that one use
weather data observed above a green vegetation cover. Because the sensitivity of ET0
estimates to changes in T and ea are generally nonlinear, the ratios of sensitivities of
two ET0 equations will rarely equal the ratios of ET0 estimates by the two equations.
Therefore, use of nonreference weather data will introduce a bias in linear calibration
coefficients.
When the vegetation becomes dry during any period, it is advisable to use only weather
data from months during which precipitation or irrigation is sufficient (greater than ET0 )
to ensure that the stations were surrounded by green, evaporating vegetation and that
weather measurements were synchronized with the reference ET energy exchange.
ET0 Equations
Methods for computing ET0 from weather data of Doorenbos and Pruitl [55] may be
utilized when validated or calibrated against the FAO-PM. However, they lose impor-
tance.
• The FAO-PM relies on a conceptual approach—the original Penman method—
which has been modified into a new and more solid approximation of the evaporation
from vegetated surfaces, the PM approach. The use of the original Penman requires
a locally calibrated wind function [14], which would require appropriate data sets,
available only in very few locations. Therefore, the Penman approaches definitely
should be replaced by the PM (FAO-PM) method.
• The FAO-radiation (FAO-Rad) equation corresponds to an approximation of the ra-
diation term [1(Rn −G)/(1+γ ∗ )] in the FAO-PM equation, but uses an adjustment
factor c for daytime wind U2 and mean RH. The FAO-Rad requires observations
of temperature and sunshine, and the use of regional estimates for RH and U2 . The
FAO-PM can be utilized when Tmin replaces Tdew and when regional U2 values are
imported to the location where they are missing. Therefore, the use of FAO-Rad is
not considered to be an alternative to FAO-PM when U2 and RH data are missing.
• The FAO Blaney-Criddle (FAO-BC) method estimates ET0 from temperature data
only and requires correction for RH, wind speed, and relative sunshine using re-
gional values of these variables. However, the FAO-BC has been shown to overes-
timate ET0 for a large number of locations, particularly for the nonarid ones. Thus,
as indicated earlier (in “Comments on Using ET0 PM with Estimates of Missing
Data”), when only temperature data are available, there is no advantage in using an
alternative to the FAO-PM equation with estimates of missing weather data.
• The Hargreaves method [82, 84] not only has shown good results as a temperature
method when applied in a variety of locations but, despite being empirical, it has the
appropriate conceptual foundation to be utilized and represents a great improvement
in relation to the FAO-BC method. It can be expressed as
ET0 Harg = C0 (Tmax − Tmin )0.5 (Tmean + 17.8)Ra , (5.50)
where ETo Harg is the estimate of grass reference ET (mm day−1 ), Tmax and Tmin are
the maximum and minimum daily air temperatures (◦ C), Tmean is the mean daily
air temperature (◦ C), Ra is the extraterrestrial radiation (MJ m−2 day−1 ), C0 is the
conversion coefficient = 0.000939 (= 0.0023 when Ra is in mm day−1 ) and 17.8
is the factor for conversion of ◦ C to ◦ F.
The temperature difference (Tmax − Tmin ) allows for an approximation to the
amount of radiation available at the surface as analyzed for Eq. (5.44). The difference
(Tmax − Tmin ) is also an indicator for VPD, which is normally higher for clear sky
(high Tmax − Tmin ) and lower for overcast conditions (low Tmax − Tmin ).
However, because the equation can underestimate ET for locations where high
wind speed is associated with high VPD, and because it may overestimate if hu-
midity is high, validation or calibration of the equation is recommended for such
regions [see Eqs. (5.48) and (5.49)].
The Hargreaves equation can be computed on a monthly or a daily basis. How-
ever, the best use of daily estimates is made when summed or averaged for a week
or 10-day period, as is usual for irrigation scheduling computations.
Pan-Evaporation Method
Evaporation pans provide a measurement of the integrated effect of radiation, wind,
temperature, and humidity on evaporation from a specific open water surface. In a similar
fashion, the plant responds to the same climatic variables, but several major factors may
produce significant differences in loss of water. Reflection of solar radiation from a water
surface is only 5%–8%, but from most vegetative surfaces is 20%–25%. Storage of heat
within the pan can be appreciable and may cause high evaporation during the night; most
crops transpire only during the daytime. Also, the difference in water losses from pans
and from crops can be affected by differences in turbulence, temperature, and humidity
of the air immediately above the surfaces. Heat transfer through the sides of the pan can
occur, which may be severe for sunken pans. Also the color of the pan and the use of
screens will affect water losses. The siting of the pan and the pan environment influence
the measured results, especially when the pan is placed in fallow rather than cropped
fields.
Notwithstanding these deficiencies, with proper siting the use of pans to predict CWR
for periods of 10 days or longer is still warranted. The use of the U.S. Class A pan and the
Colorado sunken is presented by Doorenbos and Pruitt [55]. To relate pan evaporation
(E pan ) to reference crop ET (ET0 ), empirically derived coefficients (K p ) are used to
account for climate and pan environment. ET0 can be obtained from
ET0 = K p E pan , (5.51)
where E pan is the pan evaporation (mm day−1 ) and represents the mean daily value for
the period considered, and K p is the pan coefficient ( ).
Values for K p are given by Doorenbos and Pruitt [55]. Allen and Pruitt [58] developed
polynomial equations to replace tables for the determination of the pan coefficients K p
according to the type of evaporation pan and upwind fetch. In general, local calibration of
K p coefficients can be performed as indicated for Eqs. (5.48) and (5.49) making K p = b
in the linear regression through the origin. Polynominals for K p can be obtained through
stepwise multiregression analysis between the ratios ET0 /E pan and the variables U2 and
RHmean observed for the same period.
5.1.5 Crop Evapotranspiration

Introduction to Crop Evapotranspiration and Crop Coefficients
Crop ET (ETc ) is calculated by multiplying the reference crop ET (ET0 ) by a dimen-
sionless crop coefficient K c :
ETc = K c ET0 . (5.52)
The reference crop corresponds to a living, agricultural crop (clipped grass) and it in-
corporates the majority of the effects of variable weather into the ET0 estimate. Therefore,
because ET0 represents an index of climatic demand on evaporation, the K c varies pre-
dominately with the specific crop characteristics and only somewhat with climate. This
enables the transfer of standard values for K c between locations and between climates.
The crop coefficient K c is the ratio of the crop ETc to the reference ET0 , and it
represents an integration of the effects of three primary characteristics that distinguish
the crop from the reference ET0 . These characteristics are crop height (affecting rough-
ness and aerodynamic resistance); crop–soil surface resistance (affected by leaf area,
the fraction of ground covered by vegetation, leaf age and condition, the degree of
stomatal control, and soil surface wetness); and albedo (reflectance) of the crop–soil
surface (affected by the fraction of ground covered by vegetation and by the soil surface
wetness).
The crop height h influences the aerodynamic resistance ra [Eqs. (5.4) and (5.5)]
and the turbulent transfer of vapor from the crop into the atmosphere. The combined
crop–soil surface resistance influences the bulk surface resistance rs [Eq. (5.6)], which
represents the resistance to vapor flow from within plant leaves and from beneath the soil
surface. The albedo of the crop–soil surface influences the net radiation of the surface
Rn , which is the primary source of the energy exchange for the evaporation process.
Two K c approaches are considered. The first uses a time-averaged K c to estimate ETc ,
which includes time-averaged (multiday) effects of evaporation from the soil surface.
The second approach uses the basal crop coefficient, and a separate, daily calculation is
made to estimate evaporation from the soil surface.
The time-averaged K c is used for planning studies and irrigation system design where
averaged effects of soil wetting are acceptable and relevant. For typical irrigation man-
agement, the time-averaged K c is valid and currently is utilized in many irrigation-
scheduling simulation models. The basal K c approach, which requires more numerical
calculations, is best for irrigation scheduling, soil water-balance computations, and for
research studies where effects of day-to-day variation in soil surface wetness and the
resulting impacts on daily ETc , the soil moisture profile, and deep percolation fluxes are
important.
The crop coefficient curve (Fig. 5.3) represents the changes in K c over the length of
the growing season. The shape of the curve represents the changes in the vegetation and
ground cover during plant development and maturation that affect the ratio of ETc to
ET0 .
As shown in Fig. 5.3, shortly after planting of annuals or shortly after the initiation of
new leaves for perennials, the value for K c is small, often less than 0.4. The K c begins
to increase from the initial K c value, K c ini , at the beginning of rapid plant development
and reaches a maximum value, K c mid , at the time of maximum or near-maximum plant
development. The period during which K c = K c mid is referred to as the midseason
period. During the late-season period, as leaves begin to age and senescence due to
natural or cultural practices occurs, the K c begins to decrease until it reaches a lower
value at the end of the growing period equal to K c end .
Figure 5.3. Generalized crop coefficient curve during a

growing season.
Figure 5.4. Crop coefficient definitions showing

the basal K cb , soil evaporation K e , and
time-averaged K cb + K e values.
The form for the equation used in the basal K c approach is
K c = K s K cb + K e , (5.53)
where K s is the stress reduction coefficient (0 to 1), K cb is the basal crop coefficient
(0 to ∼1.4), and K e is the soil water evaporation coefficient (0 to ∼1.4). K cb is defined
as the ratio of ETc to ET0 when the soil surface layer is dry, but where the average
soil water content of the root zone is adequate to sustain full plant transpiration. As
shown in Fig. 5.4, the K cb represents the baseline potential K c in the absence of the
additional effects of soil wetting by irrigation or precipitation. K s reduces the value of
K cb when the average soil water content of the root zone is not adequate to sustain full
plant transpiration. K e describes the evaporation component from wet soil in addition to
the ET represented in K cb .
Because Eq. (5.53) requires the calculation of a daily soil water balance for the
surface soil layer, a simplification is required for routine application, which may involve
long time steps or wetting effects averaged over many fields or over many years. The
time-averaged K c is
K c = K cb + K e , (5.54)
where K cb + K e represents the sum of the basal K cb and time-averaged effects of evap-
oration from the surface soil layer, K e .
Typical shapes for the K cb , K e , and K cb + K e curves are shown in Fig. 5.4. The K cb
curve in the figure represents the minimum K c for conditions of adequate soil moisture
and dry soil surface. The K e spikes in the figure represent increased evaporation when
precipitation or irrigation has wetted the soil surface and has temporarily increased total
ETc . The spikes generally reach a maximum value of 1.0 to 1.2, depending on the climate,
the depth of soil wetting, and the portion of soil surface wetted. When summed, the values
for K cb and for K e represent the total crop coefficient, K c , shown as the dashed line in
Figure 5.5. Crop coefficient curve and stage definitions.
Fig. 5.4. The K c or K cb + K e curve lies above the K cb curve, with potentially large
differences during the initial and development stages, depending on the frequency of
soil wetting. During the midseason period, when the crop is likely to be near full cover,
the effects of soil wetness are less pronounced.
Average Crop Coefficients
The K c Curve
A simple procedure is used to construct the K c curve for the complete growing period.
This procedure was first presented by Doorenbos and Pruitt [55]. The K c curve, such as
that shown in Fig. 5.5, is constructed using the following three steps:
1. Divide the growing period into four general growth stages that describe crop
phenology or development, and determine the lengths of these stages, in days.
The four stages are initial period, crop development period, midseason period,
late-season period.
2. Identify the three K c values that correspond to K c ini , K c mid and K c end .
3. Connect straight-line segments through each of the four growth-stage periods.
Horizontal lines are drawn through K c ini in the initial period and through K c mid
in the midseason period. Diagonal lines are drawn from K c ini to K c mid within the
course of the development period and from K c mid to K c end within the course of
the late-season period.
Lengths of Crop Growth Stages
The four crop growth stages are characterized in terms of benchmark crop growth
stages or cultivation practices:
1. Initial period—planting date to approximately 10% ground cover. The length of
the initial period is highly dependent on the crop, the crop variety, the planting
date, and the climate. For perennial crops, the planting date is replaced by the
green-up date, that is, the time when initiation of new leaves occurs.
2. Crop development—10% ground cover to effective full cover. Effective full cover
for many crops occurs at the initiation of flowering or when LAI reaches 3. For
row crops, effective cover can be defined as the time when leaves of plants in
adjacent rows begin to intermingle or when plants reach nearly full size if no inter-
mingling occurs. For tall crops, it occurs when the average fraction of the ground
surface covered by vegetation is about 0.7 to 0.8. For densely sown vegetation,
such as winter and spring cereals and grasses, effective full cover corresponds
approximately to the stage of heading.
3. Midseason—effective cover to start of maturity. The start of maturity is often
indicated by the beginning of the aging, yellowing, or senescence of leaves, leaf
drop, or the browning of fruit.
4. Late season—start of maturity to harvest or full senescence. For some perennial
vegetation in frost-free climates, crops may grow year round so that the date of
termination may be taken as the same as the date of “planting.”
The rates at which vegetation cover develops and the time at which it attains effective
full cover are affected by weather conditions, and especially by mean daily air temper-
ature [85]. Therefore, the length in time between planting and effective full cover will
vary with climate, latitude, elevation, planting date, and cultivar (crop variety). Gener-
ally, once the effective full cover for a plant canopy has been reached, the rate of further
phenological development (flowering, seed development, ripening, and senescence) is
more dependent on plant genotype and is less dependent on weather [71]. In some sit-
uations, the time of emergence of vegetation and the time of effective full cover can be
predicted using cumulative degree-based regression equations or by more sophisticated
plant growth models [85–89].
The lengths of the initial and development periods may be relatively short for decid-
uous trees and shrubs that can develop new leaves in the spring at relatively fast rates.
The K c ini selected for trees and shrubs should reflect the ground condition prior to leaf
emergence or initiation because K c ini is affected by the amount of grass or weed cover,
soil wetness, tree density, and mulch density.
The length of the late-season period may be relatively short (<10 days) for vegetation
killed by frost or for agricultural crops that are harvested fresh. The value for K c end
after full senescence or following harvest should reflect the condition of the soil surface
(average water content and any mulch cover) and the condition of the vegetation following
plant death or harvest.
Indicative lengths of growth stages are given in FAO Papers [55, 90, 91]. Local obser-
vations of the specific stage of plant development should be used, whenever possible, to
incorporate effects of plant variety, climate, and cultural practices. Local information can
be obtained by interviewing farmers, ranchers, agricultural extension agents, and local
researchers, by conducting local surveys, or by remote sensing. When determining stage
dates from local observations, the preceding guidelines and visual descriptions may be
helpful.
Crop Coefficients
Values for K c ini , K c mid , and K c end are listed in Table 5.1 for various agricultural
crops. Most of the K c values in Table 5.1 were taken from Doorenbos and Pruitt [55]
and Doorenbos and Kassam [90] after some modification. Additional information was
obtained from Wright [71], Pruitt [92], Snyder et al. [93, 94], Jensen et al. [2], and other
sources.
The K c values in Table 5.1 are organized by crop group type. Usually there is close
similarity in K c within the same crop group because the plant height, leaf area, ground
coverage, and water management are usually similar. For several group types, only one
value for K c ini is listed and is considered to be representative of the whole group. The
K c ini value in Table 5.1 is only approximate because K c ini can vary widely with soil
wetting conditions, irrigation, and rainfall.
The K c values in Table 5.1 represent potential water use by healthy, disease-free,
and densely planted stands of vegetation and with adequate levels of soil water. When
stand density, height, or leaf area are less than that attained under perfect or normal
(pristine) conditions, the value for K c should be reduced. The reduction in K c mid for
poor stands can be as much as 0.3–0.5 and should be made according to the amount of
effective (green) leaf area relative to that for healthy vegetation having normal planting
densities.
Kc for Initial Stage for Annual Crops
ET during the initial stage for annual crops is predominately in the form of evaporation.
Therefore, accurate estimates for K c ini must consider the frequency that the soil surface
is wetted during the initial period. Numerical procedures to compute K c ini are given
below. Graphical procedures are presented in Doorenbos and Pruitt [55] and in Allen
et al. [91].
Evaporation from bare soil, E s , can be characterized as occurring in two distinct
stages [96, 97]. Stage 1 is termed the “energy-limited” stage. During this stage, moisture is
transported to the soil surface at a rate sufficient to supply the potential rate of evaporation
(E so ), which is governed by energy availability at the soil surface. E so (mm day−1 ) can
be estimated from
E so = 1.15 ET0 , (5.55)
where ET0 is the the mean ET0 during the initial period (mm day−1 ).
Stage 2 is termed the “soil-limited” stage, where hydraulic transport of subsurface
water to the soil surface is unable to supply water at the potential evaporation rate.
During stage 2, the soil surface appears partially dry and a portion of the evaporation
occurs from below the soil surface. The energy required for subsurface evaporation is
supplied by transport of heat from the soil surface into the soil profile. The evaporation
rate during stage-2 drying decreases as soil moisture decreases (Fig. 5.6). It therefore
can be expressed as being proportional to the water remaining in the evaporation layer
relative to the maximum depth of water that can be evaporated from the same soil layer
during stage-2 drying. The maximum total depth of water that can be evaporated from the
surface soil layer is termed Wx . If the evaporation rate during stage-2 drying is assumed
to be linearly proportional to the equivalent depth of water remaining in the evaporation
layer, as shown in Fig. 5.6, then the average soil water evaporation rate can be estimated
as proposed by Allen et al. [76].
Table 5.1. Time-averaged crop coefficients K c , maximum plant heights h, range of maximum root depths
Zr , and depletion fraction for no stress Fns , well-managed crops in subhumid climates for use with the
FAO-PM ET0
Maximum Maximum
Plant Height Root Depth
Cropa K c inib K c mid c K c endc h (m) Zr (m) Fns d
a. Small Vegetables 0.7 1.05 0.95
Carrots 1.05 0.95 0.3 0.5–1.0 0.35
Celery 1.05 1.00 0.6 0.3–0.5 0.20
Crucifers: cabbage, cauliflower, 1.05 0.95 0.4 0.4–0.6 0.40
broccoli, Brussels sprouts
Garlic 1.00 0.70 0.3 0.3–0.5 0.30
Lettuce 1.00 0.95 0.3 0.3–0.5 0.30
Onions, dry 1.05 0.75 0.4 0.3–0.6 0.30
Onions, green 1.00 1.00 0.3 0.3–0.6 0.30
Spinach 1.00 0.95 0.3 0.3–0.5 0.20
Radishes 0.90 0.85 0.3 0.3–0.5 0.30
b. Roots and Tubers 0.5 1.10 0.95
Beets, table 1.05 0.95 0.4 0.6–1.0 0.50
Cassava, year 1 0.3 0.80 0.30 1.0 0.5–0.8 0.60
Cassava, year 2 0.3 1.10 0.50 1.5 0.7–1.0 0.60
Parsnips 0.5 1.05 0.95 0.4 0.5–1.0 0.40
Sugar beets 0.35 1.20 0.70 0.5 0.7–1.2 0.55
Sweet potatoes 1.15 0.65 0.5 1.0–1.5 0.65
Turnips (and rutabagas) 1.10 0.95 0.6 0.5–1.0 0.50
c. Legumes 0.4 1.15 0.55
Beans, green 0.5 1.05 0.90 0.4 0.5–0.7 0.45
Beans, dry and pulses 0.4 1.15 0.30 0.4 0.6–0.9 0.45
Chick peas 1.00 0.35 0.4 0.6–1.0 0.50
Fava beans (broad beans), fresh 0.5 1.15 1.10 0.8 0.5–0.7 0.45
Fava beans, dry/seed 0.5 1.15 0.30 0.8 0.5–0.7 0.50
Garbanzos 0.4 1.15 0.30 0.8 0.6–1.0 0.50
Green gram and cowpeas 1.05 0.60–0.35 0.4 0.6–1.0 0.50
Groundnuts 1.15 0.60 0.4 0.5–1.0 0.50
Lentils 1.10 0.30 0.5 0.6–0.8 0.50
Peas, fresh 0.5 1.15 1.10 0.5 0.6–1.0 0.35
Peas, dry/seed 1.15 0.30 0.5 0.6-1.0 0.40
Soybeans 1.15 0.50 0.5–1.0 0.6–1.3 0.50
d. Solanum crops 0.6 1.15 0.80
Bell peppers, fresh 1.05 0.90 0.7 0.5–1.0 0.30
Eggplant 1.05 0.90 0.8 0.7–1.2 0.45
Potatoes 1.15 0.75–0.40 0.6 0.4–0.6 0.35
Tomatoes 1.15 0.70–0.90 0.6 0.7–1.5 0.40
e. Cucumber crops 0.50 1.00 0.80
Cantaloupe 0.50 0.85 0.60 0.3 0.9–1.5 0.45
Cucumber, fresh market 0.60 1.00 0.75 0.3 0.7–1.2 0.50
Cucumber, machine harvest 0.50 1.00 0.90 0.3 0.7–1.2 0.50
Melons 0.50 1.05 0.75 0.4 0.8–1.5 0.40
Pumpkin, winter squash 0.50 1.00 0.80 0.4 1.0–1.5 0.35
Squash (zuchini and crookneck) 0.50 0.95 0.75 0.3 0.6–1.0 0.50
Watermelon 0.40 1.00 0.75 0.4 0.8–1.5 0.40
(Cont.)
Table 5.1. (Continued)
Maximum Maximum
f. Tropical fruits
Bananas, year 1 0.50 1.10 1.00 3.0 0.5–0.9 0.35
Bananas, year 2 1.00 1.20 1.10 4.0 0.5–0.9 0.35
Cacao 1.00 1.05 1.05 3.0 0.7–1.0 0.30
Coffee, bare soil 0.90 0.95 0.95 2.0–3.0 0.9–1.5 0.40
Coffee, with weeds 1.05 1.10 1.10 2.0–3.0 0.9–1.5 0.40
Dates 0.90 0.95 0.95 8.0 1.5–2.5 0.50
Palm trees 0.95 1.00 1.00 8.0 0.7–1.0 0.65
Pineapple, bare soil 0.50 0.30 0.30 0.6–1.2 0.3–0.6 0.50
Pineapples, vegetated soil 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.6–1.2 0.3–0.6 0.50
Rubber trees 0.95 1.00 1.00 10 1.0–2.0 0.60
Tea, nonshaded 0.95 1.00 1.00 1.5 0.9–1.5 0.40
Tea, shaded 1.10 1.15 1.15 2.0 0.9–1.5 0.45
g. Multiannual vegetables
(with initially bare soil)
Artichokes 0.50 1.00 0.95 0.7 0.6–0.9 0.45
Asparagus 0.50 0.95 0.30 0.2–0.8 1.2–1.8 0.45
Hops 0.30 1.05 0.85 5.0 1.0–1.2 0.50
h. Fiber crops 0.35
Cotton 1.15–1.20 0.70–0.50 1.2–1.5 1.0–1.7 0.60
Flax 1.10 0.25 1.2 1.0–1.5 0.50
Sisal 0.4–0.7 0.4–0.7 1.5 1.0–2.0 0.80
i. Oil crops 0.35 1.15 0.35
Castor beans (ricinus) 1.15 0.55 0.3 1.0–2.0 0.50
Rapeseed, canola 1.0–1.15 0.35 0.6 1.0–1.5 0.60
Safflower 1.0–1.15 0.25 0.8 1.0–2.0 0.60
Sesame 1.10 0.25 1.0 1.0–1.5 0.60
Sunflower 1.0–1.15 0.35 2.0 0.8–1.5 0.45
j. Cereals 0.30 1.15 0.40
Barley 1.15 0.25 1.0 1.0–1.5 0.55
Oats 1.15 0.25 1.0 1.0–1.5 0.55
Wheat 1.15 0.25–0.40 1.0 1.0–1.5 0.55
Winter wheat 0.4–0.7 1.15 0.25–0.40 1.0 1.0–1.8 0.55
Maize field (grain) (field corn) 1.20 0.60–0.35 2.2 1.0–1.7 0.55
Maize, sweet (sweet corn) 1.15 1.05 1.5 0.8–1.2 0.50
Millet 1.00 0.30 1.5 1.0–2.0 0.55
Sorghum, grain 1.00–1.10 0.55 1.0–2.0 1.0–2.0 0.55
Sorghum, sweet 1.20 1.05 2.0–4.0 1.0–2.0 0.50
Rice 1.05 1.20 0.90–0.60 1.0 0.5–1.0 0.20e
k. Forages
Alfalfa hay f 0.40 1.20 1.15 0.7 1.0–2.0 0.55
Clover hay f , berseem 0.40 1.15 1.10 0.6 0.6–0.9 0.50
Grazing pasture, rotated grazing 0.40 0.85–1.05 0.85 0.15 0.5–1.5 0.60
Grazing pasture, extensive grazing 0.30 0.75 0.75 0.1 0.5–1.5 0.65
Turf grass, cool season 0.90 0.95 0.95 0.1 0.5–1.0 0.40
Turf grass, warm season 0.80 0.85 0.85 0.1 0.5–1.0 0.50
Bermuda spring crop for seed 0.35 0.90 0.65 0.4 1.0–1.5 0.60
(Cont.)
Table 5.1. (Continued)

Maximum Maximum
Bermuda, summer for hay f 0.55 1.00 0.85 0.35 1.0–1.5 0.55
Rye grass, for hay f 0.50 1.05 1.00 0.35 0.5–1.0 0.60
Sudan grass for hay f 0.50 1.15 1.10 0.8–1.2 1.0–1.5 0.60
l. Sugar Cane 0.40 1.25 0.75 3–4 1.2–2.0 0.65
m. Nonwoody perennials
Mint 0.60 1.15 1.10 0.6 0.4–0.8 0.40
Strawberries 0.40 0.85 0.75 0.2 0.2–0.3 0.20
n. Grapes and berries
Berries (bushes) 0.30 1.05 0.50 1.5 0.6–1.2 0.50
Grapes for table 0.30 0.85 0.45 2.0 1.0–2.0 0.35
Grapes for wine 0.30 0.70 0.45 1.5–2.0 1.0–2.0 0.60
o. Fruit trees
Almonds, no ground coverg 0.40 0.90 0.65 4.0 1.0–2.0 0.60
Avocado, no ground cover 0.60 0.85 0.75 3.0 0.5–1.0 0.70
Citrus, no ground cover h
70% canopy 0.70 0.65 0.70 4.0 1.2–1.5 0.50.
50% canopy 0.65 0.60 0.65 3.0 1.1–1.5 0.50
20% canopy 0.50 0.45 0.55 2.0 0.8–1.1 0.50
Citrus, with active ground cover or weedsg
70% canopy 0.75 0.70 0.75 4.0 1.2–1.5 0.50
50% canopy 0.80 0.80 0.80 3.0 1.1–1.5 0.50
20% canopy 0.85 0.85 0.85 2.0 0.8–1.1 0.50
Conifer trees 1.00 1.00 1.00 10.0 1.0–1.5 0.70
Deciduous orchard, killing frost
Apples, pears, cherries, no ground cover 0.45 0.95 0.70 4.0 1.0–2.0 0.50
Peaches, stone fruit, no ground cover 0.45 0.90 0.65 3.0 1.0–2.0 0.50
Apples, pears, cherries, active ground cover 0.50 1.20 0.95 4.0 1.0–2.0 0.50
Peaches, stone fruit, active ground cover 0.50 1.15 0.90 3.0 1.0–2.0 0.50
Deciduous orchard, no killing frost
Apples, pears, cherries, no ground cover 0.60 0.95 0.75 4.0 1.0–2.0 0.50
Peaches, stone fruit, no ground cover 0.55 0.90 0.65 3.0 1.0–2.0 0.50
Apples, pears, cherries, active ground cover 0.80 1.20 0.85 4.0 1.0–2.0 0.50
Peaches, stone fruit, active ground cover 0.80 1.15 0.85 3.0 1.0–2.0 0.50
Kiwi 0.40 1.05 1.05 3.0 0.7–1.3 0.35
Olives (40%–60% ground coverage by canopy) 0.65 0.70 0.70 3.0–5.0 1.2–1.7 0.70
Pistachios, no ground cover 0.40 1.10 0.45 3.0–5.0 1.0–1.5 0.60
Walnut orchard 0.50 1.10 0.65 4.0–5.0 1.7–2.4 0.50
p. Wetlands, temperate climate
Cattails, bulrushes, killing frost 0.30 1.20 0.30 2.0
Cattails, bulrushes, no frost 0.60 1.20 0.60 2.0
Short vegetation, no frost 1.05 1.10 1.10 0.3
Reed swamp, standing water 1.00 1.20 1.00 1–3
Reed swamp, moist soil 0.90 1.20 0.70 1–3
a
When stand density, height, or leaf area are less than that attained under pristine conditions, the value for
K c mid and, for most crops, for K c end should be reduced from 0.1 up to 0.5 according to the amount of
effective, active leaf area relative to that for healthy vegetation under potential, pristine growing conditions.
Maximum plant heights are indicative and should be adapted for local conditions. Smaller values for
maximum root depths refer to irrigated crops and the large ones to rainfed conditions, when the soil is
nonrestrictive to root development.
b
These are general values under typical irrigation management and soil wetting. For frequent wettings,
such as with high-frequency sprinkle irrigation or rainfall, these values may increase substantially. Appro-
priate computation procedures are given in Section “K c for Initial Stage for Annual Crops”.
c
Values represent those for a semihumid climate (RHmin ∼ 45%) with moderate wind speed (averaging
2 m s−1 ). For more humid or arid conditions or for more or less windy conditions, values should be
modified as described in Section “K c for Midseason and End of Season”.
d
Fraction of available water that can be depleted before physiological, soil, and climatic influences reduce
plant transpiration because of moisture stress. Fns is similar to the term “management-allowed depletion”
(MAD). However, the values for MAD are influenced by management and economic factors in addition
to physical factors. Generally, MAD < Fns when there is risk aversion or uncertainty, and MAD > Fns
when plant moisture stress is an intentional part of soil water management. Values listed for F ns are for
ETc in the range of 5 to 6 mm day−1 and for nonsaline conditions. For ETc outside this range, FAO
[3, 90] suggests increasing Fns for ETc < 5 mm day−1 and decreasing Fns for ETc > 6 mm day−1 . The
modifications to Fns can be characterized by the equation Fns = Fns tab + 0.04 (5 − ETc ), where Fns tab
is the Fns value listed in the table and ETc is the estimated crop ET (mm day−1 ), from Eqs. (5.52) and
(5.53) (both calculated using K s = 1) and Eqs. (5.54).
e
Fns for rice is 0.20 of saturation [90].
f
The three coefficients for hay crops represent the periods immediately following cutting, during full cover,
and immediately before cutting, respectively.
g
K c end values are K c prior to leaf drop. After leaf drop K c end = 0.20 for bare or dead ground cover, and
K c end = 0.50 to 0.80 for actively growing ground cover.
h
For humid and subhumid climates, where there is less stomatal control, the K c should be increased by
0.1–0.2.
Figure 5.6. Two-stage model for soil evaporation.

The basic equation for K c ini is

µ ¡ W
¢¶
−(tw −t1 )E so 1+ Wx −W
1
Wx − (Wx − W1 ) exp Wx
1
K c ini = (5.56)
tw ET0
for tw > t1 , where W1 is the cumulative depth (mm) of soil water evaporation when
stage-1 drying is complete, Wx is the cumulative depth (mm) of soil water evaporation
when soil evaporation effectively ceases (i.e., Wx = maximum potential soil water that
can be evaporated from the soil surface layer between two wetting events), E so is the
potential evaporation rate during stage 1 (mm day−1 ), tw is the mean interval between
wetting events (days), and t1 is the time when stage-1 drying is completed (t1 = W1 /E so )
(days). When tw < t1 , that is, the entire process resides within stage 1, then
K c ini = E so /ET0 . (5.57)
Where furrow or trickle irrigation is practiced, and only a portion of the soil surface
is wetted, the value calculated for K c ini in Eqs. (5.56) and (5.57) should be reduced
in proportion to the average fraction of surface wetted, f w (0.2–1.0). Indicative values
for f w are given in [91] and [98]: f w = 1.0 for rain, sprinkling, and basin and border
irrigation; f w = 0.4 to 0.6 for furrows; f w = 0.3 to 0.4 for irrigation with alternate
furrows; f w = 0.2 to 0.5 for trickle irrigation.
The value for the infiltration depth from irrigation (In ) used in the following procedure
also should be adjusted accordingly:
In = Ins / f w , (5.58)
where In is the equivalent depth (mm) of infiltration from irrigation over the f w fraction
of the surface wetted, and Ins is the depth (mm) of infiltration from irrigation, expressed
as one-dimensional depth over the entire surface area.
W1 (Fig. 5.6), is generally highest for medium-textured soils with high moisture
retention and moderate hydraulic conductivity, and is lower for coarse soils having low
moisture-retention capacity and for clays that have low hydraulic conductivity. Maximum
values for W1 (termed W1 max ) are listed by Allen et al. [91]. Ritchie et al. [99] predicted
potential values of W1 (mm) according to soil texture:
W1 max = 20 − 0.15 (Sa) for Sa > 80%,
W1 max = 11 − 0.06 (Cl) for Cl > 50%, (5.59)
W1 max = 8 + 0.08 (Cl) for Sa < 80 and Cl < 50%,
where Sa and Cl are the percentages of sand and clay in the soil.
The value for Wx is the maximum depth of water that can be evaporated from the
soil following wetting. The value for Wx is governed by the depth of the soil profile
contributing to soil water evaporation, by the soil water-holding properties within the
evaporating layer, by the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, by the presence of a hy-
draulically limiting layer beneath the evaporating layer, by the conduction of sensible
heat into the soil to supply energy for subsurface evaporation, and by any root extraction
of water from the soil layer. During winter and other cool season months, less radiation
energy is available to penetrate the soil surface and to evaporate water from within a
drying soil. An approximation for the maximum value of Wx for initial periods having
ET0 ≥ 5 mm day−1 is
Wx max = z e (θUL − 0.5θLL ), (5.60)
Table 5.2. Typical values for θUL , θLL , and θAM and sand, silt, and clay
percentages for general soil classifications
Mean Values of Soil Water Soil Texturesb

Contenta (m3 m−3 ) (%)
Soil Classification θUL θLL θAM Sand Silt Clay
Sand 0.12 0.04 0.08 92 4 4
Loamy sand 0.14 0.06 0.08 84 6 10
Sandy loam 0.23 0.10 0.13 65 25 10
Loam 0.26 0.12 0.15 40 40 20
Silt loam 0.30 0.15 0.15 20 65 15
Silt 0.32 0.15 0.17 7 88 5
Silty clay 0.34 0.19 0.15 10 55 35
Loam
Silty clay 0.36 0.21 0.15 8 47 45
Clay 0.36 0.21 0.15 22 20 58
a
Available moisture, θAM = θUL − θLL .
b
From the SCS soil texture triangle.
Source: [2].
and when ET0 < 5 mm day−1 is

p
Wx max = z e (θUL − 0.5θLL ) ET0 /5, (5.61)
where Wx max is the maximum depth of water (mm) that can be evaporated from the soil
when the upper 30 to 40 cm of the soil profile has been initially wetted completely, θUL is
the soil water content at the drained upper limit of the soil (field capacity) (m3 m−3 ), θLL
is the soil water content at the lower limit of root extraction (wilting point) (m3 m−3 ), and
z e is the mean total depth of soil that is subject to drying by evaporation [100–200 mm].
If unknown, a value of z e = 150 mm is recommended. Typical values for θUL and θLL
are given in Table 5.2. Soil water concepts are developed in Section 5.2.
The number of wetting (precipitation and irrigation) events Nw occurring during the
initial period is determined by considering that two wetting events occurring on adjoining
days should be counted as one event, and individual wetting events of less than 0.2 ET0
can be ignored.
The mean time interval between wetting events, tw (days), is determined by dividing
the length of the initial growing stage tini (days) by the number of wetting events Nw , so
that
tw = tini /Nw . (5.62)
Pmean , the average depth (mm) of water added to the evaporating layer at each wetting
event,
P is determined
P by dividing the sum of the precipitation and irrigation infiltration
( Pn + In ) occurring during all wetting events by the number of events Nw thus,
³X X ´.
Pmean = Pn + In Nw . (5.63)
However, each value of Pn and In must be limited to

Pn ≤ Wx max and In ≤ Wx max .
The actual values for Wx and W1 are calculated from Wx max and W1 max according to
the average total water available during each drying cycle,
Wa = Pmean + Mini /Nw , (5.64)
where Mini is the equivalent depth of water (mm) in the evaporation layer (of thickness z e )
at the time of planting. Wx then is calculated by comparing Wa and Wx max :
Wx = min(Wx max , Wa ) (5.65)
and
· µ ¶¸
Wa
W1 = W1 max min ,1 , (5.66)
Wx max
where min(·) is a function to select the minimum value of those in braces that are separated
by the comma. Values W1 and Wx then are used in Eq. (5.56).
Kc for Midseason and End of Season
Adjustment for Climate
The K c mid and K c end values in Table 5.1 represent K cb + K e for irrigation management
and precipitation frequencies typical of a subhumid climate where RHmin = 45% and
U2 = 2 m s−1 .
Under humid and calm conditions, the K c values for full-cover agricultural crops
generally do not exceed 1.0 by more than about 0.05. This is because full-cover agri-
cultural crops and the reference crop of clipped grass both provide for nearly maximum
absorption of shortwave radiation, which is the primary energy source for evaporation
under humid and calm conditions. Generally, the albedos α are similar over a wide range
of agricultural crops, including the reference. Because the VPD is small under humid
conditions, differences in ET caused by differences in aerodynamic resistance ra be-
tween the agricultural crop and the reference crop are also small, especially with low to
moderate wind speed. In other words, under humid and calm wind conditions, the K c
values become less dependent on the differences between the aerodynamic components
of ETc and ET0 .
Under arid conditions, the effect of differences in ra between the agricultural crop and
the grass reference crop on ETc become more pronounced because the VPD term may
be relatively large. Hence, K c will be larger under arid conditions when the agricultural
crop has leaf area and roughness height that are greater than that of the grass reference.
Because the 1/ra term in the numerator of the PM equation (5.2) is multiplied by the
VPD term (es − ea ), ET from tall crops increases proportionately more relative to ET0
than does ET from short crops when RH is low.
The values for K c mid and K c end in Table 5.1 represent conditions where RHmin ≈ 45%
and U2 ≈ 2 m s−1 . When climatic conditions are different from these values, the values
for K c mid and K c end must be adjusted. Pereira et al. [14] presented a theoretical basis
for quantifying the changes in K c with changes in wind speed and humidity that result
when the relatively smooth grass reference is used as the basis for K c . Their “climatic
coefficient” α0 , when simplified under conditions of relatively constant solar radiation

and air temperature, can be reduced to an adjustment factor having the parameters U2 ,
RHmin , and crop height h, thereby showing support for the climatic adjustment to K c mid
and K c end provided by the following equation [76, 95]:
K c = (K c )tab + [0.04(U2 − 2) − 0.004(RHmin − 45)](h/3)0.3 , (5.67)
where (K c )tab is the value for K c mid or K c end taken from Table 1, U2 is the mean value
for daily wind speed at 2-m height (m s−1 ), RHmin is the mean value for daily minimum
RH (%), h is the mean plant height (m), all mean values referring to the midseason or
the late-season period. The values for U2 and RHmin need only be approximate. Example
values for maximum h are listed in Table 5.1 for various crops. However, h will vary with
crop variety and with cultural practices. Therefore, when possible, h should be obtained
from general field observations. However, an approximate value is generally adequate.
When RHmin are not available, they can be estimated from
RHmin = 100e0 (Tmin )/e0 (Tmax ), (5.68)
where Tmin and Tmax also refer to the midseason or the end-season periods [see Eq. (5.8)].
For frequent irrigation of crops (more frequently than every 3 days) and where
(K c mid )tab < 1.1, replace (K c mid )tab with approximately 1.1 to 1.3 to account for the
combined effects of continuously wet soil.
Equation (5.67) is only applied for K c end when (K c end )tab exceeds 0.45. When crops
are allowed to reach senescence and dry in the field (K c end < 0.45), U2 and RHmin have
less effect on K c end and no adjustment is necessary.
Adjustments for Management Practices
The values given for K c end for vegetable and cereal crops reflect crop and water
management practices particular to those crops. Vegetable crops often are irrigated fre-
quently until they are harvested fresh, before the plants have reached senescence and
died. Therefore, K c end values for these crops are relatively high (e.g., 0.90 for crucifers,
green beans, and peppers). Cereal crops generally are allowed to reach senescence and
to dry out in the field before harvest. Therefore, both the soil surface and the vegetation
are drier with cereals and, consequently, the value for K c end is small (e.g., 0.35 for maize
and grain if dried in the field, but about 0.60 if harvested at high grain moisture).
When the local water management and harvest timing practices are known to deviate
from those typical of the values presented in Table 5.1, the user should make adjustments
to the values for K c mid and K c end , and to the length of the late-season period.
When stand density, height, or leaf area of the crop are less than that attained under
perfect or normal crop and irrigation management conditions, the values for K c are
reduced. The reduction in K c mid for poor stands can vary from 0.1 up to 0.5. Adjustment
of K c is made according to the amount of effective (green) leaf area relative to that for
healthy vegetation having normal plant density (pristine conditions). Then,
(K c )cor = K c − Acm , (5.69)
where (K c )cor is the crop coefficient to be used for poor stands, K c is the K c mid for pristine
conditions (from Table 5.1), and Acm is the adjustment factor relative to the actual crop
and irrigation management conditions (0–0.5). Acm can be approximated through a green
cover ratio of type:
Acm = 1 − (LAIactual /LAInormal ) (5.70)
or similar ratio, referring to the midseason period.
A more complete approach to estimate K c for nonpristine and unknown conditions
is presented below in “K c for Nonpristine and Unknown Conditions”.
The Basal Crop Coefficient Approach
The basal crop coefficient, K cb [see Eq. (5.53)] is defined as the ratio of ETc /ET0
when the soil surface is dry but transpiration is occurring at a potential rate (e.g., water is
not limiting transpiration) [2, 71]. Therefore, K cb represents primarily the transpiration
component of ET. Its use provides for separate and special adjustment for wet soil
evaporation immediately following specific rain or irrigation events. This results in more
accurate estimates of ETc when it must be computed on a daily basis.
Recommended values for K cb are listed by Allen et al. [91, 95] but they can be
obtained from K c in Table 5.1 using the procedures indicated below.
K cb for the Initial Period
K cb during the initial period, denoted as K cb ini , is estimated for annual crops by
assuming that a constant value can be used to represent evaporation from a mostly dry
and bare surface soil layer that may occur during the initial period (see [2, 71, 92, 100]).
For annual crops having a nearly bare soil surface at the time of planting, it is rec-
ommended that
K cb ini = 0.15. (5.71)
For perennial crops having a nearly bare soil surface at the beginning of the growing
period before the initiation of new leaves, K cb ini can be estimated as 0.15 to 0.20.
The K cb ini for perennial crops with ground cover can be estimated by subtracting
0.10–0.20 from the K c ini values in Table 5.1:
K cb ini = K c ini − 0.1 or K cb ini = K c ini − 0.2, (5.72)
the second being recommended when crops are routinely irrigated frequently.
K cb for Midseason and End Season
Most agricultural crop canopies nearly completely cover the soil surface during the
midseason. As a result, soil wetness beneath the canopy has less effect on total ETc .
Therefore, K cb mid is often nearly the same value as K c mid listed in Table 5.1 and can be
estimated by
K cb mid = K c mid − 0.05 (5.73a)
for C ≥ ∼0.8, that is, for crops that have nearly complete ground cover, such as cereals;
and
K cb mid = K c mid − 0.10 (5.73b)
for C < ∼0.8, where C is the average fraction of soil surface covered (or shaded) by
vegetation (0–0.99).
Figure 5.7. Application of the basal crop coefficient approach to

edible beans in Kimberly, Idaho, 1974. Source: J. L. Wright,
personal communication.
The basal K c at the end of the growing season, K cb end , has a lower value than the
K c end values recommended in Table 5.1. In general, K cb end values can be estimated from
K c end in this table:
K cb end = K c end − 0.10. (5.74)
The K cb mid and K cb end need to be adjusted for climate using Eq. (5.67). The K cb
for the crop development period and for the late-season period are obtained by linear
interpolation as indicated for the K c curve (see “The K c Curve,” above). This is illustrated
in Fig. 5.7.
Soil Evaporation Coefficient K e
Evaporation from soil beneath a canopy, or from soil that is exposed to sunlight
between plants, is governed by the amount of energy that is available at the soil surface
to evaporate water. This energy is governed by the portion of total energy that has been
consumed by plant transpiration [96, 98, 101, 102].
The maximum value for K e corresponds to a period immediately following rain or
irrigation. The K e decays, depending on the cumulative amount of water evaporated
from the surface soil layer. Thus, K e can be calculated from
K e = K d (K c max − K cb ), (5.75)
where K d is the coefficient for soil evaporation decay (0–1), K cb is the basal crop
coefficient (see “K cb for the Initial Period” and “K cb for Midseason and End Season,”
above), and K c max is the maximum value for K c following rain or irrigation. However,
K e is limited by the fraction of wetted soil exposed to sunlight, f s (0.01–1); then,
K e ≤ f s K c max . (5.76)
K c max represents an upper limit on the evaporation and transpiration from any cropped
surface and is imposed to reflect the natural constraints placed on available energy
represented by the difference Rn − G − H [see Eq. (5.1)]. K c max ranges from about
1.05 to 1.35 when using the grass reference ET0 and is presumed to change with climate
similar to K c and K cb ; thus
K c max = max[{1.2 + [0.04(U2 − 2) − 0.004(RHmin − 45)](h/3)0.3 }, {K cb + 0.05}],
(5.77)
where U2 is the mean value for daily wind speed at 2-m height over grass (m s−1 ),
RHmin is the mean value for daily minimum relative humidity (%), h is the mean plant
height (m), and max[·] is a function to select the maximum value of the parameters in
braces · that are separated by the comma.
A single K c max can be computed. Then, variables U2 , RHmin , and crop height refer to
the midseason period. When more detailed computations are applied, the variables U2
and RHmin can be averaged for shorter periods, five days for example. The mean crop
height h also can be estimated for the same time intervals but, for the initial period, h
can be artificially considered the same as for the grass reference crop (h = 0.12 m).
The simple model used to estimate evaporation from soil is similar to the one used to
compute K c ini and is illustrated in Fig. 5.6, where the evaporation rate is at the maximum
rate until the depth of water evaporated, We , equals W1 , the maximum cumulative depth of
evaporation during stage 1. After We exceeds W1 , the evaporation process is in stage 2,
and the evaporation rate begins to decrease in proportion to (We − W1 )/(Wx − W1 ).
Therefore, the coefficient for soil evaporation decay, K d , is calculated as
Kd = 1 (for We ≤ W1 ), (5.78a)
W x − We
Kd = (for We > W1 ). (5.78b)
W x − W1
W1 and Wx are estimated as described under “K e for Initial Stage for Annual Crops,”
above. We is the current depth of water depleted from the f s fraction of the soil (mm).
We is computed from the water balance of the upper 100 to 150 mm of the soil profile.
The daily soil water-balance equation recommended for the f s fraction of wetted soil
exposed to sunlight is
µ ¶
(In )i K e ET0
(We )i = (We )i−1 − [Pi − (Q r )i ] − + + (Ts )i , (5.79)
fw fs i
where (We )i and (We )i−1 are the depths of water (mm) depleted from the evaporating soil
upper layer at the end of days i and i −1 [0 ≤ (We )i ≤ Wx ], Pi is the precipitation on day
i (mm), (Q r )i is the runoff from the soil surface on day i (mm) [0 ≤ (Q r )i ≤ Pi ], (In )i
is the net irrigation depth on day i (mm) that infiltrates the soil [Eq. (5.58)], (K e ET0 / f s )i
is the evaporation from the f s fraction of the exposed soil surface on day i (mm), and
(Ts )i is the transpiration from the f s fraction of the evaporating soil layer on day i (mm).
To initiate the water balance [Eq. (5.77)], the user can assume that (We )i = 0 imme-
diately following a heavy rain or irrigation or, if a long period of time has occurred since
the last wetting, the user can assume that (We )i = Wx . An example of application of the
basal crop coefficient approach is presented in Fig. 5.7.
When Pi < 0.2 ET0 , Pi usually can be ignored. Estimation of (Q r )i can be per-
formed using the curve-number method as described by Martin and Gilley [74]. In most
applications, (Q r )i = 0. For the majority of crops, except for very shallow rooted crops
(maximum rooting depth <0.5 m), the amount of transpiration from the evaporating soil
layer is small and can be neglected [i.e., (Ts )i = 0]. This applies, for row crops, where
little or none of (Ts )i depletes the f s portion of the surface soil layer [(Ts )i = 0]. When
the complete soil surface is wetted as by precipitation or sprinkler, then f s is essentially
defined as 1 − C, where C is the average fraction of ground covered by vegetation.
However, for irrigation systems where only a fraction of the soil surface is wetted, f s
is calculated as
f s = min(1 − C, f w ), (5.80)
where C is the average fraction of ground covered (or shaded) by vegetation (0–0.99),
and f w is the average fraction of soil surface wetted by irrigation or precipitation (0.01–1)
[see Eq. (5.58)]. In days when precipitation occurs, f w = 1. The min(·) function selects
the lowest value of the 1 − C and f w .
Where it is not observed, the parameter C (0–0.99) can be estimated from
· ¸
K cb − K c min 1+0.5h
C= , (5.81)
K c max − K c min
where K cb is the value for the basal crop coefficient for the particular day or period; K c min
is the minimum K c for dry, bare soil with no ground cover (≈0.15–0.20), commonly the
same as K cb ini ; K c max is the maximum K c immediately following wetting [Eq. (5.77)],
and h is the mean plant height (m). The 1 + 0.5h exponent in Eq. (5.81) represents the
effect of plant height on shading of the soil surface and on increasing the value for K cb ,
given a specific value for C. The user should limit the difference K cb − K c min to ≥0.01
for numerical stability. The value for C will change daily as K cb changes. Therefore,
Eq. (5.81) is applied daily.
Reduction Coeficient for Limited Soil Water K s
The K cb in Eq. (5.53) and K c in Eq. (5.54) are reduced when soil water content of
the plant root zone is too low to sustain transpiration at potential levels. The reduction is
made by multiplying K cb or K c by the water stress coefficient K s . K s can be predicted
from [90]
θ − θLL
Ks = (5.82)
θt − θLL
when θ < θt , where K s is the dimensionless ET reduction factor (0–1), θ is the mean
volumetric soil water content in the root zone (m3 m−3 ), θt is the threshold θ for the root
zone, below which transpiration is decreased because of water stress (m3 m−3 ), and θLL
is the soil water content at the lower limit of water extraction by plant roots (m3 m−3 ).
By definition, K s = 1.0 for θ > θt . Parameter θLL is synonymous with the term wilting
point.
The threshold soil water content θt is predicted as
θt = (1 − Fns )(θUL − θLL ), (5.83)
where Fns is the average fraction of available soil water that can be depleted before water
stress occurs (0–1), and θUL is the soil water content at the drained upper limit of the
soil profile (field capacity) (m3 m−3 ). Fns represents the depletion fraction for no stress,
and is equivalent to the p term of Doorenbos and Pruitt [55] and Doorenbos and Kassam
[90] and is similar to the term “management-allowed depletion” (MAD), introduced
by Merriam [103]. However, values for MAD may be influenced by management and
economic factors in addition to physical factors influencing Fns . Generally, MAD < Fns
when there is risk aversion or uncertainty, and MAD > Fns when plant water stress is
an intentional part of soil water management.
Values for the θ parameters in Eqs. (5.82) and (5.83) represent averages for the
effective root zone. Fns normally varies from 0.30 for shallow-rooted plants at high rates
of ET0 (>8 mm day−1 ) to 0.80 for deep-rooted plants at low rates of ET0 (<3 mm day−1 ).
Values for Fns are given in Table 5.1. Values listed need to be adjusted for climate as
indicated in footnoted of the same table.
The determination of K s requires a daily balance of soil water content.
K c for Nonpristine and Unknown Conditions
For crops or vegetation where the K c is not known, but where estimates of the fraction
of ground surface covered by vegetation can be made, K cb mid can be approximated as [76]
1
K cb min = K c min + [(K cb )h − K c min ]Ceff
1+h
, (5.84)
where Ceff is the effective fraction of ground covered by vegetaton (0.01–1), K c min is the
minimum K c for dry, bare soil (0.15–0.20), and (K cb )h is the maximum value for K cb
for vegetation having complete ground cover. (K cb )h is estimated for areas of vegetation
>500 m2 as
(K cb )h = min[(1.0 + 0.1h), 1.2] + 0.04(U2 − 2) − 0.004(RHmin − 45)(h/3)0.3 . (5.85)
For small, isolated stand sizes, K cb h may need to be increased beyond the value given
by the equation above.
The value for K cb h may be reduced for vegetation that has a high degree of stomatal
control, such as some types of brush and trees. The exponent in Eq. (5.84) represents the
effects of microscale advection (transfer) of sensible heat from dry soil surfaces between
plants toward plant leaves, thereby increasing ET per unit leaf area and the effects of
increased roughness as the value for Ceff decreases.
5.1.6 Soil Water Balance and Irrigation Water Requirements

Soil Water Balance
The soil water balance is made for the complete effective rooting depth, including the
evaporation layer:
[Pi − (Q r )i ] + (In )i − (ETc )i − DPi + GWi
θi = θi−1 + , (5.86)
1000(Z r )i
where θi is the mean volumetric soil water content in the root zone (m3 m−3 ) on day i,
θi−1 is soil water content on the previous day, Pi is depth of precipitation on day i (mm),
(Q r )i is the runoff from the soil surface on day i (mm), (In )i is net irrigation depth on day
i (mm), (irrigation water infiltrating the soil), (ETc )i is the crop ET from Eq. (5.52) on
day i (mm), DPi is any deep percolation on day i (mm), GWi is any upward contribution
of water from a shallow water table on day i (mm), and (Z r )i is the rooting depth on
day i (m). Estimation of GWi is well described by Martin and Gilley [74]. (Q r )i can be
predicted using the SCS curve-number method [104].
Deep percolation is estimated as DPi = 0 when θi ≤ θUL , and DPi = 1,000(θi −
θUL )(Z r )i otherwise. In some applications, θi may be allowed to exceed θUL for one day
before DPi ≥ 0 to account for some ET from excess soil water before it drains from the
root zone.
The depth of the effective root zone for any day i can be predicted as
Ji − Jini
(Z r )i = (Z r )min + [(Z r )max − (Z r )min ] (5.87)
Lrd
for Ji ≤ Jini + L r d , where (Z r )i is the effective depth of the root zone on day i (m),
(Z r )min is the initial effective depth of the root zone (generally at J = Jini ), and (Z r )max
is the maximum effective depth of the root zone (m). Ji is the day of the year [Eq. (5.30)]
corresponding to day i and Jini is the day of the year corresponding to the date of planting
or initiation of growth (or January 1 if a perennial is growing through all months of the
year). L r d is the length of the root development period (days). When Ji > Jini + length,
(Z r )i = (Z r )max . Indicative values for (Z r )max are given in Table 5.1.
The latest date for scheduling irrigation to avoid water stress is when θi equals θt [Eqs.
(5.83) and (5.86)]. However, irrigations often are scheduled when the MAD fraction of
water is depleted, where MAD may be higher or lower than Fns [Eq. (5.83)]. In this case,
irrigation is scheduled when
θi = θMAD = (1 − MAD)(θUL − θLL ) + θLL . (5.88)
The net irrigation depth to be applied then would be
(In )i = 1,000(Z r )i (θUL − θi ). (5.89)
The soil water balance currently is computed through crop-water simulation models
that allow the selection of best irrigation scheduling alternatives [49–51]. Irrigation
scheduling principles and applications are described in Section 5.3.
Irrigation Water Requirement
The irrigation water requirement for a complete growing season is computed as
ETc − Pe − GW − 1S
IWR = , (5.90)
1 − LR
where Pe is the effective precipitation, defined as gross precipitation less all runoff and
deep percolation losses; GW is upward flow of groundwater into the root zone during
the growing season; 1S is the change in soil water storage in the root zone during the
nongrowing season, the difference between θ at planting and at harvesting; and LR is the
leaching requirement. Operational estimates of IWR are better done through crop-water
simulation models.
The leaching requirement LR is estimated for noncracking soils as

ECiw
LR = , (5.91)
5 ECe − ECiw
where ECiw is the electrical conductivity of the irrigation water and ECe is the desired
average root zone salinity expressed as the electrical conductivity of the saturated soil
extract. Values for ECe are available in Ayers and Westcot [105]. Problems relative to
salinity management are discussed in Sections 5.5–5.8.
The gross irrigation water requirement is computed as
IWR
GIWR = (5.92)
Eff
where Eff is the efficiency of the irrigation system. The value for Eff depends on the
spatial scale for GIWR. For a single field, the Eff is the application efficiency of the
field irrigation system. If GIWR is for a farm, Eff includes the product of application
efficiencies and conveyence efficiencies within the farm. If GIWR is for an irrigation
project or scheme, then Eff includes all system losses both on and off the farm. Note that a
substantial portion of these losses eventually will return to the water resources system for
reuse by other users. Values for Eff for application systems are described in Section 5.4.
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ICID Bull. 41(2):1–200.
50. Pereira, L. S., B. J. van den Broek, P. Kabat, and R. G. Allen (eds.). 1995. Crop-
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51. Ragab, R., D. E. El-Quosy, B. J. van den Broek, L. S. Pereira (eds.). 1996. Crop-
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52. Shuttleworth, W. J. 1993. Evaporation. Handbook of Hydrology, ed. Maidment,
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53. Wright, J. L., and M. E. Jensen. 1972. Peak water requirements of crops in southern
Idaho. J. Irrig. Drain. Div. ASCE 96(IR1):193–201.
54. Jensen, M. E. (ed.). 1974. Consumptive Use of Water and Irrigation Water Re-
quirements. Rept. of the Technical Committee on Irrigation Water Requirements,
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55. Doorenbos, J., and W. O. Pruitt. 1977. Guidelines for Predicting Crop Water re-
quirements, Irrigation and Drainage Papers 24, 2nd ed. Rome: FAO.
56. Pruitt, W. O., and B. D. Swann. 1986. Evapotranspiration studies in N.S.W.: Daily
vs. hourly meteorological data. Irrigation ’86. Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia:
Darling Downs Institute of Advanced Education.
57. Allen, R. G., W. O. Pruitt, and M. E. Jensen. 1991. Environmental requirements for
lysimeters. Lysimeters for Evapotranspiration and Environmental Measurements,
eds. Allen, R. G., T. A. Howell, W. O. Pruitt, I. A. Walter, and M. E. Jensen, pp.
170–181. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers.
58. Allen, R. G., and W. O. Pruitt. 1991. FAO-24 reference evapotranspiration factors.
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59. Allen, R. G., M. Smith, A. Perrier, and L. S. Pereira. 1994. An update for the
definition of reference evapotranspiration. ICID Bull. 43(2):1–34.
60. Allen, R. G., M. Smith, L. S. Pereira, and A. Perrier. 1994. An update for the
calculation of reference evapotranspiration. ICID Bull. 43(2):35–92.
61. Perrier, A., P. Archer, and B. de Pablos. 1974. Etude de l’évapotranspiration réelle
et maximele de diverses cultures: Dispositif et mesure. Ann. Agron. 25(3):229–243.
62. Pruitt, W. O., and F. J. Lourence. 1985. Experiences in lysimetry for ET and surface
drag measurements. Advances in Evapotranspiration, pp. 51–69. St. Joseph, MI:
63. Meyer, W. S., and L. Mateos. 1990. Effects of soil type on soybean crop water
use in weighing lysimeters. II. Effect of lysimeter canopy height discontinuity on
evaporation. Irrig. Sci. 11:233–237.
64. Howell, T. A., A. D. Schneider, and M. E. Jensen. 1991. History of lysimeter design
and use for evapotranspiration measurements. Lysimeters for Evapotranspiration
and Environmental Measurements, eds. Allen, R. G., T. A. Howell, W. O. Pruitt,
I. A. Walter, and M. E. Jensen. pp. 1–9, New York: American Society of Civil
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65. Grebet, P., and R. H. Cuenca. 1991. History of lysimeter design and effects of en-
vironmental disturbances. Lysimeters for Evapotranspiration and Environmental
Measurements, eds. Allen, R. G., T. A. Howell, W. O. Pruitt, I. A. Walter, and
M. E. Jensen. pp. 10–18. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers.
66. Pruitt, W. O. 1991. Development of crop coefficients using lysimeters. Lysimeters
for Evapotranspiration and Environmental Measurements, eds. Allen, R. G., T.
A. Howell, W. O. Pruitt, I. A. Walter, and M. E. Jensen. pp. 182–190. New York:
American Society of Civil Engineers.
67. Blad, B. L., and N. J. Rosenberg. 1974. Lysimetric calibration of the Bowen-
ratio energy balance method for evapotranspiration estimation in the Central Great
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68. Itier, B., and A. Perrier. 1976. Presentation d’une étude analytique de l’advection:
II. Application à la mesure et à l’estimation de l’évapotranspiration. Ann. Agron.
27(4):417–433.
69. Perrier, A., B. Itier, J. M. Bertolini, and N. Katerji. 1976. A new device for contin-
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71–85.
70. Carrijo, O. A., and R. H. Cuenca. 1992. Precision of evapotranspiration estimates
using neutron probe. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. ASCE 118(6):943–953.
71. Wright, J. L. 1982. New evapotranspiration crop coefficients. J. Irrig. Drain. Div.
ASCE, 108:57–74.
72. George, W., W. O. Pruitt, and A. Dong. 1985. Evapotranspiration modeling. Cali-
fornia Irrigation Management Information System, Final Report, eds. Snyder, R.,
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10013-A, pp. III-36 to III-59. Davis: University of Calfornia.
73. Feddes, R. A. 1987. Crop factors in relation to Makkink reference crop evapotran-
spiration. Evaporation and Weather, ed., Hooghart, J. C., pp. 33–45. The Hague:
The Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research.
74. Martin, D. L., and J. R. Gilley. 1993. Irrigation Water Requirements. SCS National
Engineering Handbook, Chap. 2. Washington, DC: Soil Conservation Service.
75. Smith, M., R. G. Allen, J. L. Monteith, A. Perrier, L. Pereira, and A. Segeren. 1992.
Report of the Expert Consultation on Procedures for Revision of FAO Guidelines
for Prediction of Crop Water Requirements. Rome: FAO.
76. Allen, R. G., M. Smith, W. O. Pruitt, and L. S. Pereira. 1996. Modifications to

the FAO crop coefficient approach. Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Scheduling,
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Society of Agricultural Engineers.
77. Smith, M., R. G. Allen, and L. Pereira. 1996. Revised FAO methodology for crop
water requirements. Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Scheduling, eds. Camp,
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78. Allen R. G., 1996. Assessing integrity of weather data for use in reference evapo-
transpiration estimation. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. ASCE 122(2):97–106.
79. Allen, R. G., C. E. Brockway, and J. L. Wright. 1983. Weather station siting and
consumptive use estimates. J. Water Resour. Plan. Manage. Div. ASCE 109(2):
134–146.
80. Smith, M. 1993. CLIMWAT for CROPWAT: A climatic database for irrigation
planning and management. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 49, Rome: FAO.
81. Allen, R. G. 1995. Evaluation of Procedures for Estimating Mean Monthly So-
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82. Hargreaves, G. L., and Z. A. Samani. 1982. Estimating potential evapotranspiration.
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83. Allen, R. G. 1987. Self calibrating method for estimating solar radiation from air
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84. Hargreaves, G. L., G. H. Hargreaves, and J. P. Riley. 1985. Agricultural benefits
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86. Sinclair, T. R. 1984. Leaf area development in field-grown soybeans. Agron. J. 76:
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87. Flesch, T. K., and R. F. Dale. 1987. A leaf area index model for corn with moisture
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88. Ritchie, J. T. 1991. Wheat phasic development. Modeling Plant and Soil Systems,
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90. Doorenbos, J., and A. H. Kassam. 1979: Yield response to water. FAO Irrigation
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the next decade.” ASAE Paper No. 86-2629.
93. Snyder, R. L., B. J. Lanini, D. A. Shaw, and W. O. Pruitt. 1987. Using reference
evapotranspiration (ET0 ) and crop coefficients to estimate crop evapotranspiration
(ETc ) for agronomic crops, grasses, and vegetable crops. Leaflet 21427, Coopera-
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94. Snyder, R. L., B. J. Lanini, D. A. Shaw, and W. O. Pruitt. 1989. Using reference
evapotranspiration (ET0 ) and crop coefficients to estimate crop evapotranspira-
tion (ETc ) for trees and vines. Leaflet 21428, Cooperative Extension. Berkeley:
University of California.
95. Allen, R. G., M. Smith, L. S. Pereira, and W. O. Pruitt, 1996. Proposed revision
to the FAO procedure for estimating crop water requirement. Proceedings of 2nd
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AcTa Horticultural.
96. Ritchie, J. T. 1974. Evaluating irrigation needs for southeastern U.S.A. Proceedings
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ASCE.
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98. Martin, D. L., E. C. Stegman, and E. Fereres. 1990. Irrigation scheduling principles.
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Engineers.
99. Ritchie, J. T., D. C. Godwin, and U. Singh. 1989. Soil and weather inputs for the
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100. Hanks, R. J. 1985. Crop coefficients for transpiration. Advances in Evapotranspi-
ration, pp. 431–438. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
101. Saxton, K. E., H. P. Johnson, and R. H. Shaw. 1974. Modeling evapotranspiration
and soil moisture. Trans. ASAE 17(4):673–677.
102. Tanner, C. B., and W. A. Jury. 1976. Estimating evaporation and transpiration from
a crop during incomplete cover. Agron. J. 68:239–242.
103. Merriam, J. L. 1966. A management control concept for determining the econom-
ical depth and frequency of irrigation. Trans. ASAE 9:492–498.
104. Soil Conservation Service. 1982. National Engineering Handbook. Washington
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
105. Ayers, R. S., and D. W. Westcot. 1985. Water quality for agriculture. Rev. 1. FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29. Rome: FAO.
5.2 Water Retention and Movement in Soil

N. Romano
5.2.1 Basic Concepts

Soil is a porous system made up of solid, liquid, and gaseous phases. The liquid
phase (soil solution) consists of soil water, which usually contains a variety of dissolved
Water Retention and Movement in Soil 263
minerals and organic substances. Water in soil may be encountered in three different
states: as a liquid, a solid (ice), or a gas (water vapor).
The definitions and discussion in the following sections refer to a macroscopic de-
scription of an idealized continuous medium that replaces the actual complex geometry
of a pore system. The various state variables (e.g., pressure potential and water content)
and soil properties (e.g., bulk density and hydraulic conductivity) are considered to be
continuous functions of position and time. They are viewed as macroscopic quantities
obtained by volume averages over an appropriate averaging volume referred to as the
representative elementary volume (REV) whose characteristic length should be much
greater than that of a typical pore diameter but considerably smaller than a characteristic
length of the porous system under study [1]. Within this effective continuum, the solid
matrix is usually considered as rigid, the liquid phase is Newtonian and homogeneous,
air is interconnected at the atmospheric pressure, and the analysis of flow regime is con-
ducted by evaluating the flux density as volume of water discharged per unit time and
per unit entire cross-sectional area of soil. Each point of the domain considered is the
center of an REV. The macroscopic continuum approach represents a fertile tool for the
development of theories applicable to the problem of water movement through porous
media.
5.2.2 Soil Water Content

Soil water content generally is defined as the ratio of the mass of soil water to the
mass of dried soil, or as the volume of water per unit volume of soil. In both cases,
accuracy in calculating the water content depends on a clear and rigorous definition of
the dry soil condition.
Because the interest of practical applications relies largely upon the determination of
the magnitude of relative time changes in water content in a certain point, the condition
of dry soil refers by tradition to a standard condition obtained by evaporating the water
from a soil sample placed in an oven at 100–110◦ C until variations in sample weight
are no longer noticed. The choice of these temperatures is somewhat arbitrary and does
not result from scientific outcomes. Rather, within the above range of temperatures the
evaporation of free water from the sample is guaranteed and the standard condition can
be attained easily using commercial ovens.
It is useful to define the water content of soil on a volumetric basis θ (m3 /m3 ) as the
dimensionless ratio
θ = Vw /Vt (5.93)
3 3
of water volume Vw (m ) to total soil volume Vt (m ). Especially when subjecting a soil
sample to chemical analyses, the soil water content is expressed usually on a mass basis
as
w = Mw /Ms , (5.94)
where Mw is the mass of water (kg) and Ms is the mass of dry soil particles (kg).
If ρb = Ms /Vt denotes the oven-dry bulk density (kg/m3 ) and ρw = Mw /Vw is the
density of liquid water (kg m−3 ), the volumetric soil water content θ and the gravimetric
soil water content w have the following relationship:

θ = w(ρb /ρw ). (5.95)
The maximum water content in the soil is denoted as the water content at saturation
θs . In some cases the amount of water in the soil is thus computed as a percentage of
saturated water content s (%) and is expressed in terms of degree of saturation with
respect to the water, s = θ/θs × 100. However, evaluating the volumetric water content
at saturation is highly uncertain, if not impossible, in swelling shrinking soils or as
phenomena of consolidation of the soil matrix occur. In such cases, a useful expression
of soil water content is the moisture ratio ϑ, defined as
ϑ = Vw /Vs , (5.96)
where Vs (m3 ) is the volume of solids.
Measurement of Water Content of Soil
The measurement of water content in the soil is of great importance in many inves-
tigations and applications pertaining to agriculture, hydrology, meteorology, hydraulic
engineering, and soil mechanics. In the fields of agronomy and forestry, the amount of
water contained in the soil affects plant growth and diffusion of nutrients toward the
plant roots, as well as acting on soil aeration and gaseous exchanges, with direct con-
sequences for root respiration. Also, continuous monitoring of soil water content can
support the setting up of optimal strategies for the use of irrigation water. In hydrology,
moisture condition in the uppermost soil horizon plays an important role in determining
the amount of incident water—either rainfall or irrigation water — that becomes runoff.
Evapotranspiration processes, transport of solute and pollutants, and numerous hydraulic
(e.g., retention, conductivity) or mechanical (e.g., consistency, plasticity, strength) soil
properties depend on soil water content.
Several methods have been proposed to determine water content in soil, especially
under field conditions. Soil water content can be measured by direct or indirect methods
[2, 3].
Direct Methods
Direct methods involve removing a soil sample and evaluating the amount of water
that it contains. Their use necessarily entails the destruction of the sample and hence the
inability to repeat the measurement in the same location.
The most widely used direct method is the thermogravimetric method, often consid-
ered as a reference procedure because it is straightforward, accurate, and inexpensive
in terms of equipment. This method consists of collecting a disturbed or undisturbed
soil sample (usually of about 100–200 g taken with an auger or sampling tube) from the
appropriate soil depth, weighing it, and sealing it carefully to prevent water evaporation
or the gaining of moisture before it is analyzed. Then, the soil sample is placed in an oven
and dried at 105–110◦ C. The residence time in the oven should be such that a condition
of stable weight is attained, and it depends not only on the type of soil and size of the
sample but also on the efficiency and load of the oven. Usual values of the residence time
in the oven are about 12 h if a forced-draft oven is used, or 24 h in a convection oven.
At completion of the drying phase, the sample is removed from the oven, cooled in a
desiccator with active desiccant, and weighed again. The gravimetric soil water content
is calculated as follows:
w = [(ww + ta ) − (wd + ta )]/[(wd + ta ) − ta ], (5.97)
where ww and wd represent the mass of wet and dry soil (kg), respectively, and ta is the
tare (kg).
The major source of error using the thermogravimetric method together with (5.95)
is related to sampling technique. The fact that the soil cores may contain stones, roots,
and voids, as well as certain unavoidable disturbances during sampling, may affect the
precision in determining the value of the volumetric water content in soil.
Indirect Methods
Basically, indirect methods consist of measuring some soil physical or physicochem-
ical properties that are highly dependent on water content in the soil. In general, they
do not involve destructive procedures and use equipment that also can be placed perma-
nently in the soil, or remote sensors located on airborne platforms and satellites. Thus,
indirect methods are well suited for carrying out measurements on a repetitive basis and
in some cases also enable data to be recorded automatically, but require the knowledge
of accurate calibration curves.
The main indirect methods are gamma attenuation, neutron thermalization, electrical
resistance, time-domain reflectometry (TDR). Other indirect methods are low-resolution
nuclear magnetic resonance imaging and remote-sensing techniques.
A typical nondestructive laboratory method for monitoring water contents in a soil col-
umn is based on the attenuation and backscattering of a collimated beam of gamma rays
emitted by a radioactive source, such as cesium-137. In case of shrinking/swelling porous
materials, a dual-energy gamma-ray attenuation system (usually employing cesium-137
and americium-241 as the radioactive sources) can be used to measure simultaneously
bulk density and water content in a soil sample.
Instead, the neutron method often is used for field investigations and enables soil water
contents to be determined by the thermalization process of high-energy neutrons colliding
with atomic nuclei in the soil, primarily hydrogen atoms [2]. Because hydrogen is the ma-
jor variable affecting energy losses of fast neutrons, the count rate of thermalized (slow)
neutron pulses can be related to soil water content. Actually, the calibration curve linearly
relates the volumetric soil water content θ to the relative pulse count rate N /N R ; that is,
θ = n 1 (N /N R ) + n 2 , (5.98)
where N is the measured count rate of thermalized neutrons, N R is the count rate under
a “reference” condition, and n 1 and n 2 are parameters. Some manufacturers suggest that
the reference count rate N R be obtained in the same protective shield supplied for the
probe transportation, but this value can be highly affected by humidity and temperature
of the surrounding environment and by the relatively small size of the shield. More
effectively, the value of the reference count rate should be taken in a water-filled tank
(e.g., a cylinder of 0.6 m in height and 0.5 m in diameter) on a daily basis during the
investigation. Parameter n 1 chiefly depends on the presence of substances that play a

basic role in the thermalization process, such as boron, cadmium, iron, and molybdenum,
whereas the value of parameter n 2 is strongly affected by soil bulk density and is nearly
zero for very low values of bulk density.
Employing a factory-supplied calibration curve can be inadequate in most situations.
It thus is recommended that the calibration curve be obtained experimentally in the
field by relating the measured count ratio N /N R for a soil location to simultaneous
measurements of soil water content with the thermogravimetric method. Oven-dry bulk
densities are also to be measured. One drawback of the neutron method is the low spatial
resolution under certain conditions associated with the thermalization process. Close
to saturation, the measuring volume is approximately a sphere 0.15 m in diameter, but
under dry condition the diameter of this sphere is about 0.50–0.70 m. Therefore, larger
uncertainties are to be expected when the soil profile consists of several alternating layers
of highly contrasting soil texture, as well as when measurements are performed close to
the soil surface. Moreover, because of the influence of the size of the sphere, the neutron
method is not very useful for distances between the measuring depths less than 0.10 m.
In the past decade, indirect estimation of water content by measuring the propagation
velocity of an electromagnetic wave is becoming increasingly popular. One method that
exploits this principle and that can be employed in laboratory and field experiments, is
TDR, which actually determines the apparent dielectric permittivity of soil by moni-
toring the travel time for an electromagnetic signal (TDR pulse) to propagate along a
suitable probe inserted in the soil at the selected measuring depth. Dielectric properties of
a substance in the presence of an electromagnetic field depend on the polarization of its
molecules and are described by the apparent relative dielectric permittivity ε, which is a
dimensionless variable always greater than unity and conveniently defined by a complex
relation as the sum of a real part, ε 0 , and an imaginary part ε00 of ε. The real part of the
dielectric permittivity mainly accounts for the energy stored in the system due to the
alignment of dipoles with the electric field, whereas the imaginary part accounts for en-
ergy dissipation effects [4]. In a heterogeneous complex system, such as soil, essentially
made of variable proportions of solid particles, air, water, and mineral organic liquids, it
is extremely difficult to interpret dielectric behavior, especially at low frequencies of the
imposed alternated electrical field. However, within the frequency range from about 50
0
MHz to 2 GHz, the apparent relative dielectric permittivity of soil, εsoil , is affected chiefly
∼
by the apparent relative dielectric permittivity of water (εwater = 80 at 20◦ C) because it
0
0
is much larger than that of air (εair 0
= 1) and of the solid phase (εsolid ∼
= 3−7). Within the
above range, it is therefore possible to relate uniquely the measurements of soil relative
0
permittivity εsoil to volumetric water content by means of a calibration curve. Moreover,
the employed measurement frequency makes the soil relative permittivity rather invari-
ant with respect to the frequency and hence usually it also is referred to as the dielectric
constant of soil.
By examining a wide range of mineral soils, Topp and his colleagues [5] determined
the empirical relationship
¡ ¢2 ¡ ¢3
θ = −a1 + a2 εm0 − a3 εm0 + a4 εm0 (5.99)
between the volumetric soil water content θ and the TDR-measured dielectric permittivity
of the porous medium εm0 . The regression coefficients ai are, respectively, a1 = 5.3 ×
10−2 , a2 = 2.92 × 10−2 , a3 = 5.5 × 10−4 , and a4 = 4.3 × 10−6 .
Even though the calibration equation (5.99) does not describe accurately the actual
relation θ(εm0 ) when εm0 tends toward 1 or to the value of the dielectric permittivity of free
water; however, it is simple and allows good soil water content measurements within the
range of 0.05 < θ < 0.6, chiefly if only relative changes of θ are required. For non-
clayey mineral soils with low-organic-matter content, absolute errors in determining
water content by Eq. (5.99) can be even less than ±0.015m3 /m3 , whereas an average
absolute error of about ±0.035m3 /m3 was reported for organic soils.
When absolute values of θ and a greater level of accuracy are required, a site-specific
calibration of the TDR-measured dielectric permittivity εm0 to soil water content θ should
be evaluated. In this case, and especially if measurements are to be carried out close to the
soil surface, a zone where soil temperature fluctuations can be relatively high during the
span of the experiment, one also should take into account the dependence of temperature
T (◦ C) upon εwater
0
:
0
εwater = b1 − b2 T + b3 T 2 − b4 T 3 , (5.100)
where values of the constants bi of this polynomial are, respectively, b1 = 87.74, b2 =

0.4001, b3 = 9.398 × 10−4 , and b4 = 1.410 × 10−6 . However, relation (5.100) strictly
holds for free water only and can be considered as acceptable for sandy soils, but it
cannot be used for clayey and even for loamy soils.
Finally, note that this device does not lead to point measurements, but rather it averages
the water content over an averaging volume that mainly depends on the length and shape
of the TDR probe employed.
5.2.3 Soil Water Potential

Water present in an unsaturated porous medium such as soil is subject to a variety of
forces acting in different directions. The terrestrial gravitational field and the overburden
loads due to the weight of soil layers overlying a nonrigid porous system tend to move
the soil water in the vertical direction. The attractive forces occurring between the polar
water molecules and the surface of the solid matrix and those coming into play at the
separation interface between the liquid and gaseous phases can act in various directions.
Moreover, ions in the soil solution give rise to attractive forces that oppose the movement
of water in the soil.
Because of difficulties in describing such a complex system of forces and because of
the low-velocity flow field within the pores, so that the kinetic energy can be neglected,
flow processes in soil are referred instead to the potential energy of a unit quantity of water
resulting from the force field. Thus, flow is driven by differences in potential energy, and
soil water moves from regions of higher to regions of lower potential. In particular, soil
water is at equilibrium condition if potential energy is constant throughout the system.
Because only differences in potential energy between two different locations have a
physical sense, it is not necessary to evaluate soil water potentials through an absolute
scale of energy, but rather they are referred to a standard reference state. This standard
reference state usually is considered as the energy of the unit quantity of pure water (no
solutes), free (contained in a hypothetical reservoir and subject to the force of gravity
only), at atmospheric pressure, at the same temperature of water in the soil (or at a
different, specified temperature), and at a fixed reference elevation. The concept of soil
water potential is of fundamental importance for studies of transport processes in soil
and provides a unified way of evaluating the energy state of water within the soil–
plant–atmosphere system. To consider the different field forces acting upon soil water
separately, the potential is used, defined thermodynamically as the difference in free
energy between soil water and water at the reference condition.
A committee of the International Soil Science Society [6] defined the total soil water
potential as “the amount of work that must be done per unit quantity of pure water in
order to transport reversibly and isothermally an infinitesimal quantity of water from a
pool of pure water at a specified elevation at atmospheric pressure to the soil water (at the
point under consideration).” This definition, though a really formal one and not useful
for effectively making measurements [7, 8], allows us to consider the total potential as
the sum of separate components, each of which refers to an isothermic and reversible
transformation that partly changes water state from the reference condition to a final
condition in the soil.
Following the Committee’s proposal, the total potential of soil water, ψt , can be
broken down as follows:
ψt = ψg + ψ p + ψo , (5.101)
where the subscripts g, p, and o refer to the gravitational potential, the pressure potential,
and the osmotic potential, respectively. Different units can be employed for the soil water
potentials and they are reported under “Units of Potential,” below.
The potentials ψg and ψo account for the effects of elevation differences and dissolved
solutes on the energy state of water. The pressure potential ψ p comprises all the remaining
forces acting upon soil water and accounts for the effects of binding to the solid matrix,
the curvature of air–water menisci, the weight of overlying materials, the gas-phase
pressure, and the hydrostatic pressure potential if the soil is saturated. Thus, strictly
speaking, the gravitational and pressure potentials refer to the soil solution, whereas the
osmotic potential refers to the water component only.
However, the above definition of pressure potential ψ p generally is not used because,
in the realm of soil physics, the energy changes associated with the soil water transport
from the standard reference state to a certain state in the soil at a fixed location are
traditionally split up into other components of potential that separately account for the
effects of pressure in the gaseous phase, overburdens, hydrostatic pressure, and links
between water and the solid matrix.
The component of pressure potential that accounts for adsorption and capillary forces
arising from the affinity of water to the soil matrix is termed matric potential ψm . Under
fully saturated conditions, ψm = 0. In nonswelling soils (for which the solid matrix
is rigid) bearing the weight of overlying porous materials and in the presence of an
interconnected gaseous phase at atmospheric pressure, the matric potential ψm coincides
with pressure potential ψ p . Under relatively wet conditions, in which capillary forces
predominate, the matric component of the pressure potential can be expressed by the
capillary equation written in terms of the radius of a cylindrical capillary tube, Reff
(effective radius of the meniscus, in meters):
Pc = (2σ cos αc )/Reff , (5.102)
where Pc = Pnw − Pw is the capillary pressure (N/m ), defined as the pressure difference
2
between the nonwetting and the wetting fluid phases, σ is the interfacial tension between
wetting and nonwetting fluid phases (N/m), and αc is the contact angle. If the nonwetting
phase is air at atmospheric pressure, the capillary pressure is equal to −ψm .
Moreover, the sum of the matric and osmotic potentials often has been termed water
potential ψw , and it provides a measure of the hydration state of plants, as well as affecting
the magnitude of water uptake by plant roots.
Units of Potential
The total soil water potential and its components are defined as energy per unit quantity
of pure water. Therefore, their relevant units vary if reference is made to a unit mass,
unit volume, or unit weight of water.
When referring to unit mass, the dimensions are L 2 /T 2 , and in the SI system the
potential units are J/kg. Although it is better to use the unit mass of water because it does
not change with temperature and pressure, this definition of the potential energy is widely
used only in thermodynamics. If one considers that, in the most practical applications,
water can be supposed incompressible and its density is independent of potential, energy
can be referred to the unit volume instead of unit mass. Hence, the dimensions are those
of a pressure M·L −1 T −2 and in the SI system the units of potential are J/m3 = N/m2
(pascal, Pa). By expressing the potential as energy per unit weight of water, the units are
J/N = m, and the relevant dimensions are those of a length L. This latter way to evaluate
the water energy potential is more useful and effective.
When effects of the presence of solutes in the soil solution can be neglected, as applies
to most cases, instead of using the symbol ψ, it is customary in analogy to hydraulics to
define the total soil water potential per unit weight, H (m), in terms of head units as
H = Hg + H p = z + h, (5.103)
where z (m) is the elevation of the point under consideration, or gravitational head, and
h (m) is the soil–water pressure head.
Measurement of Soil Water Potential
Knowing soil water potential values in soil is of primary importance in studies of
transport processes within porous media as well as in evaluating the energy status of
water in the crops.
The most widely known direct method for measuring the pressure potential in soil is
that associated with use of a tensiometer [2]. The matric potential then can be calculated
from measurements of the gas-phase pressure, if different from the atmospheric pressure,
and of the overburden potentials in the case of swelling soils. Schematically, a tensiometer
consists of a porous cup (or disk), mostly made of a ceramic material, connected to a
pressure sensor (e.g., mercury manometer, vacuum gage, pressure transducer) by means
of a water-filled tube. The porous cup in inserted in the soil at the selected measurement
depth. In spite of specific limitations, chiefly related to a good contact between the porous
cup and the surrounding soil and to the measurement range because of vaporization of
liquid water, and related failure of liquid continuity, when pressure potential reaches
about −85 kPa, this device is widely used in both laboratory and field experiments.
To monitor matric potential at numerous locations within a field, as necessary for
automatic irrigation scheduling or environmental monitoring studies, various methods
have been proposed employing sensors that measure a certain variable (e.g., electric resis-
tance, heat dissipation) strongly affected by soil water content. An empirical calibration
curve then is required for evaluating matric potential in soil. However, uncertainties when
using this methodology can be relatively large and chiefly associated with the hysteretic
behavior of the porous sensor and with the validity of the selected empirical calibration
curve for all or most of the sensors installed in the area of interest. All of these methods
are indirect methods for matric potential measurements.
Measurements of water potential (sum of matric potential and osmotic potential) are
particularly useful for evaluating crop water availability. These measurements usually
are carried out employing thermocouple psychrometers [9], which actually measure the
relative humidity of the vapor phase in equilibrium with the liquid phase of the soil.
5.2.4 Soil Water Retention Characteristics

The relationship between volumetric soil water content θ and pressure potential h
(expressed here as an equivalent height of water) is called the water retention function.
The relationship θ(h) is strongly and chiefly affected by soil texture and structure. With
reference to drying conditions, Fig. 5.8 reports typical shapes of the water retention
curve for a sandy and a clayey soil. Starting from an equilibrium condition at saturation
(h = 0), a slight reduction in h may not cause reductions in θ until pressure potential
in the soil reaches a critical value h E (air-entry potential head), which depends mainly
on the pore-size distribution, especially that of larger soil pores. Thus, for h E ≤ h ≤ 0,
the soil should not necessarily be under unsaturated conditions. However, the presence
of an air-entry potential is particularly evident only for coarse-textured soils. Beyond
this critical value, decreases in h will result in a more or less rapid decrease in θ . When
water content is reduced so that soil conditions are very dry (residual water-content
conditions), a slight reduction in soil water content may cause the pressure potential to
decrease even by orders of magnitude.
The hysteretic nature of soil water retention characteristic θ(h) under nonmonotonic
flow conditions has been demonstrated both theoretically and experimentally. In practice,
the θ values are related to the h values in different ways, depending on the drying or
wetting scenarios to which the porous medium is subjected and specifically even on
the (θ − h) value when the time derivative ∂θ/∂t changes its sign. One could say
that soil has “memory” of the drying and wetting histories that precede the setting
up of a new equilibrium condition and this phenomenon of hysteresis is more evident
when approaching fully saturated conditions. Figure 5.9 shows the excursion of water
content and pressure potential (main wetting, main drying, and scanning soil water
Figure 5.8. Schematic water retention characteristics for a sandy and a clayey soil
during drainage.
Figure 5.9. Measured soil water retention characteristics for a sandy soil
exhibiting hysteresis. Source: From [10], with permission.
characteristics) measured in the laboratory on a sandy soil exhibiting hysteresis. The

main wetting curve is represented by the solid line, with the open dots being experimental
values measured as water saturation increases. The close dots are retention data points
measured under drying conditions. The highest dashed line is the main drying curve,
whereas the others correspond to a few scanning curves. Note that, in general, the main
drying curve starts at a value equal to the total soil porosity, whereas the main wetting
curve may reach, at h = 0, an effective water content that is less than the total pore
space of the soil because of entrapped air. Major causes of the hysteretic behavior of
the water retention characteristics are the following: different water-solid contact angles
during wetting and drying cycles, as well as high variability in both size and shape of
soil pores (ink-bottle effects); the amount of air entrapped in the pore space; phenomena
of swelling or shrinking of the individual particles [2, 3].
Description of Soil Water-Retention Curve
Several investigations carried out by comparing a great deal of experimental retention
data sets highlighted the possibility of describing the drying soil water-retention function
reasonably well by employing empirical analytical relations. A closed-form analytical
relation can be incorporated much more easily into numerical water flow models than
measured values in tabular form. One of the most popular and widely verified nonhys-
teretic θ(h) relations has been proposed by van Genuchten [11]:
Se = [1 + (α|h|)n ]−m (5.104)
where Se = (θ − θs )/(θs − θr ) is effective saturation; θs and θr are saturated and residual
water content, respectively; h (m) is the soil water pressure head; and α (1/m), n, and m
represent empirical shape parameters. However, attention should be paid to the concept
and definition of residual saturation [8, 12]. Usually, θs and θr are measured values,
whereas the remaining parameter values are computed from measured retention data
points by employing nonlinear regression techniques, with the constraints α > 0, n > 1,
and 0 < m < 1. A few empirical relations also have been introduced in the literature for
analytically describing hysteresis in the water retention function. Basically, it has been
proposed that parametric relations practically equal to that of van Genuchten be used,
but with different values for the parameters when describing the main wetting or drying
curves [13].
Determination of Soil Water-Retention Curve
The water retention function θ(h) usually is determined in the laboratory on undis-
turbed soil cores by proceeding through a series of wetting and drainage events and taking
measurements at equilibrium conditions, or in the field by measuring simultaneously wa-
ter contents and pressure potentials during a transient flow experiment. Reviews of direct
methods for determining the soil water-retention curve can be found in the literature for
laboratory analyses on soil cores [14] and for field soils [15].
In the soil water-pressure range from 0 to about −2.5 m, drying water-retention values
often are measured in the laboratory by placing initially saturated undisturbed soil cores
on a porous material (e.g., sand-kaolin bed, mixture of glass and diatomaceous powders),
which then is subjected to varying soil water-pressure heads. The selected porous bed is
held in a container, which usually is made of ceramics or Perspex and is provided with
a cover to prevent evaporative losses. After reaching conditions of water equilibrium at
a fixed pressure head, water content in each core is measured gravimetrically. Before
removing a soil core from the porous bed for weighing, it is thus important to know
whether equilibrium has been reached. This condition can be monitored conveniently by
placing on the upper surface of the soil core a tensiometer, consisting, for example, of a
sintered glass slab connected to a pressure transducer.
In-situ θ(h) data points can be obtained readily at different soil depths from simul-
taneous measurements of θ and h using field tensiometers for pressure potentials and a
neutron probe, or TDR probes, for water content.
Indirect methods to determine the soil water-retention curve also have been proposed
and are discussed in Section 5.2.8.
5.2.5 Flow Within the Soil

Generally, the hydrodynamic description of a fluid-flow problem requires knowledge
of the momentum equation, the law expressing the conservation of mass (continuity
equation), and a state relationship among density, stress, and temperature. Mathemati-
cally the flow problem therefore is defined by a more or less complicated system of partial
differential equations whose solution requires specification of boundary conditions and,
if the flow is unsteady, initial conditions describing the specific flow situation.
From a merely conceptual point of view, the flow of water within the soil should be
analyzed on the microscopic scale by viewing the soil as a disperse system and applying
the Navier-Stokes equations. Such a detailed description of flow pattern at every point in
the domain is practically impossible because actual flow velocities vary greatly in both
magnitude and direction due to the complexity of the paths followed by individual fluid
particles when they move through the interconnected pores. On the other hand, in many
applications, greater interest is attached to the knowledge of flux density. Therefore,
flow and transport processes in soils typically are described on a macroscopic scale by
defining a REV and an averaged set of quantities and balance equations.
Basic Flow Equations
The above conceptualization of a porous medium allows description of water move-
ment through soil, either saturated or unsaturated, by the experimentally derived Darcy’s
law,
q = −K ∇ H, (5.105)
written in vectorial form for a homogeneous isotropic medium under isothermal condi-
tions. This equation relates macroscopically the volumetric flux density (or Darcy veloc-
ity) q to the negative vector gradient of the total soil water-potential head H by means
of the parameter K , called the soil hydraulic conductivity. For an anisotropic porous
medium, this parameter becomes a tensor. The hydraulic conductivity is assumed to be
independent of the total potential gradient but may depend on other variables. Because
the term ∇ H is dimensionless, both q and K have dimensions of L/T and generally
units of meters per second or centimeters per hour.
Note that Darcy’s law can be derived from the Navier-Stokes equations for viscous-
flow problems because it practically describes water flow in porous media when inertial
forces can be neglected with respect to the viscous forces. Therefore, the range of validity
of Darcy’s law depends on the occurrence of the above condition; readers wishing further
details are directed to the literature [3].
The soil water-flow theory based on the Darcy flux law provides only a first approx-
imation to the understanding and description of water-flow processes in porous media.
Apart from the already-cited nonlinear proportionality between the Darcy velocity and
the hydraulic potential gradient at high flow velocity due to the increasing weight of the
inertial forces with respect to the viscous forces in determining the magnitude of the
stresses acting on soil water and the presence of turbulence, allowances are made for
possible deviations from Darcy’s law even at low flow velocities [16]. Other causes of
deviations from the Darcy-based flow theory can be attributed chiefly to the occurrence
of macropores (such as earthworm holes, cracks, and fissures), nonisothermal condi-
tions, nonnegligible effects of air pressure differences, and solute–water interactions.
However, these causes may become more important when modeling transport processes
under field-scale conditions with respect to laboratory-scale situations.
The description of mass conservation is still made using the concept of REV and
usually with the assumption of a rigid system. The principle of mass conservation requires
that the change with time of mass stored in an elemental soil volume must equal the
difference between the inflow- and the outflow-mass rates. Therefore, the basic mass
balance for water phase can be written as
∂(ρw θ )
= −∇·(ρw q), (5.106)
∂t
where ρw is water density (kg/m3 ), θ is volumetric water content, and t is time (s). If
one should take the presence of source or sink terms into account (e.g., recharging well,
water uptake by plant roots), the equation of continuity is
∂(ρw θ )
= −∇·(ρw q) + ρw S, (5.107)
∂t
where S is a function representing sources (positive) and sinks (negative) of water in the
porous system and has dimensions of 1/T and units of 1/s.
5.2.6 Water Flow in Saturated Soil

When the pore system is completely filled with water, and hence pressure potential
h is positive throughout the system, the coefficient of proportionality in Darcy’s law
(5.105) is called the saturated hydraulic conductivity K s . The value of K s is practically
a constant, chiefly because the soil pores are always filled with water, and it depends
not only on soil physical properties (e.g., bulk density, soil texture), but also on fluid
properties (e.g., viscosity).
When water is incompressible and the solid matrix is rigid (or, of course, when the
flow is steady), the flux equation (5.105) and the continuity equation (5.106) reduce to
Laplace’s equation for H :

∇ 2 H = 0. (5.108)
Values of saturated hydraulic conductivity K s are obtained in the laboratory using
a constant-head permeameter (basically, a facility reproducing the original experiment
carried out by Darcy to demonstrate the validity of his flux law) or a falling-head per-
meameter [2]. Field measurements of hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil are
commonly made by the augerhole method [17].
One alternative to direct measurements is to use theoretical equations that relate the
saturated hydraulic conductivity to other soil properties. By assuming an equivalent
uniform medium made up of spherical particles and employing the Hagen-Poiseuille
equation for liquid flow in a capillary tube, the following Kozeny-Carman relation holds
between saturated hydraulic conductivity K s and soil porosity p:
K s = cp 3 /A2 , (5.109)
where p is defined as the dimensionless ratio of the pore volume to the total soil volume,
A is the specific surface area of the porous medium per unit volume of solid (m2 /m3 ),
and c is a constant (m3 s−1 ) [18]. Mishra and Parker [19] used van Genuchten’s water
retention curve [VG retention curve, Eq. (5.104)] to derive the following expression:
K s = c0 (θs − θr )2.5 α 2 , (5.110)
0
where θs , θr , and α are parameters as defined by Eq. (5.104), and c is equal to 108
cm3 s−1 if K s is expressed in cm s−1 and α in 1/cm.
In layered soils, it is relatively simple to determine the equivalent saturated hydraulic
conductivity of the whole porous system by analogy with the evaluation of the equivalent
resistance of electrical circuits arranged in series or parallel. For soil layers arranged in
series to the flow direction (the more common case), the flow rate is the same in all layers,
and the total potential gradient equals the sum of the potential gradient in each layer.
Conversely, in the parallel-flow case, the potential gradient is the same in each layer, and
the total flow is the sum of the individual flow rates.
5.2.7 Water Flow in Unsaturated Soil

Water movement in a porous material whose interconnected pores are filled only
partially with water is defined as unsaturated water flow. Important phenomena occurring
in the hydrological cycle, such as infiltration, drainage, redistribution of soil water, water
uptake by plant roots, and evaporation, all involve flow of water in unsaturated soil.
Historically, the development of the physical theory of water flow in unsaturated
porous media was promoted by Richards [20], who considered the original Darcy law for
saturated flow, and therefore its underlying physical meaning, still valid under unsaturated
conditions. In the unsaturated zones, the gaseous phase (generally, air and water in the
vapor phase) is assumed to be continuous and interconnected at a constant pressure
value, usually at atmospheric pressure. Moreover, the flow of the interconnected air or
gas is neglected because it is a nearly frictionless flow. The presence of the gaseous
phase reduces the hydraulic conductivity of the system in different ways from point to
point of the flow domain, depending on the local values of water content. Therefore, the
proportionality factor K becomes a function of volumetric water content θ and is called
the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function.
According to the Richards approximation and neglecting sinks, sources, and phase
changes, equating Darcy’s law (5.105) and the equation of continuity (5.106) yields the
following partial differential equation governing unsaturated water flow:
∂(ρw θ )
= ∇·(ρw K ∇ H ). (5.111)
∂t
An alternative formulation for the flow equation can be obtained by introducing the
soil water diffusivity D = K dh/dθ (dimension of L 2 /T and units of m2 /s):
∂(ρw θ)
= ∇·[ρw (K ∇z + D∇θ )] (5.112)
∂t
where z (m) is the gravitational component of the total soil water-potential head.
The use of θ as dependent variable seems more effective for solving flow problems
through porous media with low water content. However, when the degree of saturation
is high and close to unity, employing Eq. (5.112) proves difficult because of the strong
dependency of D upon θ. In particular, in the saturated zone or in the capillary fringe
region of a rigid porous medium, the term dh/dθ is zero, D goes to infinity, and Eq.
(5.112) no longer holds. Also, an unsaturated-flow equation employing θ as dependent
variable hardly helps to model flow processes into spatially nonuniform porous media,
in which water content may vary abruptly within the flow domain, thereby resulting in a
nonzero gradient ∇θ at the separation interface between different materials. The selection
of h as dependent variable may overcome such difficulties as soil water potential is a
continuous function of space coordinates, as well as it yields Eq. (5.111) that is valid
under both saturated and unsaturated conditions.
Water transport processes in the unsaturated zone of soil are generally a result of
precipitation or irrigation events which are distributed on large surface areas relative
to the extent of the soil profile. The dynamics of such processes is driven essentially
by gravity and by predominant vertical gradients in flow controlled quantities. These
features thus allow us the opportunity to mathematically formulate most practical prob-
lems involving flow processes in unsaturated soils as one- dimensional in the vertical
direction. The equation governing the vertical, isothermal unsaturated-soil water flow is
written traditionally as
· µ ¶¸
∂h ∂ ∂h
C = K −1 (5.113)
∂t ∂z ∂z
known as the Richards equation. This equation uses soil water-pressure head h as the
dependent variable and usually is referred to as the pressure-based form of the governing
unsaturated water-flow equation. In Eq. (5.113), z denotes the vertical space coordinate
(m), conveniently taken to be positive downward; t is time (s); K is the unsaturated
hydraulic conductivity function (m s−1 ); and C = dθ/dh is the capillary hydraulic storage
function (1/m), also termed specific soil water capacity, which can be computed readily
by deriving the soil water-retention function θ (h).
From the numerical modeling viewpoint, Celia and coworkers [21] have conducted
several studies to show that the so-called mixed form, which originates by applying
the temporal derivative to the water content and the spatial derivative to the pressure
potential, hence avoiding expansion of the time derivative term, should be preferred to
both the θ-based and h-based formulations of the Richards equation.
Unsaturated-Soil Hydraulic Conductivity Curve
The functions θ(h) and K (θ ), the unsaturated-soil hydraulic properties, are highly
nonlinear functions of the relevant independent variables and they characterize a soil from
the hydraulic point of view. The unsaturated hydraulic conductivity also can be viewed
as a function of pressure head h, because water content and pressure potential are directly
related through the water retention characteristic. If one uses this relationship, strictly
speaking, unsaturated hydraulic conductivity should be considered as a function of matric
potential only but, according to the Richards approximation, the terms matric potential
or pressure potential can be used without distinction. The presence of a hysteretic water
retention function will cause the K (h) function to be hysteretic as well. However, some
experimental results have shown that hysteresis in K (θ) is relatively small and negligible
in practice.
Typical relationships between unsaturated hydraulic conductivity K and pressure
head h under drying conditions are illustrated in Fig. 5.10 for a sandy and a clayey soil.
The water retention functions θ(h) for these two types of soil are depicted in Fig. 5.8. As
evident from Fig. 5.10, size distribution and continuity of pores have a strong influence
on the hydraulic conductivity behavior of soil. Coarser porous materials, such as sandy
soils, have high hydraulic conductivity at saturation K s and relatively sharp drops with
decreasing pressure potentials. This behavior can be explained readily if one considers
that coarse soils are made up primarily of large pores that easily transmit large volumes
Figure 5.10. Schematic unsaturated hydraulic conductivity functions for a sandy and a
clayey soil during drainage.
of water when filled, but are emptied even by small reductions in pressure potentials
from saturation conditions. On the other hand, fine porous materials such as clay soils
have lower K s values and then unsaturated hydraulic conductivity decreases slowly
as pressure potentials decrease from h = 0. In fact, the higher proportion of fine pores
that characterizes clay soils makes the water transport capacity of this type of porous
materials still relatively high even under dry conditions. Intermediate situations can
occur for porous materials having soil textures between these two extreme cases. Even
if coarse soils are more permeable than fine soils at saturation or close to this condition,
the reverse can be true when the porous materials are under unsaturated conditions.
Therefore, knowledge of texture, structure, and position of the different layers in a soil
profile is of primary importance to accurately assess the evolution of water movement
in soil.
Determination of Unsaturated-Soil Hydraulic Properties
The unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function K (θ ), or K (h), is somewhat difficult
to determine accurately, insofar as it cannot be measured directly and, in any case, it varies
over many orders of magnitude not only among different soils, but also for the same soil
as water content ranges from saturation to very dry conditions. Even though, at present,
no proven specific measuring devices are commonly available to determine the hydraulic
conductivity function, the numerous proposed methods usually involve measurements of
water content and pressure potential for which widespread and well-known commercial
devices do exist.
One of the more common and better-known methods for determining K (θ ), or K (h),
is the instantaneous profile method [22]. Although the related procedure is quite tedious,
one of the main advantages of this method is that it can be applied with minor changes
under both laboratory and in situ conditions. The crust method often is used as a field
method [23, 24]. For information on operational aspects, applicability, and limitations
of these or other methods, the reader is referred to the specific papers cited.
However, evaluating the dependence of the hydraulic conductivity K on water content
θ by direct methods is time-consuming, requires trained operators, and is therefore very
costly. Several attempts have been made to derive models for the function K (θ) from
knowledge of the soil water-retention characteristic θ (h), which is easy to determine
and reflects well the pore-size geometry, which in turn strongly affects the unsaturated
hydraulic properties. A hydraulic conductivity model that is used frequently by hydrolo-
gists and soil scientists was developed by van Genuchten, combining the relation (5.104),
subject to the constraint m = 1 − 1/n, with Mualem’s statistical model [25, 26]. Ac-
cording to this model, unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is related to volumetric water
content by the following expression:
£ ¡ ¢m ¤2
K (θ) = K 0 Seλ 1 − 1 − Se1/m , (5.114)
where Se and m already have been defined under “Description of Soil Water-Retention
Curve,” λ is a dimensionless empirical parameter on average equal to 0.5, and K 0 is
the hydraulic conductivity when θ = θ0 . The advantages of using this relation are
that it is a closed-form equation, has a relatively simple mathematical form, and depends
mainly on the parameters describing the water retention function. To obtain the hydraulic
conductivity curve for a certain soil under study, at least one value of K should be
measured at a fixed value of θ. It is customary that the prediction be matched to saturation
conditions, such that θ0 = θs and K 0 = K s . However, this criterion is not very effective,
mainly because hydraulic conductivity at saturation may be ill-defined since it is strongly
affected by macroporosity, especially in the case of structured soils. It thus has been
suggested that the K (θ) curve be matched at a point K 0 measured under unsaturated
conditions (θ0 < θs ) [26].
5.2.8 Indirect Estimation of Water-Retention and

Hydraulic-Conductivity Functions
Much work is being directed toward the evaluation of the soil water-retention and
hydraulic-conductivity functions from related soil physical properties. The increasingly
complex computer models employed in environmental studies require a large amount of
input data, especially those characterizing the soil from the hydraulic viewpoint, which
in turn are notoriously difficult to determine. Therefore, when simulating hydrological
processes in large areas, the possibility of deriving hydraulic parameters from soil data
(such as bulk density, organic-matter content, and percentage of sand, silt, and clay),
which are relatively simple to obtain or already available, is highly attractive. This
task is carried out by using the pedotransfer functions (PTFs), which transfer basic soil
physical properties and characteristics into fixed points of the water-retention function or
into values of the parameters describing an analytical θ (h) relationship [27]. Unsaturated
hydraulic conductivity characteristics then usually are evaluated by PTF predictions of
hydraulic conductivity at saturation [28]. PTFs appear to provide a promising technique
to predict soil hydraulic properties, and they are highly effective for deriving soil water-
retention characteristics; however, there is still some debate in the literature on the
accuracy and reliability of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity evaluated by this predictive
method [29]. To date, most of the research relating to PTFs usually have been directed
toward comparisons between measured and estimated hydraulic properties for different
types of soils [30], but a few studies have investigated the effects of PTF predictions on
some practical applications [31].
More recently, many authors have come to be interested in the feasibility of simultane-
ously estimating the water-retention and hydraulic-conductivity functions from transient
flow experiments by employing the inverse-problem methodology in the form of the pa-
rameter optimization technique. By using this approach, only a few selected variables
need to be measured during a relatively simple transient flow event obtained for pre-
scribed but arbitrary initial and boundary conditions. Data processing assumes that the
soil hydraulic properties θ(h) and K (θ ) are described by analytical relationships with a
small number of unknown parameters, which are estimated by an optimization method
minimizing deviations between the real system response measured during the experi-
ment and the numerical solution of the governing flow equation for a given parameter
vector. Assuming homoskedasticity and lack of correlation among measurement errors,
the optimization problem reduces to a problem of nonlinear ordinary least squares. For
soil hydrology applications, however, the observations usually consist of quantities (e.g.,
water contents, pressure potentials, water fluxes) that show differences in measurement
units and accuracy. Thus, a less restrictive reasonable hypothesis accounting for this
situation is that one assumes uncorrelated errors but unequal error variances among the
different variables. The method becomes a weighted least-squares minimization prob-
lem. Another advantage of the parameter estimation methods is that they also can provide
information on parameter uncertainty.
Such a methodology is suitable for characterizing hydraulically a soil either in the
laboratory (employing, for example, multistep outflow experiments [32] or evaporation
experiments [33]) or in the field (generally by inversion of data from transient drainage
experiments [34, 35]). In many cases, the inverse-problem methodology based on the pa-
rameter estimation approach allows experiments to be improved in a way that makes test
procedures easier and faster. The variables to be measured, the locations of the sensors,
the times at which to take measurements, as well as the number of observations used
as input data for the inverse problem, may exert a remarkable influence on reliability
of parameter estimates. Therefore, the experiment should be designed to ensure that the
relevant inverse problem allows solution without significantly compromising accuracy
in parameter estimates. In fact, parameter estimation techniques are inherently ill-posed
problems. Ill-posedness of the inverse problem is associated mainly with the existence
of a solution that can be unstable or nonunique, as well as to the fact that model pa-
rameters can be unidentifiable. Even if problems relating to ill- posedness of the inverse
solution can arise, parameter optimization techniques are undoubtedly highly attractive
for determining flow and transport parameters of soil and have proved to be effective
methods, especially when a large amount of data needs to be analyzed.
Nomenclature
Basic dimensions are M = mass, L = length, T = time, and K = temperature. F
(force) = M·L·T −2 is a derived dimension.
Roman Letters
ai = coefficients in Eq. (5.99)
A = specific surface area of the medium, L −1
bi = coefficients in Eq. (5.100)
c = constant in Eq. (5.109), L 3 /T
0
c = constant in Eq. (5.110), L 3 /T
C = capillary hydraulic storage function, L −1
D = soil water diffusivity, L 2 /T
h = soil-water pressure head, L
h E = air-entry potential head, L
H = total soil-water potential head, L
K = soil hydraulic conductivity, L/T
K s = saturated soil hydraulic conductivity, L/T
m = parameter in the VG retention curve, dimensionless
Ms = mass of solids, M
Mw = mass of water, M
n = parameter in the VG retention curve, dimensionless

ni = parameters in Eq. (5.98), dimensionless
N = thermalized neutron count rate, dimensionless
NR = “reference” count rate, dimensionless
p = soil porosity, dimensionless
Pc = capillary pressure, F/L 2
Pnm = pressure of nonwetting fluid phase, F/L 2
Pw = pressure of wetting fluid phase, F/L 2
q = volumetric water flux density, L/T
Reff = effective radius of the meniscus in a capillary tube, L
s = degree of saturation, dimensionless
S = sources or sinks of water in the system, T −1
Se = effective saturation, dimensionless
t = time, T
ta = tare, M
T = temperature, K
Vs = volume of solids, L 3
Vt = total volume of the soil body, L 3
Vw = volume of water, L 3
w = gravimetric soil water content, dimensionless
wd = mass of the dry soil sample, M
ww = mass of the wet soil sample, M
z = elevation, gravitational head, L
∇ = gradient operator, L −1
∇2 = Laplace operator, L −2
Greek Letters
α = parameter in the VG retention curve, L −1
αc = contact angle, dimensionless
0
εair = apparent relative dielectric permittivity of air, dimensionless
εm0 = TDR-measured apparent relative dielectric permittivity of the medium,
dimensionless
0
εsoil = apparent relative dielectric permittivity of the soil body, dimensionless
0
εsolid = apparent relative dielectric permittivity of solids, dimensionless
0
εwater = apparent relative dielectric permittivity of water, dimensionless
λ = parameter in Eq. (5.114)
θ = volumetric soil water content, dimensionless
θr = residual soil water content, dimensionless
θs = saturated soil water content, dimensionless
ρb = oven-dry bulk density, M/L 3
ρw = density of water, M/L 3
σ = surface tension between wetting and nonwetting fluid phases, F/L
ψg = gravitational potential, L 2 /T 2 , or F/L 2 or L
ψm = matric potential, L 2 /T 2 , or F/L 2 or L
ψo = osmotic potential, L 2 /T 2 , or F/L 2 or L
ψp = pressure potential, L 2 /T 2 , or F/L 2 or L

ψt = total soil water potential, L 2 /T 2 , or F/L 2 or L
ψw = water potential L 2 /T 2 , or F/L 2 or L
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5.3 Irrigation Scheduling Techniques

F. Martı́n de Santa Ollala, C. Fabeiro Cortés, A. Brasa Ramos, and
A. Legorburo Serra
5.3.1 Introduction
Irrigation scheduling is the process of defining the most desirable irrigation depths
and frequencies. Scheduling provides for the optimal profit on yield of a crop, taking
into consideration crop, farming, water, and environmental restrictions [1].
The use of irrigation scheduling is becoming more and more necessary because of the
continuous increase in water demand, both in agriculture and in other sectors (industry,
recreation, and urban use), when water resources are becoming scarcer all over the
planet [2]. These techniques are useful not only to prevent water waste, but also to avoid
negative effects of overirrigation on crops, both on yield and on the environment.
Although it may seem simple, irrigation scheduling is a complex problem indeed,
because the satisfaction of crop water requirements must consider all the restrictions im-
posed on farm management [3]. Among the particular determining factors of each farm
are water availability, manpower and energy availability, characteristics of the existing
irrigation system and equipment, legal factors affecting the farmland, and user train-
ing [3]. Other determinants to be considered when designing irrigation scheduling are
soil factors (texture, water-retention capacity, and depth), climatic factors (temperature,
solar radiation, humidity, wind speed), factors related to the crop (crop type and variety,
characteristics of root system, susceptibility to water stress and salinity), and cropping
factors (sowing time, length of the growth cycle, critical growth stages, tillage, fertiliz-
ing, control of pests, diseases, and weeds). Many of these factors are interdependent and
may vary both in space and time, thus confirming the complexity in accomplishing good
irrigation scheduling. In practice and to be operative, the technique can be simplified
with the aid of field sensors, computers, and automation [3].
The objectives may be of a different nature, ranging from technical (including yield)
to economic and environmental aims, although they usually are combined. The selection
of a particular objective for irrigation scheduling depends on specific needs in each
situation, but four main strategies can be noted [4].
The first strategy consists of maximizing yields per unit of irrigated surface. To obtain
this yield optimization, the user must fully satisfy crop evapotranspiration demand. This
approach is becoming increasingly difficult to justify economically because of increasing
water scarcity, high energy costs, and changes in agricultural policies. Its achievement
could be justified in small farms where land is the limiting factor.
The second objective is to maximize yield per unit of water applied. This requires
adoption of strategic irrigations, the water being applied during the critical periods of the
Irrigation Scheduling Techniques 285
crop cycle, when the effects of water stress could strongly affect yields. This optimization
strategy is justified when water is the limiting resource and when its cost is high.
Another objective is the economic optimization by maximizing benefits in the farm
production. This approach takes into account each of the farm’s limitations and may be
achieved when there are no marginal benefits, that is, when the cost of the last unit of
water applied is equal to the benefit produced.
Other objectives relate to the environment. One strategy would be to minimize the
use of energy. Its achievement is related to the application of penalties during the periods
of peak energy demand. This requires not only the scheduling of irrigation but also
the selection of crops, that have lower water requirements. Other strategies consist of
reducing the water return flows, thus ensuring a better use of the resources available,
avoiding groundwater pollution, and controlling soil salinity. This requires avoiding
overirrigation and integrating irrigation scheduling with other cultivation techniques,
such as soil tillage and fertirrigation (fertilizer application through irrigation system).
Adopting these strategies implies in most cases an accurate knowledge of the functions
that relate yield to the volumes of water applied. These production functions usually adopt
different forms and may be related to the growth and development cycles of the crop [5].
By not applying water during a given period of crop development, there may be no
negative effects on final yield, particularly when the water shortage affects only nonpro-
ductive plant organs. This is the case with cereals when complete grain development has
occurred. These aspects are dealt with in Section 5.5.
Production functions represent a key element for successful irrigation scheduling [4].
At present, few production functions are well defined in relation to the amount of water
applied . Therefore, they must be used very carefully (see Section 5.5).
As more and better production functions become available, irrigation scheduling will
be come easier to use in response to economic criteria, as well as to environmental and
technical ones, including saving water during some specific periods of plant development.
5.3.2 Methods
Irrigation strategies for different crops and varying soil and climatic conditions can be
determined using longterm data representing average weather conditions or short-term
predictions based on real-time information. Irrigation scheduling methods are set out
below, focusing on their applicability and limitations. Aspects peculiar to the different
irrigation methods are dealt with in Section 5.4. However, the challenge to agricultural
research is to develop successful methods that are simple to implement and easy to
understand from the farmer’s and the project management’s standpoints [6]. Most of the
practiced applications can be found in the literature [1, 7]. Common approaches generally
include measurement of soil water, plant-stress indicators, and soil water balance.
Methods based on soil water measurements and on plant-stress indicators present
some difficulties, particularly for farmers, related to improper handling, malfunctioning,
or miscalibration of instrumentation, or lack of understanding of equipment functioning
principles. Methods that follow the soil water balance also are not readily adoptable
by the farmers because of difficulties in obtaining quality weather data, appropriate
information about soils and crops, or about updating schedules.
Trained staff can apply these procedures on a real-time basis to produce irrigation
scheduling calendars based on fixed intervals for long-term usage and adoption of very
simple rules [8]. In more complicated situations, these can be based on sophisticated
models. Irrigation scheduling models currently are used worldwide since microcomputer
capability has improved and the required input variables are better defined [7, 9, 10].
Water-balance models consider that irrigation should start when a threshold value of
water content is reached. Some models neglect water fluxes that are more difficult to
determine, such as the capillarity rise. The effects of weather conditions on plant growth,
combined with models predicting seasonal yields as influenced by soil water content,
usually are simulated using mechanistic models [10, 11]. A review of crop–water–yield
models for water management is given in Section 5.5.
Irrigation models can be used for large areas that include a variety of crops, providing
farmers with the daily information needed to make timely decisions. Although these
models seem to be difficult to implement in small-scale farming or in developing coun-
tries, irrigation scenarios originating from them could be easier to use for definition of
irrigation strategies, choosing crops, planning crop according to farm constraints, and
allocation of irrigation water supplies. However, the best use of these models is real-
time irrigation scheduling [12].
Measuring or Estimating Soil Water
Observation of the soil water content and the soil water potential (definitions and
measurement techniques are described in Section 5.2) can be used to schedule irrigations.
The main difficulties consist in the spatial variability of the soil water properties
and in appropriately exploring the soil water-measurement cadences by the irrigating
farmer. Spatial variability requires careful selection of measurement locations along the
cropped field. Difficulties in using these techniques by the farmers can be overcome by
specialized support services.
Soil water measurements currently are used for irrigation scheduling by establishing
the soil water balance of the cropped field when measuring the soil water by use of a
neutron probe [13, 14]. Time-domain reflectometry also is becoming popular, given im-
provements in measurement techniques [15]. A threshold value for the soil water content
is selected and observations are made periodically that are used to forecast the day when
the threshold will be attained. The soil water-depletion rate utilized for this forecast is
established from two or three observations spaced several days apart. A simple graphical
procedure often is used to forecast the irrigation date. The application depth is calculated
from the difference between the soil water at field capacity and at the threshold [1].
Tensiometers are also very popular to schedule irrigations. Tensiometers measure
the soil water potential, thus providing only information on the irrigation date. Also,
threshold soil water potential is defined with this objective, and successive tensiometer
readings allow forecasting of when the threshold will be attained. The application depths
are either previously fixed or are computed from the soil water-retention curve (see
Section 5.2). Applications are discussed elsewhere [1].
The soil water conditions and the evapotranspiration can be estimated using remote-
sensing techniques [16–20]. These techniques overcome problems of spatial variability,
especially when used with a geographic information system. The use of remote-sensing
techniques requires an irrigation scheduling support service to provide information and
advice to farmers. Irrigation scheduling using soil water measurements can be performed
at the farm scale on large commercial farms [21], but other solutions are required for
small farms.
Plant-Stress Indicators
It is possible to get messages from the plant itself or from the plant canopy as a
whole indicating that it is time to irrigate. But water stress is not the only stress affecting
the plant; diseases, parasite attacks, thermal and light deficits, or even water excess
can produce the same type of effect on the crop. Observation of apparent symptoms of
water stress cannot be considered a practical guideline for irrigation scheduling because
generally it is too late when symptoms appear (see Section 5.5).
Measurements collected on individual plants will require a accurate sampling. Mi-
cromorphometric methods allow detection of changes in the dimension of vegetative
organs and give interesting information, mainly on trees. Respective sensor devices are
not difficult to place on branches or to connected to a logging system. The main problem
encountered is that the same response is obtained with excess or lack of water [22].
Methods based on leaf water-potential measurement are difficult, expensive, and can-
not be automated. Scholander’s chamber and the thermocouple psychrometer are used
[23]. The main interest is in linking values of predawn leaf water potential to evapo-
transpiration [24]. When threshold values are selected, successive measurements allow
forecasting of the irrigation date.
Sap-flow measurements are based on the heat capacity of water. Two techniques are
available: the sap-flux density technique, which is limited by the need to determine the
cross-sectional area of the water-conducting tissue; or the mass flux technique, which is
restricted to estimations of small-tree transpiration [4]. However, much progress is to be
expected.
Surface-temperature measurements [25] performed by means of infrared hand-held
thermometers have proved feasible and are used in practice. Some indicators, such as
the Stress Degree Day (SDD) and the Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI), can be applied
but they are crop specific. Efforts to simplify field applications have been carried out
[16–20] but they can be used only if weather conditions are somewhat stable because
indicators are based on the differences in temperature between the crop and the air. As a
result, indicators also are related to specific environmental conditions and require local
calibration.
5.3.3 Water Balance

The water balance is dealt with in Section 5.1.6, where information on computing the
soil water-threshold values also is provided.
The water balance for irrigation scheduling requires information on soil hydraulic
properties (soil water content (θ) at field capacity and at wilting point for the different
soil layers, or the water retention and hydraulic conductivity curves in case of mechanistic
models); weather data on rainfall and reference evapotranspiration (see Section 5.1.4);
and crop characteristics relative to crop growth stages, root depths, plant heights, and crop
coefficients (see Section 5.1.5). In contrast, some models use other evapotranspiration
models, requiring specific inputs.
The water balance can be performed using only weather data to compute the soil
water depletion. The majority of models use this approach. Models can be applied in
real time to plan the seasonal irrigation calendar, or to study alternative strategies for
irrigation scheduling [7, 9, 10]. When models are applied in real time, they often use
information on actual soil water observations to adjust the forecast of the irrigation date
and depth.
The threshold for water stress can be defined by a crop-specific factor of soil water
depletion, namely the p factor [26, 27]. This approach is described in Section 5.1.6, where
this factor is related to the management-allowed deficit (MAD) [11]. This approach is
utilized in more common models [7, 10, 28]. Mechanistic models usually incorporate
a plant-growth submodel. This allows an appropriate response of the model to water
deficits, not requiring the definition of a soil water depletion [10, 29].
The yield impacts of irrigation scheduling strategies are considered through a simple
yield-evapotranspiration function [26] in less-sophisticated models. On the contrary,
yield is an output of most mechanistic models, namely the CERES-type models [10].
Some models also incorporate any function of crop responses to salinity, resulting from
parameters and information provided in the literature [30, 31].
5.3.4 Irrigation Programming Under Adverse Conditions

Irrigation Management Under Water-Shortage Conditions
The lack of water has a negative effect on the whole set of vital plant processes such as
photosynthesis, respiration, absorption of nutrients, and assimilate translocation. It also
affects growth, reproduction, and the development of the seed. From the agronomical
point of view, the main interest is focused on the effect of water deficit on yield. The
effect of water stress on plant development and productivity has been the object of several
studies [32–35] and is dealt with in Section 5.5.
The most visible effects of water deficit are decreased size of the plant and of its foliar
surface, as well as decreased yield. Other agronomic consequences of water deficit are
modifications in the chemical composition of agricultural products (such as sugar, oil,
and protein) and in other quality features of yield (such as diameter and color of fruits).
Negative impacts brought about by stress essentially will depend on the stage of the cycle
during which it takes place, on the intensity of the deficit involved, and on its duration.
To illustrate some aspects of water stress on yield and yield components, an experiment
with soybeans is referenced [36]. The treatments were established by fixing six different
levels of ETc restitution through irrigation: 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100%, and 120%.
Deficits or excess water applications were kept constant throughout the crop cycle. The
seasonal depths of irrigation water applied were, respectively, 84, 171, 253, 324, 435,
and 504 mm. In addition, all plots received 87 mm of effective rainfall.
The yield obtained was shown to have been clearly affected by the water treatment
received, with values ranging from 1135 to 4660 kg/ha of grain. Among the components
of the yield, the one that seemed to be the most sensitive to the different depths applied
was the number of grains per plant. The number of plants per unit surface and the number
of pods per plant were affected, but the only significant difference was between those
treatments receiving less water and the remaining treatments. The quality of the grain
was assessed through oil and protein content. The oil content grew with the seasonal
quantity of water (from 24.4% to 27%), whereas the protein content decreased (45.5%
to 35.1%). The treatments with the greatest water supply, which kept the largest active
leaf area over the longest time, achieved the largest quantity of oil. However, the yield
of both oil and protein tended to increase with the depth of water applied.
In areas with a shortage of water, a water-saving irrigation strategy thus increasingly
is being implemented, is known as controlled-deficit irrigation (CDI). This is based on
reducing water applications during those phenological periods in which controlled water
deficit does not significantly affect the production and quality of the crop involved, while
satisfying crop requirements during the remainder of the crop cycle. CDI may produce
economic returns higher than those obtained when irrigating for maximum production
[37].
Research carried out in several regions in the world [38–42] into the response of
CDI in fruit trees, such as peach, pear, almond, and citrus, shows that this technique
can lead to up to 50% water savings with a small decrease in yield, while keeping, or
even improving, the quality of the production. The main problem is to determine the
phenological periods when the impact of water deficit does not significantly affect the
production and/or quality of the crop. Existing literature on the subject does not provide
homogeneous information; hence, appropriate data validation needs to be performed on
local conditions before planning CDI.
Planning for deficit irrigation entails a greater challenge than for full irrigation, be-
cause it requires the knowledge of the appropriate MAD and how this deficit will affect
the yield. Deficit irrigation may call for changes in cropping practices, such as modera-
tion of plant population density, decreased application of fertilizers and agrochemicals,
flexible sowing dates, and the selection of shorter-cycle varieties.
The relationship between water deficit and yield has to be well known when planning
deficit irrigation. To determine when irrigation is to take place (and the amount of water
to be applied), suitable water-stress indicators should be used. These indicators may
refer to the depletion of soil water, soil water potential, plant water potential, or canopy
temperature. The last indicator seems to be the most suitable, but the most widely used,
for practical reasons, concerns soil water content and soil water potential. However, the
spatial variability of the soil and of the spatial irrigation give rise to uneven soil water
storage, which causes problems in analyzing indicator information when these originate
from point measurements. Indicators resulting from areal observation or measurement,
such as the CWSI [24], are the most appropriate.
There are different ways to carry out deficit-irrigation management. The irrigator can
reduce the irrigation depths, refilling only a part of the soil reserve capacity in the root
zone. Or the irrigator may reduce the frequency of irrigations, but pay attention to the
timing and depth of a limited number of irrigation sessions. In surface irrigation, deficit
irrigation can be carried out by moistening furrows alternately or digging them farther
apart [43].
Irrigation Management Under Variable Rainfall Conditions

In regions where rainfall may be significant, the effective rainfall must be considered to
reduce irrigation requirements and minimize the negative effects of overirrigation. These
impacts include deep percolation, transport of nutrients and solutes into groundwater,
surface runoff, and soil erosion. The scheduling of irrigation therefore requires data on
potential future rainfall. This information can be in the form of a short-term weather
forecast, or using information relative to previous rainfall records covering a significant
number of years or using random generated rainfall events [1].
Short-term forecasts have been used successfully in wet regions, where there is a high
rainfall probability, its quantity being the only unknown factor. In these cases, the net
irrigation quantity is reduced to allow for rainwater storage in the soil without generating
percolation. This type of strategy is highly adaptable to crops with a deep-root system, on
soils with moderate to high water-retention capacity, and for systems applying light and
frequent irrigations. In semiarid regions, the rainfall during irrigation periods is usually
from local storms, and both their frequency and quantity are highly variable. In such
cases, irrigators must rely on actual rainfall data and delay irrigation dates by a number
of days as a function of the quantity fallen and the actual evapotranspiration rate.
There are several irrigation scheduling models that program irrigation by using short-
term rainfall forecasts [10]. The EPICPHASE model [29] is an example of a mechanistic
crop growth model, capable of simulating different irrigation strategies using the weather
forecast. The application of models having such capabilities may help to achieve water
savings, as well as reduce the risk of percolation and the resulting leaching of nutrients,
while not affecting yields.
Irrigation Planning Under Saline Conditions

The problem of salinity is important in arid and semiarid areas because the rain
contributes little to the lixiviation of salts, in addition to which the quality of the irrigation
water available is usually poor.
To avoid reductions in yield when the concentration of salts exceeds crop tolerance,
the excess salts must be lixiviated below the root zone. Therefore, an additional fraction
of water must be added to the net irrigation requirement. This quantity, called a leaching
requirement, is calculated as a function of the soil and water salinity levels, to allow salt
leaching through drainage (see Sections 4.1, 5.7, and 5.8).
When leaching requirements are applied, it must be remembered that excessive leach-
ing can lead to the lixiviation of nutrients. When irrigation is managed under saline
conditions, the concentration of salts in the irrigation water, crop tolerance to salts, de-
pendable rainfall, depth of the groundwater, and ease of drainage all must be taken into
consideration.
The leaching frequency has been studied by several researchers. The results indicate
that the most tolerant crops allow for a delayed leaching and for a relatively high con-
centration of salts in the root zone, with a minimum effect on yield as long as a low salt
content is kept in the zone where most of the root water uptake occurs. It also has been
found that plants are capable of making up for low water absorption in a more saline
zone by increasing absorption in a less saline zone within their reach without decrease
in yield. How much salt can be stored in the root zone before leaching is required and
how often leaching requirements are to be applied are questions still unanswered [44],
despite progress of research.
Crop tolerance to salts grows throughout the season. If the salinity level is sufficiently
low during the seedling stage and the proper quantities of water with low salt content are
applied, leaching may not be necessary and the salt level may be allowed to continue to
increase until the end of the cycle. Winter rainfall or preplanting irrigation may saturate
the soil and leach the salts accumulated so that there may be no need for leaching in the
following irrigation.
On the contrary, when the water is saline, winter rainfall is scarce, and preplanting
irrigation is light, leaching throughout the season will be necessary to prevent yield from
being affected. Remember, however, that leaching is only required when the concentra-
tion of salts exceeds a threshold value [44].
For a long time, it has been assumed that very frequent irrigation would reduce the
impact of salinity. A high water potential may partly reduce osmotic tension, but no
increase in yield has been observed that would corroborate this assumption [45]. If the
surface of the soil is moistened frequently, evapotranspiration will be high most of the
time and salts will be concentrated in shallow upper layers of the soil. In addition, water
absorption by roots will tend to take place in shallow layers when they are moistened
frequently, whereas if the surface of the soil is allowed to dry with less frequent irrigation,
absorption also will take place in deeper layers. Both water absorption and evapotran-
spiration processes tend to concentrate salts near the surface under frequent irrigation
conditions. Trickle irrigation systems are an exception because localized water displaces
salts beyond the limits of the wet bulb. In this case, lixiviation prevails over evapotranspi-
ration and water absorption, but a leaching fraction also has to be considered. The only
acceptable measure to control salinity seems to be a controlled increase in the quantity
of water applied, associated with drainage of the leachates.
When water resources are limited and nonsaline water costs become prohibitive,
irrigation with saline water can be carried out on crops with moderate to high tolerance
to salts, particularly during the latest growing stages. A mixture of saline and nonsaline
water can be used for irrigation purposes, but this is a questionable practice. It may
be more advisable to use nonsaline water during the most sensitive phases of the crop
cycle and saline or mixed water during the rest of the time.
The use of saline water for irrigation generally calls for the selection of crops tolerant
to salts, the development of appropriate irrigation scheduling, and the maintenance of
the relevant soil physical properties to ensure better hydraulic conductivity.
Under saline conditions, irrigation scheduling requires better accuracy for the es-
timation of the components in the soil water balance, to better estimate the leaching
requirements. With regard to irrigation management, it is advisable to consider how
uniformly the irrigation water will be distributed so as to decide which part of the field
is receiving the required leaching fraction.
The indiscriminate use of saline water for irrigation should be avoided because it
leads to soil salinization. With regard to the various irrigation systems, trickle irrigation
is the one that offers the best advantages under saline conditions [46]. Sprinkler irrigation
affects the leaves of sensitive crops but it is appropriate for leaching with water of good
quality. Basin irrigation has the advantage, when compared to other surface irrigation
systems, of ensuring evenly distributed leaching as long as the basins are sized and leveled
correctly. In furrow irrigation, salts tend to accumulate near the seed, because leaching
takes place down from the furrow. To control salinity in these irrigation systems, special
attention has to be paid to the depth applied and to the uniformity of the application.
Subsurface irrigation produces a continuous upward flux from the water table, which
leads to the accumulation of salts on the surface and is not appropriate to control salts.
Salts cannot be lixiviated with these systems and regular leaching will therefore be
needed in the form of rainfall or surface irrigation [46].
5.3.5 Irrigation Advisory Systems

The practical application of irrigation scheduling techniques requires appropriate
technology transfer and support to farmers. Irrigation extension or consulting services
may provide this support and help in the transfer of technologies from research to practice.
Such services should not only provide information but also stress how this information is
being used and what the impacts are for improving irrigation systems and management.
Farmer support must be adjusted to the technology level of the user. De Jager and
Kennedy [21] define three levels:
1. Top technology. This situation means that there is a weather station in the farmland
with a support system for decision making that allows individualized complete
scheduling.
2. Intermediate technology. The station is strategically located for a group of farms
that receive common information. This general information may be complemented
individually with specific data regarding each field, such as soil water properties,
crop phenology, and irrigation systems. This information allows for the individ-
ual scheduling of irrigation. There is also a collective technical support system
available.
3. Low technology. In this situation, fixed irrigation periods and volumes are sched-
uled for the whole campaign, based on large series of climatic parameters and crop
average water requirements. Hill and Allen [8] present an interesting scheduling
system for this situation.
Irrigation-scheduling advising systems commonly use an irrigation scheduling system
based on the soil-crop water balance. When other methods are used, such as an evaluation
of soil or plant water status, they are usually a complement of the water balance and
often are used to address the results obtained.
An irrigation-scheduling advising system generally is composed of the following
elements:
• A data collection system, including at least an automated weather station and a
monitoring system relative to crop phenological evolution. Ideally, it also should
include monitoring and evaluation of the irrigation systems used by the farmers.
• A system for information processing able to provide actual reference evapotranspi-
ration data, the ET0 for the climatic conditions prevailing in the area, crop coefficient
data relative to crops in the area, as well as information on soils and soil water. With
the help of models, indicative information on irrigation depths and frequencies also
may be provided.
• An information transmission system. Traditional methods for information spread-
ing were represented by local press, radio, and telephone . At present, using personal
computers, one has access to information systems and can access individual infor-
mation in real time [7, 9, 10].
• A system for information validation and comparison of the results obtained. This
is a fundamental piece of the system and may be supported by monitoring selected
fields in the study area. Results can be evaluated and compared with those from
other fields that have not adopted the systems advice or that are following different
irrigation schedules.
The evaluation of irrigation systems should be considered as a main monitoring
task of irrigation-scheduling advising services. Knowing the crop water requirements
is useless unless the way that water is applied to each field is known. Often, irrigation
systems installed a few years ago apply water differently from the original design. This
is because supply conditions, such as discharge and pressure, may have changed over
time, or the hydraulic structures are not functioning as designed, or the systems have
deteriorated. It is necessary not only to evaluate the off-farm systems, but to evaluate
the performances of on-farm systems, for uniformity and efficiency, and to provide for
improving on-farm irrigation [7, 28] (see Section 5.4).
Consulting services may be provided to individual farmers or to users’ associations.
Farmers’ participatory activities should be encouraged, including the funding.
The transfer of irrigation technologies is a main task of services providing irrigation
support to farmers [47]. Burt [48] points out that effective use of irrigation scheduling
models requires a process of preparation and training of the users. The lack of such
support may be one cause for low adoption of irrigation scheduling advice and for the
limited use of irrigation scheduling techniques and models [7].
Several examples of users’ participatory activities indicating positive future trends
can be provided. An interesting example is presented by Blackmore [49] in the Murray-
Darling hydrographic basin in Australia. Tollefson [6] analyzes the role being developed
in Canada by the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration in the development of
users’ participation in water management in collaboration with universities and different
institutions. In Castilla-La Mancha (Spain) [23], plans for the exploitation of mined
aquifers have been initiated with the scientific and technical support of the university
in cooperation with the regional government and with an intense participation of users’
organizations.
In developing countries, interesting experiences are also taking place, such as those
in West Java and Bihar, India [50], with the Damodar Valley Corporation in India [33],
in the Jingtaichuan district in China [51], and in Bangladesh [52].
Other aspects that may be of interest for achieving successful use of irrigation schedul-
ing by farmers are the allocation of water to the farmers in volumetric terms. At the be-
ginning of the campaign, the farmer knows the total volume available and the adequate
rate of use; water prices then are established such that the farmer is induced to make the
best use of allocated water [6].
References
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5.4 Irrigation Methods

L. S. Pereira and T. J. Trout
5.4.1 Irrigation Systems and Irrigation Performance

General Aspects
Irrigation has been practiced for millennia. Until the 20th century, all irrigation de-
pended on gravity to deliver water to the fields and to spread water across the surface of
the land. Development of efficient engines, pumps, and impact sprinklers in the first half
of this century allowed farmers to mimic rainfall with sprinkler irrigation. In the past 20
years, microirrigation has become more common where water is scarce, crop values are
high, and the technology is practical. Surface irrigation remains the dominant system in
use worldwide, although sprinkler irrigation has become widely used in some areas.
Total irrigated areas in the World are given in Table 5.3. An estimate of the percentages
of the three primary methods of irrigation in four regions is presented in Table 5.4. Data
in the table cannot be extrapolated to world figures because the data are not available for
most regions, particularly Asia, which represents 69% of the world’s irrigated area and
where surface irrigation is predominant.
The many types of irrigation systems usually fall into one of three categories. Surface
irrigation systems are those that depend on gravity to spread the water across the surface
of the land. These systems also are referred to as gravity or flood irrigation systems.
The shape of the soil surface and how the water is directed across the surface determine
the types of surface systems (i.e., furrow, border, or basin). Sprinkler systems attempt
to mimic rainfall by spraying the water evenly across the soil surface. The water is
Table 5.3. Estimated irrigated areas in the world
Region Irrigated Area (ha)

Asia 174,300,000
Europe 25,150,000
Africa 11,480,000
South/Central America 17,650,000
United States and Canada 22,100,000
Australia 2,300,000
World 252,990,000
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization AQUASTAT

survey.
Table 5.4. Estimated use of the three primary

irrigation methods
Use (%)
Region Surface Sprinkle Micro
Africaa 85.0 12.5 2.5
Near Eastb 87.6 11.0 1.4
United Statesc 51.6 44.1 4.3
Former Soviet Uniond 58 42 0.1
a
For 20 countries representing 44.7% of the total irri-
gated area in the region [1].
b
For 18 countries representing 45.8% of the total irri-
gated area in the region [2].
c
[3].
d
[4].
pressurized with a pump, distributed to areas of the fields through pipes or hoses, and
sprayed across the soil surface with rotating nozzles or sprayers. Types of sprinkler
systems depend on the layout of the distribution pipelines and the way they are moved
(i.e., solid set, hand move, center pivot, or rain gun). Microirrigation systems, also called
drip or trickle systems, use small tubing to deliver water to individual plants or groups
of plants. These systems use regularly spaced emitters on or in the tubing to drip or
spray water onto or into the soil. Microirrigation systems are categorized by the type of
emitters (i.e., drip or microspray).
Some systems do not clearly fit into these three categories. For example, subirrigation
uses gravity to distribute water below the soil surface; it is uncommon and is not discussed
here. Low-energy precision application (LEPA) systems use center-pivot machines to
spray or dribble water onto small areas. They are discussed with sprinkler systems.
Overhead or undertree impact sprinklers on fruit trees are considered sprinkler systems,
whereas undertree sprays are considered microsprays.
Quantifying Performance
Irrigation performance often is described in terms of the water application efficiency
and water distribution uniformity. Because there are many aspects to irrigation and
several irrigation methods, a wide range of performance parameters have been proposed
but there is no consensus for standardization. Next some basic performance parameters
that have been widely used are discussed.
Efficiency
The definition of water application efficiency is not well established despite the fact
it is used worldwide. Reviews of various efficiency terms are provided elsewhere [5–7].
The classical definition of irrigation efficiency introduced by Israelsen in 1932 is the
ratio between the irrigation water consumed by the crops of an irrigated farm or project
during crop growth and the water diverted from a river, groundwater, or other source into
farms or project canals [8]. However, this definition is the cause of much misinterpreta-
tion [8]. It is necessary to make a clear distinction between water consumption—which
includes evaporation, transpiration, and water embodiment in a product—and water
use, which also includes nonconsumptive components that may be of practical necessity
(such as leaching salts) and may be available for reuse. Irrigation performance evaluation
depends on the point of view.
The term “efficiency” is restricted to output/input ratios of the same nature, such
as the ratio of delivered/diverted water volumes or infiltrated/applied water depths. In
both cases it is possible to identify the nonconsumed fraction that can be recovered or
reused for agriculture or other purposes. Water-use efficiency (WUE) should be used
to represent plant or crop output per unit water use (i.e., the photosynthetic WUE, the
biomass WUE, or the yield WUE, as proposed by Steduto [9]). This concept is not used
as a measure of irrigation performance.
The efficiency terms used in on-farm irrigation to measure the performance of water
application are the following:
Application Efficiency ea . Measured as percentage (%), this is defined as
ea = 100(Z r /D), (5.115)
where Z r is the average depth of water (mm) added to the root zone storage, and D is
the average depth of water (mm) applied to the field. The condition
Z r ≤ SWD (5.116)
must be met everywhere on the field; SWD is the soil water deficit (mm), at time of
irrigation.
Application Efficiency of Low Quarter (elq ). Measured as a percentage (%), elq is
defined by Merriam and Keller [10] as
elq = 100(Z r,lq /D), (5.117)
where Z r,lq is the average depth of water (mm) added to root-zone storage in the quarter of
the field receiving the least water. This indicator differs from ea (Eq. 5.115) by the fact that
it allows consideration of the nonuniformity of water application when underirrigation is
practiced. As for ea , the numerator cannot exceed the SWD. The elq is used for surface,
sprinkler, and microirrigation.
Potential Efficiency of Low Quarter (PELQ). Measured as a percentage (%), is used
for design and corresponds to the system performance under good management when
the correct depth and timing are being used. PELQ is given by [10]
PELQ = 100(Z lq,MAD /DMAD ), (5.118)
where Z lq,MAD is the average low-quarter depth infiltrated (mm) when equal to the
management-allowed deficit (MAD) and DMAD is the average depth of water applied
(mm) when SWD = MAD (about MAD, see Section 5.1).
Uniformity.
Several parameters are used as indicators of the uniformity of water application to a
field. The most commonly used [5] are described below.
Distribution Uniformity (DU). Calculated as a percentage (%), DU is defined by the

ratio
DU = 100(Z lq /Z av ), (5.119)
where Z lq is the average infiltrated depth (mm) in the quarter of the field receiving the
least water and Z av is the average infiltrated depth (mm) in the entire field.
The infiltrated depths may be replaced by the application depths in sprinkler irrigation
(assumes no surface runoff or redistribution), and by the emitter discharges in microir-
rigation. Some authors prefer to replace the low-quarter averages in the numerator with
the minimum observed values. This indicator then becomes the absolute distribution
uniformity (DUabs ).
Coefficient of Uniformity (CU). Calculated as a percentage (%) and also known as the
Christianson uniformity coefficient, CU is defined as
µ P ¶
X
CU = 100 1 − , (5.120)
n X̄
where X are the absolute deviations of application (or infiltrated) depths from the mean
(mm), X̄ is the mean of observed depths (mm), and n is the number of observations.
This indicator often is used in sprinkler irrigation.
Both DU and CU are related. The approximate relationship between them is [11]
CU = 100 − 0.63(100 − DU) (5.121)
or
DU = 100 − 1.59(100 − CU). (5.122)
The parameter CU relates to the standard deviation (sd) and the mean ( X̄ ) of the
individual observations by
Ã µ ¶ !
sd 2 0.5
CU = 100 1.0 − , (5.123)
X̄ π
which can be rearranged to give [12]

µ ¶
X̄ CU
sd = 1.0 − . (5.124)
(2/π )0.5 100
The relation between the percentage of the surface area receiving the target water
depth and the depth of water applied at different CU (or DU) values can be calculated if
the data distribution is known. For sprinkler irrigation, a normal distribution is assumed
by Keller and Bliesner [11] and a uniform distribution is adopted by Mantovani et al. [13].
Several distribution functions are analyzed by Seginer [14]. The use of these relationships
for irrigation design and management is discussed later under “Set Sprinkler Systems.”
Statistical Uniformity Coefficient Us . Calculated as a percentage (%), this indicator is

defined as
µ ¶
Sq
Us = 100(1 − Vq ) = 100 1 − , (5.125)
qa
where Vq is the coefficient of variation of emitter flow, Sq is the standard deviation of
emitter flow (L h−1 ), and qa is the average emitter flow rate (L h−1 ).
This indicator often is used in microirrigation. Bralts et al. [15] adopted Us for design
and defined Vq as the geometric mean of the coefficients of variation relative to emitter
clogging, manufacturing variation, and pressure variation.
5.4.2 Surface Irrigation

Description of Systems
The practice of surface irrigation is ancient and is used on more than 90% of the world’s
irrigated area. The sustainability of irrigated agriculture depends on improvements and
innovations in surface irrigation methods, their appropriateness for the different systems,
and their adoption in field practice.
Surface irrigation methods include several processes of water application to irrigated
fields [16]: furrow, basin, border, contour ditches (wild flooding), and water spreading.
The two last processes have several variants. They basically consist of directing water
diverted from ditches or watercourses onto sloping fields. They are primarily used to
irrigate pasturelands and are generally very inefficient. The main surface methods are
basin, furrow, and border irrigation.
Basin Irrigation
Basin irrigation is the most commonly used system worldwide. It consists of applying
water to leveled fields bounded by dikes. Two different types are considered: one for
paddy rice irrigation, where ponded water is maintained during the crop season; and
the other for other field crops, where ponding time is short—until the applied volume
infiltrates.
In traditional rice irrigation, small basins are flooded before planting and are drained
only before harvesting. The depth of water in the basins can be very large in case of
floating rice but usually it should be kept between 5 and 10 cm [17]. Very frequent water
applications are used. In sloping lands, the basin dikes usually are built on the contour
and fields often irrigate and drain from field to field in cascade. In flat areas, the basins are
commonly rectangular and often have independent supply and drainage. When water-
saving irrigation is practiced in tropical areas where water ponding is not required for
temperature regulation, water is applied only to keep the soil near saturation [18]. In
modern rice basins, laser leveling is used, basin size often exceeds 1 ha, and each basin
has independent supply and drainage facilities. Rice transplanting may be replaced by
mechanical seeding, sometimes in dry soil.
For nonrice crops, basin irrigation can be divided into two categories: traditional
basins, of small size and with traditional leveling; and modern precision-leveled basins,
which are laser leveled and large, and have regular shapes (Fig. 5.11). Especially with
Figure 5.11. Basin irrigation system.
traditional basins, shape depends on the land slope and may be rectangular in flat areas and
follow natural land contours in steep areas. For row crops, and especially horticultural
crops, the basins often are furrowed, with the crops being planted on raised beds or
ridges. For cereals and pastures, the land is commonly flat inside the basin. Tree crops
sometimes have raised beds around the tree trunks for disease control.
Basin irrigation is most practical where soil infiltration rates are moderate to low
so that water spreads quickly across the basin and water-holding capacity of the soil
is high so that large irrigations can be given. Basin irrigation depths usually exceed
50 mm. Inflow rates for basin irrigation have to be relatively high (>2 L s−1 per meter
width) to achieve quick flooding of the basin and therefore provide for uniform time
of opportunity for infiltration along the basin length. Basins must be leveled precisely
for uniform water distribution because basin topography determines the recession of the
ponded water. Figure 5.12 shows the irrigation phases for basins and furrows. In basins,
because of large inflow rates, the advance time, as well as the time of cutoff, is short.
The depletion phase is large, to allow for the infiltration of the ponded water.
Surface drainage often is not provided with basin irrigation. This simplifies the layout
of the fields and the water delivery channels, but can result in waterlogging and soil aera-
tion problems if soil infiltration is low and rainfall is high or irrigations are large. Where
rainfall may be high during cropping, a network of surface drainage channels should
be provided. Because there is normally no runoff from basins, quantifying irrigation
Figure 5.12. Irrigation phases, times of advance t adv , cutoff t co , and recession t rec , infiltration
opportunity time τ , and infiltrated depths Z for (a) level basin irrigation and
(b) sloping furrow irrigation.
applications requires only measurement of inflows and irrigation time. A desired net
application can be preset if flow rate is known.
Water usually is delivered to basins through open channels. In traditional systems,
water is diverted from the earthen channels into the fields through cuts in the banks. Im-
proved systems with concrete or steel outlet and check gates greatly improve water control
and reduce the labor requirement. Concrete lining of field channels also improves water
control and reduces seepage losses and maintenance. The labor requirements of basin
irrigation can be low if the basins are large and precisely leveled and water control is good.
Furrow Irrigation
In furrow irrigation, small regular channels direct the water across the field (Fig. 5.13).
These channels, called furrows or corrugations, serve both to convey water across the
field and as the surface through which infiltration occurs. Because conveyance and
infiltration are two opposing purposes, designing and operating furrow systems always
requires balancing the trade-off between quickly conveying the water across the field and
maintaining the flow long enough to infiltrate adequate water. Efficient furrow irrigation
nearly always requires irrigation times longer than advance times, and thus drainage
of tailwater runoff at the downstream end. Runoff typically varies from 10% to 40%
of the applied water and should be collected, stored, and reused as indicated in ASAE
EP408.2 [19]. Without tailwater reuse, furrow irrigation efficiency is unlikely.
Irrigation furrows usually are directed along the predominant slope of the field. Cross-
slope or contour furrows reduce the furrow slope but, when the cross slope exceeds the
Figure 5.13. Furrow irrigation with siphon tubes from a concrete-lined ditch.
furrow slope, precise leveling and well-constructed furrows are necessary to prevent
water crossover and the resulting uncontrolled channeling and gullying across the field.
Furrows are used on slopes varying from 0.001 to 0.05 m m−1 . Low slopes require soils
with low infiltration rates. Slopes greater than 0.01 usually result in soil erosion.
Because furrow slope and soil infiltration rate are usually beyond the control of the
designer, furrow design primarily involves determining appropriate furrow length and
flow rate. Lengths are commonly between 200 and 400 m. Short lengths are required
when infiltration rates are high, and may be required where slopes are steep and soils are
erodible. Long lengths allow larger, more efficient, fields. Subdividing long fields with
gated pipes or temporary ditches allows efficient irrigation on large fields.
Furrow irrigation is used most commonly for row crops planted on beds or ridges.
Furrows may be formed between each plant row or bed, or between alternate rows.
Alternate furrows may be used for any given irrigation. This increases the effective
MAD because of the wider spacing and thus the greater area irrigated from each furrow.
Furrow spacing is limited by the amount of lateral movement of infiltrated water. Fine-
textured soils and deep root zones allow widely spaced furrows. Furrow spacing in
broadcast and row crops varies from 0.6 to 1.6 m. Furrows in orchards may be up to 3 m
apart. Small furrows or corrugations also are used in close-growing crops such as small
grains, pastures, and forage. These small furrows often do not completely contain the
flows but help to direct them more quickly and uniformly across the field.
Furrow inflow rates are selected to balance the runoff loss that results from high
inflow rate and rapid advance against the nonuniform distribution that results from low
inflow rate and slow advance. The soil infiltration rate is the most important factor in the
relationship between inflow rate and irrigation performance. Because infiltration varies
seasonally and is difficult to predict, furrow irrigation systems must be designed to operate
over a fairly wide range of inflow rates, and efficient furrow irrigation requires monitoring
of the irrigation process and adjusting the inflow rates as required. Consequently, furrow
irrigation is relatively labor intensive. Inflow cutback can improve performance greatly by
allowing both high initial flows for rapid advance and low final flows to minimize runoff
loss. Cutback irrigation seldom is practiced because most irrigation water is supplied
at a constant rate and managing the remaining water after the flow cutback is difficult.
Cutback also increases labor. Tailwater reuse reduces the need for cutback.
Water is supplied to furrows from ditches or gated pipes along the upper end of
the field. In some traditional systems, water is supplied to furrows from earthen ditches
through periodic cutouts through the bank that supplies a small ditch that delivers water to
5 to 10 furrows. This feed-ditch method is labor intensive, difficult to control, and results
in nonuniform water application. The preferred and more common way to deliver water
to furrows from ditches is with siphon tubes (Fig. 5.13). Siphon tubes are typically about
1.7 m long and made from rigid aluminum or polyethylene. Siphon tube use requires
that the water level in the supply ditch be at least 10 cm above the field elevation. Water
in the ditch is dammed or “checked up” to the required height with flexible (canvas
or reinforced polyethylene) dams across the earthen ditches or rigid dams or weirs in
concrete-lined ditches. Siphon-tube flow rate is adjusted by changing the elevation of
the downstream end of the tube, by switching to a larger or a smaller tube, or by using
two or more tubes together. The advantage of siphon tubes over spiles through the bank
is that they do not require plugs or gates and do not leak.
Gated pipes (Fig. 5.14) are laid on the surface at the head end of the furrows and
have adjustable outlets for each furrow. The most common type of outlet gate is a small
rectangular slide that covers a rectangular slot in the pipe. Round outlets that adjust by
rotating the circular cover and spigot outlets are also available. Rigid gated pipe usually
is made from either 4-mm-thick aluminum or about 8-mm-thick PVC. PVC pipe must
have ultraviolet inhibitors to prevent deterioration in the sun. Both have low-pressure,
gasketed ends that are easy to connect and disconnect. Common pipe diameters are 15,
20, 25, and 30 cm and lengths up to 9 m are easy to maneuver. Advantages of gated pipe
over open ditches are that they requires little or no field area and they are portable, and
thus can be moved for tillage and harvesting operations.
Thin-walled (lay-flat) tubing made from PVC sheeting is used like rigid gated pipe.
Both fixed and adjustable outlet gates for lay-flat tubing are available. Lay-flat tubing
can hold only about 5 kPa of water pressure and generally lasts only one year. It is made
in a range of diameters and wall thicknesses. It is a low-initial-cost alternative to rigid
gated pipe but often has a higher annual cost because of its short useful life.
Figure 5.12b shows the irrigation phases for furrows. In basins, because of large in-
flow rates, the advance and ponding phases are relatively short and the depletion phase
Figure 5.14. Gated pipes in polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
is large to allow for the infiltration of the ponded water. In furrow irrigation, inflows
are often selected (0.2 to 1.2 L s−1 ) so that the advance phase is 20% to 50% of the
irrigation time. Desirable advance-to-cutoff time ratios depend on the soil infiltration
characteristics and whether runoff is reused. Depletion time is often short and some-
times may be ignored. Recession time is usually much shorter than advance time, and
so, wetting time must be sufficient to adequately irrigate the tail end (low quarter) of the
furrow.
Border Irrigation
In border irrigation, the field is divided into sloping strips of land separated by parallel
border dikes or ridges. Water is applied at the upstream end and moves as a sheet down
the border (Fig. 5.15). Border irrigation is used primarily for close-growing crops, such
as small grains, pastures, and fodder, and for orchards and vineyards. The method is best
adapted to areas with low slopes, moderate soil infiltration rates, and large water supply
rates. These conditions allow large borders that are practical to farm.
Borders are most common and practical on slopes less than 0.005 m m−1 . They can
be used on steeper slopes if infiltration is moderately high and crops are close growing.
Irrigation to establish new crops on steep borders is difficult because water flows quickly,
is difficult to spread evenly, and may cause erosion. Design and management of very flat
borders approximates conditions for level basins.
Border width is determined by cross slope and available flow rates. The elevation
difference across a border should be less than 30% of the flow depth to ensure adequate
Figure 5.15. Border irrigation.
water coverage. Thus, border width is limited by field cross slope or by the amount of land
movement required to eliminate cross slope. Deep flow levels, resulting from low slopes,
high flow rates, or high crop roughness, allow more cross slope. Land leveling is critical
to efficient border operation. Within these limitations, border widths should be multiples
of the width of the machinery that will be used, to allow efficient machinery operation.
In orchard and vineyards, width is determined by row spacing. Borders typically vary
from 5 to 60 m wide.
Border length affects advance time and thus irrigation cutoff time. Longer borders
require longer irrigation times and result in greater irrigation depths. Borders up to 400 m
long are used where infiltration rates are moderately low and MAD is high.
In the ideal border irrigation, the recession curve parallels the advance curve, giving
equal infiltration opportunity time all along the border. Thus, efficient border irrigation,
like basin irrigation, requires large flow rates per unit width to advance the water quickly
down the field. On sloping borders, this requires that inflow cutoff, and often even
recession at the top end of the field, occur before advance completion at the tail end.
If soil infiltration or crop roughness changes, inflow rates must change to maintain this
balance. The downstream end of borders may be closed or open. Closed borders require
accurate flow cutoff times to prevent excessive ponding at the tail, and may require
drainage of excessive rainfall. Open borders require drainage systems and, preferably,
tailwater collection and reuse. Water application to borders can be from cutouts or side
gates from ditches or from large siphon tubes.
Border irrigation is gradually declining in use. Laser leveling allows some border
irrigated fields to be converted to easier-to-manage basins. Some fields also have been
converted to sprinkler irrigation, and orchards and vineyards may be converted to mi-
croirrigation.
Analyses in the following sections are oriented to these main surface irrigation meth-
ods, focusing on progress for modernizing surface irrigation systems with improved
performance and labor and energy savings. This can contribute to the competitiveness
of surface irrigation systems compared to pressurized systems.
Governing Equations and Modeling
Flow Equations
The process of surface irrigation combines the hydraulics of surface flow in the furrows
or over the irrigated land with the infiltration of water into the soil profile. The flow is
unsteady and varies spatially. The flow at a given section in the irrigated field changes over
time and depends upon the soil infiltration behavior. Performance necessarily depends
on the combination of surface flow and soil infiltration characteristics.
The equations describing the hydraulics of surface irrigation are the continuity and
momentum equations [20]. In general, the continuity equation, expressing the conserva-
tion of mass, can be written as
∂A ∂Q
+ + I = 0, (5.126)
∂t ∂x
where t is time (s), Q is the discharge (m3 s−1 ), x is the distance (m) along the flow
direction, A is the flow cross-sectional area (m2 ), and I is the infiltration rate per unit
length (m3 s−1 m−1 ).
The momentum equation, expressing the dynamic equilibrium of the flow process, is
v ∂v v ∂Q v ∂A 1 ∂v ∂y
+ + + = So − S f − , (5.127)
g ∂x gA ∂x g A ∂t g ∂t ∂x
where g is the gravitational acceleration (m s−2 ), So is the land (or furrow) slope (m m−1 ),
S f is the friction loss per unit length or friction slope (m m−1 ), v is the flow velocity
(m s−1 ), and y is the flow depth (m).
These equations are first-order nonlinear partial differential equations without a
known closed-form solution. Appropriate conversion or approximations of these equa-
tions are required. Several mathematical simulation models have been developed.
Infiltration Equations
Several infiltration equations are used in surface irrigation studies. Most common are
the empirical Kostiakov equations,
I = akτ a−1 (5.128)
and
I = akτ a−1 + f 0 , (5.129)
where I is the infiltration rate per unit area (mm h−1 ), a and k are empirical parameters,
f 0 is the empirical final or steady-state infiltration rate (mm h−1 ), and τ is the time of
opportunity for infiltration (h). The latter is commonly used in furrow infiltration where
cutoff times are long and infiltration tends to approach a steady rate. When initial prefer-
ential flow occurs, as is the case with swelling or cracking soils, an initial “instantaneous”
infiltration amount must be added to the cumulative infiltration.
Other infiltration equations used are the empirical Horton equation,
I = f 0 + (Ii − f 0 )eβτ , (5.130)
−1
where β is an empirical parameter, Ii is the initial infiltration rate (mm h ), and f 0 is
the final infiltration rate (mm h−1 ); the semiempirical equation of Philips,
I = 0.5Sτ − 0.5 + As , (5.131)
−2 −1
where S is soil sorptivity (mm h ) and As is soil transmissibility (mm h ); and the
Green-Ampt equation,
· ¸
(θs − θi )h 0
I = K 1+ , (5.132)
Z
where K is the saturated hydraulic conductivity (mm h−1 ), θs is the saturated-soil water
content (m3 m−3 ), θi is the soil initial water content (m3 m−3 ), h 0 is the matric potential
at the wetting front (mm), and Z is the cumulative depth of infiltration (mm).
However, the equation that more precisely describes the flow in porous media is the
Richards equation. For border or basin irrigation, the one-dimensional form is appropri-
ate, whereas, for furrow irrigation, the two-dimensional form would be required:
· ¸ · µ ¶¸
∂h ∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h
C(h) = K (h) + K (h) −1 , (5.133)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂z ∂z
where C(h) is ∂θ/∂h, θ is soil water content, h(θ ) is the pressure head, K (h) is the
hydraulic conductivity, t is time, x is the horizontal distance, and z is the vertical distance
from soil surface (positive downward).
The use of Eq. (5.133) in the continuity equation (5.126) not only increases the
complexity of the solution of the flow equations but also requires much more detailed
and accurate information on the hydraulic soil properties. However, the information
provided by the corresponding model would be more detailed and, hopefully, better
represent the dynamics of the irrigation process [21–23].
Computer Models
A great deal of effort has been put forth to develop numerical solutions for both the
continuity and momentum equations (5.126) and (5.127) and the Richards and Green-
Ampt infiltration equations (5.132) and (5.133). The current approaches to solutions of
Eqs. (5.126) and (5.127) are the method of characteristics, converting these equations
into ordinary differential ones; the Eulerian integration, based on the concept of a deform-
ing control volume made of individual deforming cells; (c) the zero-inertia approach,
assuming that the inertial and acceleration terms in the momentum equation (5.127) are
negligible in most cases of surface irrigation; and the kinematic-wave approach, which
assumes that a unique relation exists to describe the Q = f (y) relationship. A consol-
idated review and description of those solutions, using the Kostiakov equations (5.128)
or (5.129) for the infiltration process, are given by Walker and Skogerboe [20].
These solutions are incorporated in the computer programs SIRMOD [24] and SRFR
[25, 26]. SRFR solves the nonlinear algebraic equations adopting time-space cells with
variable time and space steps and also includes a full hydrodynamic model adopting the
Kostiakov infiltration equation (5.129). The model adapts particularly well to describe
level furrows and basins as well as the impacts of geometry of furrows on irrigation per-
formance. With the same origin [27], a menu-driven program, BASIN, for design of level
basins has been developed [28]. These user-friendly programs correspond to the present
trends in software development, which make complete design tools available to users.
These computer models can be used for most cases in irrigation practice, for both
design and evaluation. Nevertheless, there are many other developments in modeling
recently reported in literature, mainly relative to improvements in zero-inertia and kine-
matic wave models (comments in [29]).
For many problems in the irrigation practice, the simple volume balance equation
[20] can be appropriate for sloping furrows and borders:
Q 0 t = Vy (t) + Vz (t), (5.134)
where Q 0 is the inflow rate at the upstream end (m3 h−1 ), t is the time since irrigation
started (h), Vy is the volume of water on the soil surface (m3 ), and Vz is the volume
of water infiltrated (m3 ). This describes the mass conservation. Related models are
particularly useful to study the advance phase and, consequently, to derive the infiltration
characteristics from observations of advance. In general, empirical time-based infiltration
equations (5.128) and (5.129) are used. Results from volume balance models are sensitive
to the shape coefficients describing the surface water stream and the infiltration pattern.
The volume balance model is appropriate for real time (automatic) control because,
under these circumstances, the advance phase is the most critical [30]. Simplified models
proposed by Mailhol [31] and Eisenhauer et al. [32] also use the volume balance approach
to optimize irrigation parameters—flow rate and time for cutoff—when a target irrigation
depth is known. These models, in combination with irrigation scheduling programs, could
be used for real-time furrow irrigation management.
Field Evaluation
Field evaluation of farm irrigation systems, described in detail by Merriam and Keller
[10], plays a fundamental role in improving surface irrigation. Evaluations provide infor-
mation used to advise irrigators on how to improve their system design and/or operation,
as well as information on improving design, model validation and updating, optimiza-
tion programming, and developing real-time irrigation management decisions. Basic
field evaluation includes observation of
• inflow and outflow rates and volumes (volume balance);
• timing of the irrigation phases, particularly advance and recession;
• soil water requirements and storage;
• slope, topography, and geometry of the field; and

• management procedures used by the irrigator.
More thorough evaluations require independent measurement of the infiltration using
a furrow or basin infiltrometer, as well as estimates of water stored on the soil surface
and/or surface roughness. When soils are erodible, erosion observations also should be
performed [33].
The most difficult to measure and important parameter affecting surface irrigation de-
sign and performance is infiltration. Field data from evaluations can be used to estimate
the infiltration parameters for the Kostiakov equation. The application of the volume
balance method to the advance phase of sloping furrows and borders led to the develop-
ment of a well-proved methodology for estimating infiltration parameters—the two-point
method [34]. Several authors have reported on successful use of this method, and use-
fulness to design and evaluation is well established [20]. Smerdon et al. [35] provide
an interesting evaluation of methodologies, and Blair and Smerdon [36] analyze several
forms of advance and infiltration equations. A standard engineering practice for furrow
evaluation (ASAE EP419.1) has been developed [19].
Estimation of the infiltration parameters and the roughness coefficient for surface flow
also can be done through the inverse surface irrigation problem by numerical simulation
models [37, 38]. Techniques to optimize the infiltration and roughness parameters by us-
ing the simulation models interactively are available [39, 40]. Of particular interest are the
methodologies aimed at real-time control of irrigation. The examples offered by Mailhol
[31] and Eisenhauer et al. [32] describe simplified, easy-to-implement approaches.
The two main performance parameters—the distribution uniformity DU [Eq. (5.119)]
and the application efficiency ea [Eq. (5.118) or (5.117)] can be computed from field data.
Distribution uniformity primarily depends on the parameters characterizing the irrigation
event; ea also is influenced by the irrigation scheduling decision, i.e., the irrigation timing
(SWD) and depth. DU can be functionally described by
DU = f 1 (qin , L , n, S0 , Ic , Fa , tco ), (5.135)
where qin is the unit inflow rate (per furrow or per unit width of the border or basin);
L is the length of the furrow, border, or basin; n is the roughness coefficient; S0 is the
longitudinal slope of the field; Ic represents the intake characteristics of the soil; Fa
represents of the cross-sectional characteristics of the furrow, border, or basin; and tco is
the time of cutoff.
The water application efficiency can be described by the same factors above together
with the SWD when irrigation starts:
ea = f 2 (qin , L , n, S0 , Ic , Fa , tco , SWD). (5.136)
Design
Traditionally, design of surface irrigation systems has been based on past experiences
in an area. This method met the practical needs of the farmers as long as irrigation
water was plentiful and conditions were similar. As the need for improved design and
performance grew, engineers began combining past experiences with simple hydraulic
relationships to develop semiempirical design procedures in the forms of guidelines,

equations, and nomographs [16].
Recent advances in simulation modeling, computing, and user-friendly software for
personal computers provide good tools for design of surface irrigation systems. However,
the use of these tools lags behind the potential. Among the main reasons are the lack of
required input data, the need for using information from field evaluations as design criteria
or as input parameters, influences of land leveling and soil management on actual field
performance, dependence of performance parameters on many farming factors including
the irrigator decisions, and temporal and spatial variability of soil characteristics.
The derivation of infiltration from field evaluation data, as mentioned above, can play
an essential role for design, either using simulation models or adopting optimization
techniques. Simulation models are used for design in an iterative process of searching the
best geometric and inflow parameters that provide optimum values for the performance
parameters.
The input parameters include the infiltration characteristics; the length and the cross-
sectional characteristics of the furrows, borders, or basins; the desired irrigation depth;
and the roughness coefficient n. The slope, S0 , can be fixed or adjusted together with
the other output parameters: the inflow rate qin and the time duration of the irrigation
tco . Input parameters can vary from one simulation to another until the best solution is
obtained. The capabilities of simulation provide for alternative best solutions concerning
different processes of water application and different irrigation management conditions.
Land Leveling Requirements

The functional relationships for DU and ea [Eqs. (5.135) and (5.136)] indicate that, for
each set of field characteristics, there exists an optimal value for the slope S0 . However,
a given average slope may correspond to a precisely leveled field or one with uneven
microtopography. Consequences of irrigating an uneven basin are shown in Fig. 5.16.
Differences in advance time are small because of the high inflow rate, but differences in
recession time are large, giving widely varying infiltration opportunity time. This results
in uneven infiltrated depths, greatly affecting irrigation performance, particularly for
basins and furrows.
Recent land leveling advances have been made in both computational procedures
[41–43] and the use of laser control of land grading equipment.
The leveling precision can be estimated from the standard deviation of field elevation
differences to the target elevation:
" #1/2
X
n
Sd = (h i − h ti )2 /(n − 1) , (5.137)
i=1
where Sd is the standard deviation of field elevation (m), h i is the field elevation at point
i (m), and h ti is the target elevation at the same point (m). When precision laser leveling
is used, it is possible to achieve Sd < 0.012 m whereas conventional equipment does
not provide better than Sd = 0.025 m.
Poor land leveling particularly affects the distribution uniformity in furrowed level
basins supplied through an earthen ditch at the upstream end. Differences in furrow
Figure 5.16. Effects of microtopography on irrigation characteristics:

advance (¤–¤) and recession times (¥–¥) and infiltrated depths (∇–∇)
for a precise level basin compared with advance (x–x) and recession times
(∆–∆) and infiltration depths (•–•) for an uneven field.
entrance elevations cause differences in inflow rates and volumes entering each furrow.
Even though the water may be redistributed after the advance is completed through a ditch
at the downstream end, DU is highly influenced by Sd . Combined effects of individual
inflow rates (qin ) and basin lengths (L) are shown in Fig. 5.17, relating the Sd of furrow
entrance elevations with the ratio between the actual DU and the maximum value for
DU expected when land leveling would be optimal; DUmax .
Maintenance of precise laser leveling requires tillage equipment that conserves the
landform after land grading and the adoption of appropriate tools for furrow opening.
An economic analysis of land leveling impacts given by Sousa et al. [45] shows how
poor land grading leads to lower yields and higher maintenance costs.
Management
Control of Inflow Rates and Time of Cutoff
For a given field, two of the parameters in the performance functional relationships
(5.135) and (5.136) remain constant—the length L and the slope S0 . Several others
may change from season to season and from irrigation to irrigation as a consequence
of irrigation and farming practices—soil infiltration characteristics Ic , the shape of the
Figure 5.17. Distribution uniformity DU as affected by

the standard deviation Sd of furrow entrance elevations
for a furrowed level basin, considering different inflow
rates and basin lengths. Source: [44].
furrow Fa , and the roughness of the surface n. Farmers can change these to some extent
through tillage and other soil management and cultural or cropping practices. At the
time of irrigation, the irrigator can only control the inflow rate qin and the time of cutoff
tco . Thus, irrigator decisions to improve DU and ea can be expressed by the simplified
functional relations
DU = f (qin , tco ) (5.138)
and
ea = f (qin , tco , SWD). (5.139)
Appropriate control of inflow rates and duration of irrigation is particularly relevant
where overirrigation has to be avoided. This is the case when deep percolation of ex-
cess water contributes to water table rise, salinization, leaching of fertilizers and other
agrochemicals, and excessive drainage volumes. Such control is also essential when ir-
rigating saline soils or using saline water. Therefore, the improved control of qin and tco
becomes not only a matter of irrigation performance but environmental protection.
When the irrigator selects the best time for irrigating, and thus the best SWD, he may
achieve the best performance when appropriate inflow rate and time of cutoff are selected
and applied. Selection of the appropriate rates and times requires either simulation of
the event, with appropriate input parameters, or experience. Applying the desired rates
and times requires an ability to measure and control the flows in rate and time. Lack of
water control at the farm and field level often constrains an irrigator’s ability to do the
job well.
Good farm water control requires good water conveyance systems, such as buried
pipelines, and often on-farm water storage so that irrigation rates and timings are not
completely determined by water supply rates and timings. Good field control requires
the ability to adjust and control field inflow rates and to provide uniform discharges
along a furrow-irrigated field. Good field application systems include the use of concrete
channels with siphon tubes for furrows or side gates for borders and basins; the use
of surface gated pipes or lay-flat, flexible tubing equipped with appropriate regulation
valves or orifices for furrows; and buried pipelines with valved risers for basins and
borders. This equipment, although more expensive than traditional earthen ditches, is
easy to operate, less labor intensive, and provides more precise control. Further advances
in control of qin and tco are obtained through automation.
Automation
A primary disadvantage of surface irrigation is the labor requirement. Engineers have
worked for many years to develop automated, or at least mechanized, surface irrigation
systems. Humpherys [46] describes many of the systems that have been developed and
tested in the past 50 years.
Two recently developed mechanization systems for surface irrigation that can reduce
labor and improve water control have seen modest adoption: cablegation (Fig. 5.18) and
surge flow. Cablegation [47] automatically applies a gradually decreasing inflow rate to
furrows from gated pipes. Considering that infiltration rates also decrease with time, this
can be a great advantage in decreasing both deep percolation and tailwater runoff losses.
When properly designed, installed, and managed, cablegation systems can provide
good irrigation performance. An example with blocked furrows is presented in Fig. 5.19.
Field evaluation during irrigation provided information to reduce the inflow rate and
increase the time duration of the subsequent irrigation. This resulted in increasing DU
and ea .
Experiences with furrow cablegation systems have shown that careful placement of
the gated pipe on a uniform slope at the upstream end of the field is very important to
Figure 5.18. Cablegation system for furrow irrigation.

Figure 5.19. Infiltration profiles in a blocked furrow with a cablegation

system: (a) irrigation on 08/21/92, with DU = 73.7% and ea = 73.4%;
(b) irrigation on 09/15/92 after decreasing the inflow rate and increasing
the cutoff time, with DU = 80% and ea = 80%. Source: [40].
Figure 5.20. Cablegation for automated level-basin irrigation.
obtain uniform applications along the pipe. Because of low-pressure flow in the pipe,
the outlet flows are greatly influenced by the relative elevation of the outlets.
The cablegation concept also has been adapted to borders and level basins [49]. Water
is delivered through underground pipes and applied through large open-topped risers.
A cablegation system currently used for level-basin irrigation at Coruche, Portugal, is
shown in Fig. 5.20.
Surge irrigation is the intermittent application (alternating on-and-off flow cycles)
of water to furrows or borders [50]. Surge originally was developed as a means to
provide a quasi-cutback in flow rates to reduce runoff [51]. However, engineers dis-
covered that surging also often results in a reduction in high infiltration rates and
faster stream advance when compared with continuous water application. The mech-
anisms by which intermittent application can reduce furrow infiltration rates are
relatively well known [52, 53], but the amount of reduction varies with the soil
Figure 5.21. Programmable surge valve.
conditions and cannot be accurately predicted. Commercial programmable surge valves

are available to automatically cycle the water between two irrigation sets (Fig. 5.21).
Thus, surge irrigation can decrease labor (irrigate two sets at one setting), improve
distribution uniformity (faster advance), and reduce runoff (quasi-cutback flows) [50,
54–56].
For both cablegation and surge irrigation, appropriate combinations of inflow rate and
cutoff time are required for good performance. Thus, at least some field observations
are required. Specific evaluation techniques are available for both cablegation [57], and
surge irrigation [58]. Surge irrigation performance also can be simulated with several
surface hydraulics models, if the surge effect on infiltration can be predicted. Results of
surge field evaluations often report improved advance time and infiltration rates [55] and
decreased deep percolation and tailwater runoff [59, 60], at least for the first irrigation.
Surge flow also may apply to graded borders.
Appropriate filters should be used when automated irrigation is used in areas where
water carries trash and algae, which could cause plugging of outlets and malfunctioning
of the system [61].
Several automation devices have been developed for level-basin irrigation, mainly for
timer-activated automatic field outlet gates [62–64].
Very little surface irrigation mechanization has been adopted, for two primary rea-
sons: First, because infiltration varies throughout the season, and surface irrigation per-
formance depends very much on the infiltration rate, it is difficult to accurately predict
the required inflow rates and irrigation times. Thus, good performance requires either
feedback control from field sensors or human monitoring and adjustment. Feedback
control is expensive and complex. Human monitoring reduces the labor-saving bene-
fits of mechanization. Second, few private companies have been willing to invest in
developing, testing, and marketing surface irrigation mechanization devices. Surface ir-
rigation systems generally do not require sufficient system-specific hardware to merit
large private-sector investment.
Soil Management
Because surface irrigation performance is very dependent on infiltration [65], soil
management plays a crucial role in efficient irrigation. Management practices can be used
to increase infiltration of soils of low infiltrability (deep tillage, cultivation, controlled
traffic, residue incorporation, residue management, reduced tillage, gypsum amendment,
polyacrylamide amendment); reduce infiltration of soils with excessive infiltration (com-
paction, surge irrigation); improve soil water storage to allow larger, more uniform ir-
rigations (organic-matter incorporation); improve soil aeration (drainage, deep tillage);
control soil crusting and sealing (residue management, gypsum amendment); and reduce
soil erosion (irrigation management, residue management, reduced tillage, polyacry-
lamide amendment) [66].
A common problem in furrow irrigation is high infiltration rates after primary tillage.
Several studies have shown that furrow compaction of newly formed furrows can reduce
infiltration by up to 50% [66–68]. Furrow performance also may be affected by furrow
shape, uniformity, and roughness. Therefore, the selection of furrow opener systems
should consider the capabilities for furrow forming, smoothing, and firming. Laser con-
trol of the depth of the furrowing tool has been tested as a means to improve furrow
uniformity [69].
Conventional tillage practices can destroy precision leveling. Alternative tillage sys-
tems, including reduced tillage and no-till can extend the life of a level field surface.
However, modifying soil tillage practices impacts infiltration. Sealing may have negative
or positive impacts according to soil type [53, 70]. Reduced till may have contradictory
effects. Both a slight decrease and a large increase of advance time are reported when
rotary till or minimum till is compared with moldboard plow. Contradictory results also
have been obtained when application efficiencies were compared. Because of the varia-
tion in soil types, it is sometimes difficult to predict the effect of changes in tillage and
other soil management practices.
Fertigation
Fertigation (and chemigation) currently is applied with microirrigation and sprinkler
irrigation, particularly with automated systems [72] but it is rare with surface irrigation.
However, fertigation may be used for both furrow and basin irrigation when good ir-
rigation uniformity and performance can be achieved. When chemicals are applied in
surface irrigation water, backflow prevention devices must be used at any groundwater
or public water supply, and any tailwater should be captured and reused, preferably on
the same field.
Recent studies show the technical feasibility of fertigation with surface irrigation.
An experimental study [73] to analyze the variation in concentration of urea fertilizer
in an irrigation supply channel show that injection must be done about 7 m upstream of
the first field outlet when flow velocities are low (near 0.3 m s−1 ). Best mixing occurs
when the injection is made in the stream centerline. Results also indicate that, for current
irrigation practices, the fertilizer concentrations are uniform along the supply conduit.
These conclusions also may be valid for gated pipes or lay-flat tubing.
Santos et al. [74] report that distribution uniformity of irrigation water is closely fol-
lowed by the distribution uniformity of nitrogen fertilizer in level-basin-irrigated maize
in a silty loam soil. The application of fertilizers with each irrigation improves fertilizer
use by the crop and decreases the amount of nitrate in the soil after harvesting [75].
Although more studies are required, there is evidence that surface irrigation fertilization
can reduce the environmental impacts of nitrates.
Surface Irrigation Scheduling
The purpose of irrigation scheduling (see Section 5.3) is to apply the appropriate
irrigation depth when the SWD is less than or equal to the MAD. Scheduling of irrigations
is essential to attain high application efficiencies [Eq. (5.139)], to avoid deep percolation
and runoff losses of water and chemicals, and to prevent stress of the crop. Scheduling
is of particular importance for management of saline soils or where low-quality water is
used, so that the appropriate leaching fraction is given; for conditions of water scarcity,
where wasted water is costly; and where drainage is poor and excess applications cause
a high water table and poor soil aeration.
Scheduling surface irrigation is difficult for three reasons: (1) It is often difficult to
quantify the amount of water applied, (2) it is difficult to quantify the uniformity of the
application, and (3) water deliveries from irrigation water suppliers often are not under the
farmer’s control. Quantifying water application requires flow measurement. If water runs
off the field, both inflows and outflows must be measured. Flow measurement of canal
water supplies is often inadequate or completely lacking. Runoff is seldom measured.
Without flow measurement to quantify applications, schedulers usually assume that the
root zone is completely refilled with each irrigation. This may be a poor, and costly,
assumption. Flow measurement is critical to good irrigation scheduling and irrigation
performance. Methods to measure irrigation water are widely described [76, 77].
Because distribution uniformity in surface irrigation is dependent on complex in-
teractions of parameters, and on inherently variable infiltration characteristics, water
application uniformity is difficult to predict. Knowledge of DU is necessary to adjust
total applications to the effective (usually low quarter) application amounts used for
scheduling. Knowledge of the spatial application variability is important to select lo-
cations for soil water measurements. Because uniformity and variability are difficult
to predict or measure, precise scheduling of surface irrigation is not possible. Overir-
rigation, although costly in terms of water wastage, effectively reduces water storage
variability and facilitates scheduling.
Most surface-irrigated areas are supplied from collective irrigation canal systems.
Farm irrigation scheduling depends upon the delivery schedule, for example, rate, dura-
tion, and frequency, which are dictated by the system operational policies. Flow rate and
duration may impose constraints on the volume of application, and supply frequency
may constrain, or even determine, the irrigation timing. In general, surface irrigation
delivery systems are rigid and the time interval between successive deliveries is too
long. Irrigators tend to compensate for this by applying all the water they are entitled
to use. For deep-rooted crops and soils with high water-holding capacity, this strategy
can be appropriate; however, for shallow-rooted crops and/or coarse-textured soils, per-
colation losses can be substantial and crops may be stressed by alternating drought and
waterlogging. Under rigid delivery schedules, it is difficult both to modernize the irriga-
tion methods and to implement irrigation scheduling programs. Several papers in Smith
et al. [78] discuss technical, social, and organizational problems of rigid water-supply
schedules and possible solutions.
In general, it is difficult to apply small irrigation depths by surface irrigation, especially
early in the season when the infiltration rate is high and roots are shallow. In furrow
irrigation, the time of cutoff usually should be longer than the advance to provide for
sufficient infiltration opportunity time. This implies that surface irrigation applications
are usually large, which makes this method more suitable for situations where SWD
and MAD are relatively large. Under these circumstances, scheduling can be simplified
when adopting simple irrigation calendars [79]. This is also advantageous for collective
system management and for introducing improved tools for controlling the flow rates at
the farm level. An example of development of irrigation scheduling calendars for basin
irrigation that takes into consideration the system constraints is presented by Liu et al.
[80].
When the user is in control of the delivery timings, or when an arranged delivery
schedule is used, and when irrigation applications can be quantified adequately, it is
appropriate to use irrigation scheduling simulation models to determine the soil water
status using soil, crop, and meteorological data. Numerous examples of such models
are available in the literature (e.g. [81–83]). The use of scheduling models in real time
requires periodic field validation of soil water status.
Irrigation also can be scheduled through regular monitoring of the soil-water or plant-
water status. Soil samples analyzed with the feel method are appropriate for any situation.
The use of soil water-monitoring devices is generally economical only for large fields and
crops which can justify the costs of purchase and operation. The use of these systems
requires the selection of an irrigation threshold corresponding to MAD [see Section
5.1, Eq. (5.88)]. Observations or estimations of the SWD have to be performed regu-
larly to track changes in the SWD and allow the prediction of the irrigation date when
SWD = MAD. Furrow irrigation poses a special problem for soil water monitoring in
that water distribution varies with distance from each furrow, and so, representative sam-
pling locations and depths must be determined and assumptions must be made about the
effective MAD.
A further degree of sophistication can be achieved by combining soil water-balance
simulation with soil water measurements. This can be done in two ways: (1) soil water
information is used to validate the model predictions, and (2) continuous soil water and
meteorological monitoring are coupled in an irrigation simulation model. An example
of the latter approach is presented by Malano et al. [40].
5.4.3 Sprinkler Irrigation

Introduction
Sprinkler irrigation in agriculture began with the development of impact sprinklers
and lightweight steel pipe with quick couplers. In the 1950s, improved sprinklers, alu-
minium pipe, and more efficient pumping plants reduced the cost and labor require-
ments and increased the usefulness of sprinkler irrigation. In the 1960s, the development
of moving systems, namely the center pivot, provided for moderate-cost, mechanical,
high-frequency irrigation. Additional sprinkler innovations are continually being intro-

duced that reduce labor, increase the efficiency of sprinkling, and adapt the method to a
wider range of soils, topographies, and crops. Shortages of labor and water are result-
ing in more widespread use of mechanization and automation, including self- propelled
sprinkler systems, automatic valves, and computer monitoring and control.
There are many types of sprinkler systems, but all have the following basic compo-
nents:
• The pump draws water from the source, such as a reservoir, borehole, canal, or
stream, and delivers it to the irrigation system at the required pressure. It is driven
by an internal combustion engine or electric motor. If the water supply is pressurized,
the pump may not be needed.
• The mainline is a pipe that delivers water from the pump to the laterals. In some
cases the mainline is placed below ground and is permanent. In others, portable
mainline laid on the surface can be moved from field to field. Buried mainlines
usually are made of coated steel, asbestos-cement, or plastic. Portable pipes usually
are made of lightweight aluminium alloy, galvanized steel or plastic. In large fields
the mainline supplies one or more submains that deliver the water to the laterals.
• The lateral pipeline delivers water from the mainline to the sprinklers. It can be
portable or permanent and may be made of materials similar to those of the main-
line, but is usually smaller. In continuous-move systems, the lateral moves while
irrigating.
• Sprinklers spray the water across the soil surface with the objective of uniform
coverage.
Sprinklers irrigation systems can be divided broadly into set and continuous-move
systems. In set systems, the sprinklers remain at a fixed position while irrigating; in
continuous-move systems, the sprinklers operate while the lateral is moving in either a
circular or a straight path. Set systems include solid set or permanent systems as well as
periodic-move systems, which are moved between irrigations, such as hand-move and
wheel-line laterals and hose-fed sprinklers. The principal continuous-move systems are
center-pivot and linear-move laterals, and traveling raingun sprinklers.
Adaptability
Sprinklers are available in a wide range of characteristics and capacities and are
suitable for most crops and adaptable to most irrigable soils. Set systems can apply
water at any selected rate down to 3 mm h−1 . This extends the use of sprinkling to
fine-textured soils with low infiltration rates. High-application-rate systems, such as the
center-pivot and traveling rainguns, are not applicable to low-infiltration-rate conditions.
Care is required to select the proper sprinklers for the existing conditions.
Periodic-move systems can be used where the crop-soil-climate conditions do not
require irrigations more than every 5 to 7 days and the crop is not too tall or delicate.
Where shallow-rooted crops are grown on soils with low water-holding capacities, light,
frequent irrigations are required and fixed (solid set) or continuously moving systems
are more suitable. Fixed systems also can be designed and operated for frost and freeze
protection, blossom delay, and crop cooling.
Sprinklers can be adapted to most climatic conditions, but high wind conditions
decrease distribution uniformity and increase evaporation losses, especially when com-
bined with high temperatures and low air humidities. Although sprinkling is adaptable
to most topographic conditions, large elevation differences result in nonuniform appli-
cation unless pressure regulation devices are used. Other aspects relative to adaptability
and suitability of sprinkler irrigation and its advantages and limitations are given in the
literature [11, 84].
Advantages
Sprinkler irrigation has the following advantages compared to surface irrigation:
• Properly designed and operated sprinkler irrigation systems can give high seasonal
irrigation efficiencies and save water.
• Sprinkler irrigation performance is not dependent on soil infiltration (as long as
application rate does not exceed infiltration rate), and thus is dependable and pre-
dictable.
• Soils with variable textures and profiles can be efficiently irrigated.
• Land leveling is not required; shallow soils that cannot be graded for surface irri-
gation without detrimental results can be irrigated.
• Steep and rolling topography can be irrigated without producing runoff or erosion.
• Light, frequent irrigations, such as for germination of a crop, can be given.
• Sprinkler systems can effectively use small, continuous streams of water, such as
from springs and small-tube or dug wells.
• Mechanized sprinkler systems require very little labor and are relatively simple to
manage.
• Fixed sprinkler systems require very little field labor during the irrigation season
and may be fully automated.
• Periodic-move sprinkler systems require only unskilled labor; irrigation manage-
ment decisions are made by the manager.
• Fixed sprinkler systems can be used to control weather extremes by increasing air
humidity, cooling the crop, and reducing freeze damage.
• Sprinklers can be managed to supplement rainfall.
• Sprinklers can leach salts from saline soils more effectively than surface or microir-
rigation methods.
• Cultural practices such as conservation tillage and residue management can be used
easily under sprinkler irrigation.
Limitations
Sprinkler irrigation has the following limitations:
• Initial costs are higher than for surface irrigation systems unless extensive land
grading costs are required.
• Energy costs for pressurizing water is a significant expense, depending on the
pressure requirements of sprinklers used and power costs.
• When water is not continuously available at a sufficient, constant rate, the use of a
storage reservoir is required.
• Soil infiltration rate of less than 3–5 mm h−1 will constrain system selection and op-
erating procedures and may result in runoff; center pivots require initial infiltration
rates above 20 mm h−1 .
• Windy and dry conditions cause water loss by evaporation and wind drift.
• Irregular field shapes are more expensive and less convenient, especially for mech-
anized sprinkler systems.
• Certain waters are corrosive to the metal pipes used in mainline and laterals.
• Water containing trash or sand must be cleaned to avoid clogging and nozzle wear.
• Sprinkler irrigation water containing salts may cause problems because salts drying
on the leaves affect some crops. High concentrations of bicarbonates in irrigation
water may affect the quality of fruits. Sodium or chloride concentration in the
irrigation water exceeding 70 or 105 parts per million (ppm), respectively, may
injure some fruit crops.
• The high humidity and wet foliage created by sprinkling is conducive to some
fungal and mold diseases.
Sprinklers
Types of Heads and Nozzles
Sprinkler heads are the most important component in the system because their per-
formance determines the effectiveness and efficiency of the whole system. A sprinkler
operates by forcing water under pressure through a small hole or nozzle and into the air.
Nozzle size and water pressure determine the flow rate. Most sprinklers are designed to
give a circular wetting pattern. The distance from the sprinkler to the outer edge of that
circle is called the throw or wetted radius. Nozzle design, size, and pressure determine
the pattern wetted diameter. Sprinklers may have special features that allow them to
irrigate only a part of the circle.
In rotary sprinkler heads, the water jet commonly discharges at an angle above hor-
izontal between 22◦ and 28◦ . The jet breaks up into small drops as it travels through the
air, and falls to the ground like natural rainfall. Good water distribution is dependent on
maintaining water pressure (jet velocity) within the range that produces the proper droplet
sizes. The sprinkler rotates in a horizontal plane to produce a circular wetting pattern.
Sprinklers may have two nozzles discharging in opposite directions. The larger pro-
vides for larger throw and creates the sprinkler rotation. The small one provides for
wetting the inner circle.
Impact sprinkler rotation is caused by the water jet impinging on a spring-loaded
swing arm (Fig. 5.22). The water jet impulse forces the spring arm sideways. The spring
returns the arm, which impacts the body of the sprinkler, rotating it a few degrees. Then
the cycle repeats. The rotational speed (1 to 3 rotations per minute) is controlled by the
swing-arm weight and spring tension. It is important that the sprinkler rotates correctly
so that no area is left underirrigated.
In gear-driven rotary sprinklers the pressurized water entering the sprinkler rotates a
small water turbine which, through reducing gears, provides for slow, continuous sprin-
kler rotation. Gear-drive mechanisms require clean water to prevent clogging and wear.
Figure 5.22. Impact sprinkler.
Spray heads discharge a jet of water vertically from a nozzle onto an impingement
plate that redirects it into a circular pattern. This plate may be smooth or serrated and
have a flat, convex, or concave surface, depending on the desired pattern shape (throw
and droplet sizes). Sprayers generally operate at low pressure and have smaller pattern
diameters than impact sprinklers. They are commonly used on continuous-move lateral
systems. Recent adaptations of spray heads use rotating or wobbling plates with curved
grooves that turn the plate by jet reaction. These variations are designed to increase throw
at low pressures and improve water distribution patterns.
Characteristics
A sprinkler is characterized by
• operating pressure P (kPa) required to provide good water distribution,
• discharge or flow rate qs (m3 h−1 ), and
• effective diameter of the wetted circle Dw (m).
The same sprinkler head may be used for different flow rates and diameters by chang-
ing the operating pressure and/or the nozzle diameter dn (mm). Sprinkler charts given
by the manufacturer should provide the information on the best combination P–qs –Dw
for each dn (Table 5.5). These characteristics are interrelated by
qs = K d P 0.5 (5.140)
Table 5.5. Discharge qs (m3 h−1 ) and wetted diameter Dw (m) for typical rotary sprinklers
with trajectory angles between 22◦ and 28◦ and standard nozzles without vanes
Nozzle Diameter dn (mm)
Sprinkler Pressure 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8

(kPa) qs Dw qs Dw qs Dw qs Dw
140 0.26 19.2 — — — — — —
170 0.29 19.5 0.51 23.2 0.80 25.0 — —
205 0.32 19.8 0.56 23.5 0.88 25.9 1.20 27.8
240 0.34 20.1 0.61 23.8 0.94 26.5 1.36 28.7
275 0.37 20.4 0.65 24.1 1.01 26.8 1.45 29.3
310 0.39 20.7 0.69 24.4 1.07 27.1 1.54 29.9
345 0.41 21.0 0.73 24.7 1.13 27.4 1.63 30.5
380 0.43 21.3 0.77 25.0 1.19 27.7 1.71 30.8
415 0.45 21.6 0.80 25.3 1.24 28.0 1.78 31.1
450 — — 0.83 25.6 1.29 28.3 1.86 31.4
485 — — — — 1.34 28.6 1.93 31.7
and, more empirically,

Dw = K r qs0.5 (5.141a)
or
Dw = K r P 0.25 . (5.141b)
Parameters K d and K r primarily depend on the nozzle diameter but they also vary
with nozzle design and shape. The exponent in Eq. (5.141b) may be slightly different
from 0.25. The value 0.272 is given by Rochester and Hackwell [85] for small rainguns.
The wetted diameter can be increased by increasing the water pressure and the nozzle
angle (within limits) or using nozzles with vanes [11].
Application Rate
The rate at which sprinklers apply water when operating is called the application rate
i a (mm h−1 ). The application rate depends on the sprinkler discharge qs (m3 h−1 ) and,
for set systems, the spacing between the sprinklers, which determines the irrigated area
aw (m2 ):
i a = 1000(qs /aw ). (5.142)
Increasing the nozzle size or the pressure, or spacing the sprinklers closer together
will increase the application rate. Manufacturers supply the information required to
compute i a for their sprinklers. The application rate should always be less than the rate
at which the soil can infiltrate water to avoid surface water ponding, redistribution, and
runoff. Redistribution lowers application uniformity. Runoff not only wastes water but
also may cause soil erosion. Tillage management practices including surface residue
management and reservoir tillage are used to increase infiltration and/or surface storage
Table 5.6. Suggested maximum continuous sprinkler application rates (mm h−1 ) for
average soil, slope, and tilth
Slope (%)
Soil Texture and Profile 0–5% 5–8% 8–12% 12–16%
Deep coarse sandy soils 50 38 25 13
Coarse sandy soils over more compact soils 38 25 19 10
Deep light sandy loams 25 20 15 10
Light sandy loams over more compact soils 19 13 10 8
Deep silt loams 13 10 8 5
Silt loams over more compact soils 8 6 4 2.5
Heavy textured clays or clay loams 4 2.5 2 1.5
and reduce runoff [86]. Table 5.6 provides suggested maximum continuous application
rates according to soil infiltration conditions and slope.
Drop Sizes
A sprinkler normally produces a wide range of drop sizes from 0.5 mm up to 4.0 mm
in diameter. The small drops usually fall close to the sprinkler whereas the large ones
travel much farther. Information about drop-size distributions along the wetted radius
as influenced by pressure is given by Kincaid et al. [87]. The range of drop sizes can
be controlled by the size and shape of the nozzle and its operating pressure. At low
pressures, drops tend to be large. At high pressures they are much smaller and misting
may occur. Noncircular nozzle shapes have been developed to produce smaller drops at
low pressures. A detailed analysis is provided by Li et al. [88, 89].
Large drops have high kinetic energy and can damage delicate crops. They also break
down the surface structure of some soils, resulting in reduced infiltration rate and crusting.
Sprinklers producing large drops should not be used on soils that tend to crust.
Water Distribution
Sprinklers generally cannot produce an even water distribution over the whole of the
wetted radius. Often the application is highest close to the sprinkler and decreases toward
the edge, resulting in a radial pattern of distribution shaped like a triangle. To make the
distribution more uniform over the field, several sprinklers must operate close enough
together that their distribution patterns overlap. The sprinkler pattern determines the
desired spacing between sprinklers. Uniformity usually is improved by putting sprinklers
close together, but this increases water application rates and cost of the system.
Fixed set sprinklers usually are placed in a square or rectangular grid, although trian-
gular grids improve pattern overlap and distribution uniformity (Fig. 5.23). In continuous
move systems, only spacing along the lateral affect distribution (assuming the movement
is adequately continuous). Continuous move systems usually produce better uniformity
than set systems.
Sprinkler Classification
Sprinklers can be classified according to several factors including
• type—rotary or spray;
Figure 5.23. Rectangular and triangular

sprinkler grids, with spacing e along the
lateral and l between laterals.
• area shape wetted—full or part of the circle;

• throw or wetted diameter—small (<5 m) to large (>50 m);
• operating pressure—low (<150 kPa) to high (>350 kPa);
• discharge—small (<0.5 m3 h−1 ) to large (>50 m3 h−1 );
• application rate—low (<5 mm h−1 ) to high (>15 mm h−1 );
• number of nozzles—one or two;
• angle of the jet with the horizontal—very low (<10◦ ) for undertree irrigation, low
(18◦ –21◦ ) to reduce wind drift, or normal (25◦ –28◦ ); and
• drop-size distribution.
In general, these classifications should be combined and considered under the per-
spective of adaptability of the sprinkler to the field conditions. According to Keller and
Bliesner [11],
• Low-pressure (35–140 kPa) impact or spray sprinklers have a small wetted diameter
(6–15 m), produce large water drops with a fair water distribution and relatively
high application rate (>10 mm h−1 ). They are mostly suitable for small areas or
continuous-move systems.
• Rotary sprinklers with low to moderate pressure (105–210 kPa) produce a medium
wetted diameter (18–24 m), water drops are fairly well broken up, and applica-
tion rates can be selected over a wide range (>3 mm h−1 ). Water distribution is
good when the pressure is near 200 kPa. They are suitable for most crops, includ-
ing vegetables and undertree irrigation and are also suitable for continuous-move
systems.
• Low- to medium-pressure (70–245 kPa) spinners or sprayers for undertree orchard
irrigation produce wetted circles with moderate diameters (12–27 m), moderate-
size drops, and fairly good water distribution. A large range of application rates is
obtainable (>5 mm h−1 ). Ideal for orchards in windy areas.
• Medium pressure (210–410 kPa) rotary sprinklers are available with one or two
nozzles, irrigate a medium to large circle (23–37 m), and produce excellent water
distribution with well-broken water drops, with application rates also in a very wide
range (>2.5 mm h−1 ). They are suitable for all type of soils, including those with
low intake, and all crops.
• High-pressure rotary sprinklers (340–690 kPa), either single or dual nozzle, wet
large diameters (34–90 m), drops are well broken, water distribution is good when
wind speed does not exceed 6 km h−1 , but application rates are relatively high (>10
mm h−1 ). They are suitable for field crops, soils with nonlimiting infiltration rate
and regions without excessive wind. They can be used as center-pivot end guns and
as traveller guns.
• Very high pressure (550–830 kPa) gun sprinklers, generally single nozzled, irrigate
circles of large diameters (60–120 m), have high application rates (>15 mm h−1 )
and produce very well broken water drops. Water distribution is good under calm
conditions but is distorted easily by wind. They are suitable for field crops in soils
with good infiltration characteristics and are mostly used as traveling rainguns.
Water Distribution Profiles and Recommended Spacing
In choosing a sprinkler, the aim is to find the combination of sprinkler spacing,
operating pressure, and nozzle size that provides the desired application rate with the best
distribution uniformity. The uniformity obtainable with a set sprinkler system depends
largely on the water distribution pattern and spacing of the sprinklers. The uniformity is
strongly affected by wind and operating pressure.
Small droplets from sprinklers are blown easily by wind, distorting wetting patterns
and reducing irrigation uniformity. Losses due to wind effects are analyzed by Yazar [90].
The distortion of the precipitation distribution patterns caused by the wind is analyzed
by Han et al. [91]. Although 15 km h−1 is only a gentle breeze, it seriously disrupts
the operation of a sprinkler system [92]. Sprinklers need to operate close together under
windy conditions to distribute water evenly. In prevailing wind conditions, the orientation
of the laterals should be at right angles to the wind direction and the sprinkler spacing
along the lateral should be reduced.
A sprinkler performs best within a pressure range that normally is specified by the
manufacturer. If the pressure is too low, the water jet does not break up adequately, and
most of the water falls in large drops near the outer diameter of the pattern. If the pressure
is too high, the jet breaks up too much, causing misting, and most of the water falls close
to the sprinkler. Both of these patterns have a reduced throw.
Manufacturers of sprinklers specify a wetted diameter for all nozzle-size and operating-
pressure combinations for each type of sprinkler. These diameters, together with the water
distribution profile are used when making sprinkler spacing recommendations.
Indicative spacing recommendations based on the wetted diameter Dw are given in
Table 5.7 for the most common water distribution profiles. Triangular and elliptic profiles
are characteristic of sprinklers operating at the recommended pressure. A donut profile
generally is produced with sprinklers operating at pressures lower than those recom-
mended and by sprinklers with straightening vanes just upstream from the nozzle [11].
Table 5.7. Water distribution profiles and suggested

spacings (% Dw ) for fixed set sprinklers
Sprinkler Spacing Grid (% Dw )

Triangular
Profiles Square Equilateral Rectangular
Triangular 55 66 40 × 60
Elliptic 60 66 40 × 60 or 65
Donut 40 80 40 × 80
80 (fair)
The wetted diameters listed in manufacturers’ brochures usually are based on tests
under essentially no wind conditions. Under field conditions with up to 5 km h−1 wind,
such diameters should be shortened by 10% from the listed figure to obtain the effective
diameter. A reduction of 1.5% for each 1 km h−1 over 5 km h−1 is proposed for the usual
range of wind conditions under which sprinklers are operated [11].
Detailed information on water distribution profiles produced by several agricul-
tural sprinklers with different nozzles and operating at various pressures is provided
by Tarjuelo et al. [93]. Information also includes expected uniformity (CU) at various
spacings and as influenced by wind.
Set Sprinkler Systems

Set systems, using many small rotary sprinklers operating together, are the most
commonly used sprinkler system. The sprinklers operate at medium to high pressures.
Application rates vary from 3 to 35 mm h−1 . Single laterals can irrigate an area 9 to 24 m
wide and up to 400 m long at one setting. Set systems are described in detail by several
authors [11, 94–99].
Fixed systems
When sufficient laterals and sprinklers are provided to cover the whole irrigated area
so that no equipment needs to be moved, the system is called a solid-set system. For
annual crops, the portable pipes and sprinklers are laid out after planting and remain
in the field throughout the irrigation season. The equipment is removed from the field
before harvesting. In perennial crops such as orchards, laterals and sprinklers often are
left in place from season to season. The system then is called permanent. Permanent
systems often are buried below ground but they also may be laid out on the posts over
the top of the crop in case of overtree irrigation for frost protection and chemigation.
Because of the large flow requirements, most fixed systems have only part of the
system irrigating at one time. Flow is diverted from one part of the system to another
by hydrants or valves that may be automated. However, for special conditions, such as
crop cooling or frost protection, it is essential to have sufficient capacity to operate the
whole of the system at the same time.
Fixed systems are expensive initially because of the amount of pipes, sprinklers and
fittings, and valves required, but labor costs are low. These systems are particularly suited
to automation and are useful in areas where labor is a limiting factor.
Semipermanent Systems
Sprinkler systems have been developed with the advantages of both portable and
fixed equipment to combine both low capital costs and low labor requirements. These
often are referred to as semipermanent systems and the most commonly used are the
pipe-grid and hose-pull systems. These systems are designed to reduce the number or
size of laterals.
Pipe-Grid Systems
These are similar in many aspects to fixed systems. Small-diameter laterals (about
25 mm) are used to keep system costs low. Laterals are laid out over the whole field
and they remain in place throughout the irrigation season. In general, two sprinklers are
connected to each lateral, one near the end, the other near the middle. When the irrigation
depth has been applied, each sprinkler is disconnected and moved along the lateral to
the next position. This procedure is repeated until the whole field has been irrigated. A
typical system would involve at least two sprinkler moves on every lateral each day.
Hose-Pull Systems
Originally developed for orchard undertree irrigation, these systems now are be-
ing used for some row crops (Fig. 5.24). The mainline and laterals usually are per-
manently installed, either on or below the ground surface, but also can be portable.
Small-diameter plastic hoses supply water from the lateral to one or two sprinklers.
The hose length is normally restricted to about 50 m because of friction losses. Ini-
tially, the sprinkler is placed in the farthest position and remains there until the irrigation
depth is applied. Then it is pulled along to the next position and so on until irrigation is
complete.
Figure 5.24. Hose-pull system: 1) pump, 2) sprinkler, 3) flexible

hose, 4) sprinkler positions, 5) lateral.
Figure 5.25. Hand-moved system:

1) pump, 2) mainline, 3) lateral.
The use of hoses reduces the number of laterals that are needed, and so, the system
costs are less than for permanent systems. Problems can arise with the plastic hoses.
The system is reliable for orchards but operators may have difficulties in managing the
system in field crops.
Portable Systems
Hand-Moved Systems. These are designed to be moved by hand. The lateral is usually in
aluminum or plastic pipe between 50 mm and 100 mm in diameter and 9 to 12 m long, so
that it can be moved easily by one person. The laterals remain in position until irrigation
is complete. The pump then is stopped and the lateral disconnected from the mainline,
drained, dismantled, moved by hand to the next point on the mainline, and reassembled.
Usually, the lateral is moved between one and four times each day. It gradually is moved
around the field until the whole field is irrigated (Fig. 5.25).
Systems may have two or more laterals to irrigate large areas. They are connected to
the mainline using valve couplers. This allows irrigation to continue while one of the
laterals is being moved. In some cases, when the sprinklers are used to germinate new
plantings, to leach salts, or to supplement rainfall, the whole system including pump and
mainline is moved from field to field.
Hand-moved sprinklers are used to irrigate a wide range of field and orchard crops.
Their capital cost is low and they are simple to use. However, they require a large labor
force, often working in wet, muddy, and uncomfortable conditions.
Towed Systems. To alleviate labor requirements, laterals (aluminium or plastic) can be
mounted on wheels or skids and towed across the submain to their new settings. Towed
systems are used for large fields.
Sprinkler-Hop Systems. Sprinklers are placed only at every second or third position
along the laterals. When the irrigation depth has been applied, the sprinklers are dis-
connected and moved or “hopped” along the lateral to the next position. This is done
without stopping the flow in the lateral because each sprinkler connection is fitted with a
special valve that automatically stops the flow when the sprinkler is removed. After the
two or three hops are complete, the lateral is moved to the next position. Normally only
one lateral move or one sprinkler hop is required each day.
Side-Roll Systems
Side-roll or wheel-line systems use an aluminium or galvanized steel lateral as the
axle of a large (1.5 to 2.0 m diameter) wheel. The wheels are spaced 9–12 m apart and
allow the lateral to be rolled from one irrigation setting to the next. A small internal
combustion engine normally is used to roll the whole lateral. The pipes must be strong,
and rigid couplings are used to carry the high torque loads. The engine often is located
in the middle of the lateral to reduce the torque. The small rotary sprinklers, spaced 9 to
12 m apart, are mounted on a special weighted swivel assembly to make sure they are
always in an upright position after each move.
The mainline is laid along the side of the field. When irrigating, the lateral remains
in one place until the water has been applied. The pump then is stopped and the lateral
uncoupled from the mainline and drained (to reduce the weight) and rolled to the next
position using the engine. A flexible hose connection to the hydrant allows the lateral to
be moved over two or three sets with supply from the same hydrant.
This system is best suited to large flat rectangular areas growing low field crops. In
heavy soils, the wheels may become bogged down in the mud.
Mobile Raingun Systems
Mobile raingun systems (also called traveling sprinklers or travelers) use a large
rotary sprinkler operating at high pressure. The term raingun is used because of the large
size of sprinkler used and its ability to throw large quantities of water over wide areas.
They have become popular because of their relatively low capital cost and low labor
requirements. They are well adapted to supplemental irrigation. Because of the high
pressure requirements, they have high energy costs.
Rainguns normally operate at high pressure from 400 to 800 kPa with discharges
ranging from 30 to 200 m3 h−1 . They can irrigate areas up to 100 m wide and 400 m long
(4 ha) at one setting. Application rates vary from 7.5 to 25 mm h−1 . Information below
should be complemented with other background literature [11, 94–99].
Hose-Reel Systems
The hose-reel machine has a raingun mounted on a sledge or wheeled carriage. Wa-
ter is supplied through a semirigid hose that is flexible enough to be wound onto a
large reel. The 200- to 400-m-long hose is used to pull the raingun toward the hose
reel.
In a typical layout for a hose-reel system (Fig. 5.26), the mainline is across the center
of the field. The hose-reel is placed close to the mainline at the start of the first run and
connected to the water supply. The raingun is slowly pulled out across the field by a
tractor and the hose is allowed to uncoil from the reel. The pump is started and the valve
coupler is opened slowly to start the irrigation. The raingun then is pulled back slowly
across the field by winding the hose onto the hose reel. Power to drive the hose reel
can be provided by a water motor or, more often, by an internal combustion engine. At
the end of a run, the hose reel automatically stops winding and shuts down the water
supply.
Figure 5.26. Hose-reel system: 1) hose reel, 2) valve coupler on the

mainline, 3) semirigid hose, 4) raingun mounted on a sledge carriage,
5) towpath of the raingun, 6) initial position of the raingun to irrigate
the dashed area, 7) field location of the hose reel, 8) mainline.
When the hose reel is located in the center of the field, it is rotated 180◦ and the raingun
is pulled out in the opposite direction to start the next irrigation run. When irrigation is
completed in this position, the hose reel and the raingun are towed by tractor to the next
outlet along the mainline.
Hose-Pull or Cable-Drawn Systems
The hose-pull machine has a raingun mounted on a wheeled carriage. Water is supplied
through a flexible hose up to 200 m long and 50–100 mm in diameter, which is pulled
along behind the machine. The mainline is laid across the center of the field. A strip up
to 400 m long can be irrigated at one setting of a 200 m long flexible hose.
The raingun carriage is positioned at the start of its first run at a distance equal to
1
D
3 w
from the field edge. The flexible hose is laid along the travel lane and connected to
the raingun and the valve coupler on the mainline.
A steel guide cable on the sprinkler carriage is pulled out to the other end of the
field and firmly anchored. The valve coupler is opened slowly to start the irrigation. The
raingun carriage is moved either by a “water motor” powered from the water supply
using a piston or turbine drive, or, more often, an internal combustion engine.
At the end of a run the carriage stops automatically and shuts down the main water
supply to the raingun. Labor is required only to reposition the hose, cable, and machine
to start the next run.
The pressure at the raingun determines the application rate. The forward speed of the
machine controls the depth of water applied. Typical machine speeds vary from 10 to 50
m h−1 . The faster the machine travels, the smaller the depth of water applied.
The required machine speed, Vtg (m h−1 ) can be calculated from
qs
Vtg = 1000 , (5.143)
DW
where qs is the sprinkler flow rate (m3 h−1 ), D is the desired irrigation depth (mm), and
W is the width of the irrigated strip (mm).
The duration of operation for each set, ti (h) is
ti = L f /Vtg , (5.144)
where L f is the length of the irrigated field (m).
Side-Move Systems
These are traveling systems that combine hose-reel machines with moving laterals.
In place of a raingun, booms with small rotary sprinklers or sprayers extend out to each
side of the portable carriage. When irrigating, the carriage is positioned at one end of the
field and slowly pulled across using a steel guide cable and winch in the same way as
the hose-pull raingun. A strip of land up to 70 m wide and 400 m long can be irrigated
at one setting (2.8 ha). For light systems, a rigid hose can be used as with the hose-reel
raingun. These systems require less operating pressure than raingun systems, but the
instantaneous application rate is higher.
Rainguns
There are two types of these large rotary sprinklers: swing-arm rainguns, which are
large-impact sprinklers and water-turbine rainguns, which are gear-driven sprinklers.
Rainguns have sector stops to adjust for the desired circular arc to be irrigated.
Rainguns are fitted with either taper or ring nozzles. Taper nozzles normally produce
a good water jet that is less affected by wind, and they have a slightly greater throw
than ring nozzles. Ring nozzles, however, provide better stream breakup at low operating
pressures. They are less expensive and provide greater flexibility in size selection. Typical
nozzle diameters vary from 15 to 50 mm. Typical discharges and wetted diameters
corresponding to common nozzle sizes are in Table 5.8. The trajectory angle for rainguns
varies between 15◦ and 28◦ . Generally, the higher the angle, the larger the throw for
a given operating pressure. Low angles (<20◦ ) are preferred under windy conditions
(>15 km h−1 ). Because rainguns operate at high pressures, it is important that the
jet of water leave the nozzle relatively undisturbed. Turbulence reduces the throw of
Table 5.8. Typical discharges qs (m3 h−1 ) and wetted diameters Dw (m) for raingun sprinklers
with 24◦ trajectory angles and tapered nozzles
Nozzle Diameter (mm)

Sprinkler
20.3 25.4 30.5 35.6 40.6
Pressure
(kPa) qs Dw qs Dw qs Dw qs Dw qs Dw
415 32 87 51 99 75 111 — — — —
480 35 91 55 104 81 116 109 133 — —
550 37 94 59 108 86 120 117 139 153 146
620 40 97 63 111 92 125 123 143 162 151
690 42 100 66 114 96 128 130 146 171 155
760 44 104 69 117 101 131 137 149 179 158
825 46 107 73 120 105 134 143 152 187 163

the sprinkler. Modern rainguns have vanes, which “straighten” the flow and suppress
turbulence.
Rainguns irrigate only part of a circle behind the machine. This ensures that the
machine always moves on a dry towpath. The application depth profile is not uniform
and varies across the strip irrigated by a traveling sprinkler as influenced by the effect
of changing the wetted sector angle. The most uniform profile is with a sector angle
ω = 240◦ . The most commonly used is ω = 270◦ , which is still fairly uniform. As ω is
increased further, the uniformity of the profile decreases.
Towpath Spacing and Application Rate
The application uniformity of raingun sprinklers is affected by wind velocity and
direction, jet trajectory, nozzle type, wetted sector angle, sprinkler profile characteris-
tics, and overlap. Variations in operating pressure also affect uniformity. Under calm
wind conditions (0–3.5 km h−1 ), a towpath spacing of 80% to 90% of the wetted diam-
eter produces good uniformity. Towpath spacing should be reduced about 5% for each
2 km h−1 of wind-speed increase, resulting in a towpath spacing of 55% when wind
speed is expected to average 16 km h−1 .
For a part-circle gun sprinkler spaced to give sufficient overlap between towpaths, the
application rate i a (mm h−1 ) is approximately
1 qs 360
ia = , (5.145)
1000 π (0.9Dw /2) ω
2
where qs is the sprinkler discharge (m3 h−1 ), Dw is the wetted diameter (m), and ω is the
wetted sector angle (degrees).
Constant travel speed is required for uniform water distribution over the irrigated
area. Traveler speed should vary no more than 10%.
Moving Lateral Systems
These systems have laterals that move continuously while applying water. There are
three main types of systems: center pivot, lateral move, and side move (for complemen-
tary information see [11, 94–96, 99]).
Center-Pivot Systems
These systems consist of a single galvanized steel lateral that rotates in a circle about
a fixed pivot point in the center of the field (Fig. 5.27). Lateral pipe diameters range from
100 to 250 mm. The lateral is supported using cables or trusses as much as 3 m above the
ground on A-shaped steel frames mounted on wheels (Fig. 5.28). The frames are spaced
approximately 30 m apart. Laterals vary in length from 100 to 800 m. A common lateral
length is 400 m, which irrigates up to 50 ha.
Water is supplied to the center pivot by a buried mainline or directly from a well
located near the pivot point. Water flows through a swivel joint to the rotating lateral
and sprinklers. When irrigating, the lateral rotates continuously about the pivot, wetting
a circular area. One revolution can take from 20 to 100 h depending on the lateral
length and the amount of water to be applied. The slower that the lateral rotates, the
more water that is applied. Typical applied depths vary from 5 to 30 mm. A center-
pivot lateral is therefore a system that can effectively apply light, frequent irrigations.
Figure 5.27. Center-pivot system: 1) pump,

2) mainline, 3) pivot center, 4) lateral.
Figure 5.28. Center-pivot lateral equipped with spray heads on top.

Because the lateral moves in a circle, uniform watering is achieved by linearly in-
creasing the application rate toward the outer end of the lateral. This is done by varying
either the nozzle size or the spacing of sprinklers. The first method uses equally spaced
sprinklers with small nozzles close to the pivot and larger ones toward the outer end.The
second method uses the same size of sprinkler but the sprinklers are placed closer to-
gether toward the outer end. This method can simplify maintenance because all of the
sprinklers require the same spare parts.
A large gun sprinkler can be used at the outer end to extend the effective length of the
lateral. End guns require a pressure of 350 to 700 kPa, which often requires a booster
pump mounted near the end gun. When low-pressure spray or impact sprinklers are used,
the booster pump is essential.
Both impact and spray sprinklers are used on center pivots. Impact sprinklers give a
longer throw and thus fewer are required, and the instantaneous application rate is lower.
Sprayers require 25% to 50% less pressure and thus require less energy. Often, spray
nozzles are suspended from long tubes to spray water close to the canopy and out of the
wind (Fig. 5.29).
The main objection to spray nozzles is that the wetted diameter and thus the instan-
taneous application width are much smaller than with rotary sprinklers. This results in
very high application rates at the outer end (up to 100 mm h−1 ), which often exceeds the
soil infiltration rate. To prevent surface-water runoff, special cultivation practices can
Figure 5.29. Single-row drop sprayers on a center-pivot lateral showing a small wetted width.
Table 5.9. Range of normal operating pressures and

associated wetted diameter Dw for sprinkler types and
spacing configurations most commonly used on
center-pivot laterals
Sprinkler Type and Pressure Range Dw Range

Spacing Configuration (kPa) (m)
Low-pressure spray
Single-row drop 70–200 3–9
Single-row top 70–200 6–14
On short booms 70–140 12–18
On long booms 100–170 20–26
Low-pressure impact
Variable spacing 140–240 18–23
Semiuniform spacing 200–275 21–24
Medium-pressure impact
Variable spacing 275–350 27–34
Semiuniform spacing 275–380 30–37
High-pressure impact
Uniform spacing 380–450 40–50
be used. Conservation practices such as ridge tillage on row crops that preserves plant
residue on the surface improves infiltration and slows runoff. However, this often cannot
adequately prevent runoff and erosion in sloping fields. Reservoir tillage creates small
basins that store water on the surface until it can infiltrate [86]. To decrease application
rates, the sprayers can be mounted on booms extending out from the lateral. Summary
information on pressure ranges and pattern widths for different sprinkling configurations
is given in Table 5.9. A procedure to select the spray or sprinkler device that has a wetted
diameter capable of satisfying the infiltration capacity of the soil and the surface storage
is proposed by Allen [100].
Sprinkler pressure variations that occur as a lateral rotates on a sloping field cause
discharge variations that are proportional to the square root of the operating pressure.
Therefore, the water distribution uniformity from center pivots with low-pressure sprin-
klers operating on uneven topography may be poor unless the sprinklers are fitted with
flexible-orifice flow-control nozzles or pressure regulators.
The required system supply rate Q (m3 h−1 ) depends on the area irrigated A (ha) and
the water requirements of the crop expressed as daily application depth D (mm day−1 ):
Q = 0.42D × A (5.146)
with A = π R 2p /10,000, where R p is the center-pivot wetted radius (m). Center pivots
often are designed with application rates less than peak crop water requirements. Thus,
they operate continuously for much of the irrigation season.
Irrigation intervals and water applications per revolution depend upon the water-
holding capacity of the soil, the rooting depth of the crop, and the infiltration rate of the
soil. Light, frequent irrigations maintain more uniform soil water but result in higher
evaporation losses and greater wear on the pivot drive mechanisms. The infiltration
capacity of the soil often limits the allowed water application per pass. A review of
infiltration under center-pivot irrigation is presented by von Bernuth and Gilley [101].
For soils with adequate infiltration and water storage capacity, 20 to 30 mm often is
applied each rotation, resulting in typical irrigation intervals of about 4 days.
Each tower is driven by its own electrical motor (usually 0.5–1.0 kW). Hydraulic-
powered systems seldom are used because speed control and maintaining tower align-
ment are difficult, and the system will only move when irrigating. The rotating speed of
a center-pivot lateral is controlled by regulating the speed of the end tower V p (m h−1 )
given by
2π Re
Vp = , (5.147)
tr
where Re is the length of the lateral (m) and tr is the desired duration of one lateral rev-
olution (h). The speed usually is set as a percentage on time because the constant-speed
tower drive motors cycle on and off over short intervals to maintain the desired average
speed. The on-time for each tower varies with the distance from the pivot. Typically the
on/off cycle is 1 min. The lateral is kept in alignment between the end tower and the
pivot point by special control devices activated by deflections created by misalignment.
When a tower falls behind, the deflections activate the drive motor until the tower catches
up.
One main advantage of this system is that it can be fully automated and controlled from
a panel near the pivot or remotely from some office nearby. Time clocks are used to start
and stop the machine and several safety devices are used for protection. For example,
if the water pressure drops or one of the tower drives breaks down, the system will
automatically stop irrigating and an alarm will alert the operator. Several center pivots
covering large areas can be easily controlled and maintained by a few people, particularly
when automated remote monitoring and control are used. This allows easy scheduling of
irrigation, fertigation, and chemigation. The application of fertilizers (mainly nitrogen)
and chemigation with center pivots is becoming popular.
Center pivots operate best on sandy soils that infiltrate water quickly and can support
the heavy wheel loads from the towers. Traction problems may occur when irrigating
heavy soils, especially when laterals are equipped with sprayers that give high application
rates. Main problems in management relate to the light application depths, which allow
neither for refilling the soil for large root depths of crops nor for leaching of salts.
Low-infiltration-rate soils also limit use of center pivots, especially if equipped with
high-application-rate spray heads. The use of center pivots in medium to heavy soils in
arid or semiarid areas is marginal. They should not be used in saline arid conditions.
A primary limitation of center pivots is that they cannot completely irrigate a rect-
angular or square area. A pivot can irrigate only about 80% of a square field with no
obstructions. The remaining corners must be irrigated by some other method, or left fal-
low. Pivot lateral extensions (corner systems) and end guns, designed to irrigate corners,
reduce the unirrigated area but increase system cost and operational complexity.
Linear-Move Systems
Linear-move (or lateral-move) systems are similar in construction to the center pivot,
with the lateral supported over the crop on towers. The primary difference is that the
complete lateral continuously moves in a linear direction. The main advantage over center
pivots is that they can completely irrigate a rectangular field. Also, water application
rates are uniform along the lateral, resulting in simpler sprinkler design and lower peak
application rates.
Water is supplied to the moving control tower by a flexible hose attached to a pressur-
ized water supply or by pumping water from a small canal along the edge or the center
of the field. The control tower is equipped with an engine, pump, and generator that
pressurizes the water and supplies the lateral wheel motors with electrical power.
Guidance is provided by signals emitted by buried electrical wire, by an aboveground
guide cable stretched along one of the field edges, or by a guide wheel that follows a
small furrow. Antennas in the control tower sense the buried wire and transmit the signal
to a guidance control box. Levers on the control tower are activated by the guidance
cable or wheel and align the lateral to follow the line.
Linear-move laterals are equipped with sprayers or impact sprinklers but usually not
end guns. Sprinklers are at uniform spacing and should have similar characteristics along
the lateral. Application depth varies with the lateral speed. This system can be automated
in the same way as a center pivot.
When the lateral reaches the far end of the field, it has to be moved back to the
beginning. This means moving a heavy machine over recently irrigated land. On sandy
soils this may not be a problem, but on fine-textured soils the towers may sink into the soil
even when crawler tracks are used. It may be necessary to wait a few days to reposition
the system. One operational sequence to avoid this problem is to divide the field into two
parts. Irrigation starts on one edge and continues to the center of the field. The lateral
then is moved dry to the other end where irrigation starts again toward the center of the
field. Upon reaching the center, the lateral again is moved without irrigation to the edge
to start the next irrigation from the initial position.
Linear moving systems, like center-pivot laterals, are mainly appropriate to apply light
and frequent irrigations and thus have similar problems when irrigating heavy soils, saline
soils, and in arid or semiarid climates. However, because of low peak application rates,
they adapt to a wider range of soil conditions than pivots.
LEPA Systems
An adaptation of moving lateral systems that is becoming popular is LEPA [102]. The
overhead sprinklers are replaced with bubblers on drops closely spaced [103]. Usually, a
bubbler is positioned close to the ground (0.3–0.6 m) between alternate rows of the crop
and the crop is precisely planted so that the rows follow the bubbler paths. The purpose
of the system is to eliminate all wind drift losses and part of the surface evaporation
loss. It essentially eliminates nonuniformity caused by sprinkler distribution patterns,
but nonuniformity resulting from lateral start-stop can be substantial. LEPA systems can
operate at very low pressures.
The main disadvantage of the system is that instantaneous water application rates are
very high. Consequently, LEPA requires either very flat land with very high infiltration
rates, or special reservoir tillage to create sufficient surface storage to store much of the
applied water until it can infiltrate [86].
A variety of moving lateral sprinkler types and configurations have been developed
that operate similarly to LEPA systems. These commonly use small spray heads on drops.
Like the LEPA bubblers, the sprayers are positioned between alternate crop rows. The
heads are higher off the ground than the bubblers, but still designed to be below the top
of the crop. The purpose is to gain the advantages of LEPA systems with slightly lower
instantaneous application rates. Reservoir tillage usually is required.
Issues on Irrigation Performance
The distribution uniformity DU [Eq. (5.119)] is determined by several design variables
and can be expressed functionally by the following relation:
DU = f (P, 1P, S, dn , WDP, WS), (5.148)
where P is the pressure (kPa) available at the sprinkler, 1P is the variation of the pressure
(kPa) in the operating set or along the moving lateral, S represents the spacings (m) of
the sprinklers along the lateral and between laterals or spacings between travelers, dn
is the nozzle diameter (mm), which influences the sprinkler discharge and the wetted
diameter for a given P, WDP represents the water distribution pattern of the sprinkler,
and WS is the average wind speed (m s−1 ).
All of the above variables are set at the design stage. The designer, together with
the farmer, first has to select the system according to the field, farming characteristics,
and crops to be irrigated. Then the designer selects the sprinkler characteristics and
spacings. At this stage, variables S, dn , and WDP are set, and the average wind speed WS
during operation has been forecasted. Then, the hydraulics calculations are performed to
select pipe sizes, pump characteristics, and other system equipment. These computations
produce values for the average pressure at the sprinklers and the respective variation along
the laterals.
When sprinklers are selected, and thus the variables P, qs , Dw , and dn are defined, the
main variables governing the distribution uniformity are the spacing S and the variation
of pressure 1P in the operating set. Excessive spacings often are observed as a cause of
low system performance. Excessive spacing was observed in 65% of traveling guns and
70% of solid-set systems evaluated in France [104]. The same problem was observed
in California, where other causes for low uniformity also include inappropriate nozzles
and high pressure variation within the system [105].
It is commonly accepted that the variation in sprinkler discharges in an operating
system should not exceed 10%; thus the variation in pressure must be no more than
20%. Lower ranges are desirable when high-value crops are irrigated. To achieve this,
the hydraulics design has to be performed carefully.
The application efficiency ea [Eqs. (5.115) and (5.117)] depends not only on the
design but on management variables and it can be functionally described by
ea = f (P, 1P, S, dn , WDP, WS, Ic , i a , ti , SWD), (5.149)
where, besides variables defined above, Ic are the intake characteristics of the soil
(mm h−1 ), i a is the application rate of the sprinkler (mm h−1 ), ti is the duration of the
irrigation event (h), and SWD is the soil water deficit before the irrigation event (mm).
Equation (5.149) shows that the application efficiency depends not only on design
and distribution uniformity but also on the management of the system by the farmers,
including irrigation scheduling.
Most of the parameters in Eq. (5.149) are controlled by the designer. The pressure
head P also depends on the functioning of the pressurized supply system. Dubalen [104],
referring to Midi-Pyrénnées, France, reports that only 52% of raingun systems and 58%
of solid-set systems evaluated had the correct pressure at the sprinkler. This largely
affects sprinkler discharges and makes it difficult to apply appropriate water depths. The
duration of the application and the SWD are management variables controlled by the
irrigator. However, when the farmer does not know the discharge or the application rate,
he may not be able to correctly set the irrigation depth. The same study [104] shows that
actual irrigation depths deviate by more than 20% from those claimed by the farmers in
46% of cases for raingun systems and 34% for solid-set systems.
Design Issues
High distribution uniformities and efficiencies can be achieved when hydraulic design
produces the pressure required for the selected sprinkler discharge, with acceptable
variation within the system, and when the layout design is based on optimal sprinkler
spacings. The design of the system layout, including the selection of sprinklers and
respective spacings is dealt with in several publications [11, 94, 96, 98, 99], as are the
hydraulics of sprinkler systems [11, 96, 106–109]. Several engineering standards also
support appropriate design (ASAE S261.7, S263.3, S376.1, S394, S395) [19].
Uniformity [DU or CU, Eq. (5.119) and (5.120)] resulting from adjacent sprinklers
can be estimated by simulation of the overlap of four adjacent sprinklers in a rectangle,
or three in the case of a triangle. The effect of wind can be considered by changing the
original circular pattern into an ellipse with radii that vary with the wind speed [91].
The design also should aim at achieving high efficiencies. Considering that the ap-
plication efficiency depends upon the uniformity, Keller and Bliesner [11] propose to
compute the distribution efficiency DE pa (%) corresponding to a desired percentage pa
of the irrigated area receiving the target irrigation depth (or area adequately irrigated):
µ ¶
CU
DE pa = 100 + (606 − 24.9 pa + 0.349( pa ) − 0.00186( pa ) ) 1 −
2 3
, (5.150)
100
where CU is the coefficient of uniformity [see Eqs. (5.120) and (5.123)].

The design application efficiency E pa (%) for any percentage pa of the area adequately
irrigated then is given by
E pa = DE pa Re Oe , (5.151)
where Re is the effective fraction (0.1–1.0) of water applied, that is, after estimating the
losses by evaporation and wind drift; and Oe is the effective fraction (0.9–1.0) of water
discharged, that is, after estimating the losses from leakage.
Re expresses how the application efficiency is affected by evaporation and wind drift
as influenced by the size of the droplets. Re can be computed from the foreseen values
of reference evapotranspiration ET0 (mm day−1 ), wind speed WS (km h−1 ), and the
coarseness index CI:
Re = 0.976 + 0.005 ET0 − 0.00017 ET0 + 0.0012 WS
− CI(0.00043 ET0 − 0.0018 WS + 0.000016 ET0 WS) (5.152)
for CI such that, if CI < 7, let CI = 7; if CI > 17, let CI = 17.
CI is an empirical estimate for the size of droplets produced by the sprinkler as a
function of the operating pressure P (kPa) and of the nozzle diameter dn (mm):
CI = 0.032P 1/3 /dn . (5.153)
The gross application depth D then is calculated from the net irrigation depth In (see
Section 5.1.6) and the efficiency E pa . When irrigating with saline water or in saline soils,
a leaching fraction LF must be added (see Section 5.6):
In
D= , (5.154)
(E pa /100)(1 − LF)
where D is the gross application depth (mm), In is the net irrigation depth (mm), and
E pa is the design application efficiency (%).
Field Evaluation
Field evaluation of sprinkler systems in operation can play a major role in improving
irrigation performance. Field evaluations of set systems include the following observa-
tions [10, 11, 19, 110]:
• sprinkler spacings;
• pressure at the sprinkler nozzles at different locations;
• pressure variation 1P along a lateral and within the operating set;
• sprinkler discharges and respective variations along a lateral and within the operat-
ing set;
• applied depths in a sample area on both sides of a lateral or between two laterals
(using a grid of containers);
• duration of the irrigation;
• SWD at the time of irrigation;
• wind speed and direction;
• irrigator management practices, including MAD and the target application depth;
and
• pressure and flow rate at the inlet of the system.
These observations provide for the computation of the actual distribution uniformity
and coefficient of uniformity of the system, the actual and potential application effi-
ciences, effective depth applied, percentage of area adequately irrigated, and system
evaporation and wind drift losses. This information is used to provide recommendations
to the farmer relative to
• improvements in the irrigation scheduling practices;
• changes needed in the system (spacings, sprinkler nozzles, number of laterals or
sprinklers operating simultaneously, pressure regulation);
• improvements concerning the pumping system; and

• maintenance of the system and components.
Field evaluations for traveling guns [104] mainly focus on the traveler velocity, applied
depths perpendicular to the traveler direction, and pressure available at the gun sprinkler
and upstream. They also provide for computation of performance and management
parameters and allow recommendations relative to irrigation scheduling and to improve
the management and maintenance of the system.
In the case of center-pivot laterals [111], applied water depths are observed along a ra-
dius and, when possible, along a travel path. Observations of the pressures and discharge
rates of the sprinklers along the lateral and of the end gun are also desirable. The velocity
of the lateral and the wetted width also should be observed, as well as the ocurrence of
runoff and erosion. Computed performance and management indicators generally do not
include the efficiency because depths applied are very small. Recommendations should
pay particular attention to the rotation velocity because velocity determines the applied
depths. They also should include any need for changing sprinklers along the lateral, and
the working conditions of the end gun.
Field evaluations are extremely important for helping farmers improve operation and
management of sprinkler systems, to achieve higher performance and decrease water
losses. When sprinkler systems are used to apply liquid fertilizers and agrochemicals,
field evaluations also help farmers to improve fertigation and chemigation [112].
Sprinkler Irrigation Management, Fertigation, and Chemigation
As discussed above, the uniformity of sprinkler water application [Eq. (5.148)] es-
sentially depends on the conditions fixed at the design phase and how close actual
conditions are to those assumed at design. The only exception is wind speed WS, an
intermittant problem that is avoided by not irrigating during windy periods. Good main-
tenance is needed to maintain potential uniformities. Pumps must maintain their intended
discharge and pressure, pipes and joints must be maintained leak-free, and nozzle wear
and sprinkler operation must be monitored and problems corrected. When conditions
deviate from those at design (i.e., pumping-depth decline or sprinkler-nozzle changes),
the performance of the whole system should be reanalyzed.
The application efficiency can be influenced greatly by management. When neglecting
the variables relative to uniformity, Eq. (5.149) simplifies to
ea = f (Ic , i a , ti , SWD). (5.155)
The infiltration rate Ic may be influenced by soil management practices that avoid
soil sealing and crusting or increase the intake rate of the soil. Among soil management
practices are reduced tillage and direct seeding techniques [66]. High infiltration rates are
particularly important in orchards and noncovering crops cultivated in soil where runoff
and erosion can be critical, as is the case for tropical soils. The use of straw mulches and
undertree vegetation are useful techniques.
The application rate i a is fixed at the design phase but can be modified somewhat after
field evaluations. However, in case of center-pivot and linear-move systems, where i a is
not constant but varies over time during the water application, the moving speed of the
lateral can be adjusted to minimize the time during which i a exceeds Ic [113]. Field ob-
servations are required to appropriately decide on such adjustments. In row crops, where
i a often exceeds Ic , furrow diking or reservoir tillage can be used to prevent runoff [86].
Variables ti and SWD in Eq. (5.155) depend on the irrigation scheduling practices.
The time duration of irrigation ti is the variable controlling the irrigation depth. In set
systems, the irrigation depth D (mm) is directly controlled by ti (h) when the application
rate i a (mm h−1 ) [Eq. (5.142)] is known (ti = D/i a ).
For mobile rainguns and mobile lateral systems, the irrigation depth is controlled by
the system velocity [Eqs. (5.143) and (5.147)], and thus indirectly by the time duration
of water application.
Sprinkler irrigation scheduling methods depend on two main factors: the frequency of
irrigations and the size and technological level of the farm. Large farms are more often in
control of pressure and discharge, timing of applications, and duration of irrigations and
have better conditions to invest in both control systems and irrigation-scheduling sensing
tools [114]. Small farms are also in control of irrigation timing and duration when delivery
is made on demand or when they manage their own water source. However, they may have
less control over pressure and discharge at the farm hydrant when the delivery system is
not fully responsive to the demand during peak periods. Under these circumstances, both
pressure and discharge drop, inducing low performances and requiring an adjustment of
the irrigation time [115].
System controls [116] include timers and/or volumetric control valves, which enable
automatic regulation of the application duration in each unit of the system; solenoid
valves, which allow the selection of the portion of the area to be irrigated next; and
pressure and/or discharge regulation devices, which permit maintainance of uniform
flow in the operating system. Where farm pumps are used, control systems also are
applied to the pumping system, mainly to automatically control the “on” and “off”
conditions and to protect the motor against short circuits and overcurrent.
Control systems may be connected with irrigation sensing tools to automatically start
irrigation when sensed variables reach a preset threshold value. Information from field
sensors may be stored and handled at a control center and irrigation systems controlled
remotely from there. This technology mainly applies to farms having several center-pivot
systems where remote control is applied to irrigation, as well as to reduce energy costs.
On the contrary, irrigation control systems are uncommon in small and medium-size
farms, where irrigation valves are operated manually.
Because portable systems are labor consuming, they should be used to apply large
depths, often 50–90 mm. Fixed systems may be used for variable frequency of irrigations,
for D varying from 10 to 90 mm or more. Depths applied by mobile raingun systems are
limited by the speed range of the system, with D commonly ranging from 15 to 50 mm.
Mobile laterals are appropriate for frequent, daily up to 4-day applications (7–25 mm),
and seldom are used for infrequent applications.
For set systems and traveling guns, when the MAD is large, the methods for irriga-
tion scheduling are the same as for surface irrigation: water balance simulation models,
monitoring the soil water status, or a combination of both. In areas with a large num-
ber of small farmers, the use of simple irrigation calendars may be more appropriate.
The successful use of a simple simulation model through a videotel system for ad-
vising farmers within a large irrigation project has been reported by Giannerini [117].
Other examples of sprinkler irrigation scheduling practices are given by Smith et al.
[78].
When frequent irrigations are applied, scheduling strategies should be based on the
replacement of the volume of water consumed during the preceding irrigation interval.
For center pivots, special irrigation scheduling models have been developed with modules
for water application, fertigation, chemigation, and energy management. An illustration
is model SCHED [118]. The estimation of ETc using the basal-crop-coefficient approach
(see Section 5.1) is appropriate for performing the soil water balance for scheduling
frequent irrigations.
Fertilizers and other chemicals can be applied with sprinkler systems and are com-
monly applied through center-pivot laterals. Systems must be equipped with a fertilizer
and/or a chemigation tank and an injection pump. When nozzle diameters are very small
(sprayers), a filter should be placed downstream of the injection point to prevent clogging
by large fertilizer particles.
Fertigation and chemigation require high water-application uniformities [112]. Oth-
erwise, the applied products are distributed unevenly in the field with negative impacts
on crops where they are insufficient and, for the environment, where they are in excess.
Details on application of fertilizers and agrochemicals with sprinkler irrigation are given
in [72] and [119].
5.4.4 Microirrigation
General Aspects
Microirrigation, also called trickle or drip irrigation, applies water to individual plants
or small groups of plants. Application rates are usually low to avoid water ponding and
minimize the size of distribution tubing. The microirrigation systems in common use
today can be classified in two general categories:
• Drip irrigation, by which water is applied slowly through small emitter openings
from plastic tubing. Drip tubing and emitters may be laid on the soil surface, buried,
or suspended from trellises.
• Microspray irrigation, also known as microsprinkling, by which water is sprayed
over the soil surface. Microspray systems are used for widely spaced plants such
as fruit trees.
A third type of localized irrigation, bubbler systems, uses small pipes and tubing to
deliver a small stream of water to flood small basins adjacent to individual trees. Bubbler
systems may be pressurized with flow emitters or may operate under gravity pressure
without emitters. They are not common and will not be discussed here. Descriptions and
design procedures for gravity bubbler systems are given by Rawlins [120] and Reynolds
et al. [121].
Drip Irrigation
Drip irrigation systems are designed to slowly apply water to individual points. The
spacing of the emitters, and thus the layout and cost of the system, depends on the
crop spacing and rooting pattern and the soil characteristics. For closely spaced, water-
sensitive crops with small root systems, the emitters may be as close as 20 cm apart
along each crop row. For row crops with extensive root systems in fine-textured soil,
the emitter spacing may be up to 1 m on alternate crop rows. Two emitters per vine is
common in vineyards. For tree crops, four to eight emitters per tree may be sufficient.
Thus, emitter and tubing requirements for drip systems vary from 2500 emitters and
3000 m of tubing per hectare for widely spaced trees to 20,000 emitters and 15,000 m
of tubing per hectare for closely spaced vegetable crops.
Drip tubes are normally laid out in, or parallel to, crop rows. The tubing often is laid on
the soil surface. In crops with trellising, such as vineyards, the tubing may be suspended
from the trellising to keep it out of the way of tillage operations. In horticultural crops,
thin-wall tubing (drip tape) may be placed a few centimeters below the soil surface and/or
under plastic mulch to help hold it in place.
Drip tubing also can be placed up to 60 cm below the soil surface. Subsurface drip
irrigation (SDI), when placed below tillage depths, allows the tubing to be left in place for
several seasons. It also minimizes wetting of the soil surface and thus weed germination
and surface evaporation. Subsurface drip usually requires specialized tillage operations
and equipment, and also requires special equipment or management to prevent roots
from growing into and plugging the emitters. It may require sprinkling to germinate new
crops or to periodically leach salts. Specialized equipment with a hollow shank is used to
inject drip tubing to the desired depth. A disadvantage of subsurface drip is that plugged
emitters are not evident until the crop is damaged. Special care must be taken to prevent
plugging.
Drip tubing is made from polyethylene. Tubing wall thickness varies from 0.1 mm to
1.3 mm. Thin-walled (0.1–0.4 mm) tubing, sometimes called drip tape, lays flat when
not pressurized and usually is used for only one season. Thick-walled tubing can be
used for several years and may be removed and replaced between crops. Drip-tubing
diameters (outside) vary from 6 to 35 mm, but 16, 18, and 21 mm are the most common
sizes. With moderate emitter discharge rates (4 L h−1 or 6 L h−1 m−1 ), 18-mm thick-
wall tubing or 16 mm thin-wall tubing can be used for run lengths up to 100 m without
excessive pressure loss (<30 kPa). With thick-wall tubing, it is often less expensive
to subdivide a long field with submains rather than use large-diameter tubing. Large-
diameter thin-wall tubing recently has become available that allows long (400 m) run
lengths.
Drip emitters can be either manufactured into the tubing or attached onto the line
during field installation. In thin-wall tubing, the emitters are often an integral part of
the tubing wall. In thick-wall tubing, and a few thin-wall products, in-line emitters are
injection molded from rigid plastic and then integrally incorporated into the tubing during
manufacture (Fig. 5.30). Drip tubing is available with in-line emitters spaced from 0.2
to 1.2 m apart. Drip tubing with porous walls is available but generally is not suited for
Figure 5.30. Drip tubing in-line emitter (upper) and on-line button
pressure-compensating emitter (lower).
agriculture because of plugging and poor water distribution. Tubing with small holes
punched or laser-drilled through the walls is not recommended for the same reasons.
Tubing with in-line emitters can be installed quickly and easily.
On-line emitters are molded from rigid plastic. Their barbed inlets are inserted into
small holes punched into the tubing in the field. Small-diameter tubing can be attached
to on-line emitters to deliver the water away from the lateral tubing. An advantage of
on-line emitters is that they can be spaced as desired, additional emitters can be added as
Figure 5.31. Wetted bulbs for (a) fine-textured soil

and (b) coarse-textured soil.
perennial crops mature, and plugged emitters can be replaced. On-line emitters usually
are not buried and generally are used only for perennial crops.
Drippers are point sources of water with small discharges, typically 1–8 L h−1 with
2 and 4 L h−1 being most common for thick-wall tubing and 1–2 L h−1 being com-
mon for closely spaced emitters in thin-wall tubing. The water enters the soil profile
and percolates downward and outward. The result is a bulbous-shaped volume of moist
soil. The size and shape of the “bulb” depend on the discharge rate of the emitter, the
duration of application, and the soil type. Other conditions being constant, the bulb
is more circular in fine-textured soils, in which the major water-moving force is cap-
illary, whereas, in coarse-textured soils, the movement of water is caused largely by
gravity and a narrower, deeper bulb results (Fig. 5.31). High discharge rate may in-
crease the relative horizontal wetting. On the ground surface, wetted circles form, which
may coalesce into continuous wetted strips. The soil surface between the tubing is kept
dry.
Active plant roots are concentrated inside the wetted bulbs and therefore may be
restricted in volume. Nevertheless, yields often (but not always) exceed those obtained
by other irrigation methods. This is because, inside the bulb, light, frequent irrigations and
fertilizer applications (fertigation) can maintain optimum growth conditions. Irrigation
frequency varies from daily to every three or four days.
Salts in the soil move with the water toward the periphery of the wetted zone. Inside the
wetted bulb, where the main root activity occurs, the salt concentration is generally low
and not harmful to plants. However, lack of periodic leaching from irrigation or rainfall
can result in harmful soil salt concentrations near the edges. These salt concentrations
can be especially damaging during germination of new crops, or if rainfall moves the
accumulated salts back into the active rooting area. Periodic large water applications are
required to leach out salts. This must be done often with sprinklers.
Microspray Irrigation
Microspray emitters spray water over 2 to 6 m diameter circles or partial circles.
Microspray was developed to wet a larger percentage of the rooting area of tree crops than
was practical with drip irrigation. Microspray heads are small versions of low-pressure
sprinkler heads. In the most common type, a small, vertical water jet from a small orifice
nozzle impacts a deflector plate that diverts the jet into a horizontal pattern. The nozzle
size determines the flow rate (at a given pressure) and the deflector-plate shape determines
Figure 5.32. Microspray irrigation showing a half-circle pattern sprayer and

the microtubing connection.
Figure 5.33. Typical microspray wetting patterns.
the spray pattern. A variety of flow rates and patterns are available. Microsprayers usually
are inserted into the end of short pieces of 6 mm tubing and held upright on a stake
(Fig. 5.32) or hung from suspended tubing. The small tubing is attached to the drip-
tubing laterals with small plastic barbed connectors. In addition to sprayers, various
types of spinner heads also are made, on which the jet impacts a small groove or channel
that rotates, rapidly throwing the water in a circular pattern. Spinners usually produce a
larger wetted pattern.
Microsprays are commonly used for widely spaced tree crops. They also may be
used in greenhouses. In tree crops, one or two sprayers are used on each tree. The pattern
usually is oriented so that the water does not spray on or at the base of the trunk, to reduce
disease problems (Fig. 5.33). Flow rates from microsprayers are generally much higher
than with drippers—typically 20 to 80 L h−1 . Although the spacing between sprayers
may be 2 to 4 m, flow rate per unit length is usually higher than with drip systems, and
so, larger tubing or shorter runs are required.
Figure 5.34. Layout of a microirrigation system with

automatic valves to control irrigation for several sets:
1) lateral with emitters, 2) manifold, 3) automation valve.
Water Distribution, Filtration, and Control

Water is supplied to one end of the drip or microspray tubing through a manifold.
These are usually buried PVC or polyethylene pipes, but in temporary systems, also may
be flexible tubing laid on the surface. Flexible tubing or hose often is used to connect
the surface drip tubing to buried manifold pipes. In large systems, main and submain
pipeline networks deliver water to the manifolds. Manual or automatic valves are used
to distribute water to the desired sets (Fig. 5.34). Pressure regulation may be required in
the distribution system, as well as air release valves for SDI systems. The downstream
ends of all drip or microspray lines must be accessible for flushing. Individual lines can
be flushed manually by opening the downstream ends, or by pressure-activated flush
valves. With SDI, sets of lines usually are connected to a flushing manifold so they can
be flushed simultaneously.
Microirrigation systems require a pump to pressurize the water, one or more filters to
clean the water, and valves to regulate pressure. Microirrigation water is applied under
low pressure, usually in the range of 50 to 200 kPa. Thin-walled drip tubing usually allows
no more than 80 kPa. For other systems, pressures are usually at least 100 kPa to reduce
the effects of varying pressure on uniformity. Because emitter orifices or paths are small,
filtration is nearly always required. Several types of filters are available for different
types of contaminants. Fertilizer injection is recommended to gain the full benefit of
precise management. Chemical injection to clean emitters is required with some water
qualities and is recommended with SDI. Automation, through use of automatic valves
and controllers, reduces labor requirements.
Adaptability and Suitability of Microirrigation
Based upon analyses provided by Pair et al. [96], Keller and Bliesner [11], and
Papadopoulos [122], advantages and disadvantages of microirrigation systems include:
Advantages
Microirrigation has the following advantages:
• It has the potential to reduce irrigation water use and corresponding operating costs
because water can be applied only where the crop roots develop. This is particularly
true for widely spaced crops such as orchards and vineyards or for shallow-rooted
crops.
• It has been shown to increase the yield and quality of some crops. This is most
likely the result of maintaining near-optimum water and fertility conditions in the
root zone.
• It can reduce the cost of labor because the systems need only to be maintained
and managed, not tended. Operation usually is accomplished by automatic timing
devices, but the emitters and system controls should be inspected frequently.
• A greater control over fertilizer placement and timing through fertigation with mi-
croirrigation improves fertilizer efficiency and reduces pollution hazards associated
with fertilizers.
• It can reduce weed growth and the incidence of some diseases because foliage and
much of the soil surface are not wetted. This reduces costs of labor and chemicals
to control weeds and diseases and reduces related pollution hazards.
• It is less disruptive to field operations because the noncropped soil between crop
rows is not wetted.
• Frequent irrigations maintain soil water content and keep the salts in the active
root zone more dilute, making it possible to use more saline water than with other
irrigation methods.
• Well-designed microirrigation systems can operate efficiently on almost any topog-
raphy.
• Problem soils with low infiltration rates, low water-holding capacity, and variable
textures and profiles can be irrigated efficiently.
• It usually requires lower operating pressure and thus less energy than sprinkler
systems.
Disadvantages
Microirrigation has the following disadvantages:
• Equipment costs usually are higher than for surface irrigation systems and may be
higher than for sprinkler systems.
• Equipment often is complex and requires frequent monitoring to ensure good per-
formance.
• Energy costs to pressurize the system are higher than with surface irrigation.
• Because emitter outlets are very small, they can become clogged by particles of min-
eral or organic matter. Clogging reduces discharge rates and the water distribution
uniformity; thus filtration is required in most cases. Iron oxide, calcium carbonate,
algae, and microbial slimes may be problems requiring chemical treatment of the
water to prevent clogging.
• Because microirrigation systems operate at low pressures, varying field topography
can result in significant pressure variations and irrigation nonuniformity. Careful
design and pressure regulation are required on undulating land.
• Some crops do not germinate well with drip irrigation and especially with subsurface
drip. A second method of irrigation, usually portable sprinklers, may be required
for germination.
• Salts may concentrate at the soil surface and between emitters and become a poten-
tial hazard. Localized salt accumulation can hinder crop germination. Light rains
can leach accumulated salts downward into the root zone. Irrigation should continue
on schedule unless adequate rain has fallen to ensure leaching of salts below the
root zone.
• Salts also concentrate below the surface at the perimeter of the wetted bulbs. Too
much drying of the soil between irrigations may allow the movement of water and
salts back toward the inner bulb. To avoid this damage, irrigation must be frequent
under saline conditions.
• If unexpected events (equipment failure, power failure, or water-supply interruption)
interrupt irrigation, crop damage may occur quickly because roots use only a small
volume of wetted soil. At least 33% of the total potential root zone should be wetted.
Careful system maintenance and a secure water supply are a must.
• When a main supply line breaks or the filtration system malfunctions, contaminants
may enter the system, resulting in emitter clogging. Secondary filters can be used
to protect against these problems.
• Rodents and other small animals sometimes chew and damage polyethylene tubing.
In some cases, animal damage disallows laying tubing or emitters on the soil surface.
Burrowing rodents also may damage subsurface tubing. Rodent control may be
necessary to reduce the problem.
Emitters
Knowledge about the emitter characteristics and functioning is important for design,
operation, and maintenance of microirrigation systems. The information given below
should be supplemented with other background literature [11, 98, 123, 124].
General
Emitters are designed to dissipate pressure and to discharge a small uniform flow of
water at a constant rate. The ideal emitter
• has a large opening to minimize plugging,
• has low discharge rate to maximize lateral length,
• is relatively insensitive to pressure and temperature variations,
• is simple and relatively inexpensive to manufacture to high uniformity,
• is durable and long-lived (sunlight resistant; minimal wearing of orifices or moving
parts), and
• is resistant to insect and rodent damage.
All of these criteria cannot be met with a single design. In fact, several criteria create
opposing conditions (i.e., large opening and small discharge rate). Manufacturers have
developed many emitter designs. Table 5.10 summarizes some of these basic designs and
their advantages and disadvantages. A large majority of the emitters in use are labyrinth
or pressure-compensating for drip and orifices for microspray.
Table 5.10. Typical emitter types and their characteristics
Typical Discharge
Path Type Description Meritsa Problemsb Exponent x
Microtube Long, small-diameter a 2,5,6 0.7–0.8
spaghetti tube;
laminar flow.
Molded, long, Long, smooth, coiled 2,4 0.7
smooth or spiral passageway in
a molded emitter
body; laminar flow.
Vortex Water enters tangentially a,b,c 3,4 0.4
into a chamber in which
it spins and then exits
through a hole on
the opposite side.
Tortuous Labyrinth or zigzag c,d,e 0.5–0.55
path; turbulent flow
at some points
in the passageways.
Porous pipe Very small holes 2,3,5,6 ≥1.0
in the tubing
itself sweat or
emit water.
Pressure- Some type of flexible Possibly Possibly 0–0.5
compensating membrane, O-ring, b,c,d,e 1,4,6,7
or other design is
used to reduce the
path size at higher
pressures; quality is
highly variable among
manufacturers.
Multiple Water passes through d,e 1, possibly 7 0.7
flexible orifice several orifices in
flexible membranes;
particles caught in one
orifice will create
backpressure, expanding
the orifice and
moving the particle
through.
Orifice A single, simple a,b,c 0.5
hole, typical of
microsprayers.
a
a, inexpensive; b, flow rate is insensitive to temperature changes; c, low manufacturing C v (little variation
between emitters); d, typically a large hole; e, less susceptible to plugging than other emitters with the
same hole size.
b
1, expensive; 2, flow rate is sensitive to temperature changes; 3, typically a small hole; 4, relatively sensitive
to plugging; 5, very sensitive to plugging; 6, large manufacturing C v with some makes and models;
7, discharge characteristics of some makes and models may change after a few years.
Hydraulic Characteristics of Emitters

Hydraulically, most emitters can be classified as long-path, orifice, vortex, pressure-
compensating, or porous-pipe emitters. The hydraulic characteristics of each emitter are
related directly to the flow regime inside the emitter as characterized by the Reynolds
number (Re). These flow regimes usually are characterized as laminar, Re < 2,000;
unstable, 2,000 < Re ≤ 4,000; partially turbulent 4,000 < Re ≤ 10,000; and fully
turbulent 10,000 > Re.
The flow regime in an orifice emitter is fully turbulent. The flow rate is given by
p
q = 3.6ACo 2g H , (5.155)
where q is the emitter flow rate (L h−1 ), A is the orifice area (mm2 ), Co is the orifice
coefficient (usually about 0.6), H is the pressure head at the orifice (m), and g is the
acceleration of gravity, 9.81 m s−2 . Because orifice flow is usually fully turbulent, small
changes in fluid viscosity caused by fluid temperature changes usually do not affect
emitter performance. Short-path emitters generally behave like orifice emitters. For twin-
chamber tubing, with n o external orifices for each orifice in the inner chamber, Eq. (5.155)
also applies with appropriate modifications.
The flow in a long-flow-path emitter is through a small microtube. When the flow
regime is turbulent, the emitter flow rate can be expressed as
p
q = 113.8A 2gHd/ f L, (5.156)
using the Darcy-Weisbach equation with q(L h−1 ), d is inside diameter (mm), L is
microtube length (m), and f is the friction factor (dimensionless). The cross-sectional
shape of the conduit will affect the hydraulic characteristics. For laminar flow, the emitter
discharge becomes proportional to H and the effects of fluid temperature changes on
viscosity can cause significant flow variation.
One of the most popular types of emitters is the tortuous path or labyrinth emitter. It
allows the maximum opening size for a given flow rate. For example, one manufacturer’s
tortuous-path drip emitter that discharges 2 L h−1 at 100 kPa has a minimum path
dimension of 1.4 mm and a path length of 160 mm. An orifice to give the same flow would
have an opening diameter of only 0.3 mm (Eq. 5.155) and be much more susceptible to
plugging. Flow in tortuous-path emitters is usually turbulent and thus is insensitive to
water temperature, and discharge is given by a equation similar in form to Eq. (5.156).
The vortex emitter (or sprayer) has a flow path containing a round cell that causes
circular flow. The circular motion is achieved by having the water enter tangentially to
the outer wall. This produces a fast rotational motion, creating a vortex at the center of
the cell. Consequently, both the resistance to the flow and the head loss in the vortex
emitter are greater than for a simple orifice having the same diameter. Flow rate is usually
given by
q
q = 3.6ACo 2gH 0.4 . (5.157)
Large openings that are less susceptible to clogging can be used. Variations in emitter
operating pressures due to elevation differences and pipe friction cause smaller variations
in the discharge from vortex emitters.
Pressure-compensating emitters attempt to overcome the hydraulic constraints im-
posed by orifice or long-flow-path emitters and to provide a constant emitter flow rate.
Usually, an elastic material, which changes shape as a function of pressure, is used
separately or in combination with orifices or small-diameter conduits. These emitters
usually allow only small changes in emitter flow rate as pressure is changed within a
given design range. Pressure-compensating emitters allow the use of smaller lateral pipe
diameters, longer laterals, and/or fewer manifolds. Pressure-compensating emitters may
be the only way to achieve uniform water application when slopes are steep or when the
topography is hilly and uneven.
Automatic flushing emitters are less susceptible to clogging. In these drippers, the
flow passages open more widely at low pressures than at the normal operating pressures.
This results in high flow rates, which flush the system and wash away any deposits that
may otherwise clog the emitters. On/off flushing emitters flush for only a few seconds
each time the system is started and again when it is shut off. Continuous flushing emitters
are constructed so that they can eject relatively large particles during operation. They
do this by using relatively large-diameter flexible orifices in series to dissipate pressure.
Particles larger than the diameter of the orifices are ejected by a local increase of pressure
as the particles reach each flexible orifice.
Emitter flow equation
Emitters flow rates are described for design purposes by experimentally determining
flow rate as a function of operating pressure (Fig. 5.35). This empirical emitter-flow
equation is
q = Ke P x , (5.158)
Figure 5.35. Discharge-pressure curves for typical types of emitters.

where q is the emitter flow rate (L h−1 ), K e is the proportionality factor that characterizes
the emitter dimensions, P is the operating pressure (kPa), and x is the emitter discharge
exponent, which characterizes the flow regime. The coefficients K e and x are determined
by plotting q versus P on a log-log plot. The slope of the straight line is x, and the intercept
at P = 1 is K e :
log(q1 /q2 )
x= . (5.159)
log(P1 /P2 )
Actual discharge/pressure relationships may differ significantly from those given
by the manufacturers [125]. Reliable information on x and K e is often available from
laboratories where irrigation equipment is tested.
Low values of x (low sensitivity to pressure variations) allow the use of long laterals or
small lateral diameters. In addition, the performance of drippers laid along steep slopes is
improved. As x approaches zero (pressure-compensating drippers), the discharge varies
little with variations in pressure. Good pressure-compensating emitters should have x
values below 0.1 over the expected pressure range. For laminar flow emitters, x is close
to 1; therefore, the variations in operating pressure should be held within about ±5% of
the desired average. For turbulent-flow emitters, x = 0.5, and the pressure-head variation
should be within about ±10% of the desired average.
Sensitivity to Temperature
Emitter flow will vary with temperature if the flow cross sections vary with the
thermal expansion and contraction of the emitter material. With long-path, laminar-flow
emitters, flow also varies with the viscosity of the water, which changes with temperature.
Temperature effects can be important because the temperature of water flowing slowly
through polyethylene laterals lying in the sun can increase substantially (>20◦ C) from
the head to the tail end. Manufacturers should give information on the temperature
effects on emitter flows. Laminar-flow emitters should not be used where temperatures
vary through the system. Information on the temperature discharge ratio (TDR), relating
the emitter discharge at high temperature to the standard emitter discharge at 20◦ C, is
given by Keller and Bliesner [11].
Sensitivity to Clogging
Two critical parameters affecting emitter clogging susceptibility are the minimum
flow-passage dimension and the velocity of the water through the passage. The relation
between the passage cross section and the susceptibility to clogging is very sensitive
(<0.7 mm), sensitive (0.7–1.5 mm), and relatively insensitive (>1.5 mm) for continu-
ously flushing emitters. Keller and Bliesner [11] give information on minimum flow-
passage dimension for main types of emitters. For microsprinklers in Florida citrus
orchards, Boman [126] found that plugging decreased about 50% when orifice diameter
was increased about 30%. Velocities of water through the emitter passage ranging from
4 to 6 m s−1 generally result in reduced clogging.
The manufacturer’s recommendations for filtration also give an indication of the
emitter’s sensivity to clogging. The greater the sensivity, the finer the recommended
filtration. The following classifications and filter size (µm) recommendations used in
France [98] are
Extremely sensitive filters < 80 µm

Very sensitive filters ∼ 80 µm
Sensitive filters ∼ 100 µm
Low sensitive filters ∼ 125 µm
Very low sensitivity filters ∼ 150 µm
Coefficient of Manufacturing Variation

The coefficient of manufacturing variation for an emitter, Cv , is used as a measure
of the anticipated variations in discharge for new emitters. The value of Cv should be
available from the manufacturer. It also might be available from independent testing
laboratories and can be measured from the discharge data of a sample set of at least
50 emitters operated at a reference pressure:
q¡ ¢±
q12 + q22 · · · + qn2 − nqa2 (n − 1)
Cv = (5.160)
qa
where q1 , q2 , . . . , qn are individual emitter discharge rates (L h−1 ), n is the number of
emitters in the sample, and qa is the average emitter discharge rate for the sample (L h−1 ).
Manufacturing variability can be classified in accordance with Table 5.11. Significant
differences between Cv values given by the manufacturers and those obtained in inde-
pendent tests often occur [125]. Many emitters are available with Cv in the range of 0.03
to 0.05.
System Layout and Components
Basic components of a microirrigation system are the pump, filtration equipment, con-
trollers, main pressure regulators, control valves, water-measuring devices, and chemical
injection equipment, which usually are centrally located at the pump/filtration station;
the delivery system, including the main and submain pipelines that transfer water from
Table 5.11. Classification of emitter

coefficient of manufacturing variation, C v
Classification C v Range
Point source
Excellent <0.05
Average 0.05 to 0.07
Marginal 0.07 to 0.11
Poor 0.11 to 0.15
Unacceptable >0.15
Line source
Good <0.10
Average 0.10 to 0.20
Marginal to unacceptable >0.20
Source: ASAE EP405.1 [19].

the source to the manifolds, which also may have filters, pressure regulators, and control
valves; the manifolds, which supply water to the laterals; and the laterals, which carry
water to the emitters. Figure 5.34 shows the layout of a typical system.
Pump/Filtration Station
Elements that may be required at the central supply point include (see [11, 98, 123,
127–130]):
• a reservoir to store water if the water supply varies in rate or time from the system
requirements;
• a pump to pressurize the water (unless the water supply is adequately pressurized);
• a backflow prevention valve to prevent the backward flow of water that may contain
chemicals or fertilizers into the pump or main supply system or well;
• a chemical injection system for injecting fertilizer and chemicals into the microir-
rigation system;
• primary, and possibly secondary, filters to clean particulates from the water;
• control valves to manually or automatically regulate flows or pressures;
• an air-release/vacuum relief valve, located at a high point, used to release any air
before it enters the delivery system and relieve vacuums following pump shutdown
or valve closure; and
• a flow measurement device.
Filtration. Filters are critical to reduce clogging of drippers by solid particles suspended
in the water. Prefiltration also may be required to prevent damage to the pump and valves.
Burt and Styles [124] give details about filtration needs and designs.
Prefiltration usually is accomplished by settling in a reservoir and/or some type of
prescreening. Water residence time in reservoirs should be 1–2 h to settle out all sand-
sized particles and a portion of the silts. Reservoirs may introduce organic contaminants
such as algae into the water supply. Prescreens include manual or automatically brushed
trash racks and coarse screens, self-cleaning gravity overfall screens such as turbulent
fountain screens [61], and manual and self-cleaning cylindrical screens for pump intakes.
Four main types of filters are used with microirrigation systems. The vortex sand
separator (hydrocyclone) can be used to remove dispersed solid material, particularly
sand. The hydrocyclone is a conical container, wider at the top. Water enters tangentially
at the top and flows down at a high rotational velocity. This pushes the solid particles
against the wall of the container from where they are carried downward toward the
collecting chamber. The clean water at the bottom reverses direction and flows upward
axially through the center of the container and out the discharge line. The accumulated
sand is discharged periodically from the lower-end chamber. Sand separators should not
be used as the final filter because it removes only a portion of the particulates.
Cylindrical screen filters use finely woven screen to prevent passage of particles.
Screens work best for mineral particles (sands and silts) and for water without a large
particulate load. The screens usually are cleaned by flushing water through the upstream
chamber. However, the flow velocity across the screen surface is seldom sufficient to
clean the screen. More thorough cleaning requires backflushing clean water through the
screen, or by manually removing the screen cylinder and cleaning it. Screen filters are
available with an automatic vacuuming mechanism that cleans the screen.
Figure 5.36. Media fillters: (a) Normal operation; (b) reverse flow for
filter cleaning.
Disc filters comprise a series of grooved discs that are stacked together. When pressed
together, the rings form a cylindrical filtering body. They work well for removing mineral
and organic matter. They are cleaned by separating the disks and washing them off. Self-
cleaning disc filters are available that automatically release the tension on the discs and
backflush water through them.
Media filters use sand and gravel in tanks to filter out both mineral and organic
particles (Fig. 5.36). The sand is sized to achieve the required filtration. Media filters are
recommended when the water is relatively dirty. They are cleaned by diverting the inlet
and backflushing clean water through the media. Effective cleaning requires sufficient
backflush water velocity to lift the sand media without washing it away.
Filters are designed on the basis of flow rate and allowable pressure drop, the amount
and type of suspended particles in the flow, and the size of particulates that are allowed
to pass. Some self-cleaning screen and disc filters require as much as 220 kPa pressure
to operate effectively, and may require downstream pressure-sustaining valves.
Emitter manufacturers should specify the filtration size required. Typically, the system
must filter to at least one-fifth, and preferable to one-tenth, the smallest opening in the
emitter. For example, water for a microspray with a 0.4-mm orifice would need to be
filtered to at least 80 µm. Common filters for microirrigation filter to between 80 and
150 µm.
When water carries a large amount of suspended material, the filter should clean
automatically. Automatic cleaning can occur in response to pressure loss across the filter
and/or at preset time intervals. In media and disk filters, the flow through the filter must
be reversed, and so, multiple filters must be used in parallel so that, as the filters are
cleaned in turn, the others can operate normally to continue to discharge to the fields and
to supply clean backflush water.
Where the water is relatively dirty, use of two filters in series is desirable. This
prevents the microirrigation system from being ruined if one of the filters fails. A common
combination is to have an automatic, self-cleaning media filter backed up by a manual
screen filter. The backup filters also can be placed at the inlets to the manifolds in the
field, to protect against particulates that might enter the pipelines during repairs or from
scale or algae that might originate in the pipelines.
Filters do not, as a rule, completely solve the problem of clogging. Microirrigation

laterals should be flushed periodically to remove accumulated fine particles. Calcium
carbonate deposits in the system can be dissolved with a solution of nitric or hydrochloric
acid (2 to 5 L acid per m3 water). Deposits of organic material can be removed by flushing
the system with water for about 15 min and then with compressed air under high pressure.
When surface waters are used, microorganisms and small algae may pass through the
filter and later accumulate and grow within the system. Treatment with chlorine (1 to
5 mg L−1 ) continuously or periodically will prevent algae growth.
Some substances in the water, such as iron and manganese, pose special clogging prob-
lems [124]. An analysis of irrigation water for inorganic constituents is recommended
before design of the filtration/chemigation system.
Chemical Injection. Fertilizer and other soluble chemicals such as acids and chlorine
can be added to the pressurized water by several methods. The simplest method is to
bypass a small portion of the flow around a fitting that creates a small head loss or
pressure differential (<5 kPa), through a chemical storage tank. As the water flows into
the tank, the solution is forced out the opposite end and into the system. A valve regulates
the flow rate. The tank must be able to hold the maximum expected system pressure.
Depending on the density and mixing of the solution, the chemical concentration of the
tank outflow will decrease with time. This simple method is used only if the concentration
of the added chemical can vary with time. A variation on this pressure-tank concept is
to pressurize the tank with a compressed gas (usually N2 ) to force the solution into the
irrigation system.
Electrically driven injection pumps are an accurate method for adding chemicals at a
constant rate. The flow rate of these diaphragm or piston pumps is regulated with a motor
speed controller, or by mechanical adjustment of the piston displacement. The pump
materials must be compatible with the chemicals used. Good-quality injection pumps
are relatively expensive and require good maintenance, but they deliver an adjustable,
constant flow and require no pressure loss in the water delivery system. Hydraulically
driven injection pumps are also available. Some hydraulic pumps can automatically
adjust flow rate proportional to the system flow rate to maintain constant chemical
concentrations.
The third method to inject chemicals is through a venturi. All or a portion of the flow
is diverted through a venturi. High-velocity flow through the venturi throat, such that
the flow velocity head exceeds the water pressure, creates suction that draws solution
from the chemical tank. Chemical injection venturis are available in a range of sizes
and configurations. A large venturi in the delivery line creates a substantial (15%–30%)
pressure loss. A valve in the delivery line to create the bypass flow through a small
venturi is simple and inexpensive, but requires more than 70 kPa pressure drop in the
water delivery system, and thus can be very expensive in terms of energy cost. A less-
energy-consuming alternative is to use a small booster pump to bypass a small portion
of the water through the small venturi.
Fertilizers and chemicals that will not cause filter damage should be injected up-
stream of the final filter in case particulates are introduced with the solution. Chem-
ical application should begin after the lateral lines are fully pressurized and cease
with sufficient irrigation time remaining to flush the entire system with clean irrigation
water.
Control/Monitoring Devices. Pressure regulators are required if the inlet pressure to
the system may vary beyond an acceptable range. Reasons for varying pressure include
fluctuating water supply pressures, such as fluctuating well-water depths, and varying
system flow rates. Constant system pressure will ensure constant irrigation application
rates to all manifolds. Pressure regulation is critical if the pressure can exceed the burst
pressure of system components. A pressure relief valve can protect against system over-
pressure.
If system hydraulics or topography result in nonuniform pressure at the various mani-
folds, regulators may be required at the manifold inlets. Pressure-compensating emitters
may eliminate the need for system pressure regulation. Pressure regulators normally
require 40 to 80 kPa pressure loss to operate properly and thus may increase the system
pressure requirements [116].
Microirrigation allows precise water application. Automatic control of microirrigation
provides precise water application without high labor. Automatic control of irrigation
times can be accomplished in a number of ways. Commonly, a master-control unit is
installed at the central pump/filtration station and is connected via buried wires to field
stations located along the main pipeline. Each field station in turn controls a number of
automatic valves (fitted with solenoids) at the inlets to submains or manifolds. The system
automatically activates successive groups of manifolds to apply any desired amount of
water and fertilizer. The control unit records any problems, such as pump failures, that
may occur.
Flow measurement is important to ensure that the system is operating as designed.
Decreased flow rate is often the first indication that emitters are plugged. Increased flow
may indicate system failures such as lateral breaks. Flow totalizers document power
outages. Flow should be measured at the pump/filtration station, and may be measured
at submains. Because microirrigation water is clean, several types of mechanical and
electronic devices can be used. Pressure measurement also is recommended to help
verify proper system operation.
Distribution-Pipe Network
A manifold with its attached laterals is the basic system subunit and the last control
point in the system. Manual valves, automatic valves, pressure regulators, filters, and flow
measurement can be provided at manifold inlets. These controls also can be provided
upstream at bifurcations between the main and submain units. Upstream from pressure
control points, the allowed pressure variation for the subunit does not affect pipe-size
selection. Therefore, the selection of pipe sizes for the main water supply lines should
be based primarily on the economic trade-off between energy costs and costs for pipe
and installation.
Normal operating pressures being low, the pipe pressure class rating will be deter-
mined more by structural strength than by system requirements. Air-vacuum release and
pressure-relief valves should be considered and incorporated into the main system at the
appropriate locations. Means to flush and drain the pipelines also should be provided.
Design Principles
Emitter Placement
The first decision in designing a microirrigation system is selecting the type and
placement of emitters. This will depend on the crop (annual or perennial, spacing, rooting
extent, sensitivity to water and nutrient stress, economics), the soil (permeability and
water-holding capacity), and the cultural practices (tillage and harvesting operations,
availability and cost of labor). For example, for annual row crops, either portable surface
drip, subsurface drip, or disposable thin-wall tubing may be used, depending on the
economics and practices. For perennial crops, the microirrigation system can be above-
or belowground and permanent. For trellised perennial crops, such as vineyards, the drip
laterals can be hung from the trellising.
The amount of the soil that must be wetted is the most important factor in choosing
emitter spacing. In general, less wetting of the soil surface reduces system costs and
evaporation losses. However, experience with microirrigation systems increasing shows
that, with some crops, a substantial portion of the potential rooting extent should be
wetted to reduce risk and achieve maximum yields. This has motivated the recent trend
from drip to microspray irrigation of tree crops. A reasonable objective of design for
widely spaced crops, such as vines, bushes, and trees, is to wet between one-third and
two-thirds of the cropped area. For water-stress-sensitive row crops, at least two-thirds
of the area should be wetted, whereas less than half may be adequate for drought-tolerant
crops, especially if significant rainfall is expected. If the soil or water contains significant
salts, salinity management may be a critical factor in emitter placement. Salts cannot be
allowed to build up to damaging levels in the active root zone.
It is difficult to accurately predict the horizontal water movement from a point drip
source. Keller and Bliesner [11] propose the following empirical equation to compute
the wetted width or diameter from a point source emitter:
µ ¶−0.17
Ks
Dw = C2 (Vw )0.22 , (5.161)
q
where Dw is the subsurface wetted diameter (m), Vw is the volume of water applied
(L), K s is the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil (m s−1 ), q is the point-
source emitter discharge (L h−1 ), and C2 is an empirical coefficient, 0.031, for these
units.
Mechanistic models have been developed to simulate the soil water distribution around
a point source. The two-dimensional and three-dimensional Richards equation often is
utilized. However, these models require knowledge of the K (h) and h(θ ) curves (see
Section 5.2), which are not available for most of applications. An analysis comparing
several modeling approaches is presented by Angelakis et al. [132].
Simple field tests are the most reliable way to determine wetting diameter. They
consist of selecting operating emitters at a few representative sites and then measuring
the resulting wetting patterns.
The diameter of soil surface wetted by an emitter usually is about three-quarters as
large as that measured at a depth of 30 cm. On sloping fields the wetted pattern may be
Table 5.12. Estimated wetted diameter Dw from a 4 L h−1

drip emitter by degree of soil stratification
Wetted Diameter (m)

Soil or Root Degree of Soil Stratification
Depth and Soil
Texturea Homogeneous Stratifiedb Layeredc
0.75-m Depth
Coarse 0.5 0.8 1.1
Medium 0.9 1.2 1.5
Fine 1.1 1.5 1.8
1.5-m Depth
Coarse 0.8 1.4 1.8
Medium 1.2 2.1 2.7
Fine 1.5 2.0 2.4
a
Coarse includes coarse to medium sands; medium includes
loamy sands to loams; fine includes sandy clay to loam to
clays (if clays are cracked, treat as coarse-to-medium soils).
b
Soil of relatively uniform texture, but having some particle
orientation or some compaction layering that gives higher
horizontal than vertical permeability.
c
Soil that changes in texture with depth and in particle orien-
tation as well as being moderately compacted.
Source: Adopted from [11].
distorted in the downslope direction, but the actual wetted diameter will be similar to
that on flat ground.
Table 5.12. gives estimates of the wetted diameters Dw of a standard 4 L h−1 emitter
for different soil conditions and wetting depths. Values in Table 5.12 are based on daily
or every-other-day irrigations that apply volumes of water sufficient to slightly exceed
the crop’s water-use rate. Almost all soils are either stratified or layered to some extent.
However, assuming stratification or layering is risky. This must be determined by actual
field checks.
Once the desired wetting pattern is established, the lateral spacing and placement and
emitter spacing must be determined. In row crops, the lateral spacing decision generally
will be between a few alternatives, for example, one or two laterals per bed or a lateral
for each or alternate rows. In tree and vine crops, the decision usually will be between
one or two lateral lines per crop row. Many growers have found that one drip lateral per
vine row is adequate, but two drip laterals or one lateral with microsprays per tree row
give better production. Emitter spacing then should provide the required wetting. The
spacing of emitters (Se ) along the lateral should be about 80% of the wetted diameter
given in Table 5.12 (Se = 0.8Dw ) to ensure full contact between adjacent wetting
bulbs.
Lateral depth placement will depend on crop, soil, and cultural practices. Laterals
often are suspended in vineyards and laid on the surface for trees. The disadvantage
of on-ground or aboveground laterals is that they may be damaged by rodents or other
animals, or by farming activities. The advantages are ease of placement, monitoring, and
repair.
Permanent subsurface drip must placed below tillage depth. Deep placement may
necessitate use of sprinklers to germinate the crop. In general, disposable thin-wall
tubing is placed 40 to 100 mm below the surface, whereas permanent tubing is placed
200 to 500 mm deep.
Uniformity
Several parameters have been used to describe water distribution uniformity of mi-
croirrigation systems [see Eq. (5.119) to (5.125)]. Emission uniformity (EU, %), is used
primarily to describe the predicted emitter flow variation along a lateral line:
√
EU = 100[1.0 − 1.27(Cv / N )](qn /qa ), (5.162)
where Cv is the coefficient of manufacturing variation [Eq. (5.160)], N is the num-

ber of emitters per plant, qn is the minimum emitter discharge rate (L h−1 ) computed
[Eq. (5.158)] from the minimum pressure along a lateral in the subunit or in a system,
and qa is the average or design discharge rate (L h−1 ). The ratio qn /qa expresses the
relationship between the minimum and average emission rates resulting
√ from pressure
variations within the subunit or system. The factor (1 − 1.27Cv / N ) adjusts for the
additional nonuniformity caused by manufacturing variation between individual emit-
ters. The EU values recommended in ASAE Standard EP405.1 [19] for different site
conditions are presented in Table 5.13.
Some authors [15] use the statistical uniformity Us [Eq. (5.125)], defining the coef-
ficient of variation of emitter flow, Vq , as
" #1/2 ,
Xn
(qi − qa )2
Vq = qa , (5.163)
i−1
n−1
where qi are the observed or simulated emitter discharges and qa is the average discharge.
It is assumed that this coefficient of variation results from different causes: manufacturing
variation, pressure variation, and emitter plugging or clogging. The various sources of
nonuniformity can be combined such that the relative importance of each on the overall
Table 5.13. Recommended ranges of design emission uniformities EU [19]
Spacing Slope EU Range

Emitter Type (m) Topography (%) (%)
Point source on perennial crops >4 Uniform <2 90 to 95
Steep or undulating >2 85 to 90
Point source on annual or <4 Uniform <2 85 to 90
semipermanent crops Steep or undulating >2 80 to 90
Line source on annual or All Uniform <2 80 to 90
perennial crops Steep or undulating >2 70 to 85
Source: [19].
variability can be determined:

¡ ¢1/2
V p2 + Vk2 + x 2 Vh2
Vq = , (5.164)
N 1/2
where N is the number of emitters per plant, V p is the coefficient of variation due to
emitter plugging, Vk is the coefficient of variation of the emitter discharge coefficient
K e [Eq. (5.158)], x is the characteristic exponent [Eq. (5.158)], and Vh is the coefficient
of variation of the hydraulic pressure.
The distribution uniformity DU [Eq. (5.119)], based on the low-quarter application
relative to the average application; also can be used for microirrigation. It is practical
when based on field measurements for complete systems and is useful to predict irrigation
requirements based on meeting low-quarter needs.
Application Depths and System Capacity
As with other irrigation systems, the microirrigation system must be designed with
sufficient capacity to meet the water requirements of the crops to be irrigated, plus
allowances for leaching salts, nonuniform water application, and system downtime for
repairs and cultural practices. Crop water requirements can be determined as indicated
in Section 5.1. For design purposes, they should be based on peak monthly water-use
values. The basal-crop-coefficient approach (Section 5.1.5) should be used because it
appropriately takes into consideration the effects of wetting only a portion of the soil
surface on the soil evaporation component. Once the daily net irrigation requirement
In (mm day−1 ), is determined for the local climate and expected crop mix, it must be
adjusted for other requirements before calculating system capacity.
For moderate to low water salinity values, leaching usually can be applied early or
late in the season when it will not impact system capacity requirements. For high-salinity
waters, a continuous leaching fraction (LF) between 5% and 20% may be required.
To take into consideration the unavoidable percolation, a transmission coefficient Tr
must be considered [11] for shallow, coarse-textured soils. The daily gross application
depth D (mm day−1 ) is then
In
D= Tr , (5.165)
(EU/100)(1 − LF)
where In is the daily net irrigation requirement (mm day−1 ), EU is the emission unifor-
mity (%), LF is the leaching fraction (0.05–0.20), and Tr is the transmission coefficient
(1.0–1.15).
Because microirrigation is based on frequent irrigations, and the entire root zone
often is not wetted, a substantial allowance must be made for equipment failure or other
potential downtime. A 25% downtime allowance DT is reasonable. With this information,
the required system capacity Q (m3 h−1 ) can be calculated as
24
Q = 10 D A, (5.166)
1 − DT/100
where DT is the downtime allowance (%), D is the daily application depth (mm day−1 ),
and A is the irrigated area (ha).
Once the system capacity is set, irrigation times for the various crops are determined
from their individual daily water requirements and the application rates of the emitters
selected. Irrigation frequency for drip systems is often much higher than for other systems
in order to maintain constant soil water contents. Frequency typically varies from daily
to twice per week.
Hydraulic Design
The hydraulic design of microirrigation systems requires particular attention because
the pressure at the emitters is low, often below 130 kPa and sometimes below 60 kPa.
Relatively small friction head losses and variations in elevation, which would be accept-
able in sprinkler irrigation, cause high relative variations in the operating pressure of the
emitters.
The principles for hydraulic design are well presented in manuals [11, 124, 127] and
are not presented here. In recent developments with microirrigation modeling [133–136],
the hydraulic computations are combined with calculations of the expected uniformity
indicators.
System pressure control, mainly pressure regulators, often must be used to maintain
acceptable pressures. The type and position of control will influence the system layout
and the length and diameters of submains and manifolds. For large systems, controls
may be required at submain inlets. When the system is irrigating sloping land, pressure
regulators may be required at manifold inlets. When laterals are along a slope or are very
long, the pressure regulation may be required for each emitter (pressure-compensating
emitters).
Microirrigation Performance
Similar to the approach used for the other methods, the performance indicators can
be described by functional relationships with selected system variables. The distribution
uniformity or emission uniformity in microirrigation [Eq. (5.119)] is determined by a
combination of design parameters that can be functionally expressed as follows:
DU = f (P, 1P, x, E c , Cv , FI), (5.167)
where P is the pressure at emitters, 1P is the variation in pressure along the unit or
system, x is the characteristic exponent of the emitter, representing the sensitivity to
variations in pressure, E c represents the emitter characteristics related to variations in
discharge, mainly representing the sensitivity to clogging and to temperature, Cv is the
coefficient of manufacturing variation for the emitter, and FI represents the filtering
capabilities of the system.
As for sprinkler systems, the irrigator has little control over the uniformity perfor-
mance of the system except for the standard of system maintenance. Variables P and
1P are set when the hydraulic design is made. Variables x, E c , and Cv are set when
emitters are selected, and FI is established when the filtration station is designed.
When the design is performed carefully, uniformities lower than foreseen should not
be expected. However, lower DU may occur when emitters selected by the user do not
have the quality expected or the system is not properly maintained. Filter maintenance,
lateral flushing, and the periodic chemical treatment against clogging are required to
maintain the design uniformity. Evaluations in California, reported by Pitts et al. [105]
and Hanson et al. [137], confirm the importance of these issues and show that actual
field DU values are usually between 65% and 80%.
As with surface and sprinkler irrigation systems, the application efficiency ea also is
determined by the combination of design and management variables, as indicated in the
following functional relationship:
ea = f (P, 1P, x, E c , Cv , FI, K s , SW, ti , 1ti ), (5.168)
where, besides variables defined for DU, K s is the hydraulic conductivity of the soil,
SW represents soil water conditions at the time of irrigation, ti is the duration of the
irrigation, and 1ti is the time interval between irrigations. The irrigator’s control basically
is reduced to the timing of irrigation and the volumes and frequency of applications.
Variable K s expresses a potential for deep percolation losses. For very permeable soils,
emitter spacing must be small, irrigation must be very frequent, and applied volumes
must be small to avoid percolation below the root zone for highly permeable soils. For
soils with very low hydraulic conductivity, spacings can be larger, irrigation can be less
frequent, and emitter discharge can be smaller. These conditions have to be set at design
when selecting the emitters and lateral layout.
Soil water conditions at the time of irrigation (SW) play a major role in defining
the irrigation timing and volume in humid climates, when rainfall meets part of the
water requirements, and in irrigation of deep-rooted crops, mainly in orchards, where
the soil water reserve can be large. Under arid conditions and most applications when
fertigation with a nutrient solution is applied, light, frequent irrigations are used be-
cause the soil water reserve plays a minor role under these circumstances. SW also
is considered as a variable related to soil cracking that occurs in many soils when
the soil dries. Soil cracking favors percolation of water and solutes through prefer-
ential flow. Irrigation always must start when the soil is wet enough to avoid cracking.
This condition also corresponds to the need to maintain soil water above the stress
threshold.
Field Evaluation
The evaluation of operating systems can play a major role in improving their perfor-
mance ([10, 11, 98] and ASAE EP458 [19]). Observations include
• discharges qi of emitters along various laterals in the irrigation unit;
• pressure at several locations within the unit, and thus P and 1P;
• the area wetted by an emitter, around a tree or along a crop row;
• the soil water conditions before and after irrigation;
• working conditions of filters and control devices; and
• the fertigation strategies being applied.
This information allows calculation of the distribution uniformity [Eq. (5.119)] deter-
mination of the fraction of area wetted, assessment of the quality of design, evaluation
of the actual conditions of functioning system, strategies for irrigation scheduling, and
the maintenance conditions of the system. The information can be used to advise the
farmer about improvements needed in the system, irrigation and fertigation scheduling,
and in the maintenance of filters, controllers, and fertigation devices.
Irrigation and Fertigation Management
Microirrigation systems should be used to achieve the highest returns and yields while
optimizing the use of water and other production inputs. Microirrigation systems may
use less water when not all of the area is irrigated and when system and application
losses are minimized, but they should not be managed with the sole intent of saving
water; instead, they should be managed to supply the amount of water required by the
crop with high frequency.
When very frequent irrigations are applied, the essential information for irrigation
scheduling is a forecast of the crop water use. An estimation of ETc may be sufficient,
either using meteorological information (see Section 5.1) or specific sensors. An example
using automated pan evaporation is given by DeTar et al. [138]. For tree crops, the use
of soil and/or plant sensors may be useful [114]. Minimizing percolation losses should
be a main objective of scheduling [139].
Microirrigation systems allow precise control of flow rate, duration, and frequency of
irrigations. However, in collective pressurized systems, unexpected pressure variations
may occur in the supply system. These variations can be high during periods of peak de-
mand. The application duration has to be increased when pressure drops. Flowmeters are
critical to show that the desired amount of water has in fact been applied. These problems
are reduced when pressure regulators or pressure-compensating emitters are used.
Fertigation is discussed by many authors [98, 122, 124, 128]. It is recommended that
fertigation not be limited to the application of primary fertilizers (N, P, and K) but include
other nutrients according to the soil conditions and plant requirements. Fertigation may
cause contamination of soils and groundwater when excessive quantities of chemical ions
are applied. Thus the composition of the nutrient solution has to be based on soil analysis
and nutrient requirements. Concentration and composition of the nutrient solution should
change during the season as the nutrient requirements change with the crop development.
5.4.5 System Selection

The first decision that an irrigation designer must make is the selection of the irrigation
method. This choice depends on both physical and socioeconomic factors, including the
cost, availability, and quality of the water supply; the soil type; the field topography and
geometry; the crop type and value; the labor cost and availability, material costs, energy
costs; and the practicability and availability of the various technologies [140]. Table 5.14
gives a brief summary of how these factors affect selection of the irrigation system. The
listed characteristics are not strict guidelines. Economics and innovative design often
can supersede physical limitations.
Table 5.14. Characteristics that favor each of the irrigation methods
Surface Sprinkler
Factor Irrigation Irrigation Microirrigation
Water cost Low Medium High
Water availability Periodic or irregular Regular Continuous
Water cleanliness Any Minimal trash Clean
or sand
Soil infiltration Medium to Medium to high Any
low rate; uniform
Soil water storage High Medium Low
Surface topography Uniform, low slope Uniform to somewhat Irregular
irregular
Crop geometry Any Low-growing Wide-spaced
Water stress sensitivity Low Moderate High
Crop value Low Moderate High
Cost of labor Low Varies with High
the system
Cost of energy High Low Moderate
Capital availability Low Medium to high High
Technology availability Low Medium to high High
Table 5.15. Estimated seasonal water

application efficiency by method of irrigation
Efficiency Surface Sprinkler Micro

Potential (%) 60–80 75–90 90–95
Actual (%) 30–80 50–80 65–90
The water application efficiency of the various irrigation methods varies with con-
ditions and system type, and it is difficult to estimate (Table 5.15). Surface irrigation
is often relatively inefficient because of lack of water control and the dependence on
inherently variable soils. The potential efficiency of microirrigation is very high but re-
quires good system design, maintenance, and operation. Sprinkler irrigation also can be
efficient, especially when used under low-wind conditions. Measurements in the United
States show that these systems often do not reach their potentials [105].
To support system selection, Table 5.16, containing indicative values for initial invest-
ment costs, economic equipment life, and maintenance costs, is provided (complemen-
tary information is given by Keller [141]). The table also includes the expected range
for the seasonal application efficiencies of the systems. This information is helpful for
estimating the gross irrigation water requirements [Section 5.1, Eq. (5.92)]. However,
Table 5.16 does not refer to traditional surface irrigation, which has very low investment
in equipment and often produces uniformity and efficiency near the lower values in
Table 5.15.
Table 5.16. Costs and efficiencies of different types of modern on-farm irrigation systems
Irrigation Method Equipment Initial Cost Economic Annual Maintenance Application

and Type (U.S. dollars/ha)a Life (years) (% of cost) Efficiency (%)
Surface precision
Basin (level) 370–1,085 10–15 10 70–90
Border 370–1,085 10–15 10 70–85
Furrow 150–750 10–15 3–5 65–85
Conveyance
Lined 400–1,250 15 3 —
Piped 800–2,500 20 1 —
Automation 300 10 5 —
Sprinkle
Lateral
Hand-move 450–675 15 2 65–80
End-tow 600–950 10 3 65–75
Side-roll 800–1,100 15 2 65–80
Side-move 950–1,350 15 4 65–80
Hose-fed 450–675 5–20 3 60–80
Traveling gun 950–1,200 10 6 55–70
Center-pivotb
Standard (400 m) 1,100 15 5 70–85
w/Corner 1,200 15 6 65–85
Long (500 m) 700 15 5 65–85
Linear Moveb
Ditch-feed 1,100–1,300 15 6 65–85
Pipe-feed 1,600–2,050 15 6 65–85
Solid-Set
Portable 2,700–3,250 15 2 65–75
Permanent 2,300–3,500 20 1 65–75
Microirrigation
Orchard
Drip/spray 1,500–3,500 10–20 3 75–90
Bubbler 2,500–4,000 15 2 60–85
Row-crop
Drip Tubing 2,000–5,000 10–20 3 65–90
Thin-wall tubing 1,650–3,000 1–20 20 60–80
a
1992 prices.
b
Costs more than double when systems irrigate smaller areas (<30 ha).
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5.5 Crop Water Management

J. M. Tarjuelo and J. A. de Juan
5.5.1 Introduction
Water is a finite resource essential for all forms of life; without water, life as currently
known could not exist. Most of the hydrosphere is salt water (97.20%); freshwater rep-
resents only 0.65% (8.5 × 106 km3 ). This quantity of water is not uniformly distributed,
in either space or time. In many countries and continents the freshwater supply is be-
coming scarce or has become an actual problem. Drought has aggravated the situation.
During the past 20 years, the population has increased significantly. As a result, water
requirements also have increased.
Over the next 40 years, the world’s population will increase from 5.3 × 109 to about
9 × 109 inhabitants. Thus, the agricultural sector will be encouraged to duplicate the
world’s food production and to improve average yields and the proportion of irrigated
lands. More than 82% of the world’s crop land is not irrigated, depending only on rain. In
many potentially arable lands of semiarid areas, water is a limiting factor and high costs
often make irrigation schemes unattractive. A large part of rainfed agriculture requires
soil and water conservation measures and techniques aimed at preventing degradation
and maintaining yield potentials. Sustainable rainfed agriculture requires management
of the land so that production and productivity are enhanced while a healthy ecological
balance is sustained within the agricultural ecosystem.
Irrigated lands include 18% of cultivated land, but produce 33% of the food that is nec-
essary for the world population. Technologies and management techniques are available
to improve the use of irrigation water, including off-farm and on-farm measures for im-
proving efficiency and conservation. Irrigation scheduling for example, is a management
technique that helps to determine the timing and the amounts of water to be applied.
In summary, water resources play a major role in agriculture in general, and in irri-
gated agriculture in particular. Unfortunately, our ability to substantially increase crop
production in dryland farming has not been given as much attention as it has been
in irrigated agriculture. Efficient water use in irrigated agriculture can achieve several
goals, such as conserving freshwater, maintaining high standards of public safety, and
improving environmental quality. Water availability can be controlled through irriga-
tion and also through a range of other management techniques. To maximize water-
use efficiency when water supplies are limited, the farm manager has a variety of
options available. This chapter discusses water management in rainfed and irrigated
agriculture.
5.5.2 Effects of Water Deficits

All of the processes of carbon gain and loss can be influenced by stress. In fact, stress
can be defined as any factor, in excess or in deficit, that detrimentally affects the normal
functioning of a plant, altering any aspect of a plant’s carbon balance [1].
The ecological influence of water is the result of its physiological importance. The
major role of water can be summarized by listing its most important functions under
four general headings: constituent, solvent, reactant, and maintenance of turgidity [2].
Crop Water Management 381
A water deficit therefore can affect the majority of aspects related to growth: anatomy,
morphology, and physiology [3].
The system that describes the behavior of water and water movement in soils and plants
is based on a potential-energy relationship. Water has the capacity to do work; it will
move from an area of high potential energy to one of low potential energy. The potential
energy in aqueous systems is expressed by comparing it with the potential energy of pure
water. The water in plants and soils usually is not chemically pure because of solute and
it is physically constrained by forces such as polar attractions, gravity, and pressure. As
a result, the potential energy is less than that of pure water. In plants and soils, potential
energy of water is called water potential. It is usually negative; the more negative the
value, the lower is the water potential.
Water potential (kPa) is the sum of several components of potential:
1. 9m , matrix potential, the force with which water is held to plant and soil con-
stituents by forces of adsorption and capillarity;
2. 9s , solute potential (osmotic potential), the potential energy of water as influenced
by solute concentration;
3. 9 p , pressure potential (turgor pressure), the force caused by hydrostatic pressure,
and it usually has a positive value; and
4. 9g , gravitational potential, which is always present but usually is insignificant in
short plants, compared with the other three.
Because gravity can be omitted in most cases, water potential remains 9 = −9s + 9 p .
In a transpiring plant, the absolute value of 9s will exceed that of 9 p , yielding a negative
value.
The concept of water potential fulfills two main functions: It governs the direction of
water flow across cell membranes and is the driving force for water movement from the
soil into the roots, and it is a measure of the water status of a plant. Water potential is
the most commonly measured parameter which is closely connected to plant functions.
Thus, a decrease in 9 under given conditions relative to 9 of well-watered plants can
be correlated with yield and productivity. The water movement through the Soil-Plant-
Atmosphere Continuum (SPAC) is explained as occurring along a decreasing water-
potential gradient, 9. The potential gradients among the components of the system
constitute the driving force for the flow within the system. Processes might be noted as
analogous to the Ohm’s Law:
Difference in water potential (19)

Water flow = (5.169)
Resistance
In other words, the water flow through each component of the system is determined by
the existing potential gradient and by the resistance in the own segment.
It is assumed that forces causing movement are tensions originated by the large mass
flux generated during transpiration and, occasionally, by the root pressure when a plant
transpirates very slowly. Thus, the direction and, partly, the water movement rate in the
SPAC depend on the gradient of water potential. The higher water potential in the soil,
the higher the gradient. Irrigation increases the soil’s water potential and decreases the
resistance to flow. Hence, root water absorption is favored. Water balance and the water
movement within the plant are determined by water relationships at cell level. The hydric
potential in a plant cell is the same throughout when the cell has hydric equilibrium.
However the potential components might vary. When the cell undergoes changes in its
hydric potential then water comes in or goes out of the cell. These changes affect its
turgor, volume and solute concentration. During the daytime the behavior of stomata
depends on the guard cell’s 9 p . This potential depends on capability of the plant to
absorb water and to replace water losses provoked by transpiration. When 9 p comes
close to zero, the stomata begins to close. Then the resistance to the water vapor transport
goes up and transpiration is consequently limited. This function of the stomata lessens
the development of severe water stress that would damage tissues. A plant becomes water
stressed when hydric and pressure potentials are sufficiently lowered so as to alter normal
performance [3]. These low values of hydric potential at the leaf level can be reached
due to various causes: low values of hydric potential in the soil, high transpiration flows,
or elevated resistance to flow:
9l = 9s + 19g − Tr · Rsl , (5.170)
where 9l is the hydric potential of the leaf, 9s is the hydric potential of the soil, 19g is the
difference in gravitational potential between the soil and the leaf, Tr is the transpiration
flux, and Rsl is flow resistance from soil to leaf.
The hydric status of a plant is determined by an entire series of environmental and
physiological factors represented in diagram form in Fig. 5.37.
Four main factors control the plant’s water balance [4]:
1. soil water potential and factors involved at its level, such as rain, irrigation water,
crop water extraction, soil texture, structure, and depth, and root distribution and
dynamics.
2. evapotranspiration rate, which implies several environmental factors (e.g., radia-
tion, air humidity, temperature, and wind) and physiological factors (leaf area and
exposition, plant canopy, stomatal conductance).
3. water conductance in roots, stems, and leaves, which depends on the physicochem-
ical characteristics of the plant tissues and affects the water-movement velocity
through the plant and the water equilibrium among the plant organs.
Figure 5.37. Diagram of factors controlling hydric status of a plant: Ψ = hydric

potential; P = turgidity; and E = evaporation Source: Adapted from [4].
4. relation between the hydric and other water-status measures (e.g., turgor pressure,
osmotic potential, or water content), which might be affected by factors such as
osmotic regulation, cell-size alterations, and cell-wall elasticity.
The parameters commonly used as indicators of the plant’s hydric status are the
relative water content (RWC); the hydric potential of a tissue or organ, 9; and the
hydric potential components, 9s and 9 p . A comprehensive review [5] of methods for
measuring water deficit will provide newcomers to the field with an array of direct and
indirect techniques for measuring water status of a plant.
An indicator of water status is tissue water content, which can be measured easily with
high accuracy, on either a fresh-weight or a dry-weight basis. However, earlier works [6]
have shown that the water-holding capacity of different organs or tissues of a plant can
vary widely, because of variation in the dry-matter content of the tissue. Consequently,
the parameter used is normalized RWC, which is the water content relative to that when
the tissue is saturated with water and 9 is zero. As implied in its definition, RWC is a
measurement of tissue volume maintenance and water holding and is linked closely with
plant functions. This parameter and its possible errors have been reviewed [7].
Many methods have been developed to determine 9 within tissues. These methods
have been widely reviewed [5, 8]. At present, methods based on thermocouple psychrom-
etry and the pressure chamber method are the most commonly used and are considered
to be accurate.
Technical bases and management of psycrometers and hygrometers have been dis-
cussed [7–11]. These methods determine 9 by measuring air humidity in equilibrium
with the tissue sample. They are based on the fact that 9 is the same throughout the water
phases when there is equilibrium. Then, 9 is determined in the liquid phase from 9 of
the vapor phase. With the psychrometer technique, thermocouples function like wet and
dry bulbs to measure humidity. With the hygrometric technique, humidity is determined
by using thermocouples to measure the dew point of the air.
Measures of 9 using psycrometric techniques are subject to several errors [7], for
example, from heat produced by respiration of the tissue sample, incomplete equilibrium
because of resistance of leaf tissues to the vapor transfer, or calibration errors.
The pressure chamber is the device more commonly employed for estimating wa-
ter potential of leaves and shoots. The development of this technique is essentially due
to Scholander et al. [12], although other authors [13–14] worked on the same bases
before them. There is experimental evidence that leaf 9 measured with the pressure
chamber is quite similar (numerically) to its potential measured by using psycrometry
techniques.
The solute or osmotic, 9s , and the pressure, 9 p , components of 9 can be measured
separately, but the most common practice is to measure 9 and 9s , and then to calculate
9 p as the difference between them. The solute potential is measured directly from the
cell liquid extracted from the tissue after destroying the cell walls by freezing (immersion
in liquid nitrogen). The measuring methods are refractometry, based on the refraction
change; cryoscopy, based on determination of the decline in the freezing point of water
in a sample of cell liquid; and thermocouple psycrometry in which 9s is measured after
eliminating the turgor pressure [7].
Several nondestructive methods have been developed for the study of the water content
changes within plant organs [7]. The change of leaf water content is detected from
β particles absorbed by a leaf irradiated with these particles. In trunks and shoots,
the diameter size allows estimation of changes in water content. Dendrometers allow
detection of both stem contractions and dilations associated with the day cycle of the
plant’s water content [15].
Water stress affects stomata behavior, and so, the stomatal conductance can be consid-
ered as a plant-stress indicator. In addition, stomatal conductance is well correlated with
the rate of photosynthesis, which also depends on water status. Stomatal conductance
usually is measured with a diffusion porometer, which allows precise measurement in
situ. There are two kinds of porometers [11]: carrier porometers, where the leaf is in
contact with a chamber equipped with sensors capable of responding to changes in hu-
midity, thus changing electrical resistance; and steady-state diffusion porometers, where
measurement of the dry-air flow that is necessary to balance water transpired by the
leaf within the chamber offers an estimate of stomatal resistance, by keeping the vapor
density constant within the chamber.
When stomata close partially or fully under water stress, the energy balance of the crop
canopy is altered. Hence, increasing its values also alters the canopy temperature. The
transpiration process leads to a cooling effect on the leaf in relation to air temperature.
Differences between air and leaf temperature are related to the leaf’s hydric potential
[16].
In stressed plants, 9 is low and the water tension within the xylem is very high, which
suddenly induces discontinuities in the liquid continuum. As a result, spaces are formed
and filled with air or water vapor and the water flow is disabled. This process is known
as cavitation. The greater the water deficit, the greater is the number of cavitated spaces
[17]. The explosion frequency might be considered as a specific index of the hydric status
for a crop species [7].
The growth of leaves and branches is undoubtedly the process most susceptible to
water stress [7]. Several studies have shown that leaf 9 depletion under a threshold
(obtained with nonstressed plants) reduces organ growth [11]. This suggests that the
water status of plants might be inferred from measures of leaf and branch growth.
The most obvious general effects of water stress are the reduction in plant size, leaf
area, and crop yield. Water deficits affect the major growth and metabolic processes of
plants. Plants can maintain their turgor potential by osmotic balance. However, species
and cultivars vary in amount of osmotic balance. Organs of the same plant differ in
the amount of osmotic balance, which may be important for short-term survival under
drought, but not for long-term survival. Betaine and proline are two osmolytes that
accumulate under drought and permit a plant to lower its osmotic potential without
damaging metabolic functions. Accumulation of osmolytes differs among species and
cultivars and may be subject to genetic control.
The quantity and quality of plant growth depend on cell division, enlargement, and
differentiation, and all are affected by water deficits, but not necessarily to the same
extent. In addition to affecting leaf expansion, water deficits can affect leaf area by
senescence and death of leaves during all phases of growth. Water deficits also reduce
tilling and increase the death rate of tillers in multitilled species, thereby influencing
the leaf area of a plant canopy. The effect of stress during the vegetative stage is the
development of smaller leaves, which reduces the leaf area index (LAI) at maturity and
results in less light interception by the crop.
The effects of water stress on reproductive differentiation are even greater. Spike
elongation and spikelet formation of cereals are inhibited by water stress. If this occurs
at early anthesis, flowers are injured and the number and size of seeds are reduced.
Water deficits are sufficient to close stomata and reduce photosynthesis and also to
decrease dark respiration. The decrease in the rate of dark respiration is less than the de-
crease in photosynthesis. A review of the literature [18] concluded that photorespiration
was unaffected by short-term stress in crop species but that, ultimately, photorespiration
decreased as the substrates for photorespiration were depleted.
Generally, mild water stress for brief periods results in reductions in protein synthesis,
hydrolysis of proteins, and accumulation of amino acids, especially proline. Severe
prolonged stress is necessary for major damage to occur. Under moderate to severe
stress conditions, the amino acid proline increases in larger concentration than any other
amino acid. Proline seems to aid in drought tolerance, acting as a storage pool for nitrogen
and/or as a solute molecule reducing the 9s of the cytoplasm [19]. At extreme levels
of stress, respiration, CO2 assimilation, assimilate translocation, and xylem transport
rapidly decrease to lower levels whereas the activity of hydrolytic enzymes increases.
Chlorophyll synthesis is inhibited at higher water deficits.
The effects of water deficits on the actual distribution of assimilates to the various
plant organs depends on the stage of development of the plant, the degree of and previous
periods under stress, and the degree of sensitivity to stress of the various plant organs.
With reduced water potentials, plant hormones also change in concentration. For
example, abscisic acid (ABA) undoubtedly increases in stressed leaves and fruits, leading
to stomatal closure. Several studies indicate that drought-resistant cultivars accumulate
more ABA than do drought-sensitive cultivars. Increased ethylene production is a general
response of plant tissues to environmental stress, including water stress. Cytokinin (CK)
content decreases in tissues under conditions of water stress. Leaf senescence associated
with water stress could be due to a reduced supply of CK. Both CK and ABA can modify
the rate of ethylene synthesis in water-stressed leaves, emphasizing the importance of
considering hormonal interaction. Evidence exists that water stress causes a moderate
reduction in indoleacetic acid.
The effect of water stress on production has been the most relevant aspect from an
agronomic point of view. The amount of injury caused by water stress depends to a
considerable extent on the stage of plant development at which it occurs. Reproductive
stages of growth are often the most sensitive to drought. The effect of soil water deficit
on flowering and fruit formation depends on the timing and severity of the water deficit.
Flowering is affected most severely by water stress at or just before peak flowering.
Possible causes include reduced photosynthate supply, reduced turgor, and low relative
humidity. The effect of water deficit during fruit formation is primarily to reduce the
number of fruits formed while scarcely affecting weight per fruit. The effect of drought
depends on the timing of water deficit relative to achieving a sufficient number of fruits
of that minimum size and on availability of photoassimilates to fill the existing fruits.
Grain yield is determined more by the total photosynthesis taking place during the entire
season than by photosynthesis occurring during the grain-filling period alone.
Water deficits during seed filling have been reported to reduce weight per seed and
weight per fruit. Even different stages of grain filling are differentially sensitive to
drought. Kernel growth is decreased at lower water potential than photosynthesis.
For seed yield, the timing of water stress may be as important as the degree of stress.
In the case of several species, such as maize, a severe four-day stress at certain stages
of the reproductive cycle might be critical [20]. Pollination (silking) and the two weeks
following are the periods most sensitive to water stress; the number of kernels per ear
is the yield component most drastically affected. Three weeks after pollination, water
stress no longer affects kernel number but does decrease kernel weight. A similar pattern
also exists for wheat, another determinate species [21].
Indeterminate crop species that have the potential to flower over a longer period of
time may be less sensitive to water stress. Short-term severe water stress during early
flowering of soybeans causes little reduction in seed yield because the plant has time to
germinate more flowers after stress is removed [22]. However, flowers produced late in
the flowering period are less likely to produce mature pods. The yield component most
influenced by water stress at flowering is the number of pods per plant. The stage most
sensitive to water stress is late pod development and midbean filling.
Root elongation and dry weight are not affected by water deficit as much as leaf area,
stem elongation, and dry weight of tops. Roots extend into areas where available water
is not depleted, resulting in less reduction of cell elongation. Thus, root-shoot ratios
generally are increased by water stress.
Water stress is not always injurious. Although it reduces vegetative growth, it some-
times improves the quality of plant products. For example, moderate water stress is said
to improve the quality of apples, peaches, pears, and prunes, and to increase the protein
content of hard wheat [3].
5.5.3 Effects of Water Excess on Plant Physiology

In waterlogged soils, the volume occupied by air is reduced to less than 10% of the
total volume of the soil. A low availability of oxygen in the root zone also can be caused
by high temperatures, organic matter, or a combination of these factors. The presence
of excess water greatly modifies the soil profile, altering its chemical and biological
properties. This same physical change in the rooting medium, characterized by the
complete disappearance of a gaseous stage, could prove to be the most damaging element
for plant survival. In this situation the absorption of water by roots is limited, producing
stress symptoms similar to those of drought, although the causes and mechanisms are
distinct [23]. Figure 5.38 outlines the processes leading to reductions in plant growth
and crop yields due to excessive soil water.
The wilting of aerial organs is one of the first signs of the effects of excess water. In
anaerobiosis, even during a short period of time, roots become less permeable to water,
therefore increasing resistance to absorption. Water lost through transpiration exceeds
the water absorbed by the roots, causing changes in the water status of plants, drop in
Figure 5.38. Processes leading to reductions in plant growth and grain yields due to excessive
soil water.
leaf water potential, stomatal closing, reduction in stomatal conductance, and decrease in
the rate of photosynthesis [24]. Nevertheless, many studies show that flooding provokes
stomatal closure while maintaining leaf water potential [25].
Several biochemical reactions that are required for plant nutrition and growth depend
directly on respiratory metabolism. The absorption of nutrients is relatively constant as
long as the concentration of oxygen does not descend below 10% of the total volume
of the soil [26]. When oxygen is lacking, a differential rate of absorption of elements is
observed. The order of sensitivity is K > N > P > Ca > Mg [27]. Sodium, on the other
hand, accumulates in plants when aeration is insufficient.
Other effects are chlorosis and lower enzymatic activity (carboxylase), epinasty, ab-
scission of leaves, hypertrophy of shoots, adventitious root formation, lenticel formation,
decreased dry-weight accumulation, reduced root and root hair formation, root death,
greater susceptibility to pathogen attacks, and finally plant death. In some species, flood-
ing causes formation of aerenchyma in stems and roots or, less commonly, promotes
petiole or shoot elongation. These symptoms are very similar to the effects of ethylene.
Oxygen deficiency or hypoxia in the soil also may influence root and shoot hormone links,
which affects plant response to waterlogging. In general, prolonged or intense periods
of rainfall combined with poor soil drainage often increases ABA content and ethylene
and indoleacetic acid in the aerial organs, whereas gibberellins and cytokinins at the root
apex diminish. Also, proline content in the leaves increases and the nitrate-reductase
enzyme is reduced.
Some species are able to adapt to soils with an excess of water, thanks to modifications
in structure and functioning. The roots can lignify and develop tissues containing air
pockets. On the other hand, new roots appear rapidly in resistant species, whereas they
develop much more slowly in sensitive species.
Until recently, studies of flooding tolerance have been focused specifically on
aerenchyma development [28] and the terminal products of anaerobic respiration [29]
rather than on the role of hormones, such as ethylene production. However ethylene
apparently plays an important role in improving root survival and thus survival of whole
plants under anaerobic conditions of prolonged waterlogging [30]. Enhanced endoge-
nous ethylene levels following hypoxia induced the breakdown of critical cells and thus
promoted lysigeneous aerenchyma in roots of maize [31].
However, the role of ethylene in the promotion of lysigeneous aerenchyma in cortical
cells of rice is apparently cultivar dependent [32]. Ethylene also stimulates development
of adventitious roots and influences root extension rate.
The amount of injury depends on the crop species, the cultivar, the stage of plant
development, the soil and air temperatures, and on the duration of waterlogging. Inter-
mittent flooding is less damaging than continuous flooding, and the longer the duration
of flooding, the greater the damage. There is a strong interaction between crop yield and
soil temperature during inundation or waterlogging. High soil temperature conditions
lead to oxygen deficiency in the soil profile because oxygen is depleted at a faster rate
than it can be replenished from the atmosphere. Flooding during different growth stages
has different effects on crop growth and final yield. Flooding during the early growth
stage has the greatest impact. In grain crops, oxygen deficits provoke a yellowing of the
plant and premature aging of the oldest leaves. Tilling, flowering, and grain filling are
the growth stages most sensitive to water excess in cereals.
5.5.4 Water-Use Efficiency (WUE)

The term “transpiration ratio” (TR) was introduced [33] to quantify the relation be-
tween crop transpiration and crop dry-matter production. TR is defined as the mass ratio
of crop transpiration to crop dry-matter production. This term was later called the tran-
spiration coefficient. The TR concept has been expanded and improved by normalizing
the transpiration by the mean daily potential evaporation during the growing season [34].
The analysis of photosynthesis and transpiration based on physiology allows a more
clear comprehension of those processes [35]. Water evaporates from the inside of the
stomatal cavity and passes to air through the stomatal opening. During photosynthesis,
CO2 transfers in the opposite direction. The transpiration rate, TL , per unit of leaf area
is determined by the vapor-pressure difference between the evaporative surface within
the leaf (eo ) and air (ea ), and by the resistance to the water-vapor transfer:
ρε(eo − ea )
TL = , (5.171)
p(rs − ra )
where rs and ra are stomatal resistance and layer (aerodynamic) resistance to the diffusion
of water vapor, ρ is the humid-air density, ε is the ratio of molecular weight of water
vapor in relation to that of the air, and p is the air pressure. The photosynthesis rate, N L ,
per unit of leaf area, is determined by the difference between the concentration of CO2
within the leaf (co ) and the outside air (ca ) and the resistance to the CO2 transfer:
ca − co
NL = 0 (5.172)
rst + ra0
where rst0 and ra0 are the stomatal resistance and the boundary-layer resistance, respec-
tively, to the CO2 transfer. Thus, the photosynthesis transpiration ratio is expressed as
NL (ca − co )(rst + ra ) p
= ¡ ¢ . (5.173)
TL (eo − ea ) rst0 + ra0 ρε
It has been noticed that, because the daily average temperature of a leaf is normally
very close to the air temperature, (eo − ea ) will be almost equal to the vapor-pressure
deficit (es − ea ), where es is the saturation vapor pressure and ea is the actual vapor
pressure [36]. Equation (5.174) can be inferred by using the former estimates, which are
derived by considering the behavior of an isolated leaf, as well as assuming that crops
may be similarly described:
N k
= , (5.174)
T es − ea
where k is a crop-specific constant. The review by Tanner and Sinclair [37] suggests that
k is a very stable term within the crop system and that transpiration efficiency, N /T ,
depends on (es − ea ).
WUE is defined differently. The photosynthetic WUE is defined as the ratio of leaf
net assimilation to leaf transpiration, A/T [38]. When WUE is enhanced, more carbon
is gained per unit of water used by plants [39].
The biomass WUE of field crops is defined as follows:
R tf
t aboveground biomass
biomass WUE = 0 R tf (5.175)
t0 ET
where ET is plant or canopy evapotranspiration and t0 and t f are initial and final time
limits for the integration. The timescales are medium (week) and long term (season).
When soil evaporation in ET is assumed to be negligible, biomass WUE equals biomass
water ratio (BWR) [38].
Agronomists have preferred the ratio of usable or marketable yield (which is ex-
pressed as fresh weight) to unit mass of ET. The yield WUE is defined as the product of
aboveground consumptive biomass WUE (biomass WUE) times the harvest index (HI).
In this case, the timescale is the whole crop cycle. HI is the ratio of usable reproductive-
organ yield to total dry-matter production.
The two main factors that directly affect the WUE of a crop are crop species and geno-
types (through regulation of internal CO2 concentration by the photosynthesis pathway)
and environmental conditions (mainly through the atmospheric humidity, radiative flux,
temperature, precipitation, and evaporative demand).
Biomass WUE may differ between species. Large differences in biomass WUE occur
when species are categorized by CO2 fixation pathways. It is now accepted that the
biomass WUE of C4 species, so-called because of the foul-carbon malic or aspartic
acid present in the basic photosynthesis, is generally higher than that of C3 species,
so-called because of the three-carbon phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) present in the basic
photosynthesis reaction. Earlier field data for biomass WUE [33], when regrouped into
C3 and C4 species, illustrate a two-fold increase for C4 species. Stanhill [40] reported
values of BWR of 2.9 to 3.7 kg m−3 and 1.2 to 2.7 kg m−3 for the C4 and C3 species,
respectively. Differences between C3 and C4 species increase as the temperature rises
from 20◦ C to 35◦ C. The factors contributing to the higher biomass WUE of C4 species
include higher photosynthesis and growth rates under high light and temperature, and
more stomatal resistance [18].
The major environmental factor influencing the WUE of a crop is vapor-pressure
deficit (VPD). Monteith [41] questioned whether transpiration or photosynthesis was the
independent process in the TR. Because the internal CO2 concentration is regulated by
the plant species through its photosynthesis pathway, he argued that plants dynamically
balance their leaf conductance to maintain this CO2 concentration, thereby indirectly
regulating transpiration.
Increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations generally escalates photosynthetic rates
and the plant biomass production. A doubling of atmospheric CO2 concentrations in-
creases biomass production by an average of 33% in several vegetal species [42]. This
buildup in biomass production, coupled with a reduction in ET, results in a significant
increase in plant WUE. Both forest and agricultural species have been shown to double
WUE under a doubling of atmospheric CO2 concentration [43]. More than 500 stud-
ies analyzing the effects of increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration have reported an
acceleration in crop yield, biomass production, leaf area, and photosynthetic rates, as
well as decrease in plant water-use requirements [44]. An increase in biomass and leaf
area implies that plants can transpire more water. However, the reduction in transpira-
tion caused by an increase in stomatal resistance may result in a cumulative decrease
in evapotranspiration [45]. The photosynthetic reactions of C3 plants are more sensitive
than those of C4 plants to increased CO2 concentrations, resulting in a larger escalation
in biomass production in C3 plants.
Air temperature usually operates through its effect on VPD, which is the major envi-
ronmental factor influencing WUE of a crop species.
Other environmental factors that influence WUE are radiative flux and soil water
availability. Diurnal changes in biomass WUE occur in response to radiative flux and
VPD. Seasonal changes may be related to different temperature or growth stages. For
maximum biomass WUE, there is an optimum radiation that is usually lower than the
radiation incident on a leaf oriented normal to the sun [46].
Biomass WUE generally is increased by drought because of reduced evaporation
from the soil surface, whereas yield WUE is generally less because of adverse effects on
reproductive growth. These effects depend on intensity and duration of the stress, along
with the phenological stage of the plant at which stress is occurring. In dryland cropping,
where water deficits cannot be controlled by irrigation, a severe deficit can considerably
lower yield WUE.
In subhumid regions, because of the low VPD, crop production and BWR may be
substantially higher than in arid regions [37].
Other factors interact with these two main factors, including soil infiltrability, water-
holding capacity and water depth, soil salinity, soil fertility, weed competition, pests and
diseases, cultivation techniques (seeding rates, seeding date, row spacing, and tillage),
and institutional and socioeconomic factors.
Improved crop management and plant breeding have led to substantial gains in WUE.
Most of these gains are derived from increased leaf area production, larger water avail-
ability due to deeper roots and/or better water extraction, and an increase in HI.
WUE can be increased [47] by increasing the HI; reducing TR; reducing the root dry
matter; and increasing the transpiration component relative to the other water-balance
components, in particular reducing the evaporation of soil surface, the drainage below
the root zone, and the runoff.
Three options exist for improving the TR for dryland crop production systems [48],
which also apply to irrigated crop production: plant manipulation to increase the pho-
tosynthesis rate; utilization of the growing season with the lowest atmospheric VPD;
and manipulations of crop nutrition so that less dry matter is partitioned into the roots
without limiting their water extraction capacity.
WUE can be enhanced by modifying cultural practices, such as land preparation,
irrigation, cultivation, and crop selection or genetic modification of the plant [49]. The
latter provides short-term solutions, whereas the former is more of a long-term solution.
Five options for improving the WUE are biochemical modifications, control of stomatal
physiology, HI improvement; crop microenvironment changes, and increase in the frac-
tion of transpired water out of the total amount of water used during the growing season
[50]. Among these options, the first two are in the domain of plant breeding and genetics
and the third is partly so.
WUE is not the same as drought resistance. Most of the research on WUE has been ori-
ented toward attaining high yield WUE while maintaining high productivity. In drought
resistance research, emphasis often is placed on survival during periods of high atmo-
spheric demand and low water availability. In many cases, the ability to withstand severe
moisture stress is negatively correlated with productivity. Many species that can tol-
erate severe water deficits do not make efficient use of water in the absence of stress.
Some species, well-adapted to severe water deficits, have moderate efficiency even in
the presence of stress.
Drought resistance can take the form of tolerance or avoidance. Avoidance is ac-
complished by reducing the length of the season or by increasing rooting depth and
water extraction from the lower profile. Drought tolerance refers to plant adaptation
to deficits through physiological and morphological processes that limit transpiration
losses and/or condition plants to withstand lowered water potentials. The seasonal pro-
gression of temperature, the distribution and intensity of rainfall, and the availability of
soil moisture largely govern which attributes of the plant might be beneficially altered to
enhance WUE. These attributes might include deep rooting to exploit stored soil mois-
ture during long droughts, stomata that close quickly at threshold water potentials, waxy
leaves to increase reflection of radiation, reduced stomatal density to limit transpiration,
leaf rolling to reduce light interception, survival of protracted drought, premature leaf
Table 5.17. Drought resistance mechanism and traits for plant breeding strategies
Mechanism Characteristics/Traits Benefits

Drought escape
Rapid phenological Short biological cycle Lower total water demand
development
Development plasticity Branching/tillering and variation Lower reduction in seed
in flower, floret, and panicle numbers
Drought avoidance
Reduction of water losses
stomatal resistance(+) Size, number, and opening Less transpirate
of stomata
evaporative surface(-) Leaf rolling, smaller and Smalter loss surface and less
fewer leaves, senescence radiation absorbed
radiation interception(-) Leaf pubescence and leaf Higher reflectivity and less
orientation radiation
cuticular resistance(+) Thicker and tighter cuticules Lower transpiration, higher
resistance to desiccation
epicuticular wax(+) Waxiness Lower transpiration, higher
resistance to dissecation
Maintenance of water
extraction
root depth and density(+) More extensive and intensive Lower root and soil resistances
rooting
liquid- phase More or larger xylems in Lower resistance to water fluxes
conductance(+) roots and stems
Drought tolerance
Maintenance of turgor
osmotic adjustment Water potential kinetics Decrease osmotic potential in
response to stress
cellular elasticity(-) Cell membranes Larger changes in volume
cell size(-) Cell size Increased bound water fraction
(in cell wall)
Tissue water capacitance Favorable water potential kinetics Ability to maintain the daily
water balance
Dissecation tolerance Photoplasmic and chloroplast Maintenance of photosynthesis
conditions
Accumulation of solutes Abscisic acid, ethylene, Regulation of senescence and
proline, betaine abscission
(+)Increment.
(-)Depletion.
senescence, or maintenance of extension growth under severe stress. These processes

have been reviewed [9]. Table 5.17 summarizes this information from the literature from
which plant breeders can better plan their strategies.
Genetic variation in WUE has been detected in crop species [33, 51–53], but most
crop improvement programs do not emphasize WUE, even though this should be an
important trait in water-limited environments. The lack of simple, rapid, and reliable
screening criteria and measurement techniques for WUE has greatly restricted progress
in this critical area of crop improvement.
Plant characteristics are needed for breeding programs that are associated with WUE
and are easier to measure, and thus, more suited to selection [52].
Highly significant genotype and drought effects on specific leaf weight (SLW = dry
weight/unit projected leaf area) have been observed [53]. However, genotype differences
in SLW were not associated with differences in WUE. Under drought, the root/shoot
ratio was 32% higher than under wet conditions, but genotype differences were not also
associated in this ratio with WUE classes.
WUE increases under dry conditions because of decreased water use due to reduced
stomatal conductance [54], whereas the ratio of total plant biomass to leaf area (la )
increases because of drought-induced reductions in the rate of leaf expansion and an
increase in allocation of carbohydrates to roots. Virgona et al. [55] reported a similar
association between la and WUE for sunflower genotypes under well-watered conditions,
and suggested that they both might be positively associated with photosynthetic capacity.
Techniques involving stable C isotopes may provide an efficient method for estimat-
ing integrated WUE in tissue of C3 plants [56]. During photosynthetic C assimilation,
plants discriminate against 13 C, fixing a relatively larger portion of CO2 composed of
12
C. Variation in 13 C discrimination in C3 plants depends on leaf intercellular CO2 con-
centration (co ) [57]. Data supporting this theoretical relationship have been provided for
a broad range of C3 plants and have been recently reviewed [56]. That variation has been
shown to be negatively related to WUE in several C3 crop species and has been proposed
as a criterion to select for improved WUE in plant breeding programs [58].
Nonetheless, although such manipulation of plant characteristics remains a goal for
plant breeders, the most immediate and dramatic increase in WUE will be achieved
through improved crop management.
Comparisons between dryland and irrigated conditions indicate that the yield reduc-
tion under dryland conditions can be attributed to a decrease in aboveground biomass
production and to a reduction in HI. During the past 100 years, HI of new cultivars has
been increased through plant breeding. Essentially, the same total dry matter is produced
by new cultivars and, if the growing season has not been shortened, ET remains about
the same. The resulting increases in WUE with new cultivars have been mainly from
increases in HI. For many crops, HI is not totally controlled genetically but is influenced
by environmental factors. This allows the farm manager some responsibility for efficient
water use.
5.5.5 Water Yield Functions

Yield ET Relationships
Crop-water productions relate total dry matter (DM) or crop yield (Y ) to either soil
moisture content or soil water tension, evaporation, transpiration (T ), evapotranspiration
(ETc ), or applied irrigation water (IR).
It has been shown, in container experiments [34], that DM production is linearly
related to the ratio of transpiration to pan evaporation in climates with mostly clear skies
during the growing season. The relationship is expressed as
DM = mT /E, (5.176)
where DM is crop dry-matter production (kg), m is a crop-specific proportionality rate

(mm day−1 ), T is transpiration (kg), and E is pan evaporation (mm day−1 ) averaged over
the growing period. However, in several experiments in The Netherlands, production
was
DM = nT, (5.177)
−1
where n is a crop-specific coefficient (kg kg ).
Arkley [59] showed that the ratio between T and crop production may be distorted
by advection; therefore, he suggested a modified equation for crop production:
DM = ka T /(100 − RH), (5.178)
where ka is a crop-specific coefficient and RH is the mean daily relative air humidity (in
percentages) during the growing season.
Arkley [59] also studied the relationship between crop dry-matter production and the
ratio of transpiration to VPD arranged in the following form:
DM = ka0 T /VPD, (5.179)
where ka0is a crop-specific coefficient. Because H = 100ea /es , the coefficients are related
as follows:
ka0 = 0.01es ka (5.180)
Because es is temperature dependent, the coefficient ka0 would be temperature dependent
also.
For studying only the effects of limited water on crop production, Eqs. (5.176) and
(5.179) could be simplified because m and E would be constant for a given crop in a
given year. The following expression was proposed [60]:
DM/DMm = T /Tm , (5.181)
where DMm is maximum or potential dry-matter production (kg ha−1 ), T is transpiration
for the growing season (mm), and Tm is the maximum or potential transpiration when soil
water does not limit transpiration or yield. T /Tm is an indicator of the relative amount
of CO2 exchange and water exchange taking place at the leaf surface through stomata.
A generalized production function is described [61] as follows:
1 − Y a/Y m = β(1 − ETa /ETm ), (5.182)
where Ya is the actual yield (kg), ETa is the actual seasonal ET (mm), Ym is the maximum
yield (kg), ETm is the seasonal ET for maximum yield (mm), and β is the water-yield
sensitivity coefficient. The normalization of production functions (i.e., its graphic repre-
sentation) considering the grain yield and the seasonal ET in relative terms (as percentage
of its maximum values) is very useful for its comparison with the results attained in other
works.
Figure 5.39 represents the normalized production function for maize crops from
California [61], North Dakota [62], and Zaragoza, Spain [63].
FAO adopted this model [Eq. (5.182)] to develop a method of quantifying the re-
lationship between yield and water [64]. Ym is calculated by de Wit’s [34] approach
Figure 5.39. Normalized corn production functions: (- - -) [61], (........) [62], and
(—–) [63].
modified with several correction factors, and ET is determined by FAO methods [65].
Table 5.18 gives some selected values of β for a few crops [64]. For further reading see
[66–68].
Equation (5.182) is used widely because of its simplicity. It is not difficult in most
instances to estimate a reasonable value for β for prediction purposes. In many situations,
β is close to the same from year to year for the same crop.
An equation accounting for variable water supply at different crop growth stages has
been developed. Each stage is weighted by a sensitivity factor. It is suggested that the
productivity related to the end of a growth stage be determined in order to estimate
the reduction of yield in the subsequent growth stages. Such a hypothesis generally
is accepted for the majority of herbaceous crop species. The following multiplicative
equation applies:
Y
n
Ya /Ym = {1 − βi [1 − (ETa )i /(ETm )i ]} (5.183)
i=1
where i is the generic growth stage; and n is the number of growth stages considered.
This equation was found to give improved predictions in only a few instances compared
to the simpler Eq. (5.182).
Hanks [68] and Howell et al. [66] reviewed many types of yield ET models. Advanced
yield ET models mainly address the effects of severe water deficits during critical crop
growth periods and are called multiperiod or dated models. The effects of water deficits
at specific crop growth stages are most likely related to stress effects on HI and not
necessarily on TR.
Table 5.18. Transpiration ratio (TR), water use efficiency (DM /T ), normalized water
use efficiency (kd ), and yield sensitivity ( β) values for selected crops
TRa DM/T b kd c kd d
Crop (kg kg−1 ) (kg m−3 ) (kg k Pa m−3 ) (kg k Pa m−3 ) βe
Grains
Barley 518 1.9 2.9
Corn 350 2.9 9.5 (11.8) 1.25
Sorghum 304 3.3 8.3 13.8 (11.8) 0.90
Oats 583 1.7
Millet 267 3.7 9.4
Rice 682 1.5 1.1
Rye 634 1.6
Sunflower 557 1.8 0.95
Wheat 557 1.8 3.1 1.10–1.15
Legumes
Alfalfa 844 1.2 4.3 (5.0) 0.7–1.1
Chickpeas 638 1.6 4.8
Cowpeas 569 1.8
Guar 523 1.9
Navy beans 656 1.5
Peanuts 3.9 0.7
Soybeans 715 1.4 4.0 (4.1) 0.9
Root
Potatoes 575 1.7 6.5 (5.5) 1.1
Sugar beets 377 2.7 0.7–1.1
Fiber
Cotton 568 1.8 0.85
Flax 783 1.3
a [40].
b [40].
c [67].
d [37]. Numbers in parentheses are theoretical estimates.
e [65].
Source: [66.]
Crop management (cultivar selection, planting date, sowing date, spatial distribution
of the crop stand, fertilizer applications, etc.) directly affect crop yields through effects on
radiation interception, the partitioning of transpiration from total ET, and the partitioning
of economic yield from total dry matter.
Crop selection is an important management decision for maximizing profits. The
cultivars or hybrid chosen may affect yield in several ways [66]: crop cycle length;
HI (partitioning of dry matter into economic yield); disease and pest insect resistance;
harvesting influences (avoidance of lodging, fruit, grain, or lint retention, etc.); and
harvesting quality (marketing and/or storage properties). Although small differences
may exist for TR within a species, major differences in other yield factors exist.
Early sowing can allow the crop to grow under conditions of lower evaporative de-
mand, resulting in increased water-use efficiency as analyzed by Fereres et al. [69].
HI is affected by sowing rate and row spacing of the crop. Sowing density and spatial
distribution of the crop determine the resulting crop geometry and affect crop yield
and water influencing the solar radiation interception and the partitioning of T from
ET.
Crop-production evapotranspiration relations assume that crop nutrition is adequate
and nonlimiting to production. Crop-fertility management can have both positive and
negative effects on crop productivity when the water supply is fixed and/or limited.
Fertilizer applications to a crop with limited available water could result in early depletion
of the limited soil water and the development of severe water deficits during later critical
crop development stages. With sufficient available soil water and a nutrient-deficient soil,
nutrient additions can result in improved root development and soil water extraction from
deeper soil layers, resulting in yield increases. Inadequate crop nutrition under irrigation
most often affects crop yield through reductions in leaf area, dry matter, and HI.
Removal of crop residues likewise affects soil nutrient availability and water relations.
Such losses of nitrogen over a period of years eventually would reduce soil, fertility levels
and also reduce WUE.
Weeds compete with crop plants for light, water, and nutrients, and especially under
conditions of water deficits, this leads to yield losses. Weeds can be controlled by tillage
and herbicides, as well as by single or combination crop rotations. The increased WUE
resulting from tillage and herbicide applications manipulates the field water balance
to differentially increase the partitioning of T from ET. Reducing tillage reduces the
exposure of wet soil to evaporation, thereby conserving soil water but requiring chemical
weed control to minimize transpiration from weeds. Too many tillage operations may
increase the risk of soil crusting, runoff, and erosion.
Yield Salinity Relationships
Many arid or semiarid soils contain concentrations of soluble salts that have a neg-
ative impact on the efficiency of water use. In irrigated agriculture, salinity is proba-
bly the second most important yield constraint to irrigation. In addition to a direct os-
motic effect and a possible toxicity of specific ions, soil salinity and salts present in the
irrigation water may have a deleterious impact on physical properties such as infiltrabil-
ity, water holding, and aeration, especially if the soil or the water are rich in exchangeable
sodium.
The most desirable characteristics in selecting a crop for irrigation with saline water
are high marketability, high economic value, ease of handling, tolerance to salts and
specific ions, ability to maintain quality under saline conditions, and compatibility in a
crop rotation [70]. However, no crop is outstanding in all of these categories. For example,
the economic value per crop area is negatively correlated with crop salt tolerance [71],
and many high-value crops are sensitive to specific ions.
Because saline conditions reduce both plant growth and seasonal ET, it is important
to develop information on crop water-production functions under saline conditions.
Van Genuchten [71] established four crop response models or functions of salinity.
SALT software offers several options for each model, whose application depends on
information experimentally generated. Most salinity response studies have reported only
the economic-yield component. Few studies have reported any differential yield effects
between the economic yield and dry-matter yield as a result of salinity, although crop
quality may be differentially affected.
A linear response model was developed [72]:
Y = Ym 0 ≤ EC ≤ ECt (5.184)
Y = Ym − Ym s(EC − ECt ) ECt < EC ≤ EC0 (5.185)
Y =0 EC > EC0 , (5.186)
where ECt is the salinity threshold (dS m−1 ) (salinity from Y starts to decrease), s is
the sensitivity of the crop to salinity above the threshold level and EC is the electrical
conductivity of the soil solution on the basis of saturation extracts (dS m−1 ). These
relationships are applicable where C is the main ion that affects yield.
Even though the model in Eq. (5.184) is the most widespread due to its conceptual
comprehension and the relative simplicity of fits, it is evident that the concept of threshold
salinity is a simplification of the crop response, which is actually curvilinear in shape.
Yield Irrigation-Depth Relationships
Irrigation is the primary management practice that is utilized to increase crop yields
(or to permit crop production) in semiarid and arid climates. In addition, irrigation is
used to stabilize crop yields when rainfall is unreliable in subhumid and humid climates.
Including irrigation depths (IR) in the ratios of DM production or marketable yield (Y )
to transpiration (T ) or evapotranspiration (ET) is necessary when making both engineer-
ing and economic decisions, to determine the optimal irrigation depths. The difference
between both kinds of ratios is due first, to the fact that all of the water evapotranspirated
by a crop does not come from irrigation and, second, that all of the water applied by
irrigation is not evapotranspirated by the soil-plant set.
Far fewer studies [73] have expressed the relationship of yield to applied irrigation
amount. Water-production functions relating seasonal irrigation depth and crop yield
have been derived for several crops by polynomial regression analyses [74]. The relation
of irrigation to crop production is essentially site specific [75].
Evidence exists that the function of yield applied IR is convex in shape, in contrast
to the linear shape of the yield ET function [76]. The linear [Y = f (ET)] and the convex
[Y = f (IR)] functions coincide up to a point and then diverge as the amount of applied
water increases [77]. The difference between the two curves is the non-ET portion
of applied water. The relationship between DM or Y and IR depends mainly on the
ET function (DM/ET or Y/ET), the irrigation salinity, and the irrigation hydrology
determined by the partitioning of ET and T from IR as influenced by irrigation uniformity.
Crop yields typically are related to seasonal ET and seasonal IR as shown in Fig. 5.40
[77]. In a given season, the available soil water at planting (ASWP) and the effective
rainfall (Pe ) supply the crop with water to reach its dryland yield level. The applied-water
yield relationship may be roughly linear up to approximately 50% of full irrigation [64].
For larger depths of applied water, the function begins to curve. Deep percolation
increases with additional applied water. If the increase in applied water is associated
with higher irrigation frequencies, larger evaporation may occur. The irrigation system
will become less efficient as water use approaches full irrigation.
Figure 5.40. Processes leading to reductions in plant growth and grain yields due
to excessive soil water. Source: Adapted from [77].
Because Y response to applied IR is a diminishing-return function, it follows that,

at some point on this curve, further water application cannot be justified economically
[77].
In irrigated agriculture, the uneveness (nonuniformity) with which water infiltrates the
root zone is determined mainly by the spatial variability of irrigation water application
and on the variability of hydrologic soil properties [78]. The yield of a given crop,
grown during a specific season in a certain field and under certain management and
cultivation conditions, is also spatially variable because it is assumed to be directly
dependent on the spatially variable water infiltration [79]. Unfortunately, none of the
known irrigation systems are able to apply water with perfect uniformity. Because of
this lack of uniformity, part of the surface is adequately irrigated but other parts are not.
In the areas receiving an excess of water, the price of pumping can increase, yields may
decline and mineral nutrients may be leached from the soil. This leaching of fertilizers
represents an economic loss of applied resources, lowering of yields, and pollution of
groundwater. In areas receiving insufficient irrigation water, a drop in yield can be noticed
along with a poor use of fertilizers, which are not used by crops even though the whole
water volume is retained in the rhizosphere.
Uneven irrigation or soil infiltration variability can produce nonlinear yield ET func-
tions even though the basic yield function is exactly linear.
The economic implications of nonuniform irrigation application on crop yield and
profit maximization have been analyzed by various researchers. Results are critically
influenced by the nature of the water/yield relations postulated for the crop species. Re-
sults show that conventional economic analyses ignoring infiltration uniformities under-
estimate optimal levels of applied water, often substantially.
Seginer [80] offered a comprehensive review describing a general approach to eco-

nomic optimization of sprinkler irrigation systems.
Warrick et al. [81] showed methods for calculating the performance parameters of
irrigation systems for each of the theoretical water distribution functions: normal, lognor-
mal, uniform and specialized power. They noticed that matching raw data to theoretical
functions can better estimate parameters than the direct use of raw data.
Orgaz et al. [82] assumed that water distribution in a sprinkler system could be fitted
to a uniform function. They therefore formulated a relation that allows estimation of
production depletion on the basis of different gross water applications from the irriga-
tion system [83]. The application to sprinkler injection is given in Section 5.4. Similar
approaches to drip injection are proposed by Anyoji and Wu [84].
A study by de Juan et al. [85] provides a general methodology for analyzing the
effects of infiltration uniformity on crop yield, optimum water application, and profit. The
results show that conventional economic analyses, which ignore infiltration uniformities,
underestimate the optimum level for the applied water. Further developments are given
in other studies [86, 87].
The continued use of simple statistical models of crop-yield response to applied irri-
gation water could be replaced by process-orientated models in which individual compo-
nents can be evaluated and analyzed. As the development of comprehensive crop-growth
models increases, the irrigation economic analyses and real-time irrigation decisions can
be accomplished with expert systems that rely on crop simulation.
5.5.6 Crop Water Models

Agricultural planning is a wide management field [88].
Irrigation management consists of determining when to irrigate, the amount to apply
at each irrigation and during each stage of plant growth, and the operation and main-
tenance of the irrigation system. The primary objective is to manage the production
system for profit without compromising the environment. The major management activ-
ity involves irrigation scheduling. Most irrigation water management concepts include
salinity control and the improvement of soil–air–water environment. The management
strategy for an irrigated farm or region normally is dictated by economics. The benefits
include increased and predictable yields, enhanced crop quality, and reduced farming
risks. The principal economic variables include the price of irrigation water, the cost of
applying the water, and the price received for the crop. The optimal level of applied water
depends on the crop-water production function. Generally speaking, the management of
irrigation systems aims to achieve optimal crop production and efficient water use or, in
other terms, a reliable, predictable, and equitable irrigation water supply to farmers.
The management of irrigation systems for highest benefit requires an understanding
of the many physical, biological, technical, and socioeconomic factors involved in crop
production. The more information that water managers have, and the better that informa-
tion is, the better the decisions they can make. During the past 25 years, the development
and application of computers and computer models to describe main aspects of pro-
cesses and links relative to crop growth and yield as influenced by water availability
have been relevant. This development has resulted from an increased understanding of
soil–plant–atmospheric processes and the rapid expansion of personal computers. How-

ever, only a few of the models have been implemented, with varying success. Limitations
of most models are that they aim to support only one aspect of irrigation management, or
that they are programmed for one irrigation system alone, or that their user-friendliness
does not fit the skills of the users.
The development of computer simulation tools leads to several applications of mod-
eling in irrigation management. Crop-water models focusing on the crop and the farm
scales probably have been the most important development in the area of irrigation
management, as evidenced in models presented by Pereira et al. [89, 90].
Irrigation modeling can be focused on three levels according the technical detail and
application scope [90]: irrigation scheduling models, crop growth simulation models,
and models for irrigation management at the system level.
The first group of models places primary emphasis on irrigation scheduling. Irrigation
scheduling provides information that can be used to develop strategies for different crops
under varying soil and climatic conditions. These strategies can be determined using
long-term data representing average conditions or in-season factors based on real-time
information and short-term predictions. Several computer-assisted irrigation scheduling
techniques relying on the water-balance method are available [89–94]. The computer
programs usually generate an irrigation schedule such that the irrigation event takes
place when the estimated soil moisture of the root zone is depleted to a certain level.
Crop water relations are described by simple yield-response functions to predict rel-
ative yield loss based on simulated evapotranspiration relative to simulated potential
evapotranspiration. Some of these models are currently utilized in field practice, with
interactive communication with users in real or near-real time. In general, these models
apply to the field scale for irrigated crops; however, procedures usually can be expanded
to enlarge the scale of application. In addition, the irrigation scheduling models are
usually not crop specific and can apply to different types of irrigation methods.
A second group of models includes models that aim at a more detailed description
of soil-water fluxes and/or a more sophisticated simulation of crop growth and yield
formation. Thus, these models have more state variables than the former models have,
but they vary considerably in level of detail. These models require specific soil and crop
characteristics for a more detailed description of each physical and biological process.
Consequently, the models developed at this level are used mostly in research and special
applications [89, 90].
Crop systems are highly complex. The crop in the field is affected by weather, soil
physicochemical factors, pests, diseases, weeds, and interactions of these many factors.
A classification of systems of crop production, based on growth-limiting factors, has
been proposed by de Wit [95].
Most crop simulation models are a mixture of empiricism and mechanism, and even
the most mechanistic models make use of empiricisms at some hierarchical level. A
mechanistic crop model generally is considered to be based on physiological and physical
processes and considers cause and effect at the process level. Material (carbon, nitrogen,
water) and energy balance usually are included. However, the most useful models for
studying irrigation management of crops under several weather and soil conditions have
been largely functional models. The term dynamic is used to mean that the crop model
responds to daily (or more frequent) changes in the environment.
In the past decades, much research effort has been devoted to the development of crop-
growth models [96]. The CERES [97, 98] and GRO [99] families of models are among
the most widely used. These models simulate crop growth, development, and yield for
specific genotypes, taking into account weather, soil water, and nitrogen dynamics in the
soil and crop in a mechanistic manner. Because these models are based on physiological
and biological concepts along with experimental data, it is believed that the simulation
provides a reasonable estimation of the relationships between management practices,
weather conditions, and yield.
A number of crop modeling groups have attempted to optimize water and nitro-
gen management over long-term historical weather data [100–104]. Models used for this
purpose must have reliable soil-water and soil-nitrogen-balance components. These opti-
mization efforts can suggest the best long-term strategy for water or nitrogen-applications
(often growth-stage dependent) and also show that enhanced decisions can be made if
additional information, such as weather forecast, is available. In addition to phenology,
dry-matter, and final-yield data, SOYGRO [105, 106], CERES-maize [107, 108], and
CERES-wheat [109] models simulate daily values of leaf area index; root-length density;
biomass of leaves, stems, grain, and roots; number of leaves; soil water content; evap-
otranspiration; potential evapotranspiration; transpiration; yield components; and water
stress. They include processes that describe the development of a reproductive structure,
photosynthesis, respiration, and tissue senescence. The irrigation management compo-
nents allow users to specify different strategies for managing the crop such as specific
dates and amounts of irrigation for comparison and selection of the best strategies.
Crop growth models have an advantage over the response functions in that they are
designed to be more robust for use in other weather conditions and they include the
possibilities for studying irrigation decisions in combination with other management
decisions, such as planting date, row spacing, and nitrogen fertilizer use. However, all
models have certain limitations because they do not comprise all possible parameters
and influences that represent the biophysical environment. Moreover, they require local
calibration and validation. These models are not a panacea for all agricultural problems,
and care must be used in incorporating them into research studies, but many efforts have
been made to improve the general application and accuracy of the crop-growth models,
particularly for design or management of irrigation systems [90].
Crop models also can be integrated with optimization procedures to allow the com-
puter to automatically search for the irrigation strategy that maximizes profit or satisfies
other optimization objective functions. Other objective functions may include consider-
ations for energy use, WUE, nitrogen leaching, and constraints on water availability.
Management practices have to be selected so that the levels of salinity in the soil are not
harmful for the crop. The selection of appropriate practices for salinity control requires
quantification of the movement of salts and water in the soil, the response of the crop to
soil water and salinity, and how the environment and management conditions affect these
interactions. There are a larger number of research and management models reported in
scientific literature that deal with water and solute movement. Seasonal models assume
steady-state conditions for crop response [110]. However, these models are not suitable
for irrigation management in saline conditions [111].
Transient models compute water and solute flux in the soil and include a water-
uptake term. Available transient models differ in their conceptual approach, degree of
complexity, and in their application for research or management purposes.
Current models for quantifying the stress imposed on crops by excessive soil water
conditions are based on water-table depth [112, 113].
Several computer models have been proposed to simulate the behavior of drainage
and irrigation systems [114]. These include numerical solutions of Richards’ equation
for combined saturated-unsaturated flow in two or three dimensions.
A useful approach is provided by SWATRE, a model for transient vertical water
flow in soil [115, 116]. The model includes a sink term for water uptake by roots and
two functions for flow to drains. A modern version [117] incorporates solute transport.
The advantage of this approach is that it is based on sound theory for vertical water
movement in the unsaturated zone. Because most of the unsaturated water movement
tends to be in the vertical direction, even in drained soil, this approach should provide
reliable predictions of the soil water conditions above the water table. Another advantage
is that it also can be applied for soils without water tables. Because SWATRE combines
concepts for soil water flow, soil salinity, and drainage, it can be used to analyze problems
of waterlogging and salinity in irrigated agriculture.
A third approach to modeling drainage systems is based on numerical solutions to
Boussinesq’s equation. This approach normally is applied for watershed-scale systems
or where the horizontal water-table variation is critical [118, 119]. These models may
be used in large nonuniform areas where lateral differences in soils, surface evaluations
and water-table depths are important [119].
DRAINMOD [120, 121] is a drainage and subirrigation design and operation model
for drainage-subirrigation systems and it is probably the best-known and most accepted
water management model in humid areas. It includes methods to simulate subsurface
drainage, surface drainage, subirrigation, controlled drainage, and surface irrigation.
Input data include soil properties, crop parameters, drainage-system parameters, and
climatological and irrigation information. The model can be used to simulate the perfor-
mance of a water management system over a long period of climatological record.
The SWARD model [122] predicts the effects of drainage on grass yield. The model
estimates daily soil water budget, including drainage and irrigation, and then links with
a physiological model to predict a daily grass budget.
The recently developed drainage module of model MUST [123] is capable of simu-
lating drainage and subirrigation in relation to ET and vertical flow in the unsaturated
zone. The latest version of MUST has been used to design a subsurface irrigation system
and to establish operational rules.
More complex models, such as the leaching estimation and chemistry model
(LEACHM) [124], PRZM [125], the groundwater-loading effects of agricultural man-
agement systems (GLEAMS) model [126], and ADAPT [127], include leaching of agro-
chemical pesticides and soil fertilizer elements such as nitrate. The OPUS model [128]
treats the water, plant, nutrients, and pesticide systems in the agricultural ecosystem.
It includes surface-water flow and transport, processes of water flow, nitrogen cycling,
pesticide movement and decay within the soil profile, and crop usage of nitrogen, phos-
phorus, and water. Soil water flow is simulated by using Richards’ equation adapted to
a multiple-horizon soil profile.
Crop models also can be used to help schedule irrigation or control pests. Use of the
entire crop-growth models in this mode is not very common, except for the experience of
the GOSSYM cotton-modeling group [129]. GOSSYM predicts the response of crops to
variations in both environment and cultural management. The model estimates the ratio
of appearance of several plant organs and takes into account the placement of every organ,
the content of nitrogen and carbon, the water content, and the thermal exposition. (Crop
Management Expert) COMAX is a framework of expert systems explicitly developed
for working in crop-simulation models. COMAX is based on rules that imply a reasoning
system, a file-storage system for the simulation-model requirements, a database system
for the knowledge base, and a system for interaction with the user. It is based on menus.
COMAX was developed to allow farmers and technicians using the GOSSYM model to
incorporate water, nitrogen, and chemical management.
The goal of the International Benchmark Sites Network for Agrotechnology Trans-
fer Project (IBSNAT) [130] is to accelerate the flow of agrotechnology and to increase
the success rate of technology transfer from agricultural research centers to farmers’
fields. To do this, IBSNAT has developed computer software that helps to match crop
requirements to land characteristics using crop simulation models, databases, and strat-
egy evaluation programs. The resulting system is called Decision Support System for
Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT). In the DSSAT, users select as many combinations
of alternative irrigation (or other) management practices as they wish; then, simulations
are performed for all that were selected to allow users to select the best one.
Cropping Systems Simulation Model (CropSyst) [131] is an existing multiyear,
multicrop, daily time-step model with a mechanistic approach, including a variety of
agronomic management options (irrigation, fertilization, tillage, residue management,
cultivar selection, and rotation selection) and environmental impact analysis capabilities
(erosion and chemical leaching). CropSyst simulates the soil water budget, soil-plant
nitrogen budget, crop phenology, crop canopy and root growth, biomass production,
crop yield, residue production and decomposition, and soil erosion by water. CropSyst
was modified for assessing crop response and water management under saline conditions
[132].
The ever-increasing developments in geographical information systems (GIS) and
decision support systems (DSS) may contribute to the set of input data for simulation
studies in irrigation management. The package HYDRA [133] is an example. It was
designed to be a versatile software package that can be employed for both strategic and
operational irrigation and management purposes.
To utilize the water resources fully, to match water supply and requirements, and to
reach the maximum economic benefit, the crop’s response to applied water, the technical
efficiency of the system, the farm’s resource constraints, economic considerations at
both the micro- and sectoral level, institutional factors along with the decision-maker’s
objectives and risk attitudes need to be considered [85]. There are many techniques that
can be used to evaluate alternative irrigation equipment and strategies [134]. Crop models
can be used to evaluate economic risk [135], as considered with prices and complete
enterprise production costs. Bogges and Ritchie [135] also showed that irrigation reduces
weather-related variability in yield, and thus may be preferred by risk-averse producers.
Crop models that predict yield and irrigation demand can be used in planning regional
and watershed-level strategies for water withdrawals for irrigation [136]. In regions
where water resources are limited, it is particularly important to plan the permitted area
of irrigated crops and water demand for drought years.
5.5.7 Strategies for Water Conservation in Rainfed Agriculture

General Considerations
Rainfed agriculture is used as synonymous with dryland farming and deals with crop
production under the constraints typical of conditions in a semiarid zone, with mainly
inadequate and unpredictable precipitation. The importance of optimizing the utilization
of water resources in dryland farming is disputed by many. Unfortunately, our ability
to achieve substantial increases in crop production under these conditions has not been
as great as it has been in irrigated agriculture. However, over the next few decades,
agriculture will not be able to rely on vast increases in irrigated area to maintain the
required growth in output necessary to match increases in population. This means that
much of the world’s future food increase will have to come from the dryland regions,
where productivity is currently low. In these areas, crop production often is directed
toward the reliability of yields rather than their maximization.
Dryland farming can be highly productive even though the system is, by definition,
extensive rather than intensive, and naturally a riskier undertaking for the farmers. Be-
cause the dominant feature of dryland agriculture is erratic and often scarce rainfall, it is
implausible to expect any great degree of intensification in the dryland farming system.
Successful rainfed farming systems require efficient, low-risk management of the
soil water regime and improved WUE by crops. Genetic engineering may provide great
opportunities for adapting crops to these harsh environments, although this will not be
in the near future. However, further development and improvement of current and new
practices of soil and water conservation could offer greatly improved exploitation of
dryland regions while reducing the risks of soil degradation and the costs and risks for
the farmer.
Soil Management
Water storage in soil is essential because plants use water from soil between pre-
cipitation or irrigation events. Adequate water storage in soil is important not only in
dry regions (arid, semiarid, and subhumid) but also in humid regions where short-term
droughts at critical growth stages can greatly reduce crop yields. Because of its impor-
tance, water storage in soil and subsequent efficient use of that water for crop production
have long been studied by researchers.
In hot, dry climates, water storage is improved by minimizing soil evaporation, de-
creasing runoff losses, limiting deep percolation, and reducing transpiration by weeds.
Direct evaporation from the soil is a net loss to crop production and is a substantial
component of the total water use of crops grown in arid and semiarid environments. In
Mediterranean climatic regions, water loss by direct evaporation from the soil during
the cropping season may represent 30% to 50% of the annual rainfall. Recent estimates
of soil water evaporation under a lupin crop was 1 to 1.6 mm day−1 when total crop
evapotranspiration was 1.8 to 3.4 mm day−1 [137]. Evaporation from soil is reduced by
weed control, tillage, and leaving the stubble or other crop residue in the fields during
the dry or fallow season.
Materials such as crop residues, plastic films, petroleum-based products, gravel, and
soil itself have been studied widely as potential mulches for decreasing evaporation.
However, the effect of mulches on evaporation is difficult to establish because of the
interacting influences of mulches on soil water infiltration, distribution, and subsequent
evaporation.
Adding external materials on the soil surface is generally, but not always, restricted
to ornamentals, vegetables, or other high-value crops. The most economical mulch for
large-area application is plant residue (standing or flattened). Residues reduce surface
temperatures and shade the soil from solar radiation, decreasing the rate of soil evapo-
ration.
Mulching is most effective early in the growing season, before a crop canopy forms
and evaporation exceeds transpiration. Theoretical analyses and field experiments show
that surface residues are of greatest value for water conservation during the winter rainy
season and early spring when the soil surface is often wet.
Mulch effectiveness for decreasing evaporation increases as mulch thickness in-
creases. Because material density largely influences mulch thickness, low-density mate-
rials, such as wheat straw, more effectively decrease evaporation than sorghum stubble
or cotton stalks, which are more dense. Because the water-content difference between
mulched and bare soil is mainly near the soil surface, especially soon after water
additions, mulches are very useful for seedling establishment.
Tillage is needed primarily on heavy soils that may crack during fallow and lose water
by evaporation through the cracks. Sands and other light-textured soils that do not crack
are self-mulching and do not need tillage.
Surfactants may decrease evaporation by decreasing capillary rise of water to the sur-
face. Surfactants probably cause decreased surface tension at the solid–liquid interface,
thereby decreasing capillary flow of water and causing the formation of a dry diffusion
barrier. Seemingly, the use of surfactants for making more efficient use of water has lim-
ited potential. Although evaporation is decreased, total water use by crops is not affected
and yields are decreased [138].
Water infiltration and runoff control are virtually inseparable. Reducing surface runoff
and increasing infiltration of rainfall is probably the most important way in which the
agronomic practices affect the total water supply of the soil. Runoff will occur whenever
the surface detention is full and rainfall rate exceeds soil infiltrability. This situation is
favored by: poor soil tilth and structure management, small surface holding, and unstable
surface soil structure with a tendency to crust.
Infiltration is influenced by soil conditions at the surface, in the tillage layer, and within
the profile. Adequate surface residues or increased surface roughness (e.g., microbasins,
tied ridges) and aggregation to increase surface retention and infiltration, and stabilization
of surface soil structure to rainfall impact may reduce runoff losses out of a field and
also help in retaining a uniform soil water distribution.
A very effective alternative solution is to mechanically create a soil surface microrelief

so as to increase surface storage after the soil has been brought to the tilth desired for
crop production. The effectiveness of a roughened surface depends, among other factors,
on the intensity and amount of precipitation, and on the stability of the surface soil. In
ridge-and-furrow cultivated row crops, this technique is variously called basin tillage,
furrow damming, or tied ridges, and consists of constructing small dams in the furrow
at intervals of approximately 1–5 m.
The use of tillage to increase the infiltration of rainfall into the soil in the short term
may have long-term negative effects. If loosening of the upper soil to increase infiltration
comes at the expense of compaction below the tillage zone, this can disable infiltration
to lower storage zones and induce a perched water table above the tillage pan. This, in
turn, can increase the chance of waterlogging, thereby increasing runoff and decreasing
infiltration.
Tillage near the contour associated with ridge terraces has long been used to control
runoff on relatively steep land in humid regions. Under contour tillage, surface roughness
is least along the contours, and largest along the slope of the land. In water-deficit
farming areas, contour furrowing for row crops is an effective runoff control and water
conservation practice.
Conservation tillage is one of the best means to conserve water under adverse supply
conditions by using tillage practices as the principal management tool. The term con-
servation tillage means any tillage sequence that minimizes soil and water losses; thus,
every region, crop, and climate will require a somewhat different set of practices. The
objectives are to achieve a soil surface with high infiltrability and adequate holding stor-
age that will retain advantageous properties over extended time periods and will provide
a favorable seedbed and rooting medium for agricultural crops.
Modern conservation tillage and herbicidal practices conserve crop residue on the
surface, thereby leading to better soil water conservation and cooler soil temperatures
during springtime compared with more soil-disturbing, conventional tillage practices. In
humid or subhumid regions, cooler, wetter soils can lead to slower crop development,
and reduced crop growth under some circumstances. However, in the water-limited en-
vironments of dryland cropping regions, no tillage or other residue-conserving practices
will increase small-grain growth and yield as well as conventional tillage practices.
Residues intercept rainfall, absorbing and dissipating impact energy. This transfer of
energy reduces degradation of soil aggregates at the surface, which in turn reduces the
sealing of the surface against infiltration.
Increased residue on the soil surface also has been associated with increased organic-
matter content of soils or altered distribution in the profile, thereby affecting infiltration.
Little information exists to separate the effects of surface residues on rainfall capture
from the effects of organic matter on infiltration.
A commonly used method is stubble mulch (SM) tillage, in which a sweep or blade
undercuts the soil surface to control weeds and prepare a seedbed, yet retains most
residues on the surface. The depth of tillage usually ranges between 7 and 10 cm. Each
operation with a properly operated SM implement reduces surface residues only about
10% to 15%. Hence, adequate surface residues usually can be retained by using SM
tillage.
One traditional method to increase storage capacity has been to increase the volume
of soil suitable for rooting. When impeding layers or horizons (fragipans, handpans,
and plowpans) are present, subsoiling or deep tillage can improve infiltration and crop
rooting, although its effectiveness in conserving soil water for a succeeding crop is
limited. The effects of deep tillage are often transitory because of the inherently poor
structure of the soil or the dispersive nature of the subsoil. In such cases, deep tillage
needs to be supplemented with organic matter or chemical treatments for aggregates.
A second method acts by increasing the capacity to store water in a unit of soil vol-
ume. Addition of organic matter or other soil amendments should increase the available
water-holding capacity. The effects of organic-matter management on soil properties
encompass almost all parameters of the soil environment. Microbial activity and growth
are stimulated, resulting not only in larger pools of labile nitrogen, but also improved
soil physical conditions that maintain porosity and promote aeration and favorable water
regimes. Organic substances that contribute to soil aggregation are derived from plant
materials, either after alteration by soil animals, bacteria, and fungi, or directly from the
plants themselves.
Earthworms improve soil structure, which increases infiltration. While feeding on
organic materials and burrowing in soils, earthworms secrete gelatinous substances
that coat and stabilize soil aggregates. Water-stable aggregates result also from water-
insoluble gummy substances secreted by bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes. Earthworm
activity and intensive soil tillage are not very compatible. Hence, little earthworm activ-
ity occurs in many intensively cultivated soils [138]. For maximum earthworm activity,
no tillage is desirable.
Plants directly influence soil aggregation through exudates from roots, leaves, and
stems. Additional influences are a result of weathering and decaying plant materials,
which bind soil particles together; plant canopies, which protect surface aggregates
against breakdown due to raindrop impact; and root action in soil, which promotes
aggregate formation.
In addition to the direct osmotic effect and possible toxicity of specific ions, soil salin-
ity may have a deleterious effect on physical properties such as infiltrability, water holding
and aeration, especially if the soil is rich in exchangeable sodium. The surface soil is more
dispersible by raindrops, and crusting and runoff will follow. Reclamation of salt-affected
soils under these water-deficient dryland conditions is very difficult because removal of
the excess salts by leaching is an essential part of the reclamation process. Gypsum,
which often is applied to displace adsorbed sodium from the soil exchange complex, is
itself a contributor of soluble salts. Unless it can be leached from the soil in the last stage
of reclamation, it thus may further depress yields. Even if temporary relief is obtained,
it may not be economical because of the cost of the amendments and their application.
A soil conditioner’s effectiveness often is related to its ability to promote floccula-
tion. Polymers induce flocculation (or coagulation) of dispersed clay particles by elec-
trostatic absorption of polymer molecules on clay particles, which helps to compensate
for the clay surface charge, bridging soil particles together. Anionic polymers are effec-
tive flocculants, especially in the presence of polyvalent cations. When applied to soil,
these substances result in larger aggregates. Although not economical, except possibly
for some high-value crops, the substances improve aggregation, which increases water
holding and infiltration in the soil profile and decrease runoff.
Mixing fine-textured materials from outside sources or from larger depths within the
profile with sandy surface horizons can increase the water-holding capacity of sandy
surface soils. Adding materials from outside sources may be practical in limited areas,
but not in large areas because of the large amount of material needed and the expenses
involved in transporting the materials. In contrast, mixing finer materials from deeper in
the profile with coarser materials near the surface is within the reality of practice. The
water-holding capacity of the entire profile may not be increased, but soil near the surface
should hold more water, thus improving seedling establishment and early growth [138].
Compaction of the subsoil and placement of relatively impervious materials at depth
are methods used to reduce percolation. In sandy soils, the problem of deep drainage
is especially acute because of the limited water-storage capacity. Thus, incorporation
of clay or organic colloids or residues into the profile may increase its water-storage
volume. However, the cost of these agronomic practices would be prohibitive in the
context of dryland farming.
Land-farming practices are used widely to control runoff from excess rainfall. Precip-
itation amount and distribution strongly influence the type of terrace used in a particular
region. In higher-precipitation regions, excess water is channeled from fields by graded
terraces. Such terraces drain the water at non-erosive velocities into grassy waterways
or other grassy areas. When designed for water conservation, terraces often are leveled
and may have closed ends (level terraces). The conservation-bench terrace is a practice
that has been used successfully in dryland and irrigated farming to reduce runoff and
retain precipitation.
Although microwatersheds and vertical mulches serve two distinct purposes, they
often are used in a combination system. Microwatersheds increase runoff from a portion
of the field and concentrate the water on a relatively small area to increase depth of water
penetration. Vertical mulching, by providing a residue-filled soil slot open to the surface,
results in rapid channeling of water into soil.
In areas where natural rainfall is insufficient for dryland farming, nonarable areas or
hillsides may be used for water harvesting to support an economically valuable crop.
Water harvesting conveys runoff to cultivated fields.
Microcatchment water harvesting is a low-cost method of collecting surface runoff
in the area (A) and storing it in the root zone of an adjacent infiltration basin (B) to
cover the crop water requirement. The crop may be a single tree, bush, or annual crops.
This method is also applicable in areas with a high rainfall but low soil permeability. To
design an optimum ratio between A and B, the impact of climatic conditions and soil
physical properties on the water dynamics must be considered. The design should aim at
sufficient available water in an average year: Deep percolation losses during a wet year
then must be accepted as well as some shortage during a dry year [139].
In a runoff-farming system, crops are grown in widely spaced strips or rows on the
contour, where the areas between the strips or rows are treated to enhance runoff from
rainfall. Depending on rainfall distribution, the crops in a runoff-farming system should

be able to survive extended periods without rain.
Crop Management
WUE depends on the relative rates of assimilation and evapotranspiration as influ-
enced by crop genotype and environment. Those traits are subject to optimization through
variations in cropping practice and through special treatment that might be applied to
the crop-plant community. The diversity of crop-management techniques involving wa-
ter management is great (Table 5.19), but, in this section, the cropping practices of
Table 5.19. Crop Management Techniques for drought and water-stress conditions
Crop Management Techniques Benefits Effectiveness

Drought risk management
Change of crop patterns, replacing sensitive Limits the effects of droughts High
crops with tolerant ones (eventually
decreasing irrigation surface)
Choice of drought-tolerant crops over highly Limits drought requirements High
productive varieties
Use of short-cycle varieties Low water requirements High
Early seeding Avoids terminal stress High
Early cutting of forage crops Avoids degradation of stressed crops High
Grazing drought-damaged fields Alternative use, livestock support High
Supplemental irrigation of rainfed crops Avoids stress at critical stages High
Management for controlling effects of water stress
Use of appropriate soil management techniques Increases available soil water High
Adaptation of crop patterns to environmental Coping with water-stressed High
constraints and resource conservation environment
Use of fallow cropping in rainfed systems Increases soil moisture Controversial
Use of mixed cropping and intercropping, Better use of resources Low
namely for forages
Increased plant spacing of perennials and High individual explorable Limited/high
some row crops soil volume
Cultivation techniques
Minimizing tillage Avoids E s High
Adequate seed placement Prevents rapid drying of soil layers High
around the seed
Preemergence weed control Alleviates competition for water, High
avoids herbicide effects on
stressed crop plants
Reduced and delayed fertilization Favors deep rooting, adaptation to Variable
crop responses under water stress
Dry-soil land preparation and seeding of Saves water High
paddy rice
Antitranspirants Reduces plant transpiration Controversial
Reflectants (increasing albedo) Decreases energy available for Limited/high
transpiration
Windbreaks Decreases energy available for Limited
evaporation
Growth regulators Improves responses of physiological Promising
processes to water stress
Source: [140].
greatest interest are discussed. The review of crop-management techniques in Table 5.19
distinguishes the techniques or decisions that are associated with a given risk from those
adapted to water-stressed environments that can be adopted easily for drought control
[140].
Decreasing water loss by soil water evaporation provides the potential for improved
crop production on the same rainfall input. Selection of cultivars with early growth and/or
earlier dates of planting to increase early growth are mechanisms for reducing soil water
evaporation and increasing crop water use.
Crop rotations, including grasses and legumes, reduce the impact of raindrops and
surface aggregate breakdown, crusting, runoff, and erosion, and soil water evaporation
while improving soil water storage. Improved soil structural stability is attributed to the
positive influence of root systems in increasing infiltration. If legumes are used as cover
crops, they can provide nitrogen through fixation for subsequent crops. Cover crops
prevent leaching of nitrogen, potassium and possibly other nutrients by incorporating
them into their biomass. Cover crops add organic matter to the soil and they can cause
an increase in microbial activity by providing a readily available carbon source, which
subsequently increases aggregation.
Advances in cropping systems productivity can be accomplished by developing and
using crop rotations that either are more timely in utilizing available water or are
able to conserve water. However, few reports exist regarding the effect of crop rota-
tion on efficient water use. The one exception is the cereal-fallow rotation used in dry
areas.
In cropping systems, the term fallow is used to describe land that is resting, that is, not
being cropped. The inclusion of a weed-free fallow is used widely in semiarid regions
to conserve soil water storage and increase the water available for the next crop. Fallow
also maintains a change in crop succession to minimize carryover of pests, diseases, and
weeds, and plays an important role in the mineralization of nitrogen.
As with many other techniques, the use of a fallow period has been questioned.
Because fallows inevitably lose water by evaporation from the surface and drainage
below the root zone, their efficiency may be low and varies from year to year.
It is obvious than each crop rotation and fallow combination needs to be tested over a
long period to evaluate its sustainability. Information pertinent to a given location does
not seem to be simply transferable to other locations without additional prolonged testing
before adoption.
Weeds pose severe problems in many fields in dry areas. They can dramatically
decrease the WUE of crop production, particularly in crops that compete less vigorously
with weeds. During late spring and early summer, weeds compete vigorously for available
moisture and, under conditions of water deficit, this leads to yield losses. Weeds can be
controlled by tillage, herbicides, and crop rotations.
Antitranspirants have been used to control transpiration at the leaf-air interface.
These materials may induce stomatal closure, cover the mesophyll surface with a thin,
monomolecular film, or cover the leaf surface with a water-impervious film. However, an-
titranspirants have potential detrimental effects on net assimilation of photosynthates and
evapotranspirational cooling. Moreover, the cost of applying antitranspirants at present
disqualifies their use in dryland farming.
5.5.8 Water Management Under Specific Environmental Conditions

Arid Areas
A generally accepted definition of arid or semiarid lands are those lands where the
crop water requirements exceed the plant water availability (growing season precipitation
plus soil water stored in the root zone) by a significant amount [141]. At least one-third
of the world’s land surface is taken up by arid or semiarid lands.
The ratio between precipitation (P) and reference evapotranspiration roughly delin-
eates the severity of water deficit in various zones. Various aridity indices are defined as
follows [142]:
• Hyperarid zones, P/ET0 ≤ 0.03, yearly rainfall under 100 mm. The zones include
true deserts with virtually no rainfall over periods of one to several years.
• Arid zones, 0.03 ≤ P/ET0 ≤ 0.20, annual rainfall of 100 to 200 mm. Zones of
pastoral nomadism and irrigated farming include sparce and scanty vegetation of
perennials and annuals.
• Semiarid zones, 0.2 ≤ P/ET0 ≤ 0.5, annual rainfall of 200 to 400 mm. Zones
of pastoral nomadism and irrigated and rainfed agriculture include semidesert or
tropical shrublands with an intermittent grass cover.
• Subhumid zones, 0.5 ≤ P/ET0 , yearly total rainfall of 400 to 800 mm. Zones of
traditional rainfed agriculture include Mediterranean communities of the maquis
and chaparral types.
With precipitation being such a major limitation to crop production, its efficient use
is an important consideration in any sustainable system. Dry farming can be an excellent
means to cultivate regions of low productivity. A small amount of rainfall can be sufficient
to grow drought-resistant crops. With extremely low rainfall rates, irrigation water is
required to create possibilities for agricultural practices. However, in many arid and
semiarid regions, the availability of either surface or groundwater is limited. Water in deep
aquifers often has collected over many years or even centuries. If not replenished at the
rate of utilization, groundwater ultimately will be a finite resource. Runoff farming in dry
environments is still practiced in modern agriculture, albeit on a different scale. Systems
that supplement rainfall can be sustainable in the long term. Irrigation management to
prevent overwatering, soils impermeable to deep percolation, and crops that utilize water
efficiently all contribute to long-term sustainability. Likewise, runoff farming systems
need to be balanced carefully to utilize all incoming rainfall without creating excesses
during wet years or shortages and crop failures during dry years.
Dryland farming should be designed to cope with the negative impact of highly
variable rainfall timing and amounts on crop production. Dryland farming has to increase
crop-available soil water by enhancing water infiltration into the profile, by increasing
its storage, by reducing evaporation, and by minimizing water losses.
Dryland farming techniques to improve infiltration include tillage operations that
leave a coarse tilth on the soil surface, create layers that cause the soil to self-mulch;
and leave a mat of crop residues on the surface to protect the surface tilth and to reduce
evaporation. Conservation of water stored in the root zone from one rainy season to the
next under fallow requires weed control and minimizing surface evaporation and deep
percolation.
Disturbing crusts during periods between rains to increase infiltration probably con-
stitutes an early example of soil surface modifications. Other approaches to increase
infiltration retain residue on the surface by means of reduced-tillage or conservation-
tillage practices. The average rainfall holding from six conservation-tillage systems was
9% higher than that from four conventional tillage systems [143]. Improvement in rain-
fall holding was attributed to a buildup of surface residue and improved soil tilth in the
surface horizon, especially protection of the surface from raindrop impact. This reduces
the sealing of the surface against infiltration. Residues also shade the soil surface, which
reduces the surface temperature and soil evaporation. Increased residue on the soil sur-
face also has been associated with an increased organic-matter content of soils or altered
distribution in the profile, thereby affecting infiltration.
Because infiltration is to be kept as high as possible, any restriction caused by shallow
plow pans or a clay layer requires correction by plowing, chiseling, or sweep plows.
Although the primary objective of subsoiling is to create zones acceptable for rooting in
lower horizons, clearly the operations also increase infiltration. Burrows of earthworms
and other soil fauna provide channels for water infiltration.
Subsoiling, deep tillage, the use of gypsum to produce stable aggregates, and breeding
programs that select for stronger rooting cultivars are traditional methods to improve
storage capacity. Where such methods increase water penetration, root growth, and water
use by the crop, they will have a major impact on sustainability.
Cover crops provide an effective method for improving water quality because they
accumulate and retain plant nutrients as well as reduce soil erosion.
High levels of fertility in soil lead to both optimal crop growth and enhancement of
root-system spread, thus helping the crop to endure water deficits [144].
Tillage systems designed to conserve water and eradicate weeds also must contribute
to pest and disease control. Crop rotations maintain a change in crop succession to
minimize carryover of pests, diseases, and weeds, and attempt to maintain soil fertility.
Many factors are involved in selecting a crop rotation, including soil water-storage
capacity; amount and variability of rainfall; crops and their profitability; pressure of
weeds, pests, and diseases; and requirements and cost of tillage operations [145].
Every arid, semiarid, and subhumid region has developed appropriate water conser-
vation techniques, some of them quite particular. In North Africa, among others are
biological stabilization of gullies, small earth dams, meskat, loose-rock belts, and broad-
base level terraces [146].
Water harvesting can significantly increase plant production in drought-prone areas
by concentrating the rainfall/runoff in parts of the total area [147]. The goals of water
harvesting are restoring the productivity of land that suffers from inadequate rainfall; in-
creasing yield of rainfed farming; minimizing the risk in drought-prone areas; combating
desertification by tree cultivation; and supplying drinking water for animals. Of the great
number of forms in existence with various names, six forms generally are recognized
[147]: roof top harvesting; water harvesting for animal consumption; inter-low water har-
vesting; microcatchment water harvesting; medium-sized-catchment water harvesting;
and large-catchment water harvesting.
Bucks [148] discussed several technologies for improved water management and
conservation of irrigated agriculture in arid and semiarid regions. Although no single
Table 5.20. Demand management for water conservation in irrigated agriculture
Objective Technology
Reduce water delivery Increase irrigation efficiency and water application uniformity.
Irrigation scheduling and control based on monitoring the soil, the
plants, and/or the microclimate.
Reduce water evaporation from lakes, reservoirs, or other water surfaces.
Reduce evaporation of water from soil surfaces.
Reduce water use by non-economic and phreatophyte vegetation.
Reduce evapotranspiration Limit irrigation by applying less water than maximum ET demand.
Limit irrigated cropland acreages by converting irrigated cropland in
water-short areas to dryland farming.
Change crops by introducing those with lower water requirements.
Crop selection and modification for drought-resistant strains that
can withstand dry periods.
Decision-making models and systems for irrigation scheduling and
crop simulation, and using expert systems.
technology can solve all water quantity and quality problems confronting irrigated agri-
culture, he did indicate that advanced irrigation scheduling, increased irrigation effi-
ciency, limited irrigation, soil moisture management, and wastewater irrigation can be
used more effectively in the future.
Table 5.20 lists the primary technologies available for demand management for water
conservation in irrigated agriculture. Demand management objectives include reducing
water delivery (nonbeneficial ET) and reducing water requirements (beneficial ET) [141].
Supply management objectives include storing runoff water, increasing water yield,
capturing precipitation, and adding to available water supply. Table 5.21 lists the ma-
jor technologies available for supply management for water conservation in irrigated
agriculture for arid areas.
Because of a combination of low application efficiencies and inadequate drainage,
irrigation has led to large-scale waterlogging and salinization of irrigated land. In semi-
arid and arid regions, prevention of irrigation-induced salinization is the main concern.
Drainage requirements can be reduced by improving the efficiency and management of
irrigation. Thus drainage for irrigated land must be treated as a component of the water
management system and its design should depend on the design and management of other
components. The primary design and operational objectives of water-table management
systems in the arid, semiarid, and subhumid zones are to provide trafficable or workable
conditions for farming operations, to reduce crop stresses caused by waterlogging to
control salinity and alkalinity, to minimize harmful offsite environmental impacts, and
to conserve water supplied by rainfall, thus minimizing irrigation water requirements.
Modern research emphasizes the importance of controlling the water table by using a
combination of drainage and irrigation.
As the demand for water increases, wastewater reclamation and reuse have become an
increasingly important source for meeting some of this demand. The level of wastewater
treatment required for agricultural and landscape irrigation uses depends on the soil
Table 5.21. Supply management for water conservation in irrigated agriculture
Objective Technology
Increase storage runoff water Small reservoirs to catch and retain floodwater for release during
droughts
Groundwater recharge by conveying or confining surplus runoff to
recharge areas to increase water storage.
Increase water yield Water harvesting by constructing an impermeable surface to reduce
infiltration and store runoff.
Vegetative management by manipulating vegetative cover to increase
or decrease runoff for improved groundwater recharge storage.
Capture and retain precipitation Snow management.
Soil moisture management by cultural and mechanical practices to
decrease runoff and evaporation, thereby increasing soil moisture
storage.
Increased crop rooting depths by breaking up hardpans and selecting
crop species and cultivars that root more deeply to expand soil
moisture extraction.
Add to available water supply Inter- and intrabasin transfers.
Wastewater irrigation, using moderately saline drainage waters
and renovated wastewater effluents for irrigation.
characteristics, the crop irrigated, the type of distribution and application systems, and
the degree of worker and public exposure.
Humid Areas
Humid regions are characterized by the fact that rainfall equals, or even exceeds, ET.
Many humid areas have sufficient annual precipitation for crop production but do not
have the proper seasonal distribution. The spatial distribution and intensity of rainfall
can vary greatly within a season and from year to year.
Water in these areas is plentiful, generally of good quality, without inducing salinity
problems.
In humid regions, amount and distribution of precipitation are largely beyond the
control of people, but soil management may have a major influence on how effectively
the available precipitation, or even irrigation, is used for crop production. One of the
foremost requirements for more efficiently using precipitation is retaining the water-
storage reservoir.
Irrigation provides predictability and stability of water supplies, enables farmers to
obtain higher yields by using modern agricultural technology and optimal levels of
production inputs, and increases intensity of cropping. Most irrigation in humid areas is
supplemental to reduce crop stress caused by short- duration rainfall deficits. The purpose
of irrigation in these areas thus is to increase ET but with minimal losses from runoff,
poor drainage, and leaching of fertilizers and pesticides. Scheduling under conditions of
rainfall thus is the major goal of irrigation in humid areas. Irrigation systems should be
operated mostly to partially refill the profile. Problems arise when irrigating soils with
low water-holding capacities, which do not maximize the effects of rainfall.
In humid areas, irrigation systems frequently are designed with a smaller capacity than
required for extended dry periods, or the systems are moved from one field to another.
These factors complicate the water management when rainfall is low and evaporative
demand is high.
Irrigation scheduling used in arid, semiarid, and subhumid areas should not be used
in humid areas. One of the most common methods for irrigation scheduling is based
on field soil water balance. The effective rainfall must be considering in computations,
but its determination is very difficult. Rainfall of high intensities or in large amounts
may produce significant runoff, and only part of the rainwater can be considered to be
effective. Similarly, rainfall on a wet soil profile will produce losses through drainage.
Field observation of soil water status or plant water potentials or other plant parame-
ters, and the combination of these, can be used to determine irrigation timing.
The water balance can be based on real-time meteorological data or average climatic
data. Various forms of computer-based, water-balance scheduling methods have been
developed and evaluated for humid-area conditions. Several of these include a short-
term forecast of rainfall.
The most widespread system is gravity irrigation, especially in areas where water
availability is not a limiting factor and the water price is low. Furrow or flood irrigation
is used in humid areas for sugar cane or rice, respectively. Frequent low-volume irriga-
tion often is practiced in humid areas, which permits chemigation with little change in
irrigation schedules. Most frost protection in humid areas is accomplished with overhead
sprinkler irrigation. Although rainfall is often sufficient for crop establishment, irriga-
tion can ensure uniform germination and emergence. Most sprinkler systems are well
adapted for this purpose.
Water Scarcity and Drought

In many areas of the world, available irrigation water supplies are either very low or
are being depleted rapidly. When water supplies diminish and population increases and
municipal and industrial water demands increase, the optimization of irrigation water
use becomes increasingly imperative. Droughts in many parts of the world have raised
this question.
According to WMO drought is defined as a sustained, extended deficiency in pre-
cipitation [149]. Aridity is a permanent climatic feature of a region, resulting from low
average rainfall [150]. Drought, by contrast, is a short-term lack of precipitation, a tem-
porary feature of climate [151]. It is necessary to differentiate drought, aridity, and water
shortage [152]:
• Drought is a natural temporary imbalance of water availability, consisting of persis-
tent lower- than-average precipitation of uncertain frequency, duration, and severity,
of unpredictable occurrence, with overall diminished water resources and carrying
capacity of the ecosystem.
• Aridity is also a natural phenomenon but it is a permanent imbalance in the avail-
ability of water: The average annual precipitation is low. The spatial and temporal
variation of precipitation is high, with overall low moisture, extreme temperature
variations, and a low carrying capacity.
• Water shortage is a human-induced temporary water imbalance and results in

groundwater overdraft, reduced reservoir capacities, disturbed and reduced land
use, and an altered carrying capacity.
Droughts create temporary water-stressed environments similar to aridity. Thus, re-
sponses to aridity are partly applicable to droughts. Agricultural water shortages induced
by droughts have much in common with human-induced shortages [140].
Drought is generally extensive in space and time. For irrigated agriculture, drought
does not necessarily begin with the cessation of rain, but rather when available irrigation
water falls below normal for a large period of time, when water supply is not suffi-
cient to meet normal demands. Drought may require both managerial and technological
adjustments in farming operations, depending upon its length and severity. Because of
knowledge in prediction and forecasting of droughts, which could help in the devel-
opment and application of nonstructural water management measures, is insufficient,
structural measures to improve supply are preferred [152].
Drought periods can produce important negative impacts on agriculture. The severity
of these impacts depends on the farmer’s ability to adapt production systems to water
availability. Drought can affect the irrigation-water demand by farmers. In these cases,
farmers in rainfed agriculture resort to irrigation for supplementing natural rainfall for
crop production.
In establishing an agricultural production system, several factors must be carefully
studied (e.g., crop species, management strategies, irrigation technologies). All of these
factors are based mainly on expected regional weather patterns. Depending on drought
strength and duration, farmers must react rapidly to the reduced supplies and increased
demands for water.
The increase in hydrometeorological information makes it possible to better use
stochastic analysis for prevention of reservoir inflow and for reservoir management,
to use demand forecasting models for planning releases, as well as to use optimization
and simulation models to help in decision making.
Drought also affects irrigation water quality in several ways. There is less leaching
of mineral nutrients and pesticides toward aquifers and, on the other hand, less transport
of sediments and certain chemicals to surface streams.
Haas [153] described several general strategies for managing water under drought,
although they are not specific to irrigation. Under limited water availability, it is necessary
to look for new, specific solutions for the following [151]:
• Farmers must select and optimize cropping patterns as a function of water avail-
ability. The application of techniques of dynamic, linear programming, as well as
the use irrigation-scheduling simulation models are tools of farmers and experts for
achieving these goals.
• When designing irrigation-scheduling techniques, farmers and experts must take
into account not only the water-availability limitation, but also the irrigation system
used for applying water to the crops. Irrigation-scheduling simulation models and
the implementation of irrigation-scheduling programs can be useful tools.
• A factor that interacts with irrigation adequacy and affects irrigation efficiency is
irrigation uniformity. With any irrigation system, uniformity is strongly affected
by irrigation management. Programs for field evaluation of irrigation practices

and technical assistance for adoption of improved water application techniques are
necessary.
• Farmers should be advised on the limitations of the irrigation system. They should
be trained for collaboration in the operation and management of the system, which
improves the interaction between off-farm and on-farm demand management.
• Methods of demand forecasting, aiming at rational planning of reservoir releases
and deliveries, should be enhanced.
• Water pricing policies should be used as an incentive to farmers for using water-
saving techniques related to both irrigation management and water application, and
penalties should be imposed on farmers for wasting water or not using appropriate
crop patterns.
The process of technology transfer must be accelerated to achieve this goal, so that
farmers can benefit from the efforts of research to enhance WUE.
The study of the deficit irrigation strategies is highly relevant to the preceding discus-
sion. These strategies are capable of reducing the amount of water applied with minimum
impact on production. Deficit irrigation is an optimizing strategy under which crops are
deliberately allowed to sustain some degree of water deficit and yield depletion [154].
Deficit irrigation may provide higher economic return per unit of surface than returns
attained with irrigation for achieving maximum production [155].
Much information on crop response to deficit irrigation is available, which concludes
that water deficit reduces yields. However, these irrigation strategies may have a favorable
effect on yields when reducing the incidence of diseases and on crop quality. Late-season
deficits that develop as temperature declines also can enhance the conditioning of tree
crops for winter dormancy.
In a strategy known as high-frequency deficit irrigation, water is supplied throughout
the crop cycle below demand levels, but at a frequency high enough to avoid situations
of significant stress.
Although high-frequency deficit irrigation represents a clear alternative in several
circumstances, it has important limitations, such as the significance of the water deficit
to the phenological stage. Thus, a new concept has been introduced, called regulated
deficit irrigation [156], which is based on reducing water supplies in the phenological
stages where the water deficit does not affect either production and harvest quality. At
the same time, plant requirements during the sensitive periods of the crop cycle are
addressed.
Irrigation during noncritical periods is one of the essential aspects of regulated deficit
irrigation. The water application must be estimated by means of tests to select the most
suitable conditions as a function of the impact on harvest and on environment. When there
is insufficient water availability, the possibility of fully covering plant water requirements
during the critical stages must be considered.
Deficit irrigation in the Columbia Basin is typically practiced on silt loam and fine
sandy loam soils. With the introduction of center-pivot systems, deficit irrigation also has
been used on sandy soils [154]. Nevertheless, the nearly continuous irrigation required
even for deficit irrigation of such soils reduces because of WUE the nearly constant
surface evaporation that results.
Deficit irrigation can involve modification of some cultural practices [154], including
use of moderate plant densities, reduced application of fertilizers and other farm chem-
icals, use of fallowing when crops are grown in rotations and when a fallow interval
is desired for precipitation storage, and flexible planting dates and associated use of
shorter-maturity-length cultivars.
Scheduling for deficit irrigation is potentially more challenging than for full irrigation.
Ideally, the decision maker should evaluate not only the amount of water remaining in
the soil profile but also the level of stress that the crop is experiencing and how that stress
will affect yields.
Salinity Management in Irrigated Agriculture
Introduction
Salinity is defined as the salt concentration present in soil or in water per unit of volume
or weight. Salinity usually involves two different kinds of problems: the negative effect on
plant growth caused by a soluble salt excess (salinity) that causes an increase in osmotic
pressure; and the effect on soil-structure rupture and the depletion of both soil-infiltration
and water-holding capability produced by the excess of changeable sodium (sodicity).
Some times, both effects (salinity and sodicity) may appear together. In addition, high
values of trace elements (e.g. boron, cadmium, selenium) may alter plant growth.
The increase in salinity levels, either in the root zone or in runoff and seepage irrigation
water, appears as a result of the alteration of the hydrologic balance of the surface water,
influenced by soil and water management practices carried out during a certain period of
time. Thus, both salinity prevention and control can be performed by appropriate water
management.
Formation of saline soils in nature usually results from the combination of geologic,
meteorologic, and hydrologic factors. The main processes involved in salinization are
evaporation, capillary rise when a shallow water table layer is present, weathering, and
the input of salts with the irrigation water.
Soil salinization is quite common when irrigating arid or semiarid regions. Salinization
problems occur in about 23% of cultivated land in the world [157].
Salinity Management
Salinity management must be considered at two levels [158]: in the root zone and at
a regional level or irrigable-zone level. Several possible actions are recommended for
addressing the first level [158]:
• Using chemical amendments with the goal of improving soil physicochemical prop-
erties, adding chemicals with soluble calcium to replace the exchangeable sodium.
• Applying irrigation scheduling appropriate to maintain a specific moisture content in
soil and to provoke a periodic leaching of salts, always keeping an adequate drainage.
• Alternating the use of saline and freshwater or mixing them, depending on the soil
water conditions and crop conditions.
Salinity management at a regional level is developed around the objectives of environ-
mental quality and economic development of a region or a country. Water requirements
must be considered in a sustainable way by every user, as related to both quantity and
quality.
The need to improve irrigation systems and their management and to increase unifor-
mity and water application efficiency is also relevant.
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Academic.
5.6 Land Drainage

J. Martinez Beltran
5.6.1 Introduction
Land drainage deals with the control of waterlogging and soil salinization in agri-
cultural lands. In flatlands, a first problem emerges if soil infiltration rates are low and
rainfall or irrigation water stands on the ground surface, generally in small depressions or
at the edges of the irrigation basin. This problem can be solved by leveling and smoothing
the land and providing it with a uniform slope for excess water to flow through furrows
or shallow ditches toward the surface drainage outlet. Surface water is discharged into a
collector drain through pipes to prevent the erosion of the open ditch bank.
Waterlogging of the root zone due to the presence of perched water tables also occurs if
the percolation rate is lower than the amount of water infiltrated, because of poor internal
drainage of the soil. In flatlands, percolation can be improved by means of subsoiling to
break hardpans and other types of less pervious layers of the topsoil. Thus, the soil struc-
ture, porosity, and hydraulic conductivity are enhanced and thus so is water percolation.
In areas with insufficient natural drainage, subsurface drainage systems are required to
maintain the groundwater table below the root zone, thus keeping it free from waterlog-
ging and salinization. These systems consist of parallel, horizontal, generally perforated
plastic pipes, although deep open field drains also are used as a first step of drainage
development. Groundwater flows toward the lateral drains and through them to the outlet,
where it is discharged into the collector drain by means of a rigid unperforated pipe.
The drainage water, removed from the field through the surface and subsurface
drainage systems, is conveyed through a network of main drains to the outlet, where
it is discharged into a water body by gravity flow, by pumping, or through tidal gates.
Land drainage has contributed to agricultural development in rainfed areas of the
temperate regions, in irrigated lands of the arid and semiarid regions, and in the humid
tropics. In the temperate humid regions, land drainage promotes good aeration of the root
zone and provides moisture appropriate in the topsoil to ensure workability. Therefore,
in these regions, drainage has been an efficient means to increase crop production and
to decrease farming costs. In irrigated lands, drainage is indispensable to prevent the
permanent hazard of waterlogging and salinization: Of 260 million ha of irrigated lands,
approximately 60 million ha currently suffer from the effects of salinization [1] and
FAO estimates that salt buildup has severely damaged about 30 million ha. In the humid
tropics, particularly in lowland areas where, traditionally, only paddy is grown, land
drainage is required to increase rice production and to diversify agriculture by growing
dry-foot crops.
However, drainage may have adverse environmental effects such as conversion of
wetlands to agricultural lands, deterioration of water quality, and landscape destruction.
Therefore, new drainage systems must be designed, constructed, and managed, taking
into account not only agricultural objectives but environmental factors as well. These
factors are essential in the rehabilitation projects that are currently under way.
In this section, the following phases of a drainage project are described: identification
and characterization of the problem areas, planning and design of the drainage systems,
Land Drainage 431
implementation and control of the quality of the drainage works, and operation and
maintenance of the systems installed. Books that provide basic concepts, applications,
and guidelines on land drainage can be found in the literature [2–8].
5.6.2 Drainage Investigations

The first phase of a drainage project is the identification of the waterlogged or salt-
affected lands and their further characterization for planning the reclamation procedure.
This phase is followed by design of the drainage system. During these two phases, some
drainage investigations must be carried out by means of two fundamental studies: a soil
survey and a hydrologic study, both based on a sound topographic survey. The climatic,
soil, and hydrological data can be compiled in geographic information systems (GIS),
by means of thematic maps, which can be continuously updated.
Additional investigations should be carried out to assess the environmental impact of
the drainage project and to follow up its performance in order to address the protective
measures that may be necessary (see Section 5.6.6). Investigations are also necessary to
deal with the socioeconomic issues related to the drainage project.
Soil Surveys
To identify the problem areas, soil mapping, focused on assessing land drainability,
is required to differentiate those areas affected by waterlogging and salinity from those
lands with natural drainage and that are salt free. The intensity of the survey required
depends on several factors, such as the size of the project area, the complexity of the
problem, and the time and funds available for the project. The intensity varies from re-
connaissance surveys at a scale of 1:50,000 to semidetailed studies at a scale of 1:25,000.
The observation densities depend on the intensity of the survey, but they can vary from
one to four observations per 100 ha.
The physiographic approach to mapping soils [9] is particularly suitable for drainage
purposes because a close relationship exists between geomorphology and drainage condi-
tions. Following this approach, once the landforms of the studied area have been mapped
through a photointerpretation study, field observations are made. Their main purpose is
to determine those soil characteristics relevant to assess land drainability, namely, the
position of the mapping unit in the landscape; its salt content; the internal drainage of the
soil and the characteristics of the pans impeding the water percolation, if present; and
the transmissivity of the layers down to the impervious barrier. Sometimes the hydraulic
resistance of a semipervious layer must be known if vertical seepage from a semiconfined
aquifer toward the phreatic aquifer is expected or if there is deep percolation through
that layer.
For drainage design, a detailed soil survey is needed to delineate more accurately the
soil units mapped in the previous survey and to measure the hydrologic soil qualities
relevant to the design of the drainage system, such as the infiltration rate, the thickness
and the hydraulic conductivity of the soil layers down to the impervious barrier, and
the drainable pore space of the layer where the groundwater level oscillates. These soil
characteristics are rather constant in homogeneous soils, but in stratified soils they vary
in each layer. Moreover, the hydraulic conductivity gets the same value in all directions in
isotropic soils but not in anisotropic soils. For example, if laminar soil structure prevails,
Table 5.22. K and µ values according to soil texture and structure
Texture a
Structure µ K (m day−1 )
C, heavy CL Massive; columnar 0.01–0.02 0.05
With permanent wide cracks 0.10–0.20 >10
C, CL, SC, sCL Prismatic, angular blocks and laminar 0.01–0.03 0.05–0.1
C, SC, sC, CL, sCL, SL, S Prismatic, angular blocks and laminar 0.03–0.08 0.1–0.5
CL, S, SL, very fine sL, L Prismatic, medium subangular blocks 0.06–0.12 0.5–1.5
Fine sL, sL Subangular blocks, coarse granular 0.12–0.18 1.5–3.0
Ls Medium granular, sand grain 0.15–0.22 3.0–6.0
Fine s, medium s 0.22–0.26 >6
Coarse s, gravel Sand grains, gravel 0.26–0.35 >6
a
C-clay; L-loam; S-silt; s-sand.
then the horizontal conductivity is higher than the vertical one, whereas in cracking
clay soils the opposite holds. Mapping scales can vary from 1:10,000 to 1:5,000 and
observation densities from one per 5 ha to one per hectare.
Methods to Determine Soil Hydraulic Characteristics
Note that main concepts in soil physics are given in Section 5.2. The saturated hy-
draulic conductivity K (m day−1 ), the transmissivity K D (m2 day−1 ) of a soil layer with
a thickness D (m), and the drainable pore space µ (dimensionless) can be estimated,
measured by means of field observations, and derived from investigations on drained
lands. In the following paragraphs, the methods most commonly used to measure those
soil hydraulic characteristics are described. More detailed descriptions are presented
elsewhere [6, 10–14].
Estimation from Soil Properties
Estimated values of K and µ can be obtained from observations of the soil profile
because these soil hydraulic qualities depend on soil texture and structure. In Table 5.22,
average values of K and µ are presented.
Field Methods for Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity
The transmissivity of a certain area can be estimated by applying Darcy’s law to the
flow region if, previously, the hydraulic gradient s (dimensionless) is determined on the
isohypses map and the discharge is measured. The K value can be measured directly in
the soil layers situated below the groundwater level. Above this level, the K value can be
estimated from the capillary hydraulic conductivity measured in the unsaturated zone.
The field methods for determining K are based on the following principle: Water flows
through a volume of soil, whose boundary conditions are known, and the discharge is
measured; the K value is calculated by applying an equation derived from Darcy’s
law for the specific characteristics of the method. It is not necessary to obtain in each
measurement a very accurate result, but to obtain a series of data for each type of soil from
which the mean value can be derived. In this way, the effect of the spatial variability
of the soil is prevented. It is always recommended that the calculated mean value be
compared with the estimated value from the soil texture and structure.
Land Drainage 433
Figure 5.41. Measurements for auger hole.
The auger hole method [15] is the most suitable to measure the K value of homo-
geneous soils down to a depth of approximately 3 m. This method is based on the
relationship between the K value of the soil surrounding a hole and the rate of the rise
of the water level inside the hole after pumping water. The hole is augered below the
groundwater level and its geometric characteristics are known (Fig. 5.41). With this
method the hydraulic conductivity of a soil column, with a radius of 30 cm and a thick-
ness equal to the distance between the groundwater level and 20 cm below the hole
bottom, is measured.
The K value can be calculated from
K = Cv, (5.187)
where K is the hydraulic conductivity (m/day); C = f (H, h̄, r, D) is a geometric factor;
H is the thickness of the hole below the groundwater level (cm); r is the radius of the
hole (cm); D is the distance from the bottom of the hole to the impervious layer (cm);
v = −dh/dt is the velocity of the rise of the water level inside the hole (cm s−1 );
h = y − (W + 1) is the distance from the water level inside the hole to the groundwater
level (cm); W is the depth of the groundwater level (cm); l is the height of the reference
level on the ground surface (cm); y are the measurements of the water level inside the
hole from the reference level (cm); h̄ is the mean value of the h measurements for
h > 3/4h 0 ; h 0 is the initial value of h (cm); and t is the time interval (s).
The C value can be calculated with one of the following equations:
When
4000 r 2
D > 1/2H, C= ¡ ¢ . (5.188)
(H + 20r ) 2 − h̄
H
h̄
When
3600 r 2
D = 0, C= ¡ ¢ . (5.189)
(H + 10r ) 2 Hh̄ h̄
To assess appropriately the rate of rise of the water level inside the hole, this level
must be lowered approximately 20 cm in very pervious soils and about 80 cm in soils
with low K . The rate of rise is measured by a steel tape fastened to a float. The time
intervals vary between 5 and 30 s according to the soil hydraulic conductivity.
The method of the piezometer [10] is more convenient for measurements of the K
value in stratified soils and in layers deeper than 3 m. In this case, water is pumped out of
a piezometer of which the bottom only is open. The rate of rise of the water level inside
the tube is measured immediately. Therefore, the K value of only that portion of the soil
surrounding the opening is determined. The Kirkham formula describes the relationship
among the rate of rise of the water level, the geometric factors of the measurement, and
the K value:
r2 hf
K = A0 ln , (5.190)
ti − t f hi
where K is the hydraulic conductivity (m day−1 ); A0 = 864π/A (cm−1 ), A being a
geometric factor that depends on r0 and L (cm) (A values were determined by Youngs
by means of an electric analog [5, 10]); r0 is the radius of the cavity (cm); L is the length
of the cavity (cm); r is the internal radius of the tube (cm); (ti − t f ) is the time interval
between the first and the last measurements (s); h i = yi − (W + l) is the distance from
the water table to the water level inside the tube (cm); yi is the measurement from the
reference level in time ti (cm); W is the depth of the groundwater level (cm); and l is the
height of the entrance of the piezometer above the ground surface (cm).
The inverse auger-hole method [11] is applied to determine the capillary hydraulic
conductivity above the groundwater level. In this case, water is poured into an augered
hole and the rate of the lowering of the water level inside the hole is measured from the
reference level by means of a tape fastened to a float. The measurements are performed
after water has been infiltrating for a long time, to diminish the effect of the matric
potential in the rate of drawdown. The equation used to calculate the K value has been
derived from the balance between the water flowing through the side walls and bottom
of the hole and the rate of lowering of the water level in the hole:
r h 0 + (r/2)
K = 864 ln , (5.191)
2t h f + (r/2)
where K is the hydraulic conductivity (m day−1 ); r is the radius of the hole (cm); h 0 is
the initial height of the water column in the hole (cm); h f is the final height of the water
column in the hole (cm); and t is the time elapsed (s) between both measurements.
The infiltrometer method [11] used for measurements of the infiltration rate also can
be applied to determine the K value of the top layers of the soil profile, provided that
the soil surrounding the infiltrometer is sufficiently moist to avoid the effects of the soil
suction in the lowering of the water level.
Determining Transmissivity
Once the hydraulic conductivity has been measured, to calculate the transmissivity it
is necessary to determine the thickness of each layer down to the impervious barrier. The
field measurements can be done by manual boring down to a depth of 3 to 5 m. If the
Land Drainage 435
thickness of the aquifer is greater, pumping tests in drilled wells are required. Methods
for pumping tests are described by Boonstra and De Ridder [16] and Kruseman and De
Ridder [17].
The impervious layer usually can be identified by observations in an auger hole. For
example, when a net change of the soil texture or a sharp increase of the soil compactness
are observed and, specifically, if a dry material is found below a layer saturated with
water. However, it is not always easy to distinguish an impervious layer; in this case, a
layer can be considered less pervious if its K value is less than 1/10 of the K value of the
overlying layer or less than one-fifth of the average value of the pervious soil profile. A
layer also can be considered absolutely impervious if the hydraulic resistance for vertical
flow (c = D/K v ) is higher than 250 days, D being the thickness of the layer (m) and
K v the vertical hydraulic conductivity (m day−1 ) [19].
The distance from the drain level to the impervious layer is considered the average
thickness of the aquifer, if the barrier is deep. However, an average value of the hydraulic
head should be added if the water flow above the drain level is relevant in comparison
with the flow through the region below the drain level.
Considerations of Soil Anisotropy and Stratification
Alluvial soils frequently present a soil profile with several layers of different materials.
Occasionally, the hydraulic conductivity is also anisotropic and then, an isotropic K
value equivalent to the actual anisotropic one must be estimated. The model developed
by Boumans [20] can be applied to this transformation. This model takes into account
the coefficient of anisotropy, which is defined by the relation between the horizontal
and vertical conductivity of a soil layer (R K = K h /K v ). According to this model, the
equivalent value of the isotropic conductivity of a soil layer (K 0 ) is the geometric mean
of K h and K v :
p
K 0 = Kh Kv . (5.192)
In addition, the thickness of each layer is modified by multiplying the actual value
(D) by the square root of the coefficient of anisotropy:
p
D0 = D RK . (5.193)
In a stratified soil with n layers, average values of K h and K v can be obtained by

applying the following formulas:
Pn
i=1 K hi Di
Kh = P n , (5.194)
i=1 Di
Pn
Di
K v = Pni=1 Di . (5.195)
i=1 K vi
Anisotropy is difficult to measure in the field because the usual methods provide K h
only. However, neglecting it involves a greater error. For clearly stratified soils, a ratio
K h /K v = 16 is a better guess than neglecting the anisotropy, which means assuming a
ratio of one.
Determination of Drainable Soil Porosity

The µ value can be determined by field measurements, for example, by applying the
method developed by Guyon, as discussed by Chossat and Saugnac [21]. This method
is based on the relationship between the volume of water pumped from an auger-hole
and the drawdown of the water observed in four piezometers installed close to the hole.
However, sometimes it is not possible to apply this direct method of measurement and
an estimation of the µ value is required.
One option is to estimate the µ value on a pF curve as the difference of the water
content by volume at saturation and the water content at field capacity, because it is
equivalent to the air content at field capacity. This procedure has an important drawback
because of the low similarity between a small undisturbed soil sample and the actual
field conditions. However, if several laboratory measurements are performed, then a
mean value can be obtained that shows the tendency of the µ value.
The µ value also can be estimated from the K value. There are several empirical
relations between both hydraulic characteristics, such as those developed by Van Beers
[19] and the USBR [6], which are shown in Fig. 5.42. Chossat and Saugnac [21] found that
water only flows through a fraction of the total macroporosity; therefore, they obtained
lower values of µ (Fig. 5.42).
Investigations on Drained Lands
The results obtained by applying the conventional field methods described above must
be checked with those derived from investigations on drained lands, where a large volume
Figure 5.42. Relationship between the values of K and µ.

Land Drainage 437
of soil is considered. These investigations are based on observations of the drawdown of

the water table and the specific drainage discharge.
First of all, the best-fitting relationship between the hydraulic head h h at the mid-
point between two drains and the specific drain discharge q must be established. For
example, if water flows under steady-state conditions toward drains that reach the im-
pervious barrier, through a layer with good permeability, the following relation can be
obtained:
8K Dh h
q= , (5.196)
L2
where K is the hydraulic conductivity (m day−1 ), h h is the hydraulic head for horizontal
flow (m), D is the average thickness of the region of flow (m), and L is the drain spacing
(m).
In Eq. (5.196) the K D value is the unknown term because L is a design parameter,
and the values of q and h h are measured through field observations from piezometers and
at the drainage outlet. Once the K D value is known, the hydraulic conductivity can be
calculated if the thickness of the aquifer is measured, by taking the difference between
the depth of the impervious layer and the drain level and adding the average hydraulic
head above the drain level.
The drainable pore space also can be measured through investigations on a drained
field if the water balance in the saturated zone is established:
R + S = G + Dr − µ1h, (5.197)
where R is the amount of percolation that recharges the water table (mm), S is the amount
of seepage (mm), G is the capillary rise (mm), Dr is the amount of drainage water (mm),
1h is the average drawdown of the water table during the time considered (mm), and µ
is the drainable pore space.
If an area free of seepage is chosen during a dry period with low evaporation, outside
of the irrigation season when no recharge to the water table occurs, the water balance
can be simplified. Then Eq. (5.197) reads
Dr = µ1h. (5.198)
Then, to determine the average µ value, it is only necessary to measure the average
drawdown of the water table during the interval of time selected and the amount of water
drained during that same period.
Hydrological Study
The main purpose of the hydrological study is to determine the natural drainage
conditions of the project area by means of a groundwater study and to estimate the
magnitude of the recharge of the groundwater table. The mapping scale depends on the
intensity level of the study, but it is recommended that work be at the same scale used in
the soil survey. The contour lines of the topographic map must be at least 50 cm apart
and 10 cm if the lands are extremely flat.
Groundwater Study
The groundwater map is drawn once the hydraulic head data from the aquifer have
been obtained by means of piezometric recording. Its main purpose is to determine
the groundwater flow through the project and surrounding areas and the recharge and
discharge zones.
The first draft of the isohypses map can be obtained with data from field observations
carried out during the soil survey. On each observation site, an approximate value of the
hydraulic head can be obtained if the depth to the groundwater table is recorded and the
height above the mean sea level is estimated on the topographic map. Then the isohypses
map can be drawn by interpolating these data, but always bearing in mind the continuity
of the section of the aquifer considered. On this draft of the isohypses map, the direction
of the flow lines, which are perpendicular to the isopiezometric lines, and the recharge
and discharge areas can be observed, as shown in Fig. 5.43. This draft map should be
checked with the topographic and geomorphologic maps.
The next phase is to design and install the piezometer network for permanent record-
ing. In this phase the following criteria should be considered: the piezometer rows must
Figure 5.43. Isohypses map with groundwater flow lines.

Land Drainage 439
be installed in the same direction as the flow lines; at least two piezometers and a recorder
of the free water level must be installed in a section transverse to the water courses, to
know if they drain or recharge the groundwater table; in addition, those transversals
also should be installed throughout borders with adjacent areas to estimate the lateral
seepage, if any. The piezometer density depends on the complexity of the project area
and the resources available for drainage investigations. Densities of 10 to 20 piezometers
per 100 ha are recommended for detailed studies for drainage design.
The observations of the piezometer network should be done during the shortest time
interval in order to describe the groundwater flow conditions during the same period. At
least two annual records should be obtained: for example, in monsoon climates, one for
the rainy season and the other for the irrigation season. Both records should focus on the
most critical periods of recharge: the period of maximum irrigation requirements when
the interval between irrigation applications is the shortest, or at the end of the irrigation
season; and the period of heavy rainfall, particularly if it coincides with critical periods
of the cropping season, such as sowing or harvesting when there is the need to ensure
soil workability.
A geohydrological study is required if a semiconfined aquifer is present below the
unconfined aquifer, to determine whether there is vertical seepage from the semiconfined
aquifer or leakage from the phreatic aquifer. Deep piezometers must be installed below
the semipervious layer to determine the vertical hydraulic gradient. Pumping tests are
also needed to measure the hydraulic resistance of the semipervious layer. If these data
are known, the amount of seepage or leakage can be calculated by applying Darcy’s law.
Detailed information on groundwater investigations can be found elsewhere [18].
Determination of Recharge
To design a subsurface drainage system, it is necessary to assess the magnitude
of the recharge, which can have different components: percolation of irrigation water,
percolation of excess rainfall, and seepage.
The water losses from the network for conveyance and distribution of the irrigation
water are not considered as recharge of a groundwater table controlled by a system of
parallel horizontal drains; in some instances, they should be controlled by interceptor
drainage (see Section 5.6.3). Therefore, only the percolation losses at the field level are
taken into account, and they can be estimated from the water balance of an irrigated
soil:
³ ea ´
R = I 1− − (E + Q r ), (5.199)
100
where R is the recharge (mm), I is the gross irrigation depth (mm) applied at the field
level; ea is the application efficiency, which represents the ratio (%) between the net In
and the gross application depths (see Sections 5.1 and 5.4); E is the evaporation loss
(mm), and Q r is the amount of surface runoff (mm).
The options to determine these factors depend on the data immediately available and
the information that can be collected over time and at reasonable costs. If the drainage
project is located in lands currently irrigated, those agrohydrological factors can be
measured through irrigation evaluations. For example, the amount of water effectively
applied and the surface runoff can be calculated if the respective flows are measured with
Table 5.23. FAO guidelines to estimate the values of ea and R for fine or coarse soil
ea (%) R (% I )
Irrigation
Method Water Management Fine Coarse Fine Coarse
Sprinkler Day application; moderate wind 60 60 30 30
Night application 70 70 25 25
Drip 80 80 15 15
Basin Poor leveling and design 60 45 30 40
Good leveling and design 75 60 20 30
Furrows and borders Poor design 55 40 30 40
Good design 65 50 25 35
Source: [19].
Table 5.24. Mean values of drainage coefficient for irrigated lands
Soil Conditions Water Management q (mm day−1 )

Less pervious soils Internal drainage restricted <1.5
Pervious soils According to the internal drainage
and crop intensity 1.5–3.0
Pervious soils Poor irrigation or leaching
for salinity control 3.0–4.5
Very pervious soils Irrigation of paddy fields >4.5
flumes. The In value can be estimated by determining the water content of soil samples
taken before and after the irrigation application; the calculated value should be checked
with ETc and P data from the previous period.
If the irrigation and drainage systems are being designed jointly, the irrigation re-
quirement is calculated with the water retention data:
In (θcc − θi )1,000Z r
I = 100 = 100 , (5.200)
ea ea
where I is the gross application depth (mm), θcc is the soil water retained at field capacity
(m3 m−3 ), θi is the minimum soil water fraction that does not stress the crop (m3 m−3 ),
and Z r is the average thickness of the root zone (m). If the θi value is unknown, the
amount of water easily available to the crops can be estimated as approximately half the
interval between field capacity and the permanent wilting point.
If no data are available, tentative values of ea and R can be estimated from the Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) guidelines [19] which are shown in Table 5.23
(Other information on ea is given in Section 5.4.6). To use these guidelines, only data
that can be obtained easily are required, such as the soil texture, the irrigation method,
and some qualitative information on water management at the field level.
FAO also has provided data for the average drainage discharge in irrigated lands,
which are shown in Table 5.24.
To check if the average amount of percolation water satisfies the minimum leaching
requirement to avoid soil salinization, the leaching requirements must be calculated. In
Land Drainage 441
the long term, for example, the irrigation season, this could be done by using the salt
equilibrium equation from Dieleman [22] and later modified by Van Hoorn [23]:
1 − f i (1 − LF)
R ∗ = (ETc − Pe ) , (5.201)
f i (1 − LF)
where R ∗ is the long-term leaching requirement (mm); ETc is the actual crop evapo-
transpiration (mm); P is the effective precipitation (mm); f i is the leaching efficiency
coefficient (fraction) as a function of the irrigation water applied; LF = fr R/ f i I is the
leaching fraction, which depends on the soil characteristics, the irrigation method, and
the water management; and fr is the leaching efficiency coefficient as a function of the
percolation water.
The f i coefficient takes into account the fraction of the infiltrated water that flows
through cracks and macropores without mixing with the soil solution. This coefficient
depends on soil texture and structure and on the irrigation method: It is higher (from
0.95 to 1) in well-structured loamy soils than in heavy clay cracking soils (<0.85), and
it is also higher with sprinkler than with surface irrigation.
If the value of the electrical conductivity of the irrigation water (ECi ) is known, the
LF value can be calculated by means of the approach developed by Van Hoorn [23] (Fig.
5.44), once the threshold value of soil salinity, expressed as electrical conductivity of
the saturated soil paste (ECe ) that on average must not be exceeded in the root zone, has
been established from crop salt-tolerance data [24]. This method is based on the water
Figure 5.44. Relation between ECe and ECi for different leaching fractions.
and salt balances in equilibrium status for the model of water intake represented in the
same figure: Water extraction decreases within the root zone from 40% of the total in
the top quarter to 10% in the deepest quarter.
In the event of the presence of slightly soluble salts in the irrigation water, such as
gypsum, magnesium, and calcium carbonates, the leaching requirement is calculated
first for the soluble salts. Afterward, the contribution of the slightly soluble salts to
the total soil salinity is added. For average salt content, the total solubility of gypsum
and carbonates is approximately equal to 40 meq L−1 , equivalent to an EC of some
3.3 dS m−1 . If bicarbonates predominate in the irrigation water, it is advisable to decrease
the sodium adsorption ratio by increasing the calcium content of the soil solution by
applying gypsum. Total amounts of gypsum from 5 to 20 t ha−1 are recommended but
applications should be applied as fractionated.
If the excess rainwater is sufficient to cover the leaching deficit, the salt content in
the root zone can increase at the end of the irrigation season, but the rainfall will supply
enough leaching to start the next irrigation season with a low salt content. However,
in arid zones, no effective precipitation is usually available for leaching. Therefore, the
deficit must be covered by increasing the annual allocation of irrigation water:
I = (ETc − Pe ) + R ∗ . (5.202)
A security margin (R > 1.3R ∗ ) is advisable [19] because the irrigation is not always
uniformly applied in the field. If, under the actual irrigation management, the leaching
requirements are not satisfied (R < 1.3R ∗ ), there are two alternatives: Either reduce the
leaching fraction for growing more salt-tolerant crops or find a way to fulfill the leaching
deficit. In the latter case, there are two possibilities: either irrigate before sowing the next
crop to lower the salt content or split the leaching requirement during the irrigation pe-
riod by increasing each irrigation application. With the second possibility, however, the
salinity control affects the subsurface drainage design because the drainage coefficient
is higher.
The increase of the irrigation requirement depends on the availability of water re-
sources during or at the end of the growing season. It also depends on the internal
drainage of the soils: Coarse-textured soils admit leaching fractions between 0.15 and
0.25, whereas in fine-textured soils with low permeability the leaching fraction should
be lower than 0.10 because of their limited internal drainage.
When soil salinity increase is not expected over the long term, the salt content of the
soil solution should be checked over the short term to ensure that it does not exceed the
threshold value for the crop’s salt tolerance. For this purpose, the salt storage equation
derived for predicting the buildup of soil salinity on a weekly or monthly basis can be
used [23].
In the temperate zones the major component of the design recharge is excess rainfall in
winter and spring, which is generally lower than the infiltration rate. Consequently, excess
surface water is only found in less pervious soils. The average value of the percolation
water that recharges the groundwater table is generally less than 10 mm day−1 . In the
irrigated lands of arid and semiarid regions, the design recharge is commonly due to the
Land Drainage 443
percolation of excess irrigation water and to salinity control. However, in some areas,
excess precipitation is also present during the rainy season. In the humid tropics, heavy
rainfall over short time periods causes surface drainage problems.
The amount of percolation water that recharges the groundwater table during a time
interval can be estimated from the water balance of the unsaturated zone:
R = F − 1W = (P − Q r − E) − 1W, (5.203)
where R is the recharge (mm), F is the depth of water infiltrated (mm), 1W is the
variation of the soil water retained in the root zone during the same time interval (mm);
P is the rainfall (mm); Q r is the excess of surface water to be removed through surface
drainage (mm); E is composed by interception and surface water evaporation (mm).
The magnitude of the terms of this balance depends on the climatic characteristics
of the project area, specifically the rainfall conditions and the evaporation demand, and
some characteristics of the unsaturated zone, such as the infiltration rate and the water
retention capacity.
First, it is necessary to calculate the design rainfall. The Gumbel distribution generally
is used to predict it for certain frequency of exceedance, from data series of daily rainfall
recorded over at least 15 to 20 years. Generally, a return period of 5 years is considered
for the design of subsurface drainage systems; a period of 10 years can be considered if
high-value crops, such as horticultural crops, are grown. To design the major structures
of the main drain network, a return period of 25 years generally is adopted. Detailed
information on the methods used to determine the rainfall depth–duration–frequency
relations are described by Oosterbaan [25].
Once a depth–duration curve has been selected for the design return period, the
fraction of excess rainfall that infiltrates must be estimated because part of the water is
evaporated directly to the atmosphere and part is discharged through the surface drainage
system as surface runoff. It is difficult to measure the infiltration rate because the volume
of soil involved in measurements done with the infiltrometer is so small, and normally
the soil conditions at the moment of heavy rainfall are quite different from those at the
moment of the measurement. For irrigated lands, it is more reliable to obtain average
data of the infiltration from field observations after irrigation applications. Also, field
measurements of surface runoff after heavy rainfall can be compared with the amount of
precipitation recorded by pluviometers to estimate the actual infiltration. If no data are
available, mean reference values for different soils and land uses can be utilized.
The recharge of the water table is only a fraction of the water infiltrated because
part is absorbed in the unsaturated zone. It is difficult to determine an accurate value
of 1W because it depends on the soil conditions, the precipitation deficit, the land
use, and moisture conditions before the period of design rainfall. An average value can
be obtained through simulation models for daily water balances in the root zone, tak-
ing into account the soil water retention capacity and daily data on evapotranspiration
and precipitation. Anyhow, the results obtained should be checked with field observa-
tions and direct measurements of the soil water content at the beginning of the rainy
season.
Figure 5.45. Layout of a subsurface drainage system of parallel horizontal drains.
5.6.3 Subsurface Drainage Systems

Main Concepts
Subsurface drainage systems are installed in flatlands to control the groundwater level
in order to achieve water and salt balances favorable for crop growth. The groundwater
level can be controlled with a system of horizontal parallel drains or by pumping ground-
water in wells that penetrate into the aquifer. The first method is known as horizontal
drainage; the second is called vertical drainage.
A horizontal subsurface drainage system consists of a network of parallel drains.
The groundwater flows toward the field lateral drains, which discharge into collector
drains through an outlet pipe. The drainage water is conveyed through the network of
collector drains and main canals toward the drainage outlet, where water is discharged
into a water body by gravity through a tidal gate or by pumping. In Fig. 5.45, several
systems of horizontal drains are shown. Singular drainage systems consist of pipe lateral
drains and collector drains that are open ditches, whereas pipe collector drains are used
in composite drainage systems. In some areas, especially where maintenance of deep
open drains is difficult, groups of collector drains discharge into sumps, from which the
water is pumped into a shallow open system (Fig. 5.45).
Several factors must be considered to select the appropriate system, such as the need
to discharge surface runoff, the slope of the land to be drained, the depth of the lateral
outlets, and the maintenance requirements. Singular drainage systems are appropriate
if, in addition to the subsurface flow, it is necessary to discharge excess rainfall through
a surface drainage system; a certain amount of water can be stored in the open ditch
system and, consequently, the peak flow in the outlet can be reduced. These systems also
are recommended for very flat lands because pipe collector drains with large diameters
are required if the drainage flow is high and the slope available is low. However, in the
irrigated lands of arid regions, composite drainage systems are recommended because
the lateral depth is usually higher than in the temperate zones and, consequently, large
excavations are required if open ditches are used as collector drains; generally, the
excess rainfall is negligible; and weed proliferation increases the maintenance costs of
open ditches. Composite systems also are recommended in sloping areas, where soil
conservation is required.
Land Drainage 445
Layout
Two basic maps are necessary to draw the layout of a subsurface drainage system: the
isohypses map (Fig. 5.43), where the flow lines can be observed, and the map containing
the contour lines and the layout of the actual infrastructures, namely, rural roads and
irrigation and drainage canals.
Some design principles must be borne in mind. No outside water should be allowed to
go into the project area, which must be protected by embankments; surface water must
be diverted and lateral seepage must be intercepted. The lateral drains should be drawn
perpendicularly to the flow lines to intercept the lateral seepage if any fraction of it has
not been discharged through the interceptor drainage; in this way, the collector drains
benefit from the natural slope of the ground. Most of the existing drainage canals should
be included in the new network of main drains after reshaping their section to obtain
the appropriate one. The outlet structures must be situated in the discharge areas, which
generally coincide with the lowest topographic zones.
Design Parameters
A subsurface drainage system is defined by the following design parameters: the
average depth of the laterals Z , which is equal to the sum of the depth to the water table z
and the hydraulic head h, both midway between two drains; the drain spacing L; and
the diameter of the pipe d, and under specific circumstances the hydraulic section of
the open ditches, which are rarely used as laterals. These parameters can be observed in
Fig. 5.46, where the average thickness of the aquifer D also is shown.
In addition, the drainage materials to be used, namely, the type of pipe and envelopes
(if necessary), must be chosen.
Other design parameters can be observed in a longitudinal section of a lateral drain
(Fig. 5.47): the drain length B and the drain slope s as well as the outlet structures for
the drainage water to be discharged into the collector drains.
The drain slope must be as high as possible to discharge the drainage flow with the min-
imum drain section. Drain slopes in the range between 0.1% and 0.3% are recommended.
Figure 5.46. Cross section of two laterals of a subsurface drainage system.

Figure 5.47. Longitudinal section of a lateral drain.
The pipe can be installed with the same slope as the ground slope, especially if it is homo-
geneous after land-leveling operations; in this way the drain depth is maintained along
the lateral. However, in very flat lands, it is often necessary to have a lower depth at the
upstream end of the lateral in order to get the design slope. This fact limits the maximum
drain length obtainable.
Moreover, the design drain length depends on the geometric characteristics of the
agricultural fields and the maintenance requirements of the drain. In flatlands drained
with singular systems, lengths up to 250–300 m are common, especially if the need to
discharge surface runoff requires open collector drains set 500–600 m apart. However,
laterals as long as 750–1,000 m can be designed if there is enough slope. In this case,
junction boxes must be installed along the lateral, approximately 250 m apart, to facil-
itate the connection between pipes of different diameters, as well as the inspection and
maintenance of the drain (Fig. 5.45).
The drain spacing and the drain depth are mutually interrelated: The deeper the level
of the drains, the wider the drain spacing and, consequently, the lower the drainage
intensity and the lower the cost of the subsurface drainage works. That is,
10,000
C= Cu , (5.204)
L
where C is the installation cost of the system ($/ha), 10,000/L is the density of the
system (m ha−1 ), L is the drain spacing (m), and Cu is the cost per unit length of the
lateral installed ($/m).
Nevertheless, to select the most appropriate combination of drain depth and drain
spacing, not only the costs of the lateral system should be included, but also the propor-
tional costs of the main drainage system and the operation and maintenance costs of the
whole system. In the following paragraphs, the main concepts regarding the design of
these parameters are analyzed.
Computer-aid design programs, such as LANDRAIN [26] and DACCORD [27],
enable calculation of the design parameters and the costs of the system and, in addition,
the layout of the network can be designed on the computer screen. The maps with the
layout and the longitudinal sections of the drains can be plotted automatically. Planning
and design of the subsurface drainage systems can be facilitated if these programs are
integrated with GIS [28].
Land Drainage 447
Design Criteria
To calculate the drain spacing of a subsurface drainage system, once a design depth
has been selected, there are two options: one is to design the system under conditions of
steady-state groundwater flow toward the drains; the other is to design it under unsteady-
state flow conditions.
If the recharge to the water table is low and approximately constant during a period
of time, one possibility is to design the system in such a way that the drain discharge
is approximately equal to the recharge. In this case, the water balance in the saturated
zone is in equilibrium and the groundwater level remains permanently at a depth more
or less constant. In practice, these conditions occur: In the temperate zones, where low-
intensity rainfall over several consecutive days is common in winter; in areas recharged
by deep vertical seepage from a semiconfined aquifer; in polder areas, where there is
lateral seepage from the outside water bodies; and in irrigated lands, where water is
applied continuously through high-frequency irrigation methods, such as drip irrigation
and central-pivot systems. Under steady-state conditions, the first design criterion is to
assume a drainage coefficient equal to the design recharge:
q = r, (5.205)
where q is the specific discharge rate (mm day−1 ) and r is the design recharge rate
(mm day−1 ). The second criterion is to select the hydraulic head midway between two
drains, which depends on the minimum depth to a permanent water table and the drain
depth:
h = Z − z, (5.206)
where Z is the drain depth (m); z is the depth to the water table in the midpoint between
two drains (m); and h is the hydraulic head in this point (m) as represented in Fig. 5.46.
The z value depends on the thickness of the crop root zone and on the hazard of capil-
lary rise of saline groundwater, mainly if seepage permanently recharges the groundwater
table. For field crops grown on clay soils of the temperate zones, a minimum depth to a
permanent groundwater table of 0.8–0.9 m is recommended, and 0.6–0.75 m if soils are
sandy loam; a depth of 0.5–0.6 m is sufficient if vegetables are grown on sandy loam soils
[29]. In irrigated lands of arid regions, an average depth of 1.0–1.2 m is recommended
for field crops and 1.2–1.6 m for fruit trees, according to the soil texture [19].
The steady-state approach is not economically feasible if the recharge is high and
it occurs over a short period of time. Nevertheless, it is possible to design a drainage
system that enables the discharge of the amount of recharge in a period of time equal to
the interval between two consecutive recharge events. In this case, the water balance is
not in equilibrium: When the recharge is higher than the discharge, the water level rises;
when the recharge ceases and the system is still draining, the water level declines. These
unsteady conditions are frequent in areas with heavy rainfall of short duration, which is
common in the humid tropics and in irrigated lands where irrigation applications from
50 to 100 mm are common if surface or conventional sprinkler irrigation is used.
Under unsteady conditions, the hydraulic head depends not only on the distance to
the drain but also on the time. Midway between two drains it varies from a maximum
value h 0 just after the end of the recharge to a minimum value h t just before a new
recharge event. Therefore, it is necessary to define the minimum depth of a rising water
table z 0 and the period of time 1t for the water table to decline to a maximum depth
z f . The water table can rise close or even up to the ground surface for a short period of
time if the irrigation water is good quality, provided that the water level drops below the
root zone during a period of approximately three days [30] and the average depth of the
water table is 0.8–1 m [30, 31]. The corresponding hydraulic heads are obtained with
the following equations:
h0 = Z − z0, (5.207)
hf = Z −zf, (5.208)
where Z is the drain depth (m); h 0 and h f are, respectively, the maximum and the
minimum hydraulic head midway between drains (m).
The relationship between both design parameters is as follows:
h 0 = h f + 1h = h f + R/µ, (5.209)
where 1h is the rise of the water table (m), R is the recharge due to the percolation of
excess irrigation water (m), and µ is the mean value of the drainable pore space above
the drain level.
The design criteria for the irrigation season should be established for the period of
peak water requirements, when the interval between irrigation applications is shortest
and, consequently, the recharge is higher. The first approach is based on the dynamic
equilibrium concept for a decreasing groundwater level: During the interval 1t between
two consecutive irrigation applications, the drainage system should facilitate a drawdown
of the water level −1h similar to the rise +1h due to the percolation of the irrigation
water losses, as shown in Fig. 5.48.
The 1t value can be determined from irrigation evaluations or from the irrigation
schedule if the project area is not yet irrigated:
ea I
1t = , (5.210)
ETc
Figure 5.48. A fluctuating water table is controlled below a design

depth during the irrigation season.
Land Drainage 449
Figure 5.49. Drawdown of water table after an irrigation application in a

heavy clay soil.
where 1t is the interval of time between two irrigation applications (day), ea is the
application efficiency (fraction); I is the gross depth of water applied (mm), and ETc is
the average daily crop evapotranspiration (mm day−1 ).
If, after the irrigation application, the groundwater level rises to near the ground
surface, in addition to the dynamic equilibrium concept, the rate of drawdown of the
water level should be considered to formulate appropriate h 0 / h t criteria. This situation
is frequent in draining heavy clay soils with a shallow impervious layer and low drainable
pore space, as is the case of the example shown in Fig. 5.49. Design criteria for draining
such soils can be found in the literature [30, 32].
Sometimes steady-state drainage criteria must be applied during the irrigation season.
Then geometric mean values of the hydraulic head and the specific discharge during the
critical drainage period can be considered:
p
h̄ = h0ht , (5.211)
q = r/1t, (5.212)
where q is the average specific discharge (mm day−1 ), r is the recharge due to the
percolation of excess irrigation water (mm); and 1t is the interval of time between two
irrigation applications (day).
Criteria for a falling water level after a sudden rise of the water table due to the
percolation of excess water from short-duration heavy rainfall are also based on crop
tolerance to temporal waterlogging of the root zone and water content of the arable
layer required to ensure the soil workability and the transit of agricultural machines. A
drawdown of the water level over a week to a depth of 1.0–1.5 m is recommended or
to a depth of 0.2 in 1–2 days. Horticultural crops in warm climates may require this
drawdown within 6 h.
Drain Depth
Once the layout and the design criteria of the drainage system have been established,
it is necessary to define the possible range of drain depth from a minimum to a maximum
value. The minimum drain depth depends on crop requirements. If the drainage system
is being designed for steady-state conditions it can be calculated as it follows:
Z m = z + h, (5.213)
where Z m is the minimum drain depth (m); z is the minimum depth to a permanent
water table midway between two drains (m), and h is the hydraulic head at that point (a
minimun value of 0.1 m usually is adopted).
If unsteady-state conditions have been assumed for drainage design, the minimum
depth is
Z m = z 0 + h 0 = z 0 + (h f + 1h), (5.214)
where z 0 is the minimum depth to the water level after its rise due to the recharge (m),
h 0 is the maximum hydraulic head (m), h f is the hydraulic head at the end of the water
table drawdown (a minimum value of 0.1 m also is adopted), and 1h is the elevation of
the groundwater level due to the recharge (m).
A minimum drain depth of 0.8 m generally is considered because pipes installed
at a shallower depth may be clogged if crop roots penetrate into the drain through the
pipe slots. In addition, shallow drains can interfere with subsoiling practices, which
are common in the management of clay soils with low permeability. However, if the
conditions of the drainage project enable a design depth higher than the minimum one, the
h 0 / h t values can be increased and, consequently, the drain spacing also can be increased.
The major factors that determine the maximum drain depth are the hydraulic conduc-
tivity and the soil stability of the layers situated above the impervious barrier because
drains should be installed in pervious but stable layers free of silt and quicksand; the
drainage level at the outlet of the lateral into the collector drain, which depends on the
water level at the outlet of the drainage system and the available slope, bearing in mind
that discharge should be by gravity flow if possible; and the depth obtainable by the
drainage machines available in the project area.
In the temperate regions, drain depths range from 0.9–1.2 m in rainfed areas to 1.0–
1.5 m in irrigated lands. In arid zones, where salinity control is a priority, laterals usually
are installed at depths of 1.5–2.0 m, and even down to 2.5–3.0 m in silt-loam soils where
seepage of saline water is a major component of the acting recharge.
Drain Spacing
The distance between two consecutive laterals may vary between 50 and 150 m in
permeable soils. In pervious clay soils, 20 to 50 m spacings are common and, in heavy
clay soils, spacings of 10–20 m frequently are required. The drain spacing of a drainage
system can be determined for each land unit, by applying to a drainage equation the
mean hydrological constants and the drainage design criteria, formulated for the specific
land use and water management technique. The drainage equations are mathematical
expressions derived for the specific characteristics of the flow region and for the type
of flow considered in the design of a subsurface drainage system. In the following
paragraphs, some equations frequently used to calculate drain spacings are described.
More detailed descriptions can be found in the literature [33].
Land Drainage 451
Figure 5.50. Characteristics of the flow region of a homogeneous soil with

shallow impervious layer.
Homogeneous Soils
If a steady-state approach has been chosen to design a drainage system for a homo-
geneous soil, where the impervious layer is not so deep that the laterals can be installed
on it (Fig. 5.50), the Hooghoudt equation [34] can be used to calculate the drain spacing
for the design drain depth:
8K D2 h + 4K h 2 8K Dh
L2 = = , (5.215)
q q
where L is the drain spacing (m); D = D2 + h/2 is the average thickness of the flow
region (m); D2 is the thickness of the aquifer below the drain level (m); h is the hydraulic
head midway between two drains (m); K is the hydraulic conductivity (m day−1 ); q =
Q/L B is the specific discharge, namely, the water flow per surface area (m day−1 ); Q
is the drainage flow rate (m3 day−1 ); and B is the drain length (m).
With Eq. (5.215) the L value can be calculated for a drain depth Z once: The K value
and the depth to the impervious layer (Z + D2 ) have been measured and drainage design
criteria for the discharge (q = r ) and for the hydraulic head (h = Z − z) corresponding
to a design depth to the water level z have been established.
In some cases, the design drain level can be situated above the impervious layer
because the thickness of the phreatic aquifer allows it. It is then necessary to have not
only hydraulic head for horizontal flow (h h ) but an extra head (h r ) to overcome the
hydraulic resistance due to the radial flow in proximity to the drain trench. In this case
the Hooghoudt equation reads
8K dh
L2 = , (5.216)
q
where
D
d=
1+ 8D
πL
ln D2
u
is the thickness of the equivalent layer (m) for D2 < 14 L , u = πr0 is the wetted perimeter
of the drain (m), and r0 is the radius of the drain pipe (m).
If unsteady-state conditions prevail after a sudden rise of the groundwater table, as

happens in irrigated lands and in areas with heavy rainfall, the Glover-Dumm equation
[35, 36] can be used, provided that horizontal flow is the major component of the to-
tal flow and the thickness of the aquifer is fairly constant. However, resistances near
the drains and limited pipe capacity are not accounted for in this formula. The use of
Hooghoudt’s equivalent layer in nonsteady flow theoretically is not justified and may
give rise to contradictions, especially at the beginning of the process (W. H. Van der
Molen, Agricultural University, Wageningen, personal communication, 1998.).
The hydraulic head at the midpoint between two drains can be foreseen as a function
of time, for a system whose design parameters Z /L are assumed, installed in an aquifer
whose hydraulic characteristics K D and µ have been measured, after a sudden rise of
the water level:
h t = 1.16h 0 e−αt , (5.217)
where√α = π 2 K D/µL 2 is the reaction factor of the system (day−1 ), D = D2 + h̄/2 =

D2 + h 0 h t /2 is the average thickness of the aquifer (m), h 0 is the maximum hydraulic
head midway between two drains (m) at the beginning of the drawdown process, and h t
is the hydraulic head (m) as a function of time (day−1 ).
The α coefficient describes the response capacity of the system to a sudden rise of
the water table. It can be determined in operating systems and it varies from 0.1 to 0.3
(days) and from 2 to 5 (days) in systems with low and high response, respectively.
The Glover-Dumm equation also can be used to calculate the drain spacing if a design
drawdown criteria (h 0 / h f ; 1t) has been formulated:
π 2 K D1t
L2 = ¡ ¢. (5.218)
µ ln 1.16 hh 0f
In some instances the recharge is variable with a fluctuating water level that rises
through the effect of the percolation of water and declines through the effect of the
drainage system, and a sudden rise of the water table is not expected. In this case the
theory developed by Krayenhoff van der Leur [37] can be applied, provided that the flow
also is predominantly horizontal.
Stratified Soils
Frequently in drainage projects, alluvial soils are found in which a fine-textured, less
pervious layer overlies a coarse-textured, more pervious layer (K 2 > K 1 ). In draining clay
soils, sometimes the well-structured topsoil has a higher conductivity than the massive
subsoil (K 1 > K 2 ). In both cases it is usually possible to design the drain level so that
it is just at the limit between the layers of distinct permeability. Then, the Hooghoudt
equation can be applied if the system is designed for steady-state conditions and the
respective K value is assigned to the components of the equation:
8K 2 D2 h + 4K 1 h 2
L2 = , (5.219)
q
Land Drainage 453
where L is the drain spacing (m), K 1 is the hydraulic conductivity above the drain level
(m day−1 ), and K 2 is the hydraulic conductivity below the drain level (m day−1 ). D2 is
the thickness of the aquifer below the drain level (m), h is the hydraulic head midway
between two drains (m), and q is the specific discharge.
If the drain level is above the impervious layer the Hooghoudt equation still can be
used in a stratified soil providing that the drain level is on the boundary between the two
layers:
q L2 qL D2
h= + ln , (5.220)
8K D π K2 u
where K D = K 1 h/2 + K 2 D2 is the average transmissivity (m2 day−1 ) and u is the drain
wetted perimeter (m).
If a marked difference of permeability is found (K 2 > K 1 ), most of the water flows
below the drain level (K D ≈ K 2 D2 ). Then the Hooghoudt equation is simplified to
8K 2 d2 h
L2 = , (5.221)
q
where
D2
d2 = . (5.222)
1+ 8D2
πL
ln Du2
Sometimes an alluvial soil consists of several layers and occasionally the drain level
cannot be designed on the boundary between the layers of different permeability because
it is found either deep or very shallow, as can be observed in Fig. 5.51.
In these cases, it is also possible to apply a steady-state approach to calculate the
drain spacing by means of the Ernst equation [38] or the Toksöz-Kirkham method [7],
Figure 5.51. Characteristics of the flow region of a stratified soil with drains laid in
the pervious layer.
Figure 5.52. Diagram to calculate radial resistance according to Ernst equation.
of which only the former is discussed:

Dv q L2
h=q + + q L Wr , (5.223)
K1 8K D
where Dv is the thickness of the layer (m) where vertical flow can exist if there is marked
differencePof permeability; K 1 is the K value of the less pervious top layer (m day−1 );
K D = i=1 K i Di is the mean transmissivity of n layers (m2 day−1 ); and Wr is the
n
radial resistance (day m−1 ), which depends on the situation of the drain level relative
to the position of the boundary between the top layer and the most permeable layer
(Fig. 5.52).
If the drain level is in the less pervious top layer (Fig. 5.52), the Wr value depends on
the relationship between the K values of both layers. If K 2 /K 1 > 20 (case a, Fig. 5.52),
radial flow only exists through a layer of the topsoil of thickness D0 . Then, the Wr value
can be calculated with the following equation:
1 4D0
Wr = ln , (5.224)
π K1 u
where D0 is the thickness of the layer through which radial flow occurs, that is, the
distance (m) from the drain level to the pervious layer.
If K 2 /K 1 < 20 (case b, Fig. 5.52), a second factor (W 0 ) should be added to take into
account the radial flow through the more pervious layer. This W 0 factor depends on
the relationships K 2 /K 1 and D2 /D0 and it can be determined with the nomograph of
Fig. 5.53 or by means of a digital approach to this graph for computer use (W. H. Van
der Molen, Agricultural University, Wageningen, personal communication, 1998.). The
Wr value can be calculated with the following equation:
1 π D0
Wr = W 0 + ln . (5.225)
π K1 4u
If the drain level is situated at the boundary between both layers (case c, Fig. 5.52), in
addition to the Hooghoudt equation (5.219), the Ernst equation (5.223) can be applied
Land Drainage 455
Figure 5.53. Nomograph to determine the W0 value.
by using the following formula:

1 4D0
Wr = ln , (5.226)
π K2 πb
where b is the width (m) of the trench where the drain pipe has been laid; in this case,
D0 is equal to D2 , which is the thickness (m) of the most permeable layer.
If the drain level is situated in the more pervious layer (case d, Fig. 5.52), the Wr
value can be calculated with the following equation:
1 D0
Wr = ln , (5.227)
π K2 u
where D0 is the distance (m) from the drain level to the impervious layer.
No drainage equations are available for stratified soils if an unsteady-state approach
is envisaged. In this case simulation models can be used or fictitious design criteria
for steady-state conditions equivalent to the actual unsteady-state conditions must be
established. It therefore is recommended to design for steady state and to check for
nonsteady behavior if necessary.
Heavy Clay Soils
Waterlogging problems are common in heavy clay soils, in which the hydraulic con-
ductivity depends on soil structure. The K value generally decreases as the soil depth
increases, the subsoil being almost impervious.
The permeability of the topsoil layers can be improved by means of deep ploughing
and subsoiling down to a depth of 60–80 cm but, for draining such soils, a subsurface
Figure 5.54. Crack development above a mole drain. Source: [5].
drainage system often is required. The laterals should be installed on the impervious
layer, which usually lies at a depth of 1–1.5 m. Obviously, in this case, groundwater
flows toward the drain only above the drain level, generally under unsteady conditions.
The equation developed by Boussinesq [39] is the most appropriate to calculate the drain
spacing if these conditions prevail:
4,46 K h 0 h f 1t
L2 = , (5.228)
µ(h 0 − h f )
where h 0 is the initial hydraulic head midway between two drains (m); h f is the h value
at the end of the tail recession period (m); and 1t is the time (days) for the groundwater
level to decline from h 0 to h f .
However, to control a perched water table in heavy soils with very low K values
(K < 0.1 m day−1 ) mole drainage is sometimes more suitable than subsurface drainage.
For moling, soils should have a clay content of at least 45% and a sand content below
30%. In addition, to obtain a stable mole channel the soil must be wet at the mole depth
and dry enough above the critical depth for crack development, as is shown in Fig. 5.54.
In flatlands (s < 1%), mole drains should be laid in the direction of the ground slope
with lengths from 20 to 50 m; if the slope is higher than 2%, mole drains 80 m long can
be designed. Mole depth depends on the critical depth but it often varies between 40 and
70 cm. Spacings from 1.5 to 3 m are common and mole slopes between 0.5% and 3%
are appropriate.
Composite systems of moles, used as lateral drains, and pipe drains as collector also
are recommended. In Fig. 5.55, the layout of a composite system can be observed. The
spacing between the pipe collectors depends on the mole length and their depth usually
varies from 0.7 to 1 m. The mole outlet is connected with the pipe through permeable
material, usually gravel filling the pipe trench up to the more pervious top layer.
If soils are suitable for moling and the mole operation is adequate, a system of mole
drains can function properly for 3 to 5 years. More details on mole drainage [40] and a
comprehensive review of drainage of clay soils made by FAO can be consulted [32].
Interceptor Drainage
To intercept the lateral seepage flowing from sloping lands and water courses, a
system of horizontal drains is not often necessary because waterlogging generally occurs
Land Drainage 457
Figure 5.55. Layout of a composite drainage system of

mole and pipe drains.
locally. The water level can be controlled by means of interceptor drains, which discharge
the lateral seepage into the main drainage system. If the interceptor drain does not reach
the impervious layer, a fraction of seepage may flow downstream from the drain and the
excess must be discharged through a system of parallel drains. To design an interceptor
drain, some parameters must be defined: the distance to the limit between problem and
no-problem areas; the drain depth; and the outer diameter of the pipe, which depends on
the amount of flow to be intercepted and the available gradient. Furthermore, the drainage
materials must be selected. The interceptor drain should be installed very close to the
impervious layer to diminish the radial resistance and intercept as much seepage as
possible; in sloping lands, there is usually sufficient gradient to drain by gravity. The
design depth depends mainly on the hydraulic characteristics and stability of the soil.
Sloping lands
The effective distance at which the drain can be installed can be calculated with the
equation developed by Glover and Donnan [41] for a homogeneous soil:
µ ¶
1 D1 − D0
xe = D1 ln − h1 , (5.229)
tgα (D1 − h 1 ) − D0
where xe is the effective distance (m) from the drain to the upstream boundary of the slop-
ing land, tgα is the hydraulic gradient upstream from the drain, D1 is the average thick-
ness (m) of the aquifer upstream from the drain, D0 is the distance (m) from the drain
level to the impervious layer, h 1 = Z − z is the hydraulic head at xe (m), Z is the drain
depth (m), and z is the design depth (m) of the water level. The intercepted flow can be
Figure 5.56. Interceptor drain parallel to an irrigation canal.
calculated with the following equation, if the radial resistance is low:

µ ¶
D0
q = q1 1 − , (5.230)
D1
where q is the flow intercepted by unit length of the drain (m2 day−1 ), q1 = K D1 tgα is
the flow upstream from the drain (m2 day−1 ), tgα is the hydraulic gradient upstream from
the drain, and K is the hydraulic conductivity (m day−1 ). If the water table is recharged
by excess rainfall or irrigation in addition to seepage, the flow due to percolation should
be added [q 0 = r xe ], with r being the specific recharge (m day−1 ).
Solutions to calculate drain spacings between parallel drains in sloping lands have
been developed by Schmid and Luthin [42] and Wooding and Chapman [43]. A review
was done by Van Hoorn and Van der Molen [44].
Water Courses and Irrigation Canals
In this case, seepage also can be intercepted through a drain that runs parallel to the
water course, as shown in Fig. 5.56. The distance of the interceptor drain from the axis of
the canal can be calculated with the Glover-Donnan equation [6, 41] for a homogeneous
soil:
h 2 + 2D0 h 1
L0 = L1 + 1 , (5.231)
2s(h 1 + D0 )
where L 0 is the distance (m) from the axis of the canal to the drain; L 1 is the distance
(m) between the axis of the canal and the cropped land; s = [D1 − (h 1 + D0 )]/L 1 is
the hydraulic gradient of the water table; D1 is the distance (m) between the water level
at the canal and the impervious layer; D0 is the distance (m) from the drain level to the
impervious layer, h 1 = Z − z is the hydraulic head in the limit of the cropped area,
defined as the drainage criterion (m); Z is the drain depth (m); and z is the design depth
to the water table (m).
Land Drainage 459
If the radial resistance is low, the intercepted flow can be calculated using the following
equation:
D1 − D
q = q1 = K D , (5.232)
L1
where q is the flow intercepted by the unit length of drain (m2 day−1 ); q1 is the flow
upstream from the drain (m2 day−1 ); K is the hydraulic conductivity (m day−1 ); and D =
h 1 + D0 is the thickness (m) of the saturated layer at the boundary of the cropped area.
Drainage Materials
Pipes
Corrugated polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE), and polypropylene (PP)
pipes are the drainage materials most frequently used because of their flexibility, low
weight, and suitability for trenchless drainage machines, even if the drain depth reaches
2.5 m. Nevertheless, clay and concrete pipes are still utilized, the latter mostly for
collector drains. Pipes 80–100 mm in outer diameter are common for wide drain spacings;
60- to 80-mm pipes frequently are used in systems in the temperate regions and 50- to
60-mm pipes are required in tight drainage systems for draining clay soils.
The diameter of the lateral required to convey the subsurface drainage flow at full
capacity can be calculated with the following formulas, which are based on the drainage
principle with nonuniform flow, respectively, for smooth (clay, concrete, and plastic),
corrugated PVC, and PE-PP pipes [45, 50]:
Q = 89d 2.714 s 0.572 , (5.233)
Q = 38d 2.667 0.5
s , (5.234)
Q = 27d 2.667 s 0.5 , (5.235)
where Q is the maximum drainage flow (m3 s−1 ) at the lateral outlet into the collector
drain, d is the internal pipe diameter (m), and s is the drain slope. First, the maximum
flow at the outlet of the lateral must be calculated with the following formula:
qM A
QM = , (5.236)
86,400
where Q M is the maximum flow (m3 s−1 ), q M is the maximum specific discharge
(m day−1 ), A = L × B is the maximum area drained by a lateral (m2 ), L is the drain
spacing (m), and B is the maximum drain length (m).
If the drainage system has been designed for steady-state flow, the maximum dis-
charge is equal to the recharge selected as drainage criterion (q M = r ). If unsteady-state
conditions prevail, the maximum discharge usually corresponds to the highest position
of the groundwater table; in this case, the design discharge must be calculated with the
appropriate equation; For example, if the drains are situated on the impervious layer with
the Boussinesq equation [39],
3.46K 2
qM = h0, (5.237)
L2
Figure 5.57. Outlet of a lateral drain into a collector drain.
With Eqs. (5.233–5.235), the diameter for clean pipes to discharge at full capacity is
calculated. However, if siltation of the drain pipe is a hazard, a higher hydraulic section
could be required the diameter of which can be calculated with the following formula:
√
d 0 = d/ e, (5.238)
where d 0 is the corrected diameter (m); d is the diameter required for flow at full capac-
ity (m); and e is an efficiency coefficient. ILRI recommends an e value of 0.6 for lateral
drains [45]. The diameter available on the market that is proximate to the calculated
one should be adopted, taking into account the risk of siltation and the availability of
envelopes to prevent it.
If singular drainage systems are used, a rigid pipe, long enough for water to flow
directly onto the ditch water, as shown in Fig. 5.57, is necessary to prevent soil erosion
from water flowing directly through the ditch bank. Rigid pipes also are used where a
drain crosses unstable soil or where there is a row of trees or other obstacles. Other minor
ancillary structures are pipe fittings, junction boxes, and cleaning facilities.
Drainage pipes are not ideal drains because water enters into the lateral only through
the unions of clay tiles and through the perforations of plastic pipes. Therefore, in addition
to the radial resistance through the drain trench, the water flow must overcome an extra
resistance, called the entrance resistance. The total resistance is then
r0 R 2πr0
Wt = Wr + We = ln + α, (5.239)
u K r r0 u Kr
where Wt is the total resistance through the drain trench (day m−1 ); Wr is the radial
resistance through the drain trench (day m−1 ); We is the entrance resistance (day m−1 );
r0 is the pipe radius (m); u is the wet perimeter (m); K r is the hydraulic conductivity
of the soil surrounding the drain (m day−1 ); R is the distance for radial flow (m); and
α is a dimensionless coefficient for the entrance resistance which depends on the pipe
characterictics. The α coefficient varies from 0.3 to 0.6 for corrugated plastic pipes and
from 1.0 to 3.0 for clay and concrete tiles; smooth plastic pipes have intermediate values
from 0.6 to 1.0 [46].
Land Drainage 461
To diminish the entrance resistance, a permeable material must be laid around the
drain. This can be achieved by means of a pervious backfill with well-structured soil or
by installing an envelope with high K r value.
In addition to the entrance resistance restriction, drainage pipes have to face other
problems such as erosion of the soil close to the drain and the subsequent entrance of
soil particles into the pipe; clogging of the pipe openings by biochemical compounds,
such as ochre, and less soluble salts, such as gypsum and carbonates; and penetration of
roots into the pipe. Envelopes also can contribute to solve those problems.
Envelopes
These are drainage materials installed around the drain pipe, which have three main
functions: to increase the hydraulic conductivity around the drain and subsequently to
reduce the entrance resistance of the water flow into the drain pipe; to prevent the clogging
of the pipe openings and the entrance of soil particles into the drain and subsequent
siltation; and to stabilize the drain trench surrounding the pipe to ensure the correctness
of the drain slope and the alignment of the pipe.
There are different types of envelopes: granular mineral material, such as a 5- to 10-cm
cover of gravel or coarse sand laid around the drain, which has excellent performance but
high cost; thin sheets of mineral fibers; prewrapped 1-cm-thick coconut fiber, peat, and
other organic fibers, which are useful but decompose over time; and synthetic materials
such as granular polystyrene and fibrous polypropylene, which are being used currently.
Detailed information on envelopes is provided in the literature [46–49].
It is difficult to predict the need for an envelope. Clay content and the size distribution
of soil particles are factors that have been taken into account, but they seem to be
insufficient because soil structure also plays a role. However, some tentative criteria can
be used as guidelines for prediction: Soils with a clay content of more than about 25%–
30% show enough structural stability that no envelope is necessary; unstable coarse-
textured soils with high hydraulic conductivity need only a thin envelope for filtering
purposes; and the most problematic soils are unstable soils with high content of silt and
fine sand.
The SCS and the USBR have developed procedures to design gravel envelopes based
on the principle that the particle size distribution of the soil should be related to the particle
size distribution of the gravel. Guidelines for prediction and design of the appropriate
envelope are being developed by FAO [50].
Implementation of the Drainage Works
During the past decade, much progress has been achieved in the implementation of
drainage systems because of improvements in drainage machines and the introduction
of laser technology to control the drain depth for obtaining an appropriate design slope.
These improvements have enabled an increase of the drain depth; an increase in the
installation velocity up to 600 m h−1 , with three laborers attending one machine and,
subsequently, a decrease in the drainage costs.
There are light trench machines, with a power of 100 kW a weight of 12 t, and the
capacity to install pipes at a depth of 1.5 m; more powerful trenchers (200 kW and 20 t),
are able to install drains with a gravel envelope at a depth of 3 m. Big trenchers with a
power of 300 kW and a weight of 40 t are used to excavate drain trenches 60 cm wide
and install collector drains with a high diameter down to a depth of 3.5 m [51].
If drain depth does not exceed 1.4 m, the maximum efficiency and the lowest costs
are achieved with delta trenchless drainage machines. However, these machines are not
suitable to install pipes with diameters larger than 100 mm and granular envelopes, as
often are required in draining irrigated lands [52].
Control of the Quality of the Drainage Works and Maintenance Requirements
If a subsurface drainage system has been installed adequately, the maintenance re-
quirements are very low. However, deficiencies in performance sometimes are observed
if defective drainage materials have been used or the works have been improperly imple-
mented, specific defects in alignment of the pipe, in drain depth, and consequently in the
slope. These deficiencies limit the entrance of water into the lateral, reduce its discharge
capacity, and make the maintenance difficult.
One measure to ensure the quality of the drainage materials is to use pipes and
envelopes certified by an official institution. Deviations in the drain depth and alignment
are easy to check if the laterals have been installed by means of trench machines because
they can be observed before the drain trench has been closed. However, if trenchless
machines have been used, the only possibility is to use a metal bar 0.9 m long, which can
be inserted into the pipe by means of a flexible rod of glass fiber. However, rodding is a
difficult operation in composite drainage systems. Detailed description of this equipment
can be found in the literature [53, 54].
Injection of water at low pressure is used to remove sediments, roots, and crusts from
the pipe walls and to clean the clogged openings. The material removed is flushed by the
water flow and discharged into the collector drain. Pressures at the pump from 200 to 300
kPa and water flows of approximately 1.2 L s−1 are utilized to clean pipes with diameters
from 50 to 90 mm. Higher pressures are recommended only if the drains are completely
silted up, because there is the risk of destabilizing the soil around the pipe [55].
5.6.4 Surface Drainage Systems

In flatlands, a drainage system is required to discharge standing water, caused by ex-
cessive rainfall or irrigation, over the soil surface. Two major components are essential:
a graded and smoothed ground surface free of small depressions with an appropriate
slope to enable the surface runoff to flow without producing soil erosion; and surface
drains and shallow ditches to convey the drainage water toward the outlet into the main
drainage system.
In sloping and undulating lands, the main issue is to prevent soil erosion due to
overland flow; this can be achieved by land grading. In this way, surface runoff decreases,
infiltration is enhanced, and the soil water availability is thus increased.
Types of Systems
Different systems are used in irrigated lands and rainfed areas; the type depends on
the hydraulic characteristics of the soil, the slope, and the land use. In the following
paragraphs, some of the most commonly used surface drainage systems are described.
Detailed information on the design and construction of surface drainage systems and
procedures for land grading has been provided by Sevenhuijsen [56].
Land Drainage 463
Figure 5.58. Outlet of surface runoff from a shallow ditch to a

collector drain.
Figure 5.59. Layout of a surface drainage system for flatlands with furrows
and shallow ditches.
Furrows and Shallow Ditches

In flatlands, the overland flow can be discharged directly into a shallow ditch running
parallel to the collector drain if crops cover the ground surface and there is sufficient
slope. To protect the bank from erosion, water should be discharged from this ditch into
the collector drain through several short pipes (Fig. 5.58).
In lands irrigated by surface irrigation, better drainage conditions are obtained if
furrows are used because, in addition to maintaining the plants in a relatively high
position, they transport the excess water toward the outlet ditch, as can be observed in
the layout shown in Fig. 5.59.
The length and slope of the furrows can vary according to the type of soil. Lengths
from 150 to 200 m and slopes from 0.05% to 0.5% are common, bearing in mind that
flow velocities in the furrow should not exceed 0.5 m s−1 .
Beds and Dead Furrows
This system is suitable to drain the excess rainfall from clay soils with low infiltration
rate, especially if grassland is the major land use. The system consists of beds provided
with transversal slope, which are constructed by ploughing, and dead furrows running
with the ground longitudinal grade. Excess water flows through the bed surface although
Figure 5.60. Layout of a bed drainage system for flatlands.
some interflow also can occur; the total flow is collected in the dead furrows, which
transport it toward crossable surface drains, which convey it toward the field outlet
(Fig. 5.60).
The distance between two furrows and the bed slope depend on the hydraulic con-
ductivity and the land use: Spacings can vary between 10 and 30 m and the difference
in height from the bed top to the bottom of the dead furrow can vary from 40 cm in
grassland to 20 cm in arable land. The furrow length varies from 100 to 300 m and the
slope is usually 0.1%.
Parallel Surface Drains
For field crops, a system of parallel surface drains is generally more appropriate.
Once the land has been graded and smoothed with the appropriate slope, surface runoff
flows through furrows and is discharged into surface drains, which transport the drainage
water toward a shallow ditch from which it is discharged into an open collector drain.
Usually, the surface drains have lengths up to 250 m and are spaced from 100 to 200 m,
according to the ground slope, land use, and land consolidation of the project area.
These surface drains should be designed bearing in mind not only their hydraulic
capacity but also the farming operations required for the specific land use. They are
usually 20–30 cm deep, with banks from 1:6 to 1:10 and slope between 0.1% and 0.3%
(Fig. 5.61).
Parallel Ditches
If, in addition to surface drainage, some amount of subsurface drainage is required, in-
stead of surface drains, a system of parallel shallow ditches would be the most appropriate.
Land Drainage 465
Figure 5.61. Cross sections of surface drains.
Figure 5.62. Layout of a drainage system with

parallel ditches.
In Fig. 5.62, the layout of such a system can be observed. Drain spacing varies from 50
to 100 m, drain depth from 0.6 to 1 m, and the bank slope from 1:1 to 1:1.3.
Surface Drains in Undulating and Sloping Lands
In undulating lands, surface runoff can be collected through a surface drain running
along the low-lying valley, as shown in Fig. 5.63. The drain depth depends on the amount
of subsurface drainage required: If it is not relevant, shallow drains are appropriate,
otherwise, deeper open ditches are preferred. If the valley is broad enough and there is
the need to protect the bottomlands from the surface runoff flowing from the adjacent
highlands, interceptor drains must be constructed in the valley at the foot of the slope.
In sloping lands with gentle and uniform slope up to 4%, surface runoff can be
intercepted by surface drains designed perpendicularly to the ground slope with grades
Figure 5.63. Drainage system for undulating lands.
between 0.1% and 1%. The water collected discharges into collector drains running with
the natural slope (Fig. 5.64). In some instances, to facilitate the agricultural practices,
the last section of the surface drain is a pipe.
Design Discharge
There are different methods to calculate the contribution of surface drainage to the
design discharge of the main drainage system, according to the data available. A first
distinction should be done between flat and sloping lands.
Flatlands
Generally, the design discharge is due to excess rainfall. The design discharge can be
calculated if the amount of excess rainfall has been estimated from the water balance at
the soil surface, and the tolerance of crops to ponding is known. The period of discharge
should be lower than the critical period for crops to tolerate inundation, which depends
on the crop itself and its growing phase. Empirical data are available on crop tolerance
to flooding [57, 58]. Vegetables are sensitive to periods of flooding over 6 to 8 h; fruit
trees, however, can tolerate inundation up to 4 days; field crops can be inundated for
1 day and grassland up to 3 days. In addition, a function to calculate the relative crop
yield in relation with the submergence time has been developed by Gupta et al. [58]. An
Land Drainage 467
Figure 5.64. Layout of a surface drainage

system in a slope.
empirical approach could be to discharge during the first 6 h half of the excess rainfall
accumulated during a period of 12 h and the rest during the following 6 h [5].
In irrigated lands, surface runoff can vary from 5% to 15% of the amount of irrigation
water applied, according to land use and water management. To calculate the design
discharge to the main drain system, the percentage of the area simultaneously irrigated
must be known (see Section 5.6.5).
Sloping Lands
In addition to the precipitation intensity, the design flow depends on the size and char-
acteristics of the catchment area. To calculate it, first the fraction of rainfall that becomes
surface runoff must be estimated, once the amounts of water evaporated, intercepted,
and infiltrated are discounted. Then, a hydrograph showing the basin response must be
obtained to determine the maximum flow in each section of the main drainage system.
There are several methods to estimate the surface runoff according to the available
hydrological data. If flow data can be measured in a gauge station localized at the outlet
of the catchment area, the design discharge can be calculated for a certain return period
by means of a statistical analysis of the available data. Unfortunately, this case is not
common in small agricultural basins. However, sometimes a relationship between the
surface runoff produced by a certain amount of rainfall can be obtained; then, a model
can be designed to predict the surface runoff due by using precipitation, data from a
longer period. The unit hydrograph method developed by Sherman is based on this
principle.
If some data of the discharge produced in small areas are available, a relationship
among the surface area, the hydrological characteristics of the catchment area, the pre-
cipitation, and the surface runoff can be obtained. This relationship can be applied to
other areas in the basin with similar characteristics, by means of the rational method.
Frequently, only rainfall data are available and only few data are known on the char-
acteristics of the project area. In these cases, the amount of surface runoff produced by
the design rainfall can be estimated only by the curve number method developed by the
SCS [8]. The distribution of the runoff during a period of time can be determined by
applying standard unit hydrographs.
The results obtained by the rational and the curve number methods can be considered
only an estimation of the design discharge. Therefore, they must be verified later when
measured values are obtained at gauging stations. Detailed description of these methods
can be found in the literature [59].
Sometimes, a reasonable estimate of the “once in 50 years” flood may be made by
means of field observations and enquiries to old farmers. The peak discharge can be
estimated by using Manning’s equation, if the highest water level observed during the
farmer’s life is known, taking a cross section and the longitudinal slope and estimating
the roughness from the size of the boulders. If the water course floods a large lowland and
the water depth is known (e.g., from high-water marks on the trees), the volume of the
pool also gives an estimate. Often the outflow is only a small fraction of the accumulated
volume, but it can be estimated as well and used as a correction (W. H. Van der Molen,
Agricultural University, Wageningen, personal communication, 1998.).
Construction, Operation, and Maintenance
Surface drains usually are constructed during the grading operations with the same
earthmoving and smoothing machinery. However, the shallow ditches are constructed
by excavators. Both types of drains should be maintained with conventional mowers.
5.6.5 Main Drainage Systems

The main drainage system consists of collector drains, which can be either pipes or
open ditches; main drains, which generally are open canals; and auxiliary structures.
Drainage disposal can be made effective through gravity outlets, tidal gates, or, in polder
areas, through pumping stations. In areas receiving seepage from adjacent lands, inter-
ceptor drains are necessary to divert the outside flow. In polder areas, the agricultural
area must be protected from flooding by means of embankments. In this way the project
area forms a hydrologically independent unit.
The major functions of the main drainage system are to convey the drainage water
toward the drainage outlet by the shortest route, to store excess rainfall during the rainy
season to reduce the discharge at the outlet, and to maintain appropriate water levels
during the dry season for controlled drainage management. This topic is covered in
depth elsewhere [5, 60].
Layout
To plan the main drainage system, in addition to the design principles described
in Section 5.6.3, another design criterion should be borne in mind: The water flow in
the main network should be adapted to the natural flow as much as possible; therefore,
the outlets should be located at the lowest sites and the main drains should run along the
depressions; most of the existing water courses should be used as drainage canals, with
only the adaptations that are necessary to perform their hydraulic function.
Land Drainage 469
To reduce the adverse effect of a network of straight lines on the landscape, water
courses must be conserved in their natural configuration and the riparian vegetation
should not be removed. Smooth rectangular bends may be used in tertiary-order collector
drains (water flows up to 1–2 m3 s−1 ) but, for larger canals curves are recommended.
The radii of curvature may vary from 5 m for medium canals (flow less than 5 m3 s−1 )
to about 5 to 10 times the bed width for large canals (flow greater than 10 m3 s−1 ) [5].
The spacing between two consecutive collector drains equals twice the lateral length;
therefore, spacings up to 500–600 m are common. The length of the collector drains
depends on several factors, namely, the arrangement of the hydraulic and rural road
infrastructure and the field plot configuration.
In Fig. 5.65 the layout and the different components of the irrigation and drainage
system constructed in a polder, which covers an area of about 14,000 ha, is shown. It can
be observed that the whole area is protected from flooding by a perimetric embankment
and from lateral seepage by a perimetric interceptor drain. The area is drained by two
main drains, which discharge into the Guadalquivir River through tidal gates. During
winter, supplementary pumping is used to discharge excess rainfall. Secondary collector
drains are spaced at 500 m and primary collector drains at 2,000 m. The irrigation and
drainage systems and the rural road network are arranged in such a way that field plots
of 12.5 ha are formed, in which surface and subsurface drainage systems have been
constructed.
Design Criteria for Drainage Canals
In this section, only open drainage canals are considered; for pipe collectors, reference
is made to the paragraph on drainage materials (Section 5.6.3). Collector and main drains
are designed with a unique section in each canal reach between two auxiliary structures.
In each reach, the discharge, the flow velocity, and the water depth are constant.
First, the average hydraulic gradient available for gravity discharge must be estimated
by means of the following equation:
h f − (h 0 + 1h)
s= , (5.240)
B
where h f is the hydraulic head (m) of the average water level of the collector drain,
which collects the drainage discharge of the most remote field plot of the project area
from the outlet; h 0 is the hydraulic head (m) of the outer water level at the drainage
outlet; 1h is the total head loss (m) due to the auxiliary hydraulic structures of the canal
reach; and B is the length of the canal reach (m).
The average slope of the canal network should be equal to the average hydraulic
gradient: s values between 0.00005 and 0.0001 are common in flat areas. If the hydraulic
gradient is insufficient, discharge by pumping should be considered. A similar procedure
can be applied to determine the average slope of each reach of the main drainage network.
Generally, a trapezial hydraulic section is adopted for open ditches (Fig. 5.66).
Although banks should be designed with the highest slope to save agricultural land,
and the maximum permissible slope should be selected to design the canal with its
minimum cross section, the slope of the bank, the hydraulic gradient, and the maximum
Figure 5.65. Layout of irrigation and drainage systems of a polder area (B-XII Irrigation District,
Bajo Guadalquivir Irrigation Project, Spain).
Land Drainage 471
Table 5.25. Bank slopes and maximum water

velocity for open ditches (adapted from [5])
Soil Type vM (m s−1 ) Bank (1:α)

Heavy clay 0.60–0.80 1:3/4 to 1:2
Loam 0.30–0.60 1:1.5 to 1:2.5
Fine sand 0.15–0.30 1:2 to 1:3
Coarse sandy 0.20–0.50 1:1.5 to 1.3
Tight peat 0.30–0.60 1:1 to 1:2
Loose peat 0.15–0.30 1:2 to 1:4
Source Adapted from [5].
Figure 5.66. Cross section of an open-ditch collector drain.
allowed flow velocity should be determined in accordance with the future stability of
the canal, which depends on the type of soil and on the existence of a grass cover. These
design parameters should be determined empirically but, in Table 5.25, some values
related to the soil texture that can tentatively be adopted are shown.
The depth of a collector drain should be equal to
Z = Z d + F + y, (5.241)
where Z is the collector depth (m), Z d is the depth of the lateral drain at its outlet (m),
F is the freeboard (m), and y the water depth (m). F values may vary from 30 cm for
small ditches (see Fig. 5.57) to 50 cm in main drains with flows over 5 m3 s−1 .
In addition to these design parameters, it is necessary to select an adequate relationship
between the bottom width of the ditch and the water depth; this relationship depends on
the canal size (Table 5.26).
Once these design parameters have been selected, it is necessary to check if the
hydraulic section as designed has enough capacity to convey the maximum drainage
flow with the available slope. The Manning formula can be used for this calculation,
assuming steady uniform flow:
1 2/3 1/2
Q = K m ar 2/3 s 1/2 = ar s , (5.242)
n
Table 5.26. Design parameters for open drains
Size of Drain y (m) b/y Soil Texture Km n

Small <0.75 1–2 Sandy 20 0.050
Clayey 15 0.067
Medium 0.75–1.5 2–3 Sandy 30 0.033
Clayey 20 0.050
Large >1.5 3–4 40–50 0.020–0.025
Adapted from [5].
where Q is the design flow (m3 s−1 ); K m is the Manning roughness coefficient (m1/3 s−1 ),
which depends on the size of the ditch, the type of soil, and the grass cover of the bank
(Table 5.26); n = 1/K m (m−1/3 s−1 ); a is the hydraulic section (m2 ); b is the bottom
width (m); 1:α is the slope of the bank; √ y is the water depth in the ditch (m); r = a/u
is the hydraulic radius (m); u = b + 2y 1 + α 2 is the wet perimeter (m); and s is the
slope of the drain.
The average flow to be conveyed through the main drainage system depends on the
average discharge produced during the irrigation season; it may be calculated with the
following equation:
fqA
Qm = , (5.243)
86,400
where Q m is the average flow (m3 s−1 ); q is the drainage coefficient due to irrigation
losses (m day−1 ); A is the area drained by a collector drain (m2 ); and f is a coefficient
that depends on the ratio of the area irrigated simultaneously and the area A. The f
coefficient varies from 0.7 to 1; specific f values can be found in the literature [19]. An
additional reduction factor can be used to consider the ratio between the area actually
cropped and the total area drained [19].
If, in addition to the irrigation return flow, the drainage network conveys water from
other sources, for example, water from tail scapes, seepage, or wastewater, the amount
of flow calculated with Eq. 5.243 should be increased.
In the temperate regions, the maximum flow is produced generally during the rainy
season and can be determined with the following equation:
qM A
QM = , (5.244)
86,400
where Q M is the maximum flow (m3 s−1 ); q M is the drainage coefficient due to excess
rainfall (m day−1 ) (see Section 5.6.4); and A is the area drained by the collector drain
(m2 ).
Finally, the flow velocity (v = Q/a) must be checked with the maximum permissible
value, to prevent the erosion of the ditch banks and bottom (Table 5.25). Because of
construction and maintenance requirements, tertiary ditches with a hydraulic capacity
up to 0.5 m3 s−1 should have at least a minimum cross section, with a bottom width of
0.5–1 m and a water depth of 0.30–0.50 m.
Land Drainage 473
Implementation, Operation, and Maintenance of Open Drains

In large drainage projects, the implementation of the works usually starts with the
construction of the outlet structure to enable water discharge; then the main canal and the
primary and lower-order collector drains may be excavated. Open canals up to a width
of about 20 m may be constructed by means of excavators: Axial excavation enables
the construction of ditches with a width of 8–10 m; larger canals are excavated with the
machine working from one side only. Draglines often are used for large canals with a
width of 20–35 m.
Erosion of the ditch banks and subsequent sedimentation in the canal bottom and
vegetation growth reduce the hydraulic capacity of the drainage canals; consequently,
their water levels rise. Therefore, to achieve a stable canal the banks must be protected
with grass, which should be mown periodically. In large canals, maintenance operations
can be performed by means of a boat equipped with a cutterbar or by dredging. Clearance
and reshaping of the cross section of small and medium canals can be made using backhoe
excavators; grass-cutting operations usually are performed with a mowing bucket. To
facilitate the mobility of maintenance machinery a rural road alongside the drainage
canal is necessary. If trees are planted along the road, in addition to the positive impact
on the landscape, weed proliferation in the canal is restricted.
In most countries, natural water courses and major hydraulic works of a drainage
scheme are generally under public control. However, with the exception of rivers, which
should remain under public domain, there is a general trend to transfer operation and
maintenance of most of the components of the system to water-user associations. The
technical staff of these organizations is in charge of the operation and maintenance of
the outlet structures and of inspection and clearance of the main and primary collector
drains, which should be performed at least once a year. Farmers usually maintain the
tertiary canals and the field drainage systems. To train the above technical staff and
promote farmers’ participation in drainage projects, FAO and ILRI have published an
excellent training manual [61].
Auxiliary Structures
The major structures of a main drainage system are culverts, drops, and weirs. Culverts
are necessary where a drainage canal crosses a farm entrance or a rural road. One metal
pipe, buried at least 50 cm deep, is commonly used if the water flow is less than 0.5 m3 s−1
and two pipes for discharges up to 1 m3 s−1 . If the flow is higher, box-type culverts and
bridges are preferred [5]. The hydraulic section of the culvert can be calculated with the
following equation:
p
Q = αa 2g1h, (5.245)
where Q is the discharge (m3 s−1 ), α is a coefficient that depends on the conditions at
the entrance and at the exit of the structure, a is the area of the hydraulic section (m2 ),
g = 9.8 m s−2 is the acceleration of gravity, and 1h is the head loss along the culvert.
The design discharge is often taken some 25% to 50% higher than those for drainage
canals. Values of α can vary from 0.8 for short culverts (<10 m long) to 0.7 for long ones;
common values for bridges are 0.8–0.9. Head losses of 5 cm for small structures and
10 cm for large ones generally are taken. To calculate the cross section of the structure,
in addition to the wet section, a minimum 10-cm clearance is considered [5].
In flatlands, second-order collectors usually join primary collectors and main drains
at the same level; however, in sloping lands, where the canal gradient is lower than the
ground slope, drop structures are necessary to maintain the permissible flow velocity
and to dissipate the excess head. If the energy drop exceeds 1.5 m, inclined drops should
be constructed and, if it is not straight, drop structures are preferred.
Rectangular weirs may be used as drop structures and to maintain the desired water
levels in the main drains. To calculate the crest width of a weir, the following equation
can be used for free-flow discharge [5]:
3/2
Q = 1.7αbh 1 , (5.246)
where Q is the discharge (m3 s−1 ); α is a coefficient, which in semisharp crested weirs
varies from 1.0 to 1.1 [5]; b is the crest width (m); and h 1 is the upstream water level
above the crest level (m).
For submerged discharge the following equation may be used [5]:
p
Q = αbh 2 2g(h 1 − h 2 ), (5.247)
where Q is the discharge rate (m3 s−1 ), α is a coefficient (1.0–1.1), b is the crest width
(m), g = 9.8 m s−2 is the gravitational acceleration, h 1 is the upstream water level above
the crest level (m), and h 2 is the downtream water level above the crest level (m).
Other details to design these auxiliary structures can be found in the literature [60].
Outlet Structures
If the outer water level of the drainage outlet is permanently below the inner water
level, then gravity discharge is possible. The discharge rate through a sluice can be
calculated with Eq. 5.247, being in this case the width of the sluice b and the coefficient
α from 0.9 to 1.1 (m). The water depth h 2 should be increased by 3.5% if the sluice
discharges directly into the sea [5].
However, in tidal rivers the outer water level varies over time. In this case a tidal
gate is required to prevent the entrance of water into the drainage system at the time
of high water levels. During the period in which the gate is closed, gravity discharge
is interrupted and water is stored in the main canal. At low water levels the gate is
opened and gravity discharge is possible. Flap gates placed in a small outlet sluice or
in a culvert outlet through a dike are commonly used for low discharges. Manually
operated gates and automatic gates are used if the discharge is higher. Details on the
design, construction, operation, and maintenance of sluices and gates can be found in
the literature [62].
If the outer water level is always above the inner water level, a pumping station is
necessary. Often, drainage by pumping is only necessary during the rainy season; then, a
gate and a pumping station are joined in the same outlet. A pumping station consists of an
approach canal, which enables uniform flow; a sump where drainage water is collected;
a suction pipe; the group of pumps; and a delivery pipe with an outlet to the receiving
water body.
Land Drainage 475
To select the most appropriate type of pump, some design parameters should be cal-
culated: the design discharges, the lift and the dynamic head, and the power requirement.
Two discharge rates should be considered, following the same criteria as for designing
gravity outlet structures: the most frequently occurring discharge, which usually is due
to groundwater flow; and the peak discharge, which is mainly due to surface drainage
during the rainy season. Generally, the peak flow is discharged through two pumps and
the base flow through only one. An additional nonoperational pump usually is installed.
The dynamic head can be calculated with the following equation:
vd2
h = h s + 1h + , (5.248)
2g
where h is the total head (m); h s is the lift or static head, that is, the difference between
the inner and outer levels (m); 1h is the total head loss in the suction and delivery pipes;
g = 9.8 m s−2 ; and vd is the flow velocity at the oulet of the delivery pipe (m s−1 ).
The power requirement can be calculated with the following equation:
ρg Qh
P= , (5.249)
ηt η p
where P is the power required (kW); ρ is the density of water (≈1 kg L−1 ); g ≈ 9.8
(m s−2 ); Q is the discharge rate (m3 s−1 ); h is the total head (m); and ηt and η p are,
respectively, the transmission (0.90–0.95) and pump efficiencies. Some correction factors
also may be considered in Eq. 5.249 to take into account the elevation of the site and the
safe load [5].
Three types of pumps are commonly used according to the drainage flow to be elevated
and the lift: if the flow is less than 200 L s−1 even if the lift is high, radial pumps are
recommended because they have greater flexibility in relation to flow variations; axial
pumps are the most suitable for water flows up to 1 m3 s−1 and low lift (2–4 m); and if
high flows up to 6 m3 s−1 are to be elevated, the outer level is almost constant, and the
water transports vegetation, the Archimedean screw is appropriate, even if its efficiency
is not always the highest.
Once the design parameters are known, pump selection should be made by analyzing
the pump characteristics, which describe the relationship among the discharge, the total
head, the power consumed, and the efficiency. Pump efficiency η p values can vary for
axial pumps from 0.65 for 1-m lift to 0.80 for 2.5- to 3.0-m lift; for radial pumps from
0.6 for 1-m lift to 0.80–0.85 for lifts higher than 4.0 m [5]; a good Archimedean screw
may have 80%–85% efficiency, although if there is too large a gap between the screw
and its bed, the efficiency will be lower. The design of pump and pumping stations is
broadly described in the literature [63].
Pumping stations may have a negative impact on the landscape, especially those
equipped with Archimedean screws or radial flow pumps. In these instances, large build-
ings are required to house the pumps and additional electrical equipment. The civil works
required to house axial flow pumps are simpler and can be integrated into the landscape
more easily.
5.6.6 Drainage and the Environment: Water-Quality Aspects

Wetlands are not currently being drained, but sometimes natural areas are situated
downstream of drainage projects, where fish and wildlife habitats, mangroves, and other
natural resources are to be preserved. Protection of the water environment may be re-
quired and frequently a hydrological buffer zone of extensive grassland between agri-
cultural lands and wetlands must be designed.
The negative impacts of drainage works on soil conservation and on the landscape
must be mitigated in the phases of design and implementation of the drainage systems
(see Sections 5.6.3–5.6.5). Therefore, in this section, only water quality aspects of envi-
ronmental protection are considered.
Deterioration of the Quality of the Drainage Water
Increasing drainage intensity on agricultural lands, by the installation of subsurface
drainage systems, may have positive impacts on the water quality, such as decreasing
the load of sediments and chemicals in surface drainage water. In fact, lowering the
groundwater table and increasing the drainable pore space reduces the proportion of
the total outflow occurring as surface runoff and increases the fraction that is removed
slowly by subsurface drainage over longer periods of time.
However, intensive agriculture related to irrigation and drainage may be a source
of contamination of surface-water bodies and aquifers, through the deterioration of the
drainage water quality due to salinization, pollution by agrochemicals, or mobilization
of toxic trace elements in the soil. This is particularly significant in irrigation return flows
because, in irrigated lands, salinity control is essential to ensure sustainable agriculture,
but drainage-water disposal can contribute to water salinization.
Percolation water also can dissolve soil microelements such us boron, selenium,
chromium, molybdenum, and arsenic. Boron, which is common in coastal areas of
volcanic origin, may be toxic for plants in small concentrations. Selenium, which is
present in certain shales, has been detected in the drainage water of irrigation projects in
the San Joaquin Valley of California, in concentrations toxic for the wildlife around the
lakes into which the drainage systems discharge [64]. Chromium was found in Egypt
because the Blue Nile comes from a basalt area in Ethiopia (W. H. Van der Molen,
Agricultural University, Wageningen, personal communication, 1998.).
Another source of water quality degradation is chemicals used in intensive agriculture,
such as fertilizers (mainly nitrates), pesticides, fungicides, and herbicides, which can be
conveyed by surface runoff, deep percolation to aquifers, and groundwater flow to sur-
face water bodies. Because subsurface drainage generally delays the drainage discharge,
increasing the intensity of subsurface drainage generally reduces losses of phosphorus
and organic nitrogen while increasing losses of nitrates and soluble salts. Conversely,
improved surface drainage tends to increase phosphorus losses and reduce nitrate out-
flows [65]. A detailed overview on the issue of agricultural drainage water quality can
be found elsewhere [66].
Desalinization of agricultural drainage water is considered a promising technique,
but it is still expensive [67]. However, to reduce the pollution of surface water bodies,
several options are available: to reduce the pollutant load at the field level through sound
irrigation water management and farming practices, to reuse the drainage water inside
Land Drainage 477
the project area, and to design a safe disposal. To protect the quality of groundwater,
measures at the field level must be taken. A detailed review of these options can be found
in the literature [68].
Improvement of the Quality of the Drainage Water at the Field Level
In addition to an efficient application of pesticides and fertilizers adapted to crop
requirements, the most reasonable strategy to minimize the above adverse environmental
impacts of drainage projects is to improve on-farm water management, by reducing
surface runoff and deep percolation.
An advisable practice is to reduce surface drainage discharge, because the water
excess discharged by surface flow is the main source of chemical pollution of drainage
water. Subsurface drainage flows seem to have a less harmful impact on the environment
than surface flows because chemicals diluted in infiltrated water are partly fixed in the
soil, which has a limited buffer effect.
If salinity control is not a major need, the volume of drainage water to be disposed of
can be reduced by means of controlled drainage. Water-table management is therefore
an option in drainage projects of the temperate regions to significantly reduce the nitrate
concentration of drainage water [69].
To achieve a reasonable equilibrium between crop production and environmental
protection, if salinity control is necessary, the most advisable practice is to use a moderate
leaching fraction, to retain some salts in the subsoil below the root zone, and to grow
suitable crops according to their salt tolerance (main concepts are given in Section 5.6.2).
To reduce water pollution attributable to the mobilization of soil toxic microelements,
irrigation projects first must be planned carefully by using sound soil surveys, leaving
areas with potential hazards out of the irrigation command. If problematic soils are
irrigated, water control by reducing the leaching fraction is also beneficial in reducing
the concentration of microelements in drainage water.
Reuse of the Drainage Water
An additional practice to reduce the volume of water to be disposed of is to reuse the
drainage water to irrigate salt-tolerant crops and forest trees. The long-term feasibility of
reuse increases with regional scale as opposed to on-farm-scale reuse because a system
for the collection and redistribution of drainage water is required to reduce the need for
storage reservoirs [70].
Direct reuse by pumping from the open drains is a common practice in areas where
water resources are scarce at some period during the crop season. Salt buildup is then
a risk that must be controlled when fresh water is available for irrigation and leaching
or during the rainy season if there is excess rainfall. Successive irrigation with drainage
water starting with less salt-tolerant crops and using the last secondary drainage water
to irrigate halophytes is another reuse option. The final reduced flow is conveyed to an
evaporation pond where salts precipitate.
At the irrigation-scheme level, two options often are applied: to blend the drainage
water with freshwater to obtain water of medium quality; and to alternate use of saline
water and freshwater according to a strategic approach.
The practice of mixing saline return flows with water of good quality to obtain a
blended water of moderate salt content has been applied for a long time in the Nile
delta, where 4,000 million m3 of drainage water are reused annually [71]. Drainage
water is pumped from the main drains to the irrigation canals through drainage pumping
stations. To determine the amount of drainage water to be blended with fresh water, it is
necessary to know the quantity and quality of both water resources and the salt-tolerance
requirements of the crops to be irrigated. To predict the quantity and quality of drainage
water available for reuse, simulation models such as the SIWARE model [72], developed
for the Nile delta, can be applied.
The option of alternating irrigation water with water of good quality, particularly
in the germination period when seedlings are more salt sensitive, and full irrigation of
salt-tolerant crops with drainage water, seems feasible in areas with sufficient rainfall for
postharvest leaching or with alternative sources of irrigation water to control soil salin-
ization due to drainage water reuse. However, on clay soils, irrigation with fresh water
after brackish may give problems with soil structure (crusting, slaking). The feasibility
of this strategy depends on additional requirements such as the possibility of interception
in specific areas; and the availability of storage facilities and delivery systems. Details of
the application of this option in the Imperial Valley of California are described [73, 74].
Disposal of Drainage Water
Drainage water usually is discharged directly to surface freshwater bodies such as
rivers and less frequently into lakes, or directly into the sea, which under natural con-
ditions is the permanent receptor of salts. The water flow of the river, the interest of
downstream users, and the concentration of salts and pollutants in the river and drainage
waters, which may vary during the year, determine the volume of drainage water to be
discharged.
In coastal areas, where irrigation return flows discharge into tidal rivers, salt contam-
ination is not a severe problem but, if direct disposal into rivers is to be made, strict
control of chemicals is necessary. In inland areas, several options exist to minimize the
degradation of the quality of water bodies as a result of drainage water disposal: drainage
canals to convey the water directly to the sea, evaporation ponds, constructed wetlands,
and injection of drainage water into deep wells. A general review of these alternatives
can be found in the literature [75].
The discharge of highly concentrated drainage water can be regulated by diverting it
into evaporation ponds, when the flow of the river where the system discharges is low.
The stored salts can be flushed away during the rainy season when the flow in the disposal
river is sufficient to dilute the salt load. In this way the volume of water is reduced and
the water discharge is regulated to reduce its pollution effect. These ponds can be natural
depressions where the drainage water is disposed of by gravity flow or artificial basins
where it is pumped.
However, this option constitutes a risk to groundwater aquifers if leakage occurs and
to the river system if there is seepage. Therefore, the ponds must be excavated in fine-
textured soils and be closed with embankments. To avoid undesired effects on wildlife,
the water level in the pond also must be reduced to a minimum, particularly if toxic trace
elements are present in drainage waters. Therefore, the entrance of drainage flow must
be limited to the daily evaporation rate if possible. Some examples from the evaporation
ponds of the San Joaquin Valley of California have been reviewed by Tanji [76].
Land Drainage 479
The construction of wetlands, where vegetation of grass and reeds grows, also may
be an appropriate option to dispose of drainage water, specifically if sediments, nitrogen,
and phosphorus have to be removed from the drainage water. Construction details and
hydrological requirements of such wetlands can be found elsewhere [77].
The injection of drainage waters into aquifers through deep wells may be another cost-
effective option for discharge disposal. If this option is chosen, fresh groundwater must be
protected by isolating fresh aquifers; the aquifer therefore must be confined to prevent the
upward flow of polluted water. In addition, it must be deep and have sufficient porosity to
store the drainage water and its transmissivity high enough to match the injection rate. To
prevent salt precipitation and subsequent clogging of the injection well, chemical com-
patibility of the drainage water and the groundwater is also necessary. To avoid adverse
impacts, geohydrological and other environmental conditions must be carefully consid-
ered, and continuous monitoring should be implemented to detect leaks. A detailed case
study of injection into aquifers in the San Joaquin Valley is presented in the literature [78].
Environmental Assessment and Followup

Environmental assessment of the drainage project and monitoring of the performance
of the drainage systems implemented are necessary to detect potential and actual negative
impacts, respectively. Investigations related to these environmental issues are noted in
the following paragraphs (W. Ochs, World Bank, personal communication 1998.).
If hydrological changes are noted in the assessment as potential for environmental
problems in downstream areas, a hydrological evaluation on timing of peak flows or
maintaining base flows would be necessary for alternative designs. Some additional
storage in the outlet area may be needed, open drains may require development or
improvement, changing of outlet locations may be necessary, and the land area to be
developed may need to be changed to meet downstream flow requirements.
Pollution of downstream waters normally is indicated in environmental assessments
as a concern, and special studies on how to control the pollution are usually necessary.
The investigations require collection of information and development of scenarios to
address these concerns, which usually relate to erosion and sediment control, water
quality control, toxic substances, and health-related items such measures to control
waterborne disease and vector problems (snails and mosquitoes).
Sometimes, investigations to provide socioeconomic benefits, such as drainage re-
quirements for rural villages, also are needed. A lot of benefits to justify some projects
can be gained by providing a village with drainage outlets and, in many cases, drains
within the village.
References
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5.7 Off-Farm Conveyance and Distribution Systems

H Depeweg
5.7.1 Irrigation Systems Definitions

Irrigation is the artificial supply of water for agriculture, the controlled distribution of
this water, and the removal of excess water to natural or artificial drains after the water
has been used in an optimal way. The aim of the irrigation facilities is to divert water
from a source and to bring it to the fields via a network of open or closed canals and/or
pipes, and to evacuate excess water to outside the area via a drainage network to ensure
Off-Farm Conveyance and Distribution Systems 485
or to improve agricultural production. A main aspect of irrigation is that the facilities

are made, managed, and used by people. In view of its aim, an irrigation system has to
be planned, constructed, operated, and managed in such a way that all of the farm fields
in the commanded area will receive and discharge water in an appropriate, conveniently
arranged, and adjustable manner.
An irrigation scheme consists of the irrigation network (drains, roads, etc.) and the
organization(s) in charge of managing the physical infrastructure according to preset
objectives. These objectives are diversion, conveyance, distribution, and application of
irrigation water and removal of excess water.
The irrigation network is the physical part of the irrigation system and includes all
of the structural components required for the acquisition, conveyance and protection,
regulation and division, measurement, distribution, and application of the irrigation wa-
ter. At the head of the system, the diversion point being a weir, reservoir, pumping
station, dam, or free intake, the water enters the conveyance system that transports the
water to a delivery point. This point might be a turnout or offtake structure, where the
water is diverted and delivered via an off-farm distribution and on-farm application
network to the fields within the farm plots. A group of farmers usually operates the
off-farm distribution system. If there is only one group of farmers in a unit, the quater-
nary unit coincides with the tertiary one. The responsibility for the management of the
on-farm water distribution and the water application belongs to an individual farmer.
The water is applied to the fields by one of the field irrigation methods described in
Section 5.4.
The drainage system is a complementary component at any level of an irrigation
system. No system is complete without a well-designed and well-functioning drainage
system. Excess water from heavy rainfall or excessive irrigation can be very harmful to
crops when not removed as quickly as possible. The drainage network is a system of
open channels or pipes and structures, which conveys excess water from the individual
fields to the main drains and then outside the area. Sometimes the drainage water is
reused for irrigation. Drainage systems are discussed further elsewhere [1].
The management is responsible for the operation and maintenance of the irrigation
and drainage system. Generally, three management levels can be distinguished:
• conveyance or main level by the government or an irrigation authority;
• off-farm distribution or tertiary level, by a group of formally or informally organized
farmers or water users, e.g., in a water users’ organization;
• field level or on-farm distribution and application system managed by the farmer.
5.7.2 Irrigation Areas

Each irrigation scheme is characterized by its specific land features and differs from
other areas by topography, water availability, soil types, land use, and specific objectives
of the irrigation and drainage system. The design of an irrigation network is based on
engineering, agricultural, hydraulic, social, legal, and economic considerations. A large
number of physical and economic parameters, such as crops, topography, hydrology,
climate, soils, hydraulics, and cost-benefit analysis, are required for an optimal design
[2]. However, an optimal design is difficult to find and it will have to integrate all of the
criteria to find the best solution for the specific conditions of the area to be irrigated.
An additional difficulty is that today’s best solution may not necessarily be the optimal
solution 10 years from now: An (educated) guess on future development also is needed.
Evaluation of these specific features will result in the most appropriate method for the
conveyance and distribution of the irrigation water by the off-farm (main and tertiary)
irrigation system.
For most irrigation areas, the following aspects have to be considered, not separately
but in an integrated way [3]:
• irrigation and drainage systems;
• irrigation units;
• irrigation practices or methods;
• management, operation, and maintenance;
• access to the area and the facilities;
• environmental [4] as well as legal and socioeconomic aspects.
Irrigation areas are divided into units at various levels. Depending on the size of the
irrigation scheme, not all of the following levels are always present:
• Field units are the smallest areas irrigated by one of the several irrigation methods
[5]. The unit might be an individual field or farm plot that receives water at one
place from the irrigation system, e.g., by a field inlet. Usually a farm consists of
more than one field. Water is supplied by one inlet and then distributed over the
fields in the on-farm distribution system.
• A block or quaternary unit is an area where water is supplied to one group of
farmers. The group receives water via a group inlet. When several farms are irrigated
in one group, it is important that each farmer have his or her own farm inlet for the
control and management of the water that he or she is entitled to.
• An end or tertiary unit is an area where two or more blocks are grouped and
receive water from the off-farm conveyance (main) system through one structure:
the tertiary offtake or turnout structure. The management responsibility within the
tertiary unit lies with the water users—the farmers or a water users’ association. The
tertiary offtake structure is the link between the water users responsible for the off-
farm distribution system (tertiary-unit level) and the irrigation authority responsible
for the conveyance system (main-system level). Usually, the water flow is regulated
and measured at this offtake structure. In small schemes, a tertiary unit might be
only one field or a farm. In large schemes, a unit may be one large farm (sugar or
tobacco plantation) or several small farms together. The size of tertiary units can
differ greatly, from a few hectares to 70 ha or more. Small channels or pipes within
each tertiary unit distribute the water and small hydraulic structures control the flow
to the fields [6].
• A secondary unit is an area in which two or more tertiary units are grouped and
which receives water from a main canal through a diversion structure. A secondary
canal (branch canal or lateral) conveys the water to two or more tertiary units.
When water is received from another secondary canal, it is called a subsecondary,
sub-branch, or sublateral.
• The irrigation area is the area in which two or more secondary units are grouped
and which receives water from the diversion point (headworks, reservoir, pumping
station). The main canal conveys irrigation water to two or more secondary canals.
Small irrigation schemes may have a single irrigation canal; large schemes may
have an intricate system of canals or pipes. Hydraulic structures in the canals or
pipes measure and control the water flows and its level or pressure.
5.7.3 Objectives of a Conveyance and Distribution System

As follows from the preceding sections the objectives of any irrigation system are
to deliver irrigation water in the right amount (size, frequency, and duration), at the
required head or pressure, at the right place, at the right moment, equitably (fairly and
objectively) and in a reliable and assured way. Therefore, management activity is a
major component of success for any irrigation scheme. The activities to operate and to
maintain the system can be divided into two general components: functional and service.
The functional activities are related to the operation and maintenance and encompass
the storage, conveyance, and delivery of irrigation water to the agricultural water users
and an adequate maintenance of the physical infrastructure to keep it ready for use. In
general, the service activities include administration, financing, engineering, and other
support, which are essential to meet the objectives of the irrigation system.
The required amount and timing of the irrigation supplies are governed by climate,
topography, crops, available labor, social aspects, available water quality and quantity,
and soil and soil moisture characteristics. The design and management of an irrigation
system and the scheduling of the irrigation supplies are based on these characteristics.
The timing and location for delivery of water to meet the crop requirements mainly
determine the design capacities of canals, pipelines, structures and pipe appurtenances,
and storage and pumping capacities of the system. The climate governs the evaporation
of the water and the evapotranspiration of the crops; the type of crops and their growing
stage determine their water use. One of the main factors that controls the frequency of the
irrigation applications is the capacity of the soil to retain water and to make it available
to the crops at the right moment. Another significant aspect in the water delivery is the
efficiency at the different irrigation levels: field application (surface, sprinkler, or drip
systems); conveyance, including operation losses (supply from the source to the turnout);
and on- and off-farm distribution (from the turnout to the fields) [7]. An important aspect
of the management component is the implementation of water delivery schedules that
specify the time, duration and amount of the water delivery.
5.7.4 Types of Conveyance and Distribution Systems

Irrigation water can be conveyed, distributed, and applied by either a gravity system,
a pressurized system, or a combination of both methods.
Gravity Irrigation Systems
Gravity irrigation systems convey the water in open canals from the headworks to the
offtake and from there to the farm inlet and the fields. Generally, the canals are provided
with a series of check structures (regulators) that control the water level. This control is
needed to divert the water by gravity to canals with lower water levels. For large canals
(radial) gates are installed at these points. Also, various types of weirs and flumes are
available to regulate and measure the flow in open canal systems [8]. For outlet structures
vertical sliding gates and movable or adjustable weirs are used.
Figure 5.67. Irrigation scheme with gravity canals.
For a gravity irrigation system, the infrastructure can be divided as follows:

• Irrigation canals, that is, main (primary), secondary (lateral), tertiary, and field
canals, convey and distribute the water over the area to be irrigated. Main and
secondary canals form the main system.
• Flow control structures, for example, weirs, culverts, siphons, flumes, aqueducts,
gates, and diversion boxes, are required to divert, convey, regulate, measure, dis-
tribute, and protect the water flow.
Whether canals are lined or unlined can play an important role in canal regulation and in
the conveyance efficiency of the system (infiltration and seepage losses). In some canal
systems, sedimentation can be a serious problem and will negatively influence the per-
formance of the canal network and the structures [9]. Figure 5.67 shows a schematization
of the irrigation canals and main flow-control structures in an irrigation network.
Pressurized Irrigation Systems
Pressurized or pipeline systems frequently are used for either the whole irrigation
system (at main, tertiary, and field level) or for a part of the system. A pressurized
irrigation system carries the water through a pipe network from the source to the point
where the water will be applied to the fields (see Fig. 5.68).
Pipelines sometimes are preferred to open canals to reduce seepage and evaporation
losses, to minimize maintenance costs, to improve water control, to irrigate hilly ground,
to minimize the land taken up by the irrigation system, or to improve public health.
Pipelines have several advantages over (lined) canals, but they can be expensive and
skilled labor is needed to manufacture, install, and repair them. A pipe system might
be designed for high, medium, or low pressure, depending among other things on the
requirements of the field irrigation method. A classification of pipelines (derived from
[10]) according to the hydraulic grade line follows:
Figure 5.68. Irrigation scheme with pipes.
• Open pipelines are generally low-pressure pipelines with in-line risers (stand pipes).
The risers are open to the atmosphere to reduce the maximum possible pressures
in the pipeline. An overflow weir in the riser regulates the pressure upstream of the
riser. Turnouts upstream of the riser are typically outflow points. The open pipeline
is comparable to open canals but does not always provide advantages over open
canals. In many cases the flow is more difficult to measure and divide properly. Any
flow that is not taken by a turnout is passed downstream.
• Semiclosed pipelines have several advantages over open pipelines. Semiclosed
pipelines give a relatively constant downstream pressure instead of a constant
upstream pressure as in open pipelines. A float-controlled valve within the riser
regulates this downstream pressure. The riser is open to the downstream pipe sec-
tion and allows an operation without hydraulic transients (surges, water hammer).
The main advantage of the semiclosed pipe system is that water not used by the
turnouts will remain in the pipe. Variable flows are automatically adjusted and the
system is adaptable to flexible water delivery schedules at stable heads.
• Closed pipelines typically operate under high pressures. Valves are used at bifur-
cations and turnouts for shutting off, adjusting, or regulating the flow. The flow is
controlled by the pressure or flow regulation at the outlets and bifurcations. The
pressure is kept at a maximum. Sudden changes in flow rate may result in hydraulic
transients, which can be reduced by surge chambers or valves. Figure 5.69 presents
the different types of pipelines according to their hydraulic grade lines.
Another classification of pipe systems is based on permanent, semipermanent, and
portable systems. Especially at field level, the most common system is the permanent
one, which typically consists of a pump or reservoir, a main line, and lateral pipes. The
main line and laterals usually are installed underground. The pumps or reservoirs pro-
vide the operating pressure, and valves divert the flow from the mainline to the laterals.
Figure 5.69. Classification of pipelines according to hydraulic

grade line.
Pipe outlets (risers or hydrants) control the flow from the laterals to the field. The pipe
systems can be used for all field irrigation methods.
5.7.5 Management of Conveyance and Distribution Systems

Management of conveyance and distribution systems includes some general aspects
as well as some specific aspects that are related to the way in which the irrigation water
will be delivered.
General Aspects
In most irrigation systems, three levels of operation can be distinguished:
• the main or conveyance system for water acquisition, conveyance, and delivery to
the tertiary units;
• the tertiary or off-farm distribution system for the distribution of the irrigation water
over the quaternary units and among the farmers;
• the field system for the on-farm distribution and water application.
Water is delivered by the irrigation authority to a group of farmers who distribute this
water among themselves according to certain formal or informal rules devised by them-
selves or with outside assistance, which they have accepted.
The role of the government, especially in large schemes, is to provide the enabling
environment for irrigation development and management that allows the irrigation au-
thority to deliver the irrigation services in a sustainable, efficient, and effective manner
beneficial to the users in particular and society in general. This enabling environment
includes the legal and institutional frameworks, accountability mechanisms and proce-
dures, regulations and criteria for service provision, and price control [11].
With a given set of objectives the irrigation authority develops a physical and man-
agement infrastructure to deliver water at the interface with a group of farmers or water
users. The irrigation authority prepares and implements strategies to define and provide
these services within the environment created by the government [12]. Policy choices
made at this planning level concern water rights, cropping arrangements, water delivery
arrangements, cost recovery, and responsibilities for system management.
The group of water users will decide within this policy setting on their water dis-
tribution arrangements, how their costs will be recovered, and how they will manage
their tertiary and quaternary systems. Individual farmers will decide on crops, use of
agro-inputs and labor, irrigation method, and water distribution and application system.
These choices cannot be made in isolation but require an interaction between the vari-
ous levels. Consultative approaches are recommended to develop sustainable solutions.
Figure 5.70 presents a framework for interactions between policy choices, infrastructure,
and management output at the various management levels [11].
Figure 5.70. Framework for interactions between policy choices, infrastructure, and
management output.
Figure 5.71. Required flow rate, duration, and frequency of irrigation

relative to water supplies.
Water Delivery Aspects

The soil-water-plant relationship should be the starting point for the design of the
field size and shape, but also for the water management and efficiency of each irrigation
system. Knowledge of the water use by the crops and the water-retention characteristics
of the soils is fundamental in the design and management of any irrigation system and in
scheduling the water supplies [13]. The aim of the system is to meet the varying water
requirements at field level for a specific, sometimes predetermined, cropping calendar
with the highest possible efficiency, maximum operational flexibility, and optimal pro-
duction [14]. However, to meet these goals, issues such as management and farmers’
participation and action have to be taken into account in the design. The operation and
maintenance activities and the management organization are often a result of the design
only and might be incompatible with local, social, and cultural customs. Designs that
do not take into account operational capabilities and farmers’ participation will result in
improper management, conflicts, and deterioration of the system with all related social
and economic effects.
Important aspects of the management component are the water delivery schedules
that specify the time and duration of water delivery and the amount of water to be
delivered. Climate, crop type and growth stage, and soil and soil characteristics govern
the required amount and timing of the irrigation supplies. Figure 5.71 shows some of the
main characteristics in water deliveries.
The delivery schedules also are influenced by the field irrigation methods. The essence
of any field irrigation method is to control the water supply and the soil moisture content,
to make the best use of both water and labor, and to avoid the hazards of waterlogging
and salinity. Crops grow optimally with an adequate supply of water and by spreading
this water as uniformly as possible over the land. If not enough water is available, crops
will suffer and yields will be reduced. Too much water will damage the crops and soils
and may cause waterlogging. Many factors affect the choice of the irrigation method,
such as topography, soils, field shape, crops, labor, and social and economic aspects.
Several ways to deliver the water to the crops exist, for example, surface, sprinkle, or
drip irrigation, but the water delivery at farm level is either continuous or intermittent.
For an individual farmer, three criteria are essential for the water delivery:
1. Is the supply sufficient (adequate)?
2. Is the supply at the scheduled time and in the right amount (reliable)?
3. Is the supply a fair share compared to what other farmers receive (equity)?
The off-farm conveyance and distribution system should deliver the water in a ade-
quate, reliable, and equitable way to the farmers, which is a precondition for good water
management by the farmers downstream of their farm inlet [15]. The irrigation authority
is responsible for these water deliveries and should fulfill the requirements directly or
indirectly via farmers’ groups or water users’ associations.
Adequacy is a measure for the delivery of the required amount of water for optimal
plant growth. It is the ratio of the amount of delivered water to that required. The required
amount is the quantity needed to achieve the agricultural policy and is a function of the
area irrigated, crop water requirements, crop water-production factors, application losses,
and cultural practices such as land preparation and salt leaching. Adequacy depends on
• ability to assess crop water requirements;
• water availability;
• specified water delivery schedules;
• capacity of the hydraulic infrastructure to deliver water according to the schedules;
• operation and maintenance of the hydraulic infrastructure.
Reliability is a measure of the confidence in an irrigation system to deliver water
as promised. It is defined as temporal uniformity of the ratio of the delivered amount
of water to the required or scheduled amount. A reliable water delivery allows for a
proper planning by the farmers. A farmer can plan for a reliable delivery of an inade-
quate irrigation flow by planting less, growing different crops, or adjusting other farming
inputs. However, a farmer cannot plan when the water delivery is not predictable. All
farmers must have equal security on supplies and they will feel secure only if the reli-
ability of water delivery is maintained. In continuous-flow systems, reliability refers to
the expectation that a certain discharge or water level will be met or exceeded. When
the flow is intermittent, in view of rotational irrigation or other water-sharing arrange-
ments, reliability describes the predictability of the timing when the flow will start or
stop.
Equity is the spatial uniformity of the ratio of the delivered amount of water to the
required or scheduled amount. Equity means the delivery of a fair share of water to
the water users throughout a system. Here, a share of water represents a right to use a
specified amount of water. An irrigation system that covers an area with scarce water
with its focus on equity is a fair application of justice and is socially more acceptable.
An equitable amount of water should be ensured to all of the farmers in an irrigation
area regardless of geographic location of the farm plot.
5.7.6 Water Delivery Policies
Problem Description
The fact that water users cannot use the conveyance and distribution system whenever
or wherever they need it characterizes most irrigation systems. This is contrary to other
infrastructure provisions such as water supply, electricity, or roads, which can be used as
needed. The dependency of the end users on the irrigation management is inherent to the
basic concepts of many irrigation network designs. Any design or layout of an irrigation
system should be based upon organizational, operational, and farmers’ participation
aspects. Lack of engineering knowledge will result in faulty designs or construction,
inappropriate layout, seepage and salinity problems, shortage or surplus of water, etc.
Lack of knowledge of the above-mentioned aspects will result in
• problems in water distribution among the farmers at tertiary and quaternary level;
• problems in water management at main level.
Problems in water delivery at the farm level might result in unequal water application,
low efficiency, or low production. At the main level, water delivery problems might be
operational problems; assuming high efficiencies in the design may lead to complicated
irrigation schedules and sophisticated structures, rules too strict for operation, and reg-
ulation and measurement of flows. Mismanagement, faulty operation, and wrong water
deliveries might be the result of the staff’s inability or preferences (not following the
procedures or regulations). The design of any irrigation network should take into account
the management and the water delivery aspects at all levels of the irrigation system.
General Water Delivery Policies
As discussed in the preceding sections, many conveyance systems are managed by
an irrigation authority (government) and not by the farmers. Because the conveyance
system supplies irrigation water to the tertiary units according to preset management
objectives, it can only be well designed and operated when these objectives have been
specified precisely. Otherwise, it might be questionable whether the system will perform
to the requirements. This means that the planners and designers of a conveyance and
distribution system and the users of this system have to agree jointly on these objectives.
The main irrigation system has to deliver water to the tertiary units with sufficient
head above the terrain and with a reliable delivery in proper quantities and at proper flow
rates [16]. These objectives are not very practical for the engineer who has to select the
appropriate flow control structures in the conveyance and distribution system. Therefore,
the water delivery practices have to be discussed in more detail. Existing classifications
for water delivery, distribution, and scheduling vary and they usually are developed for
water delivery at the farm level. A generally accepted terminology for the operation of
main systems is not always clear. A distinction should be made between farmers and
farms, water users’ associations and tertiary units, and tertiary units and main systems.
In some older irrigation systems, the water delivery practices were grouped according
to the delivery at farm level as follows:
• Continuous flow. Water is delivered throughout the irrigation season;
• Delivery on demand. Water delivery is based on the request of the farmers to have
(all of the) water during a (relatively) short period of time.
• Rotation on schedule. Each farmer receives his share of water based on a systematic
delivery schedule, which was worked out in advance.
The FAO uses the following classification of water distribution methods and divisions
in the main system:
• On demand. Water is available to the farmer at any time.
• Semidemand. Water is made available to the farmer within a few days of his request;
• Continuous flow. Throughout the irrigation season the farmers receive a small but
continuous flow that compensates the daily crop evaporation;
• Canal rotation and free demand. Secondary canals receive water by turn and, once
the canal has water, farmers can take the amount they need;
• Rotational system. Canals (secondary) receive water by turns, and the individual
farmers receive the water at a preset time.
The World Bank presents four options for irrigation scheduling:
1. continuous,
2. demand,
3. fixed-rotational with constant flow,
4. variable-rotational at variable flow and/or during variable periods.
Clemmens [17] also describes various delivery schedules, with their intended frequency,
rate, and duration. Another example is the classification of delivery schedules in either
rigid (predetermined) or flexible (modifiable) schedules.
From the previous examples it is clear that various researchers give different descrip-
tions for the delivery schedules. The next section uses the generally accepted descriptions
of water delivery methods at the farm and main-system levels, but makes a clear distinc-
tion between water delivery to the farmers and the tertiary units and the irrigation flows
through the main system.
Establishing Water Delivery Methods
The operation of conveyance and distribution systems is an important tool to improve
the performance of irrigation schemes and should be based on a clear classification of
water delivery at farm and at main-system levels. The operation of a main irrigation
system has to meet the requirements at the tertiary offtake, the location where the two
management levels meet. Therefore, the operational aspects of an irrigation system can
be described as follows [18]:
1. The actual decision making on the water delivery to the tertiary offtake, that is,
who decides on the water delivery to the tertiary unit;
2. the method of water delivery to the off-farm distribution system (tertiary and
quaternary unit), that is, how is the water allocated to the tertiary unit;
3. the method of water division through the conveyance system (main system), that
is, how the water is conveyed and divided through the main system.
Answers to these issues will determine the flow control method, the type of flow
control structures, and their operation. Water users can request a change in water delivery,
which may be effected immediately (the delivery is on demand) or after some time (the
delivery is on request or semidemand). In many systems the users do not have any say
in the water delivery (the delivery is imposed).
1. The decision making on the water delivery to the tertiary units can be divided as
follows:
• Imposed. The irrigation management decides about a fixed delivery schedule to
a tertiary unit for longer periods (e.g., one season, one year, or seveal years).
The schedule is based on their knowledge of either the crop water requirements
(crop-based or productive irrigation) or the water availability at the diversion
point (supply-based or protective irrigation). The imposed delivery is extensively

used in areas with water scarcity or with a monoculture.
• On request. Water users request the management for a certain amount of water
for a certain duration at a certain time. The requests are evaluated and balanced
against water availability. The processing of the water requests and the (hy-
draulic) response time of the conveyance system will delay the actual water deliv-
ery (1–14 days). This water delivery policy often is used in areas with constraints
on water availability, canal capacity, and/or capability of the flow control system.
• On demand. The water users have direct access to the water. They decide about
the water delivery to the tertiary unit and will receive the supply immediately
from the conveyance system. On-demand systems are only applicable when wa-
ter availability is ample. In general, the canal capacities for on-demand are larger
than for other delivery methods. Measurement of the volume of water used and
payment of fees accordingly are possibilities to limit the water use.
2. Water can be delivered to the tertiary unit according to the following flow types:
• Proportional (or split). The flow in the conveyance system is diverted at a fixed
ratio of the flow to the tertiary unit. To divert the water at the offtake, an ungated
diversor is all that is required.
• Intermittent. An on/off flow is allocated to the tertiary unit. To divert the inter-
mittent flow, an on-off gate in the offtake is needed.
• Adjustable. A continuous or intermittent, but adjustable, flow is diverted from
the conveyance system. To divert this variable flow, an adjustable regulator and
a discharge measurement structure at the offtake will be required.
3. The water delivery methods in the conveyance system should be based on the
water delivery methods to the distribution system in the tertiary units. Generally,
the same methods are used for the main system:
• Proportional (or split). The flow is diverted at a fixed ratio at the secondary
division structures, often also proportional to the commanded area.
• Intermittent. The flow at the secondary division structures is divided in an inter-
mittent, on-off way.
• Rotational. The flow at the secondary division structures is supplied intermit-
tently;
• Adjustable. The flow at the secondary division structures is a continuous, ad-
justable flow.
Figure 5.72 presents some of the main issues in preparing water delivery schedules.
Selection Criteria for Water Delivery Methods

Selection of the objectives of the conveyance and distribution system should be based
on a consensus between the planners and the users whether the decision-making process
at the tertiary offtake is based on imposed, on-request, or on-demand delivery of the water.
The accepted delivery policy limits the options for the water delivery to the tertiary units
and for the water conveyance through the main system. The selection of delivery methods
through the conveyance system is discussed according to the previously given issues:
• the decision-making process;
Figure 5.72. Main characteristics in water delivery scheduling.
• the method of water delivery to the tertiary unit;

• the method of water delivery through the main system.
The decision-making process on the water delivery involves consideration of the
following options at various levels. The three most common water deliveries to a tertiary
offtake require specific flows in the conveyance system, namely for:
• Imposed delivery by:
— a proportional flow requires a proportional flow through the conveyance system.
However, intermittent, rotational or adjustable flows in the conveyance system
are also possible for a proportional flow to the tertiary unit;
— an intermittent flow is possible by a rotational as well as an adjustable flow in
the conveyance system. For smaller discharges a rotational flow is also possible;
— an adjustable flow requires an adjustable flow through the conveyance system.
• On-request delivery with either an intermittent or adjustable flow requires an ad-
justable flow through the whole conveyance system.
• On-demand delivery with either an intermittent or adjustable flow requires an ad-
justable flow through the conveyance system.
The main options for water delivery to the tertiary units are as follows:
• Proportional flow is the traditional delivery method to tertiary units in many irriga-
tion systems and is applied under imposed delivery;
• Intermittent flow to a tertiary unit often is applied to areas with dryland crops. The
peak discharge is rotated throughout the tertiary unit and each farmer can irrigate at
his turn. An intermittent flow is recommended in schemes with a limited irrigation
duration, for example, only day irrigation. Intermittent flows also can be used under
on-request or on-demand delivery in the main system;
• Adjustable flow can be used under on-request and on-demand delivery. Adjustable
flows often are applied in irrigation systems where the peak discharge gradually
decreases during the off-peak season. To obtain the required water level in the
tertiary units for smaller flows, a rotational flow between the quaternary blocks
and/or farmers has to be applied.
The options for the water delivery at main level are as follows:
• Proportional flow to the tertiary units by a proportional flow throughout the whole
conveyance system to obtain everywhere a proportional water distribution. Pro-
portional flows to the tertiary units are also possible by an adjustable, intermittent
(e.g., pumping station), or rotational flow in the conveyance system. The discussed
delivery methods require an imposed delivery policy.
• Intermittent flows to the tertiary units under an imposed delivery policy require
either a rotational or adjustable flow in the conveyance system. An intermittent flow
in the main system will not match an intermittent flow at the tertiary offtakes. The
delivery can simply be obtained by a proportional flow at the offtakes. Intermittent
flows to the tertiary units under on-request or on-demand delivery results always in
an adjustable flow in the main system.
• Adjustable flows to the tertiary units require adjustable flows in the conveyance
system. Proportional, intermittent, or rotational flows in the conveyance system are
not possible with an adjustable flow to the tertiary units.
Figure 5.73 presents the various flow control methods in view of the policy decision-
making process and the flow to the tertiary units and through the main system.
5.7.7 Flow Control Systems

Objectives of Flow Control
Flow control systems are an important component of the hydraulic infrastructure of
a conveyance and distribution system. The purpose of flow control systems is to control
the flows in the canal network at bifurcations to meet the level-of-service specifica-
tions. These specifications are translated in criteria and standards regarding flexibility,
reliability, equity, and adequacy of delivery. The agreed level of service dictates the
requirements for the flow control system in irrigation schemes. Flows can be regulated
by several means through water-level control, discharge control, and volume control [19].
A combination of water-level control and discharge control is most common in irriga-
tion systems. Flow rates at offtakes often are controlled indirectly through water-level
control in the conveyance canals. Variation in discharge at the offtake is determined by
the variations in upstream water levels and the sensitivity of the offtake and water-level
regulator to those variations. If the rate of flow is changed at a delivery point, all upstream
control structures must reflect that change. Fluctuating water depths in the canal system
will change the effective head. The resulting fluctuating heads at the gates will require
corresponding changes in the gate opening to maintain constant delivery rates. Because
many deliveries may be affected by the changes in water surface elevation, the problem
is compounded throughout the system. In case of delivery of agreed discharges, it is
more desirable to maintain stable water surfaces than to adjust gate openings to try to
meet delivery schedules.
Figure 5.73. Various flow control methods in view of policy decision-making

process, and the flow to the tertiary units and through the main system.
There are special modular distributors for constant discharge control (single- and
double-baffle or Neyrtec distributors) that are independent of the upstream water lev-
els and serve as on/off flow measurement and flow regulation devices. The constant
discharges are obtained by the hydraulic function of the structure and not by moving
parts. The baffle distributor can be used for an on/off water delivery by opening or closing
a simple gate or shutter. These simple distributors are used as offtakes from one canal
to another, or from one canal to a tertiary unit, or from the tertiary canal system to the
fields. Additional advantages include easy flow measurement, insensitivity to upstream
water-level changes, and the ability to lock them at a specific flow rate. A disadvantage
of the distributor might be the required head losses.
Types of Flow Control Systems
The main available technologies (flow control systems) for the division of water and
control of the water levels can be classified in three systems: according to orientation
Figure 5.74. Main concept of upstream and downstream control.
of the control (upstream, downstream, and volume control), the degree of automa-
tion (manual, hydraulic, or electric automatic control) and the form of control (local
or central control). Figure 5.74 shows the main concept of upstream and downstream
control.
Some principal aspects of the flow control systems according to their orientation
follow [20].
Upstream control is by far the most commonly used type of control around the world.
Controlled flows are released to the upstream end of each canal section according to a
prearranged schedule, resulting in water levels in the section in line with the released
flows, the flow through the offtakes, and the control at the downstream end. Changing
discharges requires changing the setting of the gates upstream of the location concerned.
If the canal has to convey varying flows, an adjustable cross-regulator at the downstream
end will maintain a constant water level upstream of that structure. A considerable time
lag occurs before new equilibrium conditions are reached after changing the gate settings.
Simple fixed weirs (such as duckbill weirs) can achieve a nearly constant level upstream
of the weir without human intervention. In case of extreme backwater effects, minor
raising of berms is needed. Upstream control is a serial control, is supply oriented, has
limited flexibility, and requires management. It provides a high level of control in case
of imposed delivery.
Downstream control systems respond to water-level changes downstream of a regula-
tor. They are designed to permit instantaneous response to changes in demand by using
water in storage in the upstream canal section (pool) in the case of an increase in demand
and by storage of water in case of decreasing demand. Downstream control systems can
be operated manually, but they are easily automated, either hydraulically (Neyrpic) or
electrically.
Both water level and flow are controlled at the upstream end of a canal section. Changes
are gradually passed on in the upstream direction untill the headworks. Most down-
stream control systems use balanced gates. Downstream control systems are specifically
designed to maximize flexibility by minimizing system response times. The hydraulic
stability of the system should be checked, preferably by a mathematical model [21].
A considerable raising of berms is needed in steep terrain; this can make the system
very expensive. The application of downstream control therefore, usually, is limited to
canals with a bottom slope that is smaller than 0.3%. Downstream control cannot be
applied in canals with drops (structures that cater to drops in water level that are greater
than the hydraulic losses over the structure). Downstream control can be applied in both
on-demand and on-request delivery systems. The main design requirement is that each
canal section have sufficient capacity to meet the maximum instantaneous demand. In
local downstream control the set point is located just downstream of the regulator gate.
In BIVAL control, the set point is located somewhere in the middle of the canal section
(pool). Downstream control is also a serial process.
The volume control method involves the (usually simultaneous) operation of all flow
control structures in the system to maintain a nearly constant volume of water in each
canal section (pool). This method is used to meet operational requirements for different
users of water in a flexible manner because it can provide immediate response to chang-
ing demand. With this type of operation, the water surface between control structures
rotates around a point located approximately midway between the control structures that
are operated to respond to changes of demand in the canal section. Implementing this
type of control requires automation of the control structures coupled with centralized
monitoring and control. With remote control, all control points in the system can be
operated simultaneously, and not only serially. In the volume control method, the set
point is located somewhere in the middle of a canal section; in ELFLOW, the set point
is located at the downstream end of the canal section.
Operation Aspects of Upstream Control
In view of the operation of upstream control systems, a distinction has to be made
between systems that achieve water delivery by fixed division structures and those that
have gated offtakes along the canal [22].
Fixed division systems are those where water can be managed only at the head of the
canal; division between subsidiary canals or offtakes is achieved through fixed division
structures without gates:
• fixed overflow weirs, where the width of each weir section is in proportion to water
rights based on a share of available water. Sometimes the width of the weirs is
adjustable to cater for different flow ratios during different parts of the irrigation
season;
• submerged orifices deliver a relatively constant discharge over a range of different
operating heads.
Fixed division systems are particularly effective in meeting equity objectives based on a
fixed share of available water, be it per unit area, per household, or per person. Therefore,
the system is static and cannot respond easily to changes such as expansion of area or
change in the number and size of the shares to be delivered. Because these systems
are supply based, there is no room to adequately adapt the discharges to the demands.
Individual water users adjust demand to the water availability through a careful selection
of their cropping pattern. The system is generally reliable regarding its predictability.
However, the variability of flows very much depends on the variability of the flow at the
diversion point.
Gated division systems have gates at the offtakes along the canal to regulate the flow at
any division point. Three types of regulation exist, depending on the degree of water-level
control upstream of the division point:
1. No canal cross-regulation. The water level in the canal depends on the hydraulic
relationship between discharge and water depth (head) in the canal cross section.
2. Fixed cross regulation. Weirs or other structures maintain stable head-discharge
conditions.
3. Gated cross regulation. Gates control the water levels irrespective of the flow.
The majority of these systems are controlled manually but other systems utilize hydrauli-
cally or electrically operated systems. The gates in the offtakes are important tools to
deliver the required amount of water in view of the management objectives. The de-
livery method determines the selection of the gate. If the water delivery is related to
fixed discharges but with variable duration, fixed gates or on/off gates are used for a
constant discharge over a wide range of upstream water levels. If the flows are variable
and the duration is set, then movable gates in combination with measuring devices are
required. For both cases the water level upstream of the offtake has to be maintained
within a certain range. The larger the allowable range, the less the management input
requirements. As mentioned before, modular distributors deliver an almost constant dis-
charge independently of the upstream water level and serve as on/off devices to deliver
the irrigation water by opening or closing a simple gate or shutter.
Gated division systems provide more flexibility than those with little or without cross
regulation. They also allow for an improved flow control to meet short-term changes
in demand: It is possible to manage the systems more adequately, but management
(operation) requirements increase (dis)proportionally. If managed well they are also
very reliable in terms of both predictability and variability.
5.7.8 Some Observations on Management Inputs

As discussed in the preceding sections the physical infrastructure of a conveyance
and distribution system comprises a large number of technical works ranging from the
irrigation and drainage network proper to roads, bridges, buildings etc. The irrigation
network itself can be divided into two parts:
1. a conveyance part consisting of canals, pipes, and fixed structures, which, if well
designed, constructed, and maintained, will convey and deliver the water as foreseen
and operation activities will not be required;
2. an operational part consisting of division structures, valves, and pipe outlets at those
points in the irrigation network where the irrigation water is divided, regulated, and
measured.
The type of division structures largely determines the operability and manageability
of the irrigation system. The structures may be simple or complicated, more or less
sophisticated, fragile or sturdy, flexible or rigid, user-friendly or user-incompatible. The
required level of management and whether farmers’ participation is possible depends on
the type and characteristics of these structures. The design of the physical part is based
on the water deliveries related to the areas irrigated, cropping calendars, and crop water
requirements. Division structures are the intersections, where conflicts between farmers
and management and between (groups of) farmers may take place. From an operational
point of view, four major types of structures exist [23]:
• fixed (weirs and orifices);
• on/off (shutter gates);
• adjustable, stepwise (stoplogs, modular distributors) or gradual (undershot gates,
movable weirs);
• automatic (automatic upstream and downstream water-level control structures).
As mentioned before, the type of structure determines whether the operation is easy
or difficult, the required number and skill of staff, and the understanding by the farmers.
The first three types require an increasing number of skilled operating staff, whereas
the last type needs fewer, but higher skilled staff. Figure 5.75 shows the relationship
Figure 5.75. Relationship between the level of technology and

the number and skill of staff and the understanding by
the farmers.
between the level of technology and the required number and skill of the staff and the
understanding of the operation by the farmers.
The management requirements for the operation of an irrigation system vary accord-
ing to the design. A design that includes adjustable structures always requires operational
inputs. They can be operated manually or automatically, locally or via remote control
[24]. Irrigation systems with fixed structures require only operation at the control loca-
tions at the head of the major canal sections and therefore the operational input will be
minimal. The operational requirements increase considerably for irrigation systems with
gates at the division points. Gates are required at every offtake and their number will
increase with the number of moveable cross regulators in the system. Automatic systems
require fewer operational inputs, but they need some form of control at the head of the
irrigation system to maintain hydraulically stable discharges through the main system.
Theoretically, any level of water delivery using automatic control also can be achieved
with manual control, assuming that the wages are acceptable both to the irrigation author-
ity and operators and that the available communication facilities are adequate. Although
manual control may be as good as any automatic control, the latter allows for a higher
level of flexibility and reduces the staff requirements in terms of number. However, it
requires a higher level of expertise for maintenance and operation. Flexible water deliv-
ery in an upstream control system with local control requires suitable communication
facilities; otherwise, the operation will result in rigid delivery schedules. In upstream
control systems, the (hydraulic) response time between two delivery situations—from
one stable state of delivery to a next one—is a long one. To increase the flexibility of
water delivery and to reduce the response time of the system, remote centralized control
can be considered. In automatic downstream control, the response time can be ignored
and localized management is very possible.
Irrigation systems designed for high flexibility and (assumed) high efficiencies require
movable and adjustable, often sophisticated, structures with measuring devices and a
large number of highly qualified operating staff. Although the design of many of these
systems is based on a high potential for flexibility and efficiency, this potential rarely
is utilized and the flexibility is nullified by falling back on the original predetermined
delivery schedules and by staff misuse of the too-complicated structures. Because of
these circumstances, flexibility at the farm level, including a free choice of cropping
pattern and cropping schedule, is low and the overall efficiency falls far below the
assumed efficiency. These irrigation systems give a potential flexibility for the irrigation
authority, but their complexity leaves little room for flexibility at the farm level and for
farmers’ participation in management decision making [25].
Therefore, it is strongly recommended that any development plan of an irrigation
scheme be based on a clear description of the objectives of the irrigation system, aiming
at the ultimate goal that all of the farm fields in the commanded area will receive and
discharge water in an appropriate, conveniently arranged, and adjustable manner to
obtain an optimal agricultural production. Any development plan should start with the
identification of the performance objectives of the irrigation system and a clear definition
of the operation plan. Planners (designers and operators) should develop a well-defined
concept of the operational procedures and maintenance requirements as well as the level
of performance standards. An operation plan should be based on a comprehensive view

of the irrigation and drainage scheme, including the major aspects such as crops to be
grown, soil type, water availability and quality, expected silt load, climate, technical
and social infrastructure, farmer skills and cooperation, availability and costs of labor,
and farm size. A successful plan for an irrigation system requires an understanding
at all levels of the objectives and performance standards of the system. Especially the
objectives and constraints at the farm level should be of overriding concern because only
the farmers can support irrigation development that will be successful and sustainable.
Planners and designers must understand that the farmers can increase their production
only with adequate, reliable, and convenient water supply. In turn, the farmers will pay
more if labor for water application is reduced and made more convenient. Therefore,
the planning and design process should be based on a maximum participation by the
farmers. Ultimately, they should be able to understand the operational procedures and
the functioning of regulating and division structures.
There is a variety of designs concepts, structures, methods of control, and schedules,
which may lead to many different combinations. Essential are the water users, that
is, the farmers, who have to be satisfied with the quality of service, especially at the
downstream end of the system. Planners must be aware of the resource limitations and
of the implications of their design for maintenance, operation, and flexibility of water use.
As follows from the preceding considerations, a structural design is very important,
but it is only the basis of a good design. A good design should be based upon the clear
concept of how the final design will be operated according to understandable operational
procedures. In principle, any designer should be able to follow his or her own instructions
in the field once water begins to flow. The more specific design activities will include the
advanced concepts in hydraulic and irrigation engineering, in agronomy and soil science,
in economics, social, legal and environmental science to identify the most appropriate
solutions for a manageable situation.
References
1. Ritzema, H. (ed.). 1995. Drainage Principles and Applications. Wageningen, The
Netherlands: International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement.
2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1988. Design and op-
timization of irrigation distribution networks. Irrigation and Drainage Paper 44.
Rome: FAO.
3. Food and Agriculture Organization. 1990. Improvement of irrigation system per-
formance for sustainable agriculture. Proceedings of the Expert Consultation
(Bangkok). Rome: FAO.
4. Jensen, M. 1993. The impacts of irrigation and drainage on the environment. Pro-
ceedings 15th ICID Congress, The Hague Fifth N. D. Gulhati Memorial Lecture
pp. 1–27. New Delhi: ICID.
5. Kay, M. 1993. Surface Irrigation. Cranfield, England: Cranfield Press.
6. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1993. Irrigation Water
Management Training Manuals. Rome: FAO.
7. Wolters, W. 1992. Influences on the efficiency of irrigation water use. Wageningen,

The Netherlands: International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement.
8. Bos, M. G. 1989. Discharge measurement structures. Wageningen, The Netherlands:
9. Mendez, V. N. 1998. Sediment Transport in Irrigation Canals. Rotterdam: Balkema.
10. American Society of Civil Engineers. 1991. Management, Operation and Mainte-
nance of Irrigation and Drainage Systems. ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engi-
neering Practice No. 57. New York: ASCE.
11. van Hofwegen, P. J. M., and E. Schultz. 1997. Financial Aspects of Water Manage-
ment. Rotterdam: Balkema.
12. Uphoff, N., P. Ramamurthy, and R. Steiner. 1991. Managing Irrigation: Analyzing
and Improving the Performance of Bureaucracies. London: Sage.
13. James, L. G. 1988. Principles of Farm Irrigation System Design. New York: Wiley.
14. Food Agriculture Organization/ICID. 1996. Irrigation Scheduling: From Theory to
Practice. FAO Water Report 8. Rome: FAO.
15. Plusquellec, H., C. Burt, and H. W. Wolter. 1994. Modern water control in irrigation.
Concepts, issues and applications. World Bank Technical Paper No. 246. Irrigation
and Drainage Series. Washington, DC: World Bank.
16. Burt, C. 1995. Guidelines for establishing irrigation scheduling policies. Proceed-
ings of the ICID/FAO Workshop Irrigation Scheduling: From Theory to Practice.
Rome: FAO.
17. Clemmens, A. J. 1987. Delivery system schedules and required capacities. Planning,
Operation, Rehabilitation and Automation of Irrigation Water Delivery Systems, ed.
D. D. Zimbelman, Proceedings of Symposium Portland, USA, pp 18–34. New York:
18. Ankum, P. 1993. Operation specifications of irrigation main systems. Proceedings
15th ICID Congress (The Hague). New Delhi: International Commission on Irriga-
tion and Drainage.
19. Plusquellec, H. 1988. Improving the operation of canal irrigation systems
(slides/video). Washington, DC: World Bank Economic Development Institute.
20. Ankum, P. 1991. Classification of flow control systems for irrigation. J. Feijeni (ed.)
Proceedings of the International Conference on Advances in Planning, Design and
Management of Irrigation Systems (Leuven, Belgium), pp. 265–274.
21. Schuurmans, W. 1991. A Model to Study the Hydraulic Performance of Controlled
Irrigation Canals. Delft, The Netherlands: Centre for Operational Watermanagement
(COW).
22. Murray Rust, D. H., and W. B. Snellen. 1993. Irrigation System Performance Assess-
ment and Diagnosis. Collaborative Research Programme on Irrigation Performance.
Colombo, Sri Lanka: IIMI.
23. Horst, L. 1987. Choice of irrigation structures. Proceedings of the Asian Regional
Symposium on Irrigation Design for Management (Kandi, Sri Lanka), pp. 45–60.
24. Schuurmans, J. 1997. Control of Water Levels in Open Channels. Delft, The Nether-
lands: Faculty of Civil Engineering, Group of Water Management.
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90/3b. London: ODI/IIMI Irrigation Management Network.
Water Quality in Agriculture 507
5.8 Water Quality in Agriculture

M. Greppi and F. Preti
5.8.1 Quality of Water for Agricultural Use: Impacts on Agriculture

Water that is intended for agricultural uses but in some way endangers agricultural
activity can be defined as “unsuitable” water. Natural waters are defined as “polluted”
when they become unsuitable following the addition of substances other than those
normally present.
The use of water of less than optimal quality for irrigation introduces various kinds
of risk (agronomic, sanitary, and environmental) and can produce damage of direct and
indirect types, depending on the form of pollution involved (see Fig. 5.76; [1–3]).
Suitability of Water for Agricultural Use
Although irrigation has been practised throughout the world for several millennia, it
is only in this century that the importance of irrigation water quality has been recognized.
The design approach to irrigation with reclaimed water depends upon whether emphasis
is placed on providing a water supply or providing wastewater treatment.
Legislation and literature provide much information on the extra-agricultural use
of water (consumption, bathing, industrial, etc.). This information is not precise with
respect to the suitability of irrigation water (except for salinity of natural origin). Water
Figure 5.76. Risks and damage connected with the agricultural use of polluted water.
quality is influenced by numerous factors (analytical, agronomic, and territorial): The

type and concentration of pollutant, the type and destination of the crop products, irri-
gation technique and period, soil characteristics, and quantity of water utilized [2–5].
Irrigation (including the use of reclaimed wastewater in recent years) now also is used
to maintain recreational lands such as parks, golf courses, landscaped areas, and urban
parks.
For water from conventional sources, it is usually sufficient to check the following
characteristics (see Section on pH, later): content of sodium, calcium, magnesium, sul-
fates, chlorides, boron, the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and electrical conductivity
(EC). In the case of wastewater, however, it is also necessary to check for the presence of
organic substances, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, microorganisms, and heavy metals.
A number of different irrigation-water-quality guidelines have been proposed and are
summarized in Table 5.27 [6].
Physical and Chemical Water Quality
The quantity and nature of solutes and suspended substances in water determines
their suitability for different uses. In the definition of the qualitative requirements for
irrigation water, the following risk factors must be evaluated: toxic effects on plants,
pollution of water resources (groundwater in particular), and propagation of pollutants
in the food chain. In addition to any immediate action, the progressive effects should
be considered of any possible accumulation of a pollutant (e.g., in the soil) under con-
tinued use. Quality requirements vary with crop type and the state of the vegetation
[7, 8].
All irrigation water must satisfy specific physicochemical and bacteriological charac-
teristics such that biological processes on the irrigated land and in nearby surface waters
and groundwaters are not damaged. Naturally, the relationship between water quality
and its use is subjective to a certain degree. It depends on the integrity of the biological
cycles, the types of crops grown, the climate, the soil, the morphological characteris-
tics of the land, the frequency of irrigation, and the quantity of water used. Fourteen
specific water-quality factors are discussed in some detail: temperature, pH, material
in suspension, salinity, water-infiltration rate and sodium, residual sodium carbonate,
boron, heavy metals, trace elements, nutrients, reducing substances, organic substances,
pathogenic agents, and equipment-use impacts.
Temperature
The temperature of irrigation water can have a significant effect on plant growth. It
is normally damaging to use water with a temperature much lower than that of the soil.
From this point of view, groundwater is often less suitable than surface waters (which
have a thermal regime linked with that of the environment). The use of water with a
temperature that is lower (or higher) than that of the soil and the vegetation can produce
a thermal shock, which may inhibit growth, particularly in very young plants. For this
reason, it is best to avoid irrigation at the warmest time of the day or, alternatively,
not to use water with significantly different temperatures before heating or cooling it
appropriately (e.g., planning accumulation of long-flow path before administration, to
paddy fields, water meadows, heating pools, or coiled pipes).
Table 5.27. Guidelines for interpretation of water quality for irrigation
Degree of Restriction on Use
Potential Irrigation Problem Units None Slight to Moderate Severe

Salinity a
ECw dS m−1 <0.7 0.7–3.0 >3.0
Total dissolved salts (TDS) mg/L (10−3 kg m−3) <450 450–2.000 >2.000
Permeability ECwb
SAR = 0–3 ≥0.7 0.7–0.2 <0.27
SAR = 3–6 ≥1.2 1.2–0.3 <0.3
SAR = 6–12 ≥1.9 1.9–0.5 <0.5
SAR = 12–20 ≥2.9 2.9–1.3 <1.3
SAR = 20–40 ≥5.0 5.0–2.9 <2.9
Specific ion toxicity c
Sodium (Na)
Surface irrigation SAR <3 3–9 >9
Sprinkler irrigation mg L−1 <70 >70
Chloride (Cl)
Surface irrigation mg L−1 <140 140–350 >350
Sprinkler irrigation mg L−1 <100 >100
Boron (B) mg L−1 <0.7 0.7–3.0 >3.0
Trace elements see [7]
Miscellaneous effects d
Nitrogen (total N) mg L−1 <5 5–30 >30
Bicarbonate (HCO3 ) mg L−1 <90 90–500 >500
(overhead sprinkling only)
pH unit 6.5–8.4e
Residual Cl (overhead sprinkling only) mg L−1 <1.0 1.0–5.0 >5.0
a Affects crop water availability.
b Affects infiltration rate of water into the soil. Evaluate using ECw and SAR or adjSAR together. For
wastewater irrigation, it is recommended that SAR be adjusted to include a more correct estimate of
calcium in the soil water.
c Affects sensitive crops.
d Affects susceptible crops.
e Normal range.
pH
The pH is a variable that regulates all biological functions. Sometimes it has an
inhibitory effect on process rates. Recommended values range from 6.0 to 8.5. Low pH
also may affect conduits by corrosion. One cause of increased acidification of water
sources is acid precipitation or, more appropriately, acid deposition (acid in dry dust, in
rainwater, and in snow).
Material in Suspension
The presence of solids in suspension, usually made from clay or from other materials
derived from drainage waters, generally does not cause significant damage to crops
(although it may leave an anaesthetic covering of sediment on plant leaves). Clay and
silt deposits, however, significantly affect irrigation canals in many parts of the world.
Damage to irrigation equipment also can occur, giving rise to the corrosion of mechanical
components (pumps) or the constriction and blocking of narrow pipes (e.g., drip-feed
apparatus).
Salinity
The ionic species most commonly present in solution include both anions (chloride,
sulfate, bicarbonate, and nitrate) and cations (calcium, magnesium, and sodium). Their
presence, mainly due to the dissolution of minerals from the rocks and soil with which
the water comes into contact, is increased with the degree of human activity in an area.
The increase of salts in solution is always a factor that decreases the quality of irrigation
water. A high salinity can be, in the severest cases, extremely phytotoxic or can create
conditions for the progressive loss of soil fertility [6, 8].
The salinity of irrigation water is determined by measuring its EC, which is the most
important parameter contributing to the suitability of a water source for irrigation. The
EC of water is used as a surrogate measure of total dissolved salts (TDS) concentration.
For most agricultural irrigation purposes, the values for EC and TDS are directly related
and are convertible within an accuracy of about 10% according to the formula TDS
(mg L−1 ) ≈ EC (dS m−1 ) × 640.
The presence of salts affects plant growth in three ways: (1) osmotic effects, caused
by the total dissolved salt concentration in the soil water; (2) specific ion toxicity, caused
by the concentration of an individual ion; and (3) soil particle dispersion, caused by high
sodium and low salinity. With increasing soil salinity in the root zone, plants expend
more of their available energy on adjusting the salt concentration within their tissues
(osmotic adjustment) in order to obtain water from the soil. Consequently, less energy
is available for plant growth.
Salts originate from local groundwater or from other sources in applied irrigation
water. In the case of sprinkler irrigation, damage can derive from the concentration of
salts on plant foliage by evaporation, resulting in leaf “burns” during the hottest periods.
In this respect, waters derived from surface systems characterized by a lower salt content
are preferable to those from groundwater. It is reasonable to say that the use of water with
TDS levels of less than 500 mg L−1 does not have significant drawbacks. Nevertheless,
it is nearly impossible to identify an absolute danger limit because of differences in the
sensitivities of various crops and the influence of the lithological characteristics of the
soil. Water can be used with a higher salt content in sandy, well-drained soils than in
clay soils with poor drainage.
Salts tend to concentrate in the root zone because of evapotranspiration. Plant damage
is tied closely to an increase in soil salinity. Establishing a net downward flux of water
and salts through the root zone is the only practical way to manage a salinity problem.
Under such conditions, good drainage is essential to allow a continuous movement of
water and salt below the root zone. Long-term use of reclaimed saline, drainage, and
wastewater for irrigation is not possible without adequate drainage [7].
If more water is applied than the plant uses, the excess water will percolate below
the root zone, carrying with it a portion of the accumulated salts. Consequently, the soil
salinity will reach some constant value that depends on the leaching fraction, that is, the
fraction of applied water that passes through and below the entire rooting depth:
LF = Dd /Di = (Di − ETc )/Di (5.250)
where LF = leaching fraction (−), Dd = depth of water leached below the root zone (m),
Di = depth of water applied at the surface (m), and ETc = crop evapotranspiration (m).
A high leaching fraction results in a lower salt accumulation in the root zone. If the
salinity of irrigation water (ECw ) is known, the salinity of the drainage water percolating
below the rooting depth can be evaluated by using
ECdw = ECw /LR (5.251)
where ECdw = salinity of drainage water percolating below the root zone (dS m−1 ),
ECw = salinity of irrigation water (dS m−1 ), and LR = leaching requirement (−).
The ECdw value can be used to assess the potential effects of salinity on crop yield
and on groundwater. For salinity management, it often is assumed that ECdw is equal to
the salinity of a saturated extract of soil, ECe . This assumption is conservative, however,
in that ECdw occurs at the soil water potential of field capacity and ECe occurs at a matrix
potential of zero (by definition under the laboratory conditions for the test). As a rough
approximation, the value of ECdw can be estimated as twice the value of ECe for most
soils [6, 8, 9].
Water Infiltration Rate and Sodium
The adsorption of sodium by clays in the soil contributes to a reduction of physical
fertility. Sodium can substitute other metals, such as potassium and other useful cations
attracted to negatively charged exchange sites in the soil, thereby reducing the availability
of essential elements for plant development. In addition, an excess of sodium produces a
modification of clay structure with a consequent increase in the degree of soil imperme-
ability and a progressive reduction of water availability for plants (deterioration of the
physical condition of the soil with the formation of crusts, waterlogging, and reduced
soil permeability).
If the infiltration rate is reduced greatly, it may be impossible to supply the crop
with enough water for vigorous growth. In addition, irrigation systems using reclaimed
wastewaters, saline water, or agricultural drainage waters often are located on less de-
sirable soils, which already have low permeability and management problems. In these
cases, it may be necessary to modify the soil profile by excavating and mixing soil in the
affected areas.
The water-infiltration problem usually occurs within the top few centimeters of the soil
and is related mainly to its structural stability. It has been demonstrated that this negative
effect is directly linked to the concentration of sodium. It is inversely proportional to the
presence of bivalent cations and is influenced by the carbonate–bicarbonate balance. For
this reason, the SAR has been introduced:
p ¢
SAR = (Na/ (Cax + Mg)/2 , (5.252)
where the cation concentrations are expressed in meq L−1 .
In addition to the SAR index, a modified SAR index (adjSAR) has been proposed:
p
adjSAR = (Na/ (Cax + Mg)/2)[1 + (8.4 − pHc )], (5.253)
where pHc is the pH of the irrigation water in equilibrium with CO2 in the soil and in
contact with calcium carbonate.
It is possible to calculate by means of an appropriate table based on the concentrations
−
of the ions Na+ , Mg2+ , Ca2+ , CO2− 3 , HCO3 as well as knowledge of hardness (the
amount of calcium carbonate dissolved in water, usually expressed as parts of calcium
carbonate per million parts of water), alkalinity (property of having excess hydroxide
ions in solution determining the capacity of water to neutralize acids), and conductivity
[6, 10, 11]. The adjSAR value is preferred in irrigation applications with reclaimed
municipal wastewater because it more accurately reflects changes in calcium in the soil
water. Values of pH less than 8.4 identify water that is supersaturated with carbonate,
with an increase in the dangers associated with sodium. Values greater than pH 8.4
indicate a tendency to dissolve carbonates, which attenuates the sodium risk.
Another index that is used to express the phytotoxicity of sodium is the so-called
exchangable sodium percentage (ESP), which can be calculated from the following
relationship:
ESP = (Na+ × 100)/(Na+ + Ca2+ + Mg2+ + K+ ), (5.254)
−1
where the concentrations of the ions usually are expressed in meq L .
Residual Sodium Carbonate
The presence of carbonates corresponds to an increase in the concentration of sodium.
The determination of the concentration of bicarbonate in water therefore represents
another guideline in the evaluation of irrigation water quality.
Bicarbonate can be evaluated in terms of the sodium carbonate residue (SCR) defined
by
¡ −
¢
SCR = CO2− 3 + HCO3 − (Ca
2+
+ Mg2+ ), (5.255)
where the concentration of ions usually is expressed in meq L−1 and where SCR > 0 for
alkaline water.
Water containing a high percentage of HCO− 3 ions has the tendency to precipi-
tate calcium and magnesium in the form of carbonates. This precipitation changes
the SAR index. Sodium carbonate also can form. In this regard, useful waters have
Na2 CO3 < 1.25 meq L−1 , waters that are not easily utilized have Na2 CO3 = 1.25–2.5
meq L−1 , unsuitable waters have Na2 CO3 > 2.5 meq/L. Possible damages are caused
by the deflocculation of soil colloids which, in turn, causes a definite reduction in soil
permeability or clogs trickle irrigation equipment.
Boron and Other Specific Ions
When a decline in crop growth is due to excessive concentrations of specific ions
rather than to osmotic effects alone, it is referred to as specific ion toxicity. The ions
of most concern in wastewater are sodium, chloride, and boron (Table 5.27 and [6]).
The most prevalent toxicity observed when using reclaimed municipal wastewater is
from boron, which usually comes from household detergents or effluents from industrial
plants. Boron is often present in small quantities in natural waters. When concentrations
are less than 0.5 ppm, negative effects are not observed even on the most sensitive crops.
Boron is, in fact, numbered among those micronutrients that are essential for plant
growth. At low concentrations, it has a favorable influence on the activity of vegetation.
In cases of boron deficiency (where there is a large demand for boron in crops), it may
even be administered as a fertilizer. Boron is present in almost all irrigation waters at
low concentrations (0.2–0.5 mg L−1 ). Above these concentrations, however, it becomes
a toxic element and can cause damage to and even destruction of crops (e.g., necrotic
spots and burns at leaf edges). Water that contains this element in concentrations greater
than 4 mg L−1 is unsuitable for almost all crops. Between the two extreme values of
0.3 mg L−1 (no effect) and 4 mg L−1 (maximum risk of damage) there are three ranges of
boron concentration that can cause light to moderate damage and three plant categories
that are differentiated on the basis of their tolerance to boron (see Table 5.27).
Heavy Metals and Other Trace Elements
The interaction of heavy metals with plants is, in many cases, complex. The presence
of small quantities in plant-assimilable forms is essential for good plant growth because
many of these metals are involved in different enzymatic complexes. In cases where the
input of metals to soils is too high or is uncontrolled, however, they can have a phytotoxic
effect [1, 12, 13].
The probability of exceeding the risk threshold is greater in acid soils with a low
cation-exchange capacity (CEC), where the ability to hold metals is lower and, therefore,
the metals are lost more easily to the soil solution and absorbed by the plants. Irrigation
is not the only way in which metals are transferred to the soil. They can also derive from
the administration of chemical fertilizers or biological sludge and from atmospheric
deposition.
Metals are transferred to plants through the soil and the exchanges that occur therein.
Contaminated water rarely can cause acute and immediate toxicity, but an excessive
accumulation of some metals (cadmium, molybdenum, selenium, etc.) can cause an
exposure risk to crop consumers. In this way, continued use of polluted water can lead
to high soil concentrations up to and beyond the phytotoxic limit.
The concentration of metals is rarely very high in surface waters. Without doubt,
treatment of industrial discharges (alone or mixed with urban discharges) results in
notable reductions in concentrations. Such reductions occur through precipitation and
absorption in biological sludge. Boron constitutes a particularly dangerous exception
because of its anphoteric behavior.
The limiting values are lower in the case of coarse-textured soils because of a lower
retention capacity of loose soils (greater availability for plants) and their greater perme-
ability (greater percolation).
Plants take up water and nutrients from the soil through their root systems and they
also take up undesirable elements. The root apparatus continuously extracts water from
the soil, but the water content varies with rainfall and irrigation and influences the
soil-chemical equilibria. In addition to the mechanical filtration of particles made from
elementary compounds, other mechanisms (e.g., cation exchange, precipitation, adsorp-

tion, and complexion) make up ways of immobilizing trace elements of the soil. The
CEC determines the potential for trace-element exchange in soil: The greater the CEC,
the greater is the quantity of trace elements that can be tolerated in irrigation water. The
lower limit corresponds to soils with a CEC < 5 meq/100 g and the maximum limit to
soils with a CEC of 15 meq/100 g.
Nevertheless, to avoid metal accumulation in any soil, a total retention of the supplied
quantity should be assumed. Then, it is possible to evaluate the maximum time period
over which contaminated water can be used on that soil, on the basis of the maximum
concentration that can be tolerated. For the average quantity of irrigation water applied,
these values range from a few years for cadmium up to thousands of years for lead.
Plants vary considerably their tolerance to trace elements in soils; in many cases the
chemical form has a marked effect on tolerance.
Effects of Trace Elements

The effects of the most common trace elements in irrigation water on plants are the
following:
• Aluminium. Nonessential; typical soil concentrations much higher than those ap-
plied with water; toxicity only in acid soils; accumulates on and in the roots, causing
plasmolysis; does not accumulate in leaves. Can reduce productivity in acid soils
(pH < 5.5), but more alkaline soils at pH > 5.5 will precipitate the ion and eliminate
any toxicity.
• Arsenic. Nonessential, crop tolerance to soil concentrations can vary, does not
accumulate in roots, limits growth when dangerous concentrations are reached.
Toxicity to plants varies widely, ranging from 12 mg L−1 for Sudan grass to less
than 0.05 mg L−1 for rice.
• Beryllium. Nonessential; if present in excess, it causes a loss of production. Toxicity
to plants varies widely, ranging from 5 mg L−1 for kale to 0.5 mg L−1 for bush beans.
• Boron. Essential. The margin between utility and toxicity is very narrow. Toxicity
symptom is necrosis on leaf edges.
• Cadmium. Nonessential, plants show a large tolerance to soil concentrations, accu-
mulates in plants to levels greater than those considered safe for animals and hu-
mans. It is toxic to beans, beets, and turnips at concentrations as low as 0.1 mg L−1
in nutrient solutions. Conservative limits recommended because of its potential
for accumulation in plants and soils to concentrations that may be harmful to
humans.
• Chromium. Nonessential; accumulates in and is toxic to plants if present in soils
in the hexavalent form; not generally recognized as an essential growth element.
Conservative limits are recommended because of a lack of knowledge on toxicity
to plants.
• Cobalt. Toxic to tomato plants at 0.1 mg L−1 in nutrient solutions; tends to be
inactivated by neutral and alkaline soils.
• Copper. Essential but toxic; particularly in acid soils, if present in high concentra-
tions; can induce iron and phosphorus deficiencies. Sheep and lambs are sensitive
to elevated dietary concentrations. It accumulates in plants but usually not to levels

greater than those considered safe for animals. Toxic to a number of plants at 0.1
to 1.0 mg L−1 in nutrient solutions.
• Fluoride. Nonessential. Toxicity is rare in plants from soils with high levels, but
it does accumulate in the foliage of some crops, causing marginal necrosis and
chlorosis. It is inactivated by neutral and alkaline soils.
• Iron. Essential, concentrations in soils much higher than those potentially applied,
almost never toxic to crops. The presence in a solid amorphic form can cause phos-
phorus and molybdenum deficiency. It is not toxic to plants in aerated soils but can
contribute to soil acidification and loss or reduced availability of essential phos-
phorus and molybdenum. Overhead sprinkling may result in unsightly deposits on
plants, equipment, and buildings.
• Lead. Nonessential can inhibit plant-cell growth at very high concentrations. Con-
centrations are too low to be toxic to plants, but can be toxic if directly ingested by
children or animals; concentrations can exceed safe limits.
• Mercury. Nonessential; low plant uptake and, therefore, low toxicity; toxic to hu-
mans and animals; lost by volatilization from soils.
• Lithium. Nonessential, mobile in soil, low plant toxicity. It is tolerated by most
crops up to 5 mg L−1 , but is toxic to citrus at low levels (>0.075 mg L−1 ). It acts in
a way similar to boron.
• Manganese. Essential, soil concentrations well above those potentially applied,
toxicity normally restricted to acid soils. Symptoms include dark spots on leaves,
severe chlorosis, and brown coating of leaves. It is toxic to a number of crops at
a few tenths of a milligram to a few milligrams per liter, but usually only in acid
soils.
• Molybdenum. Essential, low plant toxicity. It can accumulate in crops to levels
greater than those considered to be safe in soils with elevated concentrations; its
solubility depends on soil acidity. It is not toxic to plants at normal concentrations
in soil and water, but can be toxic to livestock if forage is grown in soils with high
available levels.
• Nickel. Nonessential for plants. It accumulates and is toxic to growth in acid soils
and with high concentrations, but is not absorbed by plants to levels dangerous for
humans and animals. It is toxic to a number of plants at 0.5–1.0 mg L−1 ; toxicity
is reduced at neutral or alkaline pH.
• Selenium. Nonessential for plants; relatively low phytotoxicity, except in soils with
high levels. It accumulates in plants if the soil concentration is greater than critical
levels; in forage crops it can reach dangerous concentrations. It is toxic to plants
at concentrations as low as 0.025 mg L−1 and toxic to livestock if forage is grown
in soils with relatively high levels of added selenium. The availability for plants
depends on the acidity of the soil. An essential element for animals but in very low
concentrations.
• Tin. Effectively excluded by plants at relatively low concentrations.
• Titanium. Effectively excluded by plants at relatively low concentrations.
• Tungsten. Effectively excluded by plants at relatively low concentrations.
• Vanadium. Nonessential. Plant growth is reduced in highly contaminated soils, and

it is toxic to many plants at relatively low concentrations.
• Zinc. Essential; accumulates in plants, but not to levels dangerous for humans and
animals; is phytotoxic (sometimes acutely) in acid soils at high concentrations.
It is toxic to many plants at widely varying concentrations; toxicity is reduced at
pH > 6.0 and in fine-textured or organic soils.
Nutrients
Nutrients that are important to agriculture include nitrogen, phosphorus, and occa-
sionally potassium, zinc, boron, and sulfur. They can be applied for crop production
with fertilizers or reclaimed wastewater. However, nutrients can cause problems in cer-
tain circumstances when they are in excess of plant requirements. The most beneficial
but also that which is most frequently present in excess in reclaimed municipal wastew-
ater is nitrogen. The nitrogen in reclaimed wastewater can replace an equal amount of
commercial fertilizer during the early to midseason of crop growth. Excessive nitrogen
in the latter part of the growing season may be detrimental to many crops, causing ex-
cessive vegetative growth, delayed or uneven maturity, and/or reduced crop quality. If
an alternative source of low-nitrogen water is available, a switch in water supplies or
blending of reclaimed wastewater with other water supplies can be used to keep nitrogen
levels acceptably low.
Reducing Substances
High levels of oxidizable substances can, in some cases, have a phytotoxic effect.
Sulfides, in particular, can produce a precipitation of iron(II) sulfide in the root system,
inducing symptoms of asphyxia in plants. Reducing water or water with low oxygen
concentrations can be utilized by applying appropriate techniques that favor reoxygena-
tion.
Organic Substances
Organic compounds in polluted water can be either natural or synthetic. Natural
organic compounds principally derive from human settlements, livestock production, the
food industry, paper mills, pesticides, and herbicides. Human and animal waste products
and plant and animal residues are characterized by a high degree of biodegradability. They
can be gradually degraded and mineralized when they are applied to soils. Alternatively,
they can be treated efficiently using a biological plant.
Synthetic compounds, instead, principally derive from industrial activity and often
consist of substances that are unknown in the natural environment. Many of these com-
pounds are persistent or only degrade very slowly (e.g., hydrocarbons, detergents, and
pesticides).
Pathogenic Agents
The presence of pathogenic microorganisms (metazoa, protozoa, bacteria, viruses,
etc.) living, or in a resistant form (eggs, cysts, spores) in irrigation water is caused,
principally, from untreated or partially treated sewage from urban settlements.
To a lesser but by no means negligible extent, pathogenic organisms also can be
transferred to water by wild and domestic animals (e.g., rats). In time, transmission to
people is possible, particularly in cases of epidemics (e.g., gastroenteritis), through fruit

and vegetables irrigated with contaminated water, or by direct contact with the irrigation
water itself. The presence of microorganisms in irrigation water does not limit the activity
of the vegetation or the fertility of the soil because the prevailing presence of indigenous
microflora is enough to eliminate most undesirable agents.
Pathogenic microbial species are not directly determinable, except by complex analyt-
ical methods, but the quantity of nonpathogenic microorganisms can be used as indicators
of contamination from dirty water and the possible residual presence of pathogens present
at the time of contamination [4, 7]. The qualitative requirements for irrigation water can
be diverse and related to crop type, the growth phase, and the system selected for irriga-
tion distribution. The environmental dispersion of these microbial species and the relative
contact with people, in fact, can occur by the formation of aerosols with sprinkler-type
irrigation systems. In general, a safety zone can be established 100–200 m from the
source; the distance varies with the effects provoked by thermic shock, by variations in
microclimatic conditions at the time of irrigation, and with different microbial species.
A determination of the survival times of different species can be used to evaluate the
pollution risk to the soil and the plants.
It is clear that untreated sewage should not be used for irrigation. Primary and sec-
ondary treatment are often sufficient to reduce the presence of pathogens considerably.
Note, however, that, in many rivers with a torrential regime, the presence of coliforms,
assumed as microbiological quality indices, is variable. The amounts are often compa-
rable to levels in biologically treated urban waste. Note also that the strong recourse to
chlorination as a means of effluent disinfection to indirectly reduce microbial loads in
receiving water bodies appears to be unsuitable. Poor efficiency, in relation to the most
dangerous (viral) species, and the inevitable formation of toxic halogenated compounds
make such waters unsuitable. Halogenated compounds result when water with a high
load of organic residues is treated with sodium hyperchlorite (normally used as the means
of effluent disinfection).
Effects on Irrigation Equipment
Clogging problems with sprinkler- and drip-irrigation systems have been reported,
particularly with primary and oxidation pond effluents. Biological growth (slimes) in the
sprinkler head, emitter orifice, or supply pipes can cause blockages, as can heavy con-
centrations of algae and suspended solids in irrigation water. The most frequent clogging
problems occur with drip irrigation. From a public-health standpoint, such systems often
are considered ideal because they are totally enclosed and thus minimize any problems
related to the exposure of operating personnel to reclaimed wastewater or drifting spray.
In the case of treated wastewater, which has been chlorinated, residual chlorine con-
centrations of less than 1 mg L−1 do not affect plant foliage. Chlorine concentrations in
excess of 5 mg L−1 , however, can cause severe plant damage when reclaimed wastewater
is sprayed directly onto foliage.
Irrigation equipment generally is made of materials such as concrete, iron, steel,
bricks, asphalt, plastic, and synthetic fibers. The cause of concrete degradation can be
intrinsic (because of composition, manufacture, or aging) of an extrinsic chemical nature
(CO2 , mineral acids, pH, organic acids, bases, salts, NH+ 4 , Mg, chlorides, sulfates), of a
physical nature (elevated temperature), or of a mechanical nature (water velocity, abra-
sion, erosion). Ferrous materials can be subjected to physical and chemical degradation
processes caused by the presence of pollutants in water, which can cause alterations
and degradation by abrasion or erosion (suspended solids) or by corrosion (organic and
inorganic chemical pollutants, pH). The use of water with high concentrations of sus-
pended solids (e.g., algae) can cause blockages and/or loss of pressure in pipes, valves,
and pumps. Filters and/or chlorination of eutrophic waters can be used to avoid these
problems. Clay and silt deposits significantly affect irrigation canals in many parts of the
world. Groundwater often is used for agriculture so as to avoid problems associated with
quality and quantity. However, its exploitation is sometimes costly in terms of energy
(pumping costs) and the environment (groundwater is often nonrenewable in the short
term). In addition, it is often unsuitable for applications such as irrigation because of low
temperature (thermic shock) or (occasionally) high salinity.
5.8.2 Effects of Agricultural Activities on Water Quality

Impacts on Water
Modern agriculture is characterized by the use of chemical substances (fertilizers
and pesticides) for the protection of crops and to enable high levels of production. The
environmental fate of these substances is determined by removal phenomena (adsorp-
tion onto the solid matrix, chemical and microbiological degradation, uptake by plants,
photodecomposition) and transport phenomena. By air, transport phenomena include
volatilization, dispersion, and aeolian (wind) erosion. In water, these processes are sur-
face flow, solid transport and erosion, subsurface flow, and percolation.
It is, therefore, possible for agricultural pollution to affect water use. Some common
examples are reported in the Table 5.28.
Point-Source and Diffuse Pollution
Agricultural activities typically generate pollution phenomena from diffuse sources
(diffuse or nonpoint pollution), by which we mean the input of pollutant substances
coming from sources that are distributed in space.
Point sources of pollution are rare in agriculture but do include some agroindustrial
activities, the stocking and spreading of concentrated animal wastes on the soil, and the
disposal of wastewater from washing out pesticide containers. Crop and animal produc-
tion, harvest, preservation, food processing, and the sale of products (fruit, vegetables,
oil, wine, milk, etc.) produce pollutant discharges (e.g., wastewater from hosing down
animal excreta). The pollutant loads derived from these activities are characterized by
high concentrations of organic substances in both dissolved and suspended forms. These
loads vary, depending on the particular industry and/or season considered (e.g., BOD
from 10 ppm to more than 100,000 ppm and suspended solids from 30 ppm to more than
10,000 ppm).
The final characteristics of waste products from animal production (especially where
high densities of animals are raised in small areas) also are determined by the removal
techniques adopted (mechanical or hydraulic systems). Some forms of diffuse pollution
Table 5.28. Effects of pollution from agricultural sources on water use
Impact
Pollutant Category Form of Pollution Primary Secondary Tertiary

Nutrients (phosphorus Total Nitrogen Accelerated growth of algae and Decrease in oxygen Death of fish in
and nitrogen) Nitrate aquatic plants Color changes surface water bodies
Ammonia Eutrophication of slow-turnover Increased Reduction in recreational
Total phosphorous water bodies concentrations of benefits
Soluble phosphorous Interference with potable and NO3 and NH4 Higher degree of treatment
Water Quality in Agriculture
recreational uses required for potable use

Toxic effects of nitrate
on infants
Sediments Suspended solids Blockage of channels, canals, Reduction of light Negative effects on fish
and reservoirs penetration reproduction zone
Obstruction of outlets and filters Color changes Adsorption/desorption
Interference with recreational uses phenomena of toxic
Increase in treatment costs substances
Salinity Dissolved salts Damage to fish community and Reduction of germinative
aquatic vegetation capacity from
Corrosion of pumps and turbines downstream use
Conspicuous increase in treatment Reduction in growth of
costs for potable use some plant species
Herbicides, pesticides Organochlorine and Toxicity for fish and aquatic plants Sublethal effects Biomagnification in the
(insecticides, fungicides, organophosphorus Heavy treatment for potable uses Synergistic effects food chain
nematodicides) pesticides Long-term mutagenesis
Carbamate
Triazine
Animal wastes Biological oxygen Analogous to nutrients Smell Anaerobic transformations
(nitrogen, phosphorus, demand (BOD) Reduction in fish populations Color with methane, amine,
oxidizable substances, Chemical oxygen Increase in level of treatment and sulfide production
pathogens) demand for potable use
Coliforms and streptococcus
519
can ultimately derive from industrial activity. This includes chemical compounds released
to the atmosphere by accident or on purpose (e.g., dioxin or radionuclides) and deposited
(as fallout) by precipitation (wet deposition) or as particulates (dry deposition).
The most typical diffuse sources, however, come from agriculture and include nitrogen
and phosphorus compounds present in fertilizers (both of which may be involved in the
processes of eutrophication of water bodies) and the principal active agents present in
pesticides and herbicides (which can be found in surface and deep waters or adsorbed
to soil or sediments). Other substances, such as heavy metals, can come from spreading
sewage sludge, wastewater, or compost obtained from solid urban wastes on the soil.
Even sediments, salts, and organic material can be considered as “pollutants” of receiving
water bodies if they are produced in an anomalous way from agricultural practices.
The determination of the impact of substances used in agriculture on water bodies or
on soil can be assessed by examining changes in natural loads (i.e., increases in the
concentrations of single components), the introduction of extraneous substances, changes
in the ratios of components present, and the occurrence of anomalous physical and/or
biological phenomena.
The effects may include limitations in the direct and indirect use of the substance;
increases in treatment costs (including maintenance of the equipment); the degradation
of biological productivity; and the input of toxic, mutagenic, and teratogenic substances
to the food chain.
The phenomenon of agricultural pollution is considered, in the majority of cases, to be
unintentional, even if cultivation practices employed and the chemical substances used
play a decisive role in the process. On nonirrigated land, pollution is linked to diffuse
sources and regulated by the hydrological events that occur. On irrigated land, pollution
due to irrigation waters depends on the transport of leached substances from the fields
when excess water is applied.
An exact relationship between the use of a substance in agriculture and the consequent
modifications in environmental quality is difficult to define properly because of the diffuse
nature of the processes involved. Point-source contaminants have a uniquely localizable
origin, such as effluent outfalls and dumps, for which it is possible to apply measurement
techniques that allow a direct and reasonably accurate evaluation of concentrations and
loads. Diffuse contaminants, on the other hand, come from nonconfinable sources, for
which the determination of load consistency and the monitoring of pollution processes
requires specific techniques. Such techniques can be applied in particular to the final
receiving body, for example, taking into account the spatial variability of soil hydraulic
properties.
Diffuse pollutants of agricultural origin can be transported to surface water bodies
in solution by surface and subsurface runoff or as solids in erosion. They can reach
groundwater bodies with water that infiltrates and percolates into aquifers. They can be
adsorbed by soil particles. Finally, diffuse pollutants can be transferred to the atmosphere
in significant amounts.
The different behaviors of the various pollutant substances is based on the prevalence
of some fundamental factors for diffuse pollution processes. In the case of pesticides,
for example, the degree of solubility and the degree of adsorption to soil particles can
be highly variable from substance to substance. Nitrate, on the other hand, is charac-
terized principally by transport in solution and its quantity depends on the soil-nitrogen
cycle (mineralization, denitrification, and plant uptake processes). Phosphates and some
radionuclides are, instead, adsorbed quite strongly to the soil and, therefore, they are
associated mainly with the transport of suspended solids.
The transport of a pollutant to a surface water body from a nonpoint source is charac-
terized by the response of the drainage area to a defined rainfall event. This has a limited
duration, with high time variation in the initial phase. The hydrograph peak and that
of the pollutant concentration may not coincide because the first part of a hydrological
event is usually more polluting with respect to the remaining part because of the effect
of leaching by the initial runoff.
The consistency of the nonpoint load depends on many factors, including the volume
of rainfall, the intensity and the location of the storm event, the duration of the preceding
dry period, the agricultural activity carried out in the area of interest and the phase in the
cultivation cycle.
With the evolution of technology and a continued human requirement for water (es-
pecially for high-quality water), there has been a subsequent growth in the demands for
abstractions from groundwater. To fulfill these demands, deeper and deeper wells are
being drilled with larger diameters to continuously increase abstractions. The lack of
adequate controls unfortunately, often has, lead to alterations in the deep stratigraphic
structure and the opening up of interconnections between impermeable strata, thereby
facilitating an increase in the transport of agrotechnological products, distributed at the
surface, to aquifer systems.
Pollutants from Agricultural Activities
Pesticides
The generic term “pesticides” (or biocides) is applied to all chemical compounds used
by people to inhibit or eliminate species that are considered damaging under particular
circumstances (e.g., crop defense and water treatment for particular uses). They mainly
consist of organic substances that control crop damage from fungi, insects, or other
parasites and from weeds. Pesticides thus consist of fungicides, bactericides, herbicides,
nematodicides, molluscicides, insecticides, and rodenticides (Table 5.29). They can be
of an extremely variable nature both in terms of their chemical structure and in terms
of their chemical and physical properties. They can be natural or synthetic, organic or
inorganic. Organic pesticides represent the most common class of pesticide. Inorganic
pesticides were used mainly in the past and now have limited use. Of the organometallic
pesticides, the most frequently used contain mercury (such as ethyl mercuric chloride
and phenylmercuric acetate) and tin (triphenyltin acetate, triphenyltin sulfide).
Carbon disulfide, carbon tetrachloride, cyanidric acid, sulfurous anhydride, and methyl
bromide are employed as fumigants. Currently, the most commonly used pesticides in
terms of quantity are, in decreasing order, organochlorines (chlorinated or halogenated
organics), organophosphates (or phosphorated organics), and carbamates. Chlorinated
pesticides are characterized by molecules with carbon-chlorine links (DDT and ho-
mologues, chlordane, heptachlor, aldrin, dieldrin). Phosphorated pesticides, in contrast,
Table 5.29. Percentage of world pesticide sales by major region, crop, and pollutant category,
1994–1995
Region % 1995 Crop % 1995 Category % 1994

North America 29.5 Fruit and vegetables 25.7 Herbicides 47.0
East Asia 25.1 Cereals 15.0 Insecticides 28.8
West Europe 25.8 Rice 11.8 Fungicides 19.5
Latin America 10.8 Maize 10.7 Others 4.7
East Europe 3.4 Cotton 9.6
Africa & rest of the world 5.4 Soybeans 8.2
Sugar beets 2.8
Rapeseed 1.6
Others 14.6
Source: [20].
have molecules containing oxygen-phosphorus-sulfur links (parathion, methyl parathion,

formothion, chlorpyrifos, malathion, phosdrin, thimet). Carbamates have molecules
with nitrogen-carbon-oxygen links (carbaryl-baygon). Organophosphorus and carba-
mate compounds, normally, degrade rapidly into simpler substances. Organochlorines,
on the other hand, remain unchanged in the environment for longer periods.
The most widely known herbicides are phenoxyalcanoics (2,4-D and MCPA),
ammonium-quaternary compounds (diquat and paraquat), amid (metolachor and
alachlor), linuron, and triazines (atrazine and simazine).
The phenomena that govern the behavior of pesticides in the soil are numerous and
complex (see Fig. 5.77, [14]) with respect to their repartitioning (often expressed by
the distribution coefficient K d ) among the liquid, solid, and gas phases; their interaction
with living organisms; their transformation into residual products; and their chemical
and biological degradation. The factors that influence the transport and the impact of
a substance that falls within the wide category of pesticides include solubility, adsorp-
tion capacity, persistence, and other specific chemicophysical properties. Persistence is
defined as the period of time necessary for complete degradation of the substance to
other (reasonably innocuous) products. Degradation (often expressed by the dissipation
coefficient K s ) is generally biochemical and therefore is influenced by factors that af-
fect biological activity, such as low soil moisture content, temperature, organic-matter
content, dissolved oxygen, and external pH.
The importance of each factor depends on the type of substance being degraded and
on the characteristics of the site. Strongly adsorbed pesticides are relatively immobile in
the soil profile and remain near the surface, where the greatest biological activity occurs
and where the degradation rates are higher. Organochlorine substances are generally
most persistent, whereas organophosphorus compounds and carbamates degrade more
easily. For triazines, the degradation is essentially chemical and takes a long time. The
retention of a pesticide on soil particles allows a prolonged degradation and a mitigation
of the initial toxicity of the substance concerned.
Pesticide solubility, both in water and in fats, appears to be a fundamental property for
the diffusion of pesticides in the environment and in the food chain. Pesticides migrate
Figure 5.77. Interactions of pesticides, soil, and water (K s =

dissipation coefficient, K d = redistribution coefficient)[13].
Source: [13].
from agricultural land toward surface-water bodies by volatilization and transport in a

gaseous phase or by transport in solution or in suspension in runoff water. Transport
toward groundwater occurs by molecular advection and diffusion. The adsorption char-
acteristics, which determine the mode of transport, depend on numerous mechanisms
based on molecular interactions of various types (including van der Waals forces and
hydrophobic, electrostatic, hydrogen and ion exchange, and other bonds). Soluble and
weakly adsorbed substances usually percolate through the soil profile or are lost in runoff
during storm events and under certain hydraulic conditions (hydraulic conductivity, wa-
ter content, slope, etc.). Moderately adsorbed substances are transported in runoff or
percolating waters; those that are strongly adsorbed are transported on solid particles.
Fertilizers
Fertilization results in the input of nutrient elements to the soil, principally nitrogen
and phosphorus. Some forms of these substances (nitrate and phosphate ions) also can
be seen as exemplary illustrations of two main transport mechanisms (in solution and in
suspension).
Nitrogen. This nutrient exists in soil principally in organic forms, which are slowly
converted to more available inorganic forms (ammonium and nitrate). Nitrates are very
soluble and easily leach below the crop rooting zone or can be removed in runoff water.
Organic nitrogen and ammonia, on the other hand, are adsorbed onto soil particles and
therefore tend to remain where they are, provided that they are not removed by erosion
(Fig. 5.78).
Figure 5.78. The nitrogen cycle, a simplified view.
Three microbially mediated transformation processes are involved in the balance of

nitrogen. The first two (ammonification and nitrification) are part of the mineralization
process that transforms organic nitrogen into inorganic forms, making it available for
plants. The other (denitrification) results in a loss of nitrogen to the atmosphere and can
reduce the quantity of nitrogen lost by leaching and runoff. Nitrogen also can be trans-
ferred to the atmosphere in a gaseous form by chemical processes, without requiring the
presence of microorganisms. The latter process occurs in the case of heavy applications
of urea- and ammonia-based fertilizers.
Practices that increase oxygenation or drainage also increase mineralization and there-
fore allow the formation of nitrate. Nitrate is available for plants, but also can be lost
during runoff and leaching. The content of nitrogen compounds in the soil normally
increases up to a depth of about 30 cm and then decreases because of the influence of
leaching. Drainage favors nitrification but controls transport for groundwater. In general,
migration of nitrate takes place at very low rates, with a subsequent increase in the con-
centration in groundwater. As a result, the problem of high nitrates in groundwater may
get so bad that, even after the introduction of nonpolluting agricultural practices, it takes
a long time to remove them. Migration rates are high when preferential and macropore
flows dominate.
The period of fertilizer application is important in that, if it is close to the period
of maximum vegetation development, it will favor a reduction in losses due to plant
uptake. In particular for groundwater, it is recognized that, at least in some cases, a large
part of the responsibility for the migration of nitrates is due to the abuse of fertilizers
(mineral and organic), in terms of excessive and/or nonoptimal applications with respect
to plant phenology. An additional factor that favors this migration is the mineralization of
organic substances present in the soil, which is connected with unsuitable crop-cultivation
practices.
Nevertheless, agriculture cannot be held responsible for all eutrophication phenomena
in water or for all contamination by synthetic substances. Often the contribution of in-
dustrial or urban activities (sometimes unseen) are much more important (e.g., discharge
and dispersion from sewers and wells).
Phosphorus. In natural systems phosphorus (P) is present as the orthophosphate anion
(PO3−4 ), in both inorganic (insoluble calcium phosphate) and organic (plants and organic
biomass) forms. Phosphorus is an important nutrient for aquatic ecosystems, but in excess
it causes accelerated eutrophication manifested in an exaggerated production of organic
material by algae, macrophytes, and other organisms containing chlorophyll. The rate of
eutrophication in many water bodies can be exclusively regulated by the concentration
of phosphorus, given that other nutrients are not limiting (in accordance with Liebig’s
law of the minimum).
The quantity of phosphorus coming from diffuse sources changes considerably with
various pedological, meteorological, and environmental factors. In contrast to nitrogen,
phosphorus is not particularly mobile in soils. The phosphate ion does not leach easily
because it is fixed to clay and organic matter and it is largely lost by erosive processes
(Fig. 5.79).
The principal factors (sometimes intercorrelated) that control the process of phos-
phorus fixation are
• Al and Fe oxides, which are responsible for retention in acid soils;
Figure 5.79. Phosphorus cycle.

• calcium compounds, which control solubility in calcareous soils; and

• the percentage of clay and organic matter that contribute to adsorption.
Adsorption is not an instantaneous process and occurs in an initial rapid phase fol-
lowed by one that is slower. The adsorption characteristics are different in soils compared
with transported sediments.
The greatest fraction of total phosphorus in most soils is not available for plants but
remains adsorbed to solid particles. Part of the particulate inorganic phosphorus (the
labile fraction) is the source of the dissolved form, but the transfer is very slow. In ad-
dition, continuous uptake by the root system means that the concentration of dissolved
phosphorus is always lower than that estimated on the basis of the total phosphorus
present. Phosphorus applied as a fertilizer also is retained and can be difficult to lose
in a dissolved form. The transport of the element to water bodies may be largely in a
particulate or adsorbed form. Runoff is the main process for transporting phosphorus to
surface waters. Moreover, the balance between the labile particulate and dissolved forms
also depends on the chemical and biological characteristics of the environment. There-
fore, the quantity of dissolved phosphorus can vary during its transfer from agricultural
soils to receiving water bodies and subsequently within these bodies. Analogously, a
decrease in runoff can result in a reduced loss of total phosphorus, but may have little
effect on the levels of available phosphorus in the receiving waters because of changes
in the rate of transformation of the labile fraction into the dissolved form. The pecu-
liar behavior of phosphorus is of specific interest in the degradation of the quality of
surface water bodies and is the main factor controlling eutrophication, especially in
freshwater.
Sediments
The effects of excessive sediment loading on receiving waters include a deterioration
in aesthetic value, a loss of reservoir storage capacity, changes in aquatic populations
and their food supplies, and an accumulation of bottom deposits that impose an ad-
ditional oxygen demand and inhibit some advantageous benthic processes. Deposition
of clay and silt in irrigation canals is a priority problem. Sediment is the most visible
pollutant originating from nonpoint sources. Moreover, the finest sediment fractions are
primary vehicles of other pollutants such as organic pesticides, metals, ammonium ions,
phosphates, and other toxic materials.
Trace Metals
Generally, the metal content of soils is low, at least in soils that are not adjacent to
main roads or zones of high industrial or mining activity. On agricultural land, however,
the application of wastewater, sewage sludge, or compost (for disposal and/or fertiliza-
tion) can introduce significant amounts of metals. In addition, the use of fungicides,
insecticides, fuels, lubricants, and tires also can contribute to the introduction of metals
to the soil.
Finally, chemical fertilizers can be the source of heavy metals derived from both
primary materials and production processes. The rate of metal uptake by crops depends
on the solubility of the metals in the soil solution. Many of them precipitate or are
adsorbed onto soil particles. Those that are most immobilizable are Mn, Fe, Al, Cr, As,
Pb, and Hg, whereas those that can easily reach the plants are Cd, Cu, Mo, Ni, and Zn,
especially under certain conditions of pH.
Microorganisms
Many pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria and viruses) can be present in the soil
as a consequence of contamination by animal feces, as well as spreading of refuse and
sewage. Their survival varies considerably under different environmental conditions.
Pollutant Transport Transformation Processes
The ways by which agricultural pollutants reach surface and groundwater bodies
are essentially linked to the movement of water, which almost always represents the
primary vector. The processes that most control transfer are erosion and sedimenta-
tion of soil particles, surface runoff, subsurface flow, infiltration, and percolation in the
soil.
In the transfer of a pollutant to a water body, it is possible to identify several phases:
supply, extraction, transport, and the impact on the receiving body. In each of these
phases, the pollutants undergo physical, chemical and biological transformations that
determine their method of transfer.
For substances that are strongly adsorbed onto soil particles, erosion and sedimenta-
tion processes are prevalent, even if they can subsequently detach from the particles and
be released into solution. For moderately and weakly adsorbed substances, the preva-
lent transport processes take place in solution by surface runoff and deep percolation
(Fig. 5.80).
The physical factors that influence pollutant transport in any specific situation are,
therefore, numerous and include
• precipitation characteristics, that is,
– frequency and season of the event,
– intensity, depth, duration, and kinetic energy,
– space-time distribution,
– time after chemical treatment;
• climatic characteristics, that is,
– temperature, wind velocity and direction, presence of ice, etc.,
– solar radiation;
• land characteristics, that is,
– pedology,
– morphology;
• planned crop cover, that is,
– crop type and degree of cover,
– production, cultivation and irrigation practices rotation, and climatic conditions;
• characteristics of herbicides, that is,
– formulation,
– persistence, including microbial, chemical, or photochemical degradation, and
volatilisation;
– solubility,
– adsorption.
Figure 5.80. Elements and factors that intervene in the process of pollution transfer from
agricultural nonpoint sources to receiving water bodies.
Meteorological conditions play a fundamental role in determining the hydrological

and sedimentological behavior of a drainage basin. The temperature, moreover, also is
linked with the quantity of nutrients that can be made available for transport because they
are not used by plants. The greatest surface runoff and the greatest transport of particulate
solids occurs during high-intensity rainfall events. Particles become detached from the
surface because of the high kinetic energy of the raindrops. The erosion and transport
capacity of water running over the soil increases with its velocity, which in turn increases
with the angle of the surface slope.
The characteristics of the soil are also essential for the definition of the transport mode
for agricultural contaminants. The texture and the mineralogical composition affect, for
example, infiltration capacity, percolation, and the adsorption of pollutant substances in

the lower layers. Coarse textures, in particular, favor high levels of infiltration and the
transfer of pollutant substances toward lower layers. On the other hand, organic matter
and clay particles are responsible for the consumption of high amounts of pollutant
substances by adsorption mechanisms and chemical bonding. The fertility of the soil
can, itself, influence the mobility of pollutants because, if fertility is high, there is no
nutrient limitation on evapotranspiration. Increases in evapotranspiration can result in
decreases in both the surface and the subsurface fluxes. Moreover, crop development can
increase the infiltration of water and provide protection against erosion by rainfall and
runoff. Finally, soil type can indirectly influence potential pollutants in that it affects the
choice of crop organization and irrigation systems.
The method of irrigation determines the degree of impact that soil leaching and
the return of water from irrigated fields to ditches and to groundwater can have on the
receiving water bodies. Indeed the irrigation characteristics (volumes applied, number of
applications, geometrical characteristics of the channels and sub-channels, etc.) influence
runoff, percolation, extraction, and transport.
It is necessary to consider the chemical characteristics of the polluting substances
along with the physical properties of the soil. These characteristics (especially the per-
sistence, solubility, and adsorption capacity) determine pollutant availability and are
responsible for the physical and biological transformations performed.
The factors that influence the distribution and the fate of agrochemicals in the envi-
ronment arise from various factors that are related internally and externally. The main
internal factors (linked to the substance itself) are solubility, polarity, volatility, molecu-
lar dimensions, and dissociation constant. The most significant external factors include
adsorption capacity, the movement of the aqueous and air phases, temperature, pH, light,
and biotic and abiotic activity.
The composition of these factors determines the occurrence and eventual prevalence
of one of the following fundamental processes.
• adsorption from organomineral components with the possibility of subsequent re-
lease (e.g., according to Langmuir or Freundlich isotherm);
• transformation by chemical or enzymatic reactions into residual products with dif-
ferent nature and properties;
• removal from the system by surface runoff (overland flow), interflow, volatilization,
leaching (or percolation), and chemical or biological degradation;
• uptake by living organisms, with eventual input to food chains.
The principal environmental compartments that are involved in the redistribution of
agrochemicals are soil, water, and air. The contamination of surface waters (inland and
marine) and groundwaters by pollutants of an agricultural nature is due to the natural
process of percolation, the application of irrigation water, to direct spreading of pollu-
tants, and to discharges from production or food processing units. Various chlorinated
pesticides are present in river water but, because of their low solubility, they usually are
associated with suspended material or bottom sediments.
Elevated concentrations of pesticides can be present in rainfall and snow and more
often are associated with particles than in solution. It is estimated that about 50% of the
pesticides from sprinkler systems could contaminate plants and animals near the target
site because of transport by air currents.
In the study of the environmental fate of agrochemicals, it is often useful to refer
to the hydrographic catchment system and principally to the soil system, which consti-
tute the fundamental units in which the main transport and transformation processes of
agricultural pollutants occur.
The fate of a substance in soil is governed by the solid phase as well as by the liquid and
gas phases, which determine its concentration and mobility. The chemical and structural
characteristics of a soil determine the availability of adsorption surfaces and fluid flow
and these factors affect its behavior, e.g.,
• lower biological degradation, separation of pesticides and enzymes;
• facilitation of biological degradation, concentration of pesticides and enzymes;
• reduction in dispersion and volatilization;
• catalysis of nonbiological degradation;
• location of pesticide molecules in sites where microbial growth can occur;
• influence on phytotoxicity.
An examination of the data concerning diffuse agricultural pollution collected over the
past 20 years [15] has revealed that most experiments can be grouped into long-term and
short-term studies. Long- term studies are those that have been conducted under natural
conditions (watersheds, fields, and plots) in order to assess effective losses over the crop
year. Short-term studies are those that have been conducted under artificially controlled
conditions (lysimeters, tilted beds, and small experimental plots) to assess the effect of
individual factors and to simulate critical conditions (e.g., using rainfall simulators). The
information obtained from short-term studies supplements that obtained from long-term
studies regarding the maximum concentrations observed in runoff. The major problem
with these studies is avoiding an overestimation of pollutant loads when the results are
extrapolated to larger scales [16].
Effects of Agricultural Practices with Respect to Wastewater Uses
The agricultural utilization of refuse from anthropogenic activities can constitute
a valid system of waste disposal [5, 17]. Solid refuse (urban waste compost and/or
sewage sludge) can be used for fertilization (manure and conditioners) and liquid waste
(wastewater) can be used for irrigation. There are several advantages associated with this
type of waste use despite the environmental risks. The advantages include recycling of
organic substances and plant nutrients in agroecosystems, reduction of spatial disposal
requirements, and higher protection of aquatic ecosystems that otherwise would receive
a major part of the wastewater (treated or not).
Application of Municipal Sewage, Livestock Manure, and Olive Oil
Wastewaters to Land
Raw municipal sewage has always been used in agricultural areas surrounding human
settlements until the development of large towns and the associated increase in pollution
and sanitary risks resulted in its abandonment.
The problem of irrigation water quality is a current one, both in terms of the de-
graded state of a number of water bodies used for irrigation water supply and also in
terms of the possibility of using more or less purified wastewater for irrigation. This
solution has many potential environmental and agronomic advantages. Environmental
advantages include the fact that the utilization of an alternative nonconventional water
resource results in a saving of valuable primary resources and a reduction of pollution
loads in receiving water bodies. Agronomic advantages include the availability of a new
source of irrigation water and a contribution of nutrients (contained in the wastewa-
ters) to agricultural soils. Nutrient inputs are often in the range of 10–1,000 mg L−1 for
nitrogen, 5–25 mg L−1 for phosphorus, and 10–40 mg L−1 for potassium and organic
compounds. Finally, the practice significantly simplifies the management of wastewater
treatment.
In contrast to these positive aspects, however, wastewaters can carry toxic substances
and pathogenic microorganisms that may be harmful to crops, soil, and people. The
relative importance of the negative factors obviously depends on the provenance of the
sewage and of the treatments received. In any case, sewage characteristics are highly
variable (see Table 5.27 for an example). Thus, on one hand, the reuse of wastewater
for irrigation is certainly an interesting prospect. On the other, however, a preliminary
verification of water quality is still required to predict possible effects that pollutants
may have and to define the methods and the doses for its use. The need for monitoring
is also a need for a follow-up of impacts on plants, products, soil, groundwater, and
irrigation systems. Irrigation with more or less purified wastewater can be applied using
two techniques [7]:
1. Fertilizing irrigation, that is, extensive irrigation with a low load, the primary
aim of which is to provide for agricultural development and to obtain maximum
production, and secondary aim of which is the disposal and degradation of liquid
sewage;
2. Purification irrigation or purification agriculture, that is, intensive irrigation with a
high load, the principal aim of which is the disposal of wastewater, using the au-
topurification capacity of the soil-plant system to obtain the degradation of organic
compounds present in liquid sewage and an absorption of other substances.
One of the biggest limitations to the application of wastewater to agricultural fields
is the severity of current laws in some countries that prevents its use.
The suitability of wastewater for use in irrigation is based on a consideration of the
qualitative aspects previously discussed.
One technical problem for the use of municipal wastewater for irrigation is the dif-
ficulty of organizing and synchronizing the continuous production of wastewater with
periodic irrigation requirements. In some situations (e.g., summer holiday destinations,
in which sewage discharge increases at the same time as major irrigation needs), it may
be necessary to stock high volumes of irrigation water with consequent risks for stream
water quality.
Land Disposal of Municipal Sewage Sludge and Solid Waste Compost

In the history of world agriculture, organic wastes have always been used as fertilizers
of agricultural land because of the role of organic substrates as soil conditioners and
fertilizers.
The use of sludges and composts as fertilizer would be desirable were it not for the
presence of potentially harmful substances with negative effects on crops, human health,
product quality, and the environment. The negative aspects to be considered are the
following:
• Bad odor. Bad odors are produced in nonstabilized and poorly aerated sludges by
the presence of substances, such as, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, trimethylamine,
indole, skatole, mercaptan, and volatile fatty acids.
• Inert material. The agricultural use of compost presupposes a preliminary screening
of urban solid waste to remove inert (nondegradable) materials so that they do
not constitute obstacles to operations, damage to plant operators, or eyesores on
agricultural land.
• Humidity. The water content of sludges and composts, like their aeration, is an
important aspect with respect to their agricultural utilization.
• Pathogenic organisms. Numerous pathogenic agents are present in sludge and com-
post (e.g., bacteria, viruses, yeasts, protozoa, and worms). The anaerobic digestion
of sludge in a liquid phase can never permanently ensure the same level of hy-
gienic safety that is achieved using aerobic stabilization in the solid phase or using
innovative physical treatments.
• Xenobiotic organic substances. This includes many organic compounds unrelated
to the biogeochemical cycles that can be found in municipal and (particularly) in-
dustrial sludges. Such sludges include oils, surfactants, aldehydes, aromatic amines,
halogenated aromatic compounds (polychlorinated biphenyls), and polycyclic aro-
matic hydrocarbons (PAHs). On the basis of the mean concentrations found, it
seems that an input to the soil of 10 t ha−1 is acceptable.
• Heavy metals. The presence of heavy metals in sludge and compost, which accu-
mulate in soils, represents the most serious limiting factor to their utilization in
agriculture. The metals that are considered to pose the greatest environmental risk
are Pb, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, and Zn. Their principal origins are Hg, Cd, and
Zn from batteries; Cr from leather tanneries; Cr, Pb, and Cd from paints; Cd from
plastic and Pb from printed paper. The concentration of heavy metals is extremely
variable and the limits for annual loads currently stipulated by laws vary from nation
to nation.
The conclusions of most current studies is that the use of sewage sludge and solid
urban waste compost appears to have some agronomic validity in terms of their potential
use as fertilizers (assured by the input of plant nutrients and, to a lesser extent, organic
substances) despite numerous doubts about the risk of contamination (viral, bacterial, or
chemical) for stream water quality.
Pollution Problems in Water Bodies from Intensive Animal
Production and Manuring
The first wastewaters used in agriculture were those produced from livestock. This
practice enables the recovery of the water resource and any nutrients contained in the
sewage or wastewater. However, it does pose some environmental risks linked principally
to the current tendency to concentrate livestock rearing and to increasingly rely on feeds
produced externally. This results in a high number of animals per unit area of farm and
a consequent risk of excessive nutrient inputs when the animal wastes are applied to
the soil, chemical and/or biological stream and lake pollution, eutrophication of slow-
turnover water bodies, increase in foul odors, and proliferation of flies and other insects.
Other Relatively Specific Problems of Water Pollution in Agriculture
There are a number of other activities connected with agriculture that can cause bad
pollution problems (e.g., of subsoil water), either accidentally or through poor practices.
These additional activities include
• washing out and/or degradation of containers containing residues of pesticides,
fertilizers, detergents, fuels, and lubricants for machinery;
• losses from stocks or during agricultural operations and/or other accidental losses
of pesticides, fertilizers, detergents, fuels, and lubricants for machinery;
• incorrect disposal of residues from agrochemical companies;
• malfunctioning of septic tanks and subirrigation apparatus.
5.8.3 Methods of Identification, Evaluation, Management, and Control

Type of Intervention
The main intervention methods for avoiding the negative impact of water pollutants
on agriculture or the impact of agricultural practices on water quality are
• monitoring and modeling for impact quantification, vulnerability evaluation, and
watershed planning;
• treatment of wastewaters, sludge, and animal wastes in plants, lagoons, wetlands;
• implementation of management practices of pollution control.
Measures of agricultural pollution control are as diverse as the sources of pollution
themselves and no single technology can be employed to control diffuse sources. The
traditional means of pollution control (collection and treatment), which works well for
most point sources, is prohibitively expensive for nonpoint pollution control. It can be
used only in rare cases when all other methods of control at the source have failed.
Monitoring and Modelling for Impact Quantification and Vulnerability Evaluation
Mathematical models are used widely as predictive tools for assessing pollutant trans-
port and transformation processes in the environment. In particular, the fate of agro-
chemicals in soil–water systems can be predicted using a number of models that vary
in complexity, information requirements, data standards, data format, computer plat-
form, and ultimate objectives (scientific research, governmental regulation, agricultural
production, education, or planning).
One possible categorization of agricultural diffuse pollution models (ADPMs) [18]
distinguishes between deterministic models, which assume that a system or process
operates such that the occurrence of a given set of events leads to a uniquely definable
outcome, and stochastic models, which assume that the outcome of any modeling exercise
is uncertain and which therefore are constructed accordingly to account for this uncer-
tainty. A second main distinction is between mechanistic and functional models. The
term mechanistic is used for models that incorporate the most fundamental mechanisms
of a process, as it is presently understood. Functional models, in contrast, incorporate

simplified treatments of processes, such as water flow and solute transport and therefore
usually require less input data and computing expertise for their use. In addition, it is
necessary to distinguish between models that are primarily research tools, developed to
aid the testing of hypotheses and the exposure of areas of incomplete understanding and
models that are designed to be used as guides to management, as regulatory tools, or as
teaching aids.
ADPMs generally have been developed to address agrochemical transport and trans-
formation at specific spatial and temporal scales, according to the expected use. Such
models have proved useful in designing water- and soil-quality management strategies
and/or Best Management Practices (BMPs), which maintain agricultural productivity
while minimizing adverse water- and soil-quality impacts [19]. In fact, the use of effi-
cient and correctly calibrated models can highlight any significant effects that changes
in management practices may have. It is necessary, however, to define sound protocols
for model application. In any case, affordable simulation models are essential for obtain-
ing information to assess the environmental impacts of agricultural activities, because
they enable investigators to examine and compare scenarios with a wide range of agro-
chemical applications, soils, crops, management systems, hydrogeological settings, and
meteorological conditions. Furthermore, models may be useful in extrapolating the re-
sults of experimental studies to larger scales or in analyzing the significance of changes
in cultivation techniques on observed processes. Without the use of models, these steps
would be more difficult, especially in the presence of stronger sources of variation, such
as the rainfall pattern during the trial period. The principal modeling and monitoring
approaches that can be adopted at various scales are shown in Table 5.30 [15, 18].
The transfer processes of compounds in flowing water and their transport to the basin
outlet is, of course, rather complex. The first modeling tools developed for estimating the
dynamics of diffuse pollution transport of agricultural origin were either point models
(individual processes modeled at a single point) or aggregated-parameter models (lumped
models) and generally only allowed the evaluation of mean event concentrations and
total loads. These kinds of models can be used as land planning (screening) indices,
in defining land vulnerability, and in planning water quality. They allow a quantitative
evaluation of the effects of different control measures. They also can be used to examine
the behavior of different chemical products (newly synthesized compounds or those that
have never been used in certain environments). Data from experimental studies are more
useful, according to one point of view, if they are used to calibrate models. Indeed,
the loss of agricultural pollutants is influenced by various factors (e.g., the nature of the
substance, the quantity and mode of application, the cultivation practices employed,
the soil characteristics, and the meteorological and climatic conditions). Therefore, only
a monitoring of final processes for use in model calibration permits an extension of
the results obtained to other environmental systems. Because the monitoring of these
phenomena is demanding from both technological and economic points of view, it is
important to conduct “heavy” experimental studies to obtain really dependable data
(even if it is site and contaminant specific). The collection of few data in many places
should be limited to the initial (screening) phase of the study. Naturally, such models
Table 5.30. Categorization of monitoring and modeling approaches that can be adopted in agricultural diffuse-pollution studies
System Spatial Scale Example of Processes Monitoring Approaches Modeling Approaches

Province, region, county (i + 4) contamination of GIS, remote sensing Mass balance functional
groundwater models of fluxes combined
with GIS (i + 1 to i + 4)
Soil regions (interacting (i + 3) Ecosystem response to Automatic monitoring Statistical models, compartment
watershed) chemical inputs network, remote sensing flux and pool models
Watershed with (i + 2) Delivery to surface water, Network of water-quality Distributed (functional) or
water bodies groundwater recharge, monitoring stations, soil sampling, statistical hydrosedimentologic
(rivers, lakes) 1 ha–1,000 km2 solid transport (erosion) meteorological gauges, remote models; lumped parameter;
Water Quality in Agriculture
control, remote sensing functional, management models

Field, farm (i + 1) Soil-runoff extraction Automatic monitoring 2- or 3- dimensional; lateral
>1,000 m2 processes (enrichment and systems, soil sampling flow; ad-hoc stochastic
delivery), water transport use of deterministic
in the soil, ammonification, models; functional,
erosion, lateral flow, management models
atmospheric dispersal, etc.
Elementary (i ) (i - 1), (i - 2), (i + 1) processes Experimental plots, Comprehensive deterministic
cell, “pedon” 10 m2 –1 ha combined with spatial tilted beds, lysimeters models; (i - 1) models applied
variability; fluxes to with knowledge of variability
hydrologic network, of water flow, sorption,
groundwater, and air degradation, volatilization
Profile, horizon (i - 1) Nonequilibrium physical Undisturbed lysimeters or 1- or 2-dimensional deterministic,
0.1 m2 –10 m2 and chemical transport; monoliths mechanistic leaching with
volatilization, degradation consideration of mediating
processes, soil horizonation
Soil peds, (i - 2) Chemical–soil interactions Laboratory lysimeters or Miscible displacement
aggregates <0.1 m2 during leaching; soil columns theory; macropore, preferential
intraaggregate diffusion flow modeling
Soil–water–chemical (i - 3) Sorption relationships; Laboratory (batch studies) Langmuir, Freundlich
mixtures degradation kinetics isotherms, Michaelis-Menten,
first-order degradation
Molecules (i - 4) Phase partitioning; Laboratory Chemical reactions in solution;
(pore/particle) polarity; hydrophobicity molecular structure, solubility
535
Source: [20].
have to be dynamic and take account of hydrological and sedimentological behavior and
of biochemical transformations.
The concentrations of a contaminant transported by runoff water in liquid and solid
phases depend on its concentration in the soil, which is related to the length of time from
its date of application, its persistence, and its adsorption, as well as to the preceding
precipitation events (dry period, moisture content, etc.).
Indices for screening or for evaluating vulnerability to agricultural pollution include
attenuation factor (AF), retardation factor (RF), residual mass (RM), LEACH, LI, and
groundwater ubiquity score (GUS). In existing models, the above-mentioned dynam-
ics are schematized at various levels of detail. Available models include the following:
PRT (1973), ACTMO (1975), Bruce (1975), ARM (1978), CNS/CPM (1979–1980),
NONPT (1979), ANSWERS (1980), Haith (1980), PRS (1980), SWAM (1982), HSPF
(1983), EPIC (1984), PRZM (1984) and RUSTIC (1989), GLEAMS (1986–1989),
WRRB (1985) and SWRRBWQ (1991), LEACHMP (1986), SHE (1986), MRF (1987),
AGNPS (1987), and others more recent such as PHYSIS (1993), RZWQM (USDA-
ARS), OPUS (USDA-ARS).
Common limiting factors for the applicability of these tools include their mathematical
complexity, difficulties of data retrieval, and the calibration of some parameters. The
development of distributed models is, therefore, useful even if the mass of information
necessary for a correct interpretation of the phenomena is large because they allow the
effects and the space-time variation of a range of variables to be accounted for. Models
that require the optimization of only a few physically based parameters (functional
models [18]) are also useful in this respect. Obviously, the methods for monitoring
and quantifying pollution processes from nonpoint pollution sources are not the same
as those usually adopted for studying concentrated sources. It is the sampling method
rather than the analytical techniques employed that most distinguishes the investigation
of concentrated sources from that of nonpoint pollution sources.
With diffuse pollution, there is no precise point at which water can be sampled. Soil or
groundwater must be sampled at different depths and locations in the drainage network.
The selection of sampling points must take into consideration the fact that the sampled
water will probably be a mixture of water from a number of sources. For example, surface
waters may interact with groundwater or with point sources of municipal, industrial,
or agricultural sewage, even if the area under examination is of limited extent and is
hydraulically confined. To compensate for this problem, many researchers have chosen
to limit and control the study area. This usually means employing lysimeters and/or
small plots. Limiting the size of the experimental area, in this way, resolves the problem
of external interference. However, it also can produce artificial distortions in transport
processes as a consequence of the experimental design. To resolve this problem, one must
clearly try to understand all of the potential experimental difficulties and, if possible,
avoid making use of only one scale of investigation (e.g., laboratory, plot, or watershed).
Instead, a number of complementary scales should be used to accurately interpret the
processes from the data collected. On the basis of experimental data and a theoretical
knowledge of pollution phenomena, it is clear that the most effective monitoring method
for both watersheds and plots is to sample more frequently during storm events when
transport rates are higher. The ideal compromise could be to choose a system of research
that allows information to be obtained at scales ranging from (i − 1) to (i + 2) in Table
5.30 and that allows for both a detailed analysis of processes at lower scales in the
laboratory [from (i − 2) to (i − 4)] and extrapolations to the higher scales [e.g., (i + 3)
to (i + 4)] using distributed modeling.
Treatment Systems
Potential pollutants from the waste products of the livestock sector and the agro-
food industry are generally greater than those from municipal wastes (for which tried
and tested treatment processes are more frequently employed). The ratios between the
concentrations of pollutants in the two types of wastewater (livestock-agrofood and
municipal) can vary between 2 and 35 for BOD5 , between 2 and 50 for nitrogen, and
between 0.8 and 75 for phosphorus, with the highest values from the waste products
of pig production. Local treatment of this type of waste is often complex in terms of
digestion plant and it is, therefore, preferable to devise one or more systematic, simpli-
fied, and centralized solutions that allow the recuperation of nutrient elements and their
agronomic use via spreading. These solutions should be designed to take account of both
the pedological and crop characteristics of the area under examination. To calculate the
area of land suitable for the spreading of waste on a livestock farm, one can base the
distribution on phosphorus and then add extra mineral nitrogen or, alternatively, the area
can be based on the available nitrogen, which inevitably involves accepting an excess of
phosphate and potassium. The latter strategy usually results in a lower spreading area.
The purification of wastes can be carried out using biological or chemical processes or
using a combination of both, according to the relative presence of organic (biodegradable)
and/or chemical pollutants.
Usually, if it is possible to select the type of process, biological methods are preferred
because of the lower production of sludge and the saving of reactive chemicals.
Biological sewage purification plants are systems for artificially accelerating the natu-
ral biological degradation of organic material, in a controlled environment, by establish-
ing and maintaining an adequate mass of bacteria in the system. The biological processes,
both aerobic and anaerobic, are based on the degradation of organic substances contained
in the sewage via biochemical reactions mediated by the bacterial population and by the
gradual formation of more stable products producing new cells. The process can be per-
formed in treatment plants (Fig. 5.81), lagoons, wetlands, or other artificial or natural
containers.
For example, the structures and plants necessary for the digestion of animal waste
products are
• solid-liquid separation, comprising balancing vessel, separator, plate for the accu-
mulation and maturation of the separated solid, pipes for the pumping of liquids;
• stabilization, comprising tanks and lagoons able to contain waste with a high water
content (i.e., slurry), for at least 120–180 days, with pumps for aeration or ho-
mogenization (tanks may be covered for the recovery of the biogas produced and
platforms are used for wastes with a low water content, i.e., farmyard manure);
• field spreading, comprising fixed or mobile plant or machinery;
538
Figure 5.81. Location of physical unit operations in a wastewater treatment plant flow diagram. Source: [9].
Irrigation and Drainage
• purification, In aerobic plants, the “active” biomass operates independently in the

presence of oxygen, which is input via oxygenation or aeration equipment. In
anaerobic plants, the microorganisms operate in the absence of oxygen and use
different elements to oxygen as terminal electron acceptors in the respiratory chain.
Wastewater Processing. Purification plants consist of a series of treatments defined as
primary, secondary, and tertiary, combined in different ways according to the slurry under
treatment and according to the level of treatment required (Fig. 5.81).
Primary treatments consist of a grill (coarse or fine); a separator (cloth filtration
on a rotating drum); sand-removal, horizontal-flow rectangular or circular flow tanks;
sedimentation (with longitudinal or radial flow); and de-oiling (vessel with deflector).
Classical secondary treatments (Fig. 5.81) consist of an activated-sludge reactor (ox-
idation vessel), where agglomerated flocs of mixed bacteria form in the sewage and are
aerated in such a way as to accelerate the processes of degradation. The mixture leaving
the oxidation vessel reaches a sedimentor, where a solid–liquid separation takes place.
The treated effluent is harvested in the upper part and the sedimented active sludges in the
lower part are recirculated in the head of the oxidation vessel to maintain the optimal con-
centration of biomass (suspended solids or volatile suspended solids). In addition to sup-
plying the oxygen necessary for bacterial metabolism, aeration systems (superficial with
a vertical axis or turbine, with air or pure oxygen input), must adequately guarantee mix-
ing and encourage contact between the bacteria and organic matter. Because BOD loads
are very much higher in the case of pig slurry, a double phase of oxidation is considered.
In the case of lagoon treatment (biological ponds), the degradation of organic sub-
stances can occur aerobically, anaerobically, or facultativly (i.e., the operation of areobic
and anaerobic pathways simultaneously), depending on the depth of the liquid mass.
Aerobic lagoons have a medium depth (0.6–0.8 m) to allow an aerobic environment
to be maintained (also assisted by the photosynthesis effect). Lagoons can be aerated
artificially by floating turbines.
Attached-growth mass plants also exist. These are distinct from those previously de-
scribed in that they have a suspended-growth biomass, with, for example, trickling filters
or rotating contactors. Before clarification, but after sedimentation, slurry is percolated
through supports of small stones or plastic material on which microbial biofilms (films of
microorganisms) form. The biofilms feed on the organic substances present in the slurry
and are oxygenated by the natural circulation of air through the interstitial spaces.Tertiary
treatments are defined by the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus from the wastewater.
With respect to nitrogen, the activated-sludge process allows a fairly high level of
nitrification to occur, depending on the load of the sludge applied in the oxidative phase
(daily quantity of BOD per unit of active biomass present) and, therefore, it is not ideal
when a combined removal of organic matter and nitrogen is required.
The biological removal of nitrogen takes place in two distinct processes: Nitrification
(oxidation of ammonium to nitrate by autotrophic bacteria using an inorganic carbon
substrate) and denitrification (reduction of nitrate to molecular nitrogen, which is released
to the atmosphere by facultative heterotrophic bacteria, under anoxic conditions, using
organic carbon substrates).
These processes can occur within a single heterogeneous population of bacteria (inte-
grated systems with a single reaction volume subdivided into anoxic and aerobic zones
or with denitrification reactors following those for nitrification). Alternatively, more spe-
cific bacterial flora can be developed (separate systems with a nitrification reactor and a
denitrification reactor with the addition of a methane-type substrate). The reduction of
phosphorus can be achieved using biological methods or with chemical additives (iron
chloride, aluminium, iron sulfate, or lime) to obtain the precipitation of phosphate ions
(before, after, or simultaneously with biological treatment). The biological process is
based on the behavior of the bacterial flora which, when kept for a few hours under
anaerobic conditions and then subjected to strong oxidative conditions, are able to as-
similate phosphorus in much greater quantities than would be expected theoretically
(BOD5 /N/P = 100/5/1).
Finally, disinfection is a refinement operation (chemical, physical, or mechanical)
in which the majority of pathogenic organisms (bacteria and viruses) in effluents are
eliminated.
Sludge Processing. The sludge produced from biological treatment plants requires ad-
ditional treatments:
• Stabilization and successive thickening. Sludge from biological (anaerobic or aero-
bic) or chemical (elevation of pH with calcium carbonate or oxidation with chlorine)
treatment processes have to be stabilized to avoid putrefaction.
• Mechanical dewatering. This can be obtained by natural (on desiccation beds)
or mechanical methods (vacuum filter, solid bowl centrifuge, imperforate basket
centrifuge, belt-filter press, or recessed-plate filter press).
• Anaerobic or aerobic digestion. Transformation of Organic substances or trans-
formed and sludge residue is stabilized.
• Thermic treatment. Thermal reduction of sludge involves the total or partial conver-
sion of organic solids to oxidized end products by incineration or wet-air oxidation,
or the partial oxidation and volatilization of organic solids by pyrolysis or starved-
air.
Sewage Treatment for Agronomic Use. The aim of sewage treatment for uses in agri-
culture is to stabilize the sewage (i.e., abatement of the BOD5 > 60%). This can be
achieved rapidly using aerobic methods (air input into the mass) or, more slowly, us-
ing anaerobic methods (i.e., excluding the sewage from contact with air). Processes of
oligolysis, dehydration and combustion, and composting also can be applied to animal
slurries:
• Aerobic treatments. Atmospheric oxygen is input to the sewage using surface oxy-
genators (for large basins) or bottom oxygenators (with a submerged pump) in
sufficient quantities to favor the development of aerobic microorganisms (low input
for deodorization, medium input for stabilization, and intense input for purifica-
tion). The efficiency is inversely proportional to the dimensions of the air bubbles
and the expenditure of energy, which varies from 55 to 270 W·h/capita (15 to 75
mJ /capita).
• Large anaerobic logoons. This allows an anaerobic treatment at ambient tempera-

ture with one prolonged stocking and the production of biogas.
• Controlled anaerobic digestion. This is made in air-tight reservoirs in which the
sewage reaches temperatures of 30◦ C–35◦ C (mesophilic conditions) and is degraded
to inorganic compounds and biogas.
• Oligolysis. Sewage is deodorized via electrolysis. A good control of smell can be
obtained with a very low expenditure of energy (2.4–18 W h day−1 ).
• Processes of desiccation and dehydration. This type of treatment is used in poultry
production to obtain a reduction of smell and a contraction of the bulk of waste
material for distribution in fields.
• Composting. Aerobic fermentation of palatable materials is performed in towers
or on plates. Organic substances are humified by biological activity, which also
simultaneously reduces the load of pathogenic bacteria present in the detritus (the
mass reaches temperatures of 70◦ C–75◦ C).
• Combustion. A chemical process of pyrolysis takes place in an anoxic environment
at temperatures of 800◦ C–1000◦ C. A fraction of the organic substances is distilled,
forming a combustible gas and an aqueous vapor.
Land-Use Management Practices for Pollution Control
The major pollutants associated with agriculture include sediments, nutrients (espe-
cially nitrogen and phosphorus), pesticides and other toxins, bacteria or pathogens, and
salts (salinity). Different types of agricultural land use are more likely to contribute certain
types of pollutants than others (crop production, pasture and rangeland, woodlands- silvi-
culture, and intensive animal production). Runoff and subsurface water from agricultural
and silvicultural operations are sources of several pollution types identified in Table 5.31.
BMPs, or Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) refer to any methods, measures, prac-
tices, or combinations of practices that prevent or reduce nonpoint-source pollution to a
level compatible with water quality goals. BMPs include, but are not limited to, struc-
tural and nonstructural controls, operations, and maintenance procedures. BMPs can be
applied before, during, and after pollution-producing activities to reduce or eliminate
the introduction of pollutants from diffuse sources into receiving waters.
BMPs can be classed as structural, vegetative, or management practices. When making
a selection for the solution of a water quality problem (basically to “control a known
or suspected type of pollution from a particular source or to prevent pollution from a
category of land-use activity”), the following steps can be followed [19]:
1. Identify the water quality problem.
2. Identify the pollutants contributing to the problem and their probable sources.
3. Determine how each pollutant is delivered to the water system.
4. Set a reasonable water quality goal for the resource and determine the level of
treatment needed to achieve this goal.
5. Evaluate feasible BMPs for water quality effectiveness, effects on groundwater,
economic feasibility, and suitability of the practice for the site under consideration.
The application and selection of the BMPs should be based on
1. type of land-use activity (see Table 5.31),
542
Table 5.31. Agricultural and silvicultural operations as sources of pollution
Pollutantsa
Pesticides, Organic
Source Sediment Nutrients Herbicides Metals Salts Bacteria Pathogens Viruses Microoganisms Materials
Dry cropland X A/D X S
Irrigated croplandb S A/D A/D T X S S S S
Pastureland X X S X
Rangeland S X O O X S
Forestland X A X
Confined animal feeding X A/D X X X X X X
Aquaculturec D X X
Orchards or nurseriesc D X T X X X
Wildlife reservesd X X
a X = most frequent occurrence or presence, S = sometimes; O = occasionally; A = adsorbed; D = dissolved; T = trace.
b In irrigation return flow (surface runoff and water percolation below the root zone).
c Special area.
d If wildlife populations become unbalanced.
Irrigation and Drainage
2. physical conditions in the watershed,

3. pollutants to be controlled,
4. site-specific conditions.
When selecting BMPs for problem prevention, a more technology-based approach
can be followed, by dividing agricultural land into land-use categories (e.g., irrigated
cropland and rangeland) and specifying a minimum level of treatment necessary to
protect the resource base.
Water Quality Policies and Institutional Issues
Contaminants in reclaimed wastewater that are relevant to health can be classified as
either biological or chemical agents. Where reclaimed wastewater is used for irrigation,
biological agents including bacterial pathogens, helminths, protozoa, and viruses pose
the greatest health risks.
To protect public health, considerable efforts have been made to establish conditions
and regulations that permit the safe use of reclaimed wastewater in irrigation.
Health-protection quality criteria for reclaimed water in developing countries often
are established in relation to the limited resources available for public works, and other
health delivery systems may yield greater health benefits for the funds spent: Confined
wastewater collection systems and wastewater treatment are often nonexistent, and re-
claimed wastewater often provides an essential source of irrigation water and fertilizer.
For most developing countries, the greatest concern over the use of wastewater for irri-
gation is that, if it is untreated or inadequately treated, it often contains numerous enteric
helminths (e.g., hookworm, ascaris, trichuris, and, in some circumstances, the beef tape-
worm). These infectious agents, along with microbiological pathogens, are dangerous
to crop consumers and also can harm farmworkers and their families.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended that crops that are eaten
raw should be irrigated with wastewater only after it has undergone biological treatment
and disinfection so as to achieve a coliform level of not more than 100/100 mL for 80% of
the samples. The criteria recommended by WHO for irrigation with reclaimed wastew-
ater have been accepted as reasonable goals for the design of such facilities in many
Mediterranean countries. In some Middle Eastern countries that have recently developed
facilities for wastewater reuse, the tendency has been to adopt more stringent wastewater
reuse criteria, along the lines of, for example, the Californian regulations. Adoption of
more stringent regulations is made to protect an already high standard of public health
by preventing the introduction of pathogens into human food, at any expense.
References
1. Giardini, L., M. Borin, and U. Grigolo. 1993. La qualità delle acque per l’irrigazione.
L’Informatore Agrario, Verona, Italy.
2. Hoffman, G. J., J. D. Rhoades, J. Letey, and F. Sheng. 1990. Salinity management.
Management of Farm Irrigation Systems, eds. Hoffman, G., et al., pp. 667–715. St.
Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
3. Kanwar, R. S. (s.a.). Agrochemicals and water management, s.l., pp. 367–387.
4. Hespanhol, I. 1996. Health impacts of agricultural development. Sustainability of

Irrigated Agriculture, eds. Pereira, L. S., et al., pp. 61–83. Dordrecht, The Nether-
lands: Kluwer Academic.
5. Kyritsis, S. 1996. Waste-water reuse. Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture, eds.
Pereira, L. S., et al., pp. 417–428. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
6. Ayers, R. S., and D. W. Westcost. 1985. Water quality for agriculture. FAO Irrigation
and Drainage Paper 29 Rev. 1, Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.
7. Pescod, M. 1992. Wastewater treatment and use in agriculture. FAO Irrigation and
Drainage Paper 47. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.
8. Rhoades, J. D., A. Kandiah, and A. M. Mashali. 1992. The use of saline waters for
crop production. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 48. Rome: Food and Agriculture
Organization.
9. Metcalf, E. 1991. Wastewater Engineering, Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
10. Hagan, R. M., H. R. Haise, and T. W. Edminster. 1967. Irrigation of Agricultural
Lands. Agronomy N◦ 11, American Society of Agronomy, Publisher Madison,
Wisconsin.
11. Klute A. 1986. Methods of Soil Analysis. Agronomy N◦ 9. Part 1, American Society
of Agronomy, Madison, WI: Soil Sci. Soc. Am.
12. Cavazza, L. (ed.). 1991. Agricoltura e Ambiente, Edagricole, Bologna: Accademia
Nazionale di Agricoltura.
13. Moretti, L., G. Chiarelli, and A. Zavatti, (eds.). 1988. Agricoltura Ambiente 1,
Bologna: Pitagora Editrice.
14. Cheng, H. H., G. W. Bailey, R. E. Green, and W. F. Spencer. 1990. Pesticides in the
Soil Enviroment: Processes, Impacts, and Modeling, Madison, WI: Soil Sci. Soc.
Am.
15. Preti, F. 1996. Main topics and recent experiences for environmental monitoring and
modelling diffuse pollution. Water Sci. Technol. 33:4–5.
16. Novotny, V., and G. Chesters. 1981. Handbook of Nonpoint Pollution: Sources and
Management. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
17. Indelicato, S. 1996. Tutela dei corpi idrici: La riutilizzazione delle acque reflue in
agricoltura, Convegno La Gestione dell’Acqua nell’Agricoltura Toscana, Alberese,
Italy.
18. Wagenet, R. J. 1993. A review of pesticide leaching models and their application to
field and laboratory data. Proceedings of the IX Symposium on Pesticide Chemistry:
Mobility and Degradation of Xenobiotics, Edizioni G. Biagini Luca, Piacenza Italy,
pp. 33–62.
19. Novotny, V., and H. Olem. 1993. Water Quality. Prevention, Identification and Man-
agement of Diffuse Pollution. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
20. Preti, F., and G. Chester. 1996. Investigation on environmental rate of xenobiotic.
Review Procedings X Symposium Pesticide Chemistry. The environmental rate of
xenobiotics. La Goliardica Pavese s.r.l., Pavia, Italy, pp. 551–557.
Index
AADT, 83 applied depth (D)/irrigation depth/application

acceptability, 24 depth, 299, 302, 312, 320, 330, 331,
access, 44, 45, 46, 47 334, 335, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343,
access to inputs and services, 7 345, 366
accessibility, 46 aquifers, 476, 479
acidification, 14 geohydrological study, 439
actual vapor pressure, 226, 229, 232 phreatic aquifer (see unconfined aquifer)
adapt, 403 pumping tests, 435, 439
adhesive forces, 142 semiconfined aquifer, 431, 439, 447
adjustable flow, 496 thickness of aquifer, 435, 437, 445, 451–2,
adjusted sodium adsorptio ratio, adj RNa , 123 457
adjusted sodium adsorption ratio, adjSAR, 512 unconfined aquifer, 431, 439, 451
advance, 302, 303, 305, 307, 310, 311, 312, arid area, 412–15, 416
313F, 317, 318, 320 arid climate, 398
aeration, 397 arid soil, 397
aereation, 136, 139, 144, 145, 146 aridity, 416
aerobic, 146 arrowing, 148
aerodynamic resistance, 216, 217, 219, 220, automated weather station, 292
222, 223, 236, 248, 249 automation/automatic control, 315–17, 321,
aggregates, 140, 145, 146 322, 339, 345, 351, 359, 360, 361,
agricultural Activities, effects on water 362
quality, 518 auxilliary structures, 468–9, 473–4
agricultural development, 1 drops, 473–4
agricultural production, 1, 9, 10 junction boxes, 446, 460
agricultural types, 2
agrobiological measures, 194–206 β particles, 383
agroforestry, 206 bar chart, 26, 27
agronomic measures, 201 bare soil, 406
agrotechnical practice, 204 basal crop coefficient, 237, 238, 250–4
air humidity, 217, 224, 225, 226, 227, 231, base course, 89, 94
232, 235, 236, 248, 249, 252 basin irrigation, 297, 301–3, 309, 318, 320
air temperature, 215, 217, 223, 224, 225, basins, 301, 302, 303, 305, 311, 312, 314F,
226, 227, 228, 229, 231, 232, 233, 315, 316, 346
235, 239 bearing capacity, 89, 91, 96, 106
albedo, 218, 222, 227, 228, 236, 237, 248 bedding, 121
alternative (plan), 24, 32 benkelman beam, 96, 106
aluminium oxides, 140 best management practices, BMPs, 534
alumosilicates, 140 binding agents, 140
amendment requirement, AR, 125 biodegradable, 147
amenity, 24 bioengineering measures, 194
amorphous iron, 140 biological activity, 143
anaerobic, soil, 140, 146 biological conditions, 4, 7, 50
animal trampling, 141 biomass water ratio, 389
annual maintenance program, 103 biomass WUE, 389, 390
application efficiency (ea ), 298, 299, 311, 312, biopores, 146
314, 315, 318, 319, 320, 341, 342, 343, biotechnical measures, 91
344, 368, 370 block, 486
application rate, 321, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, border irrigation, 297, 301, 306, 307, 309
332, 333, 334, 335, 337, 338, 339, 340, borders, 306, 307, 310, 311, 312, 315, 316,
342, 344, 346, 362, 367 317
545
546 Index
Boussinesq’s equation, 403 compaction, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 143,
bulk density, 136, 137, 138, 147, 263, 265–6, 144, 148
274, 279, 281 competition, 195
bulk weight volume, 136 interspecific, 195
burrows, 146 intraspecific, 195
bush fallowing, 2 computer model, 400, 403
BWR, 389, 391 conservation of mass, 273
conservation of natural resources, 1, 16, 54
C factor, 204 conservation tillage, 200, 407
C3 species, 390 continuity and momentum equations, 308,
C4 species, 390 309
cablegation, 315, 317 continuous flow, 494
calcium, 419 continuous maintenance, 103, 104
canal rotation, 495 continuous-move systems/moving lateral
canopy evapotranspiration, 389 systems, 321, 324, 326, 327, 335
canopy temperature, 384 contour farming, 185
capillary equation, 269 contouring, 184, 185–7
capillary forces, 145 conveyance, 485
capillary hydraulic storage function, 276, 280 conveyance system, 490
capillary pressure, 269, 270, 281 distribution systems, 495
carriageway, 92 cost-benefit analysis (CBA), 41
cotton-modeling, 404
casts, 146
countryside, 12, 15
categories of LTRs, 66
countryside values, 13, 14
cation exchange capacity, CEC, 125, 513
cover crops, 202
CBR, 88, 90
crop
cementing bonds, 141, 143
tolerance to salts, 291
center pivot, 298, 320, 321, 323, 328, 335, water balance, 292
338, 339, 340, 344, 345 water stress index (CWSI), 287
center-pivot systems, 418 crop canopy, 404
CERES, 402 crop coefficients, 214, 219, 220, 221, 222,
CERES-maize, 402 236–41, 242T, 243T, 244T, 245T, 245,
CERES-wheat, 402 248–50, 251, 252, 254
changes in income, 9 crop deep-rooting, 138
channel ditch/canal, 302, 303, 305, 306, 312, crop evapotranspiration, 214, 218, 219,
315, 318, 319 236–54, 255
chemical bonds, 142, 147 crop geometry, 397
chemical leaching, 404 crop growth simulation model, 401
chemical management, 404 crop management, 214, 219, 249, 396,
chemical-wheat, 401 410–11
chemicals, 419 crop management expert, 403
chiseling, 148 crop model, 402, 404
climatic variables, 215, 219, 220, 230, 231, crop nutrition, 397
232, 235, 236, 240, 248, 251, 254 crop production, 393, 411, 415
clogging, 141 crop residue, 397, 406, 407
clogging/plugging, 346, 347, 352, 353, 355, crop rotations, 201–2, 397, 411, 413
357–8, 359, 361, 365, 367 crop simulation model, 400, 401, 402, 403
coefficient of uniformity (CU), 300, 329, 342, crop stress, 414
343 crop water model, 400–405
collector drains, 444–6, 462, 466, 468–9, 473 crop water-production function, 397
COMAX, 404 crop-fertility management, 397
commercial organizations, 25 crop-water production, 393
Index 547
cropping systems simulation model, 404 distribution uniformity (DU), 298, 300, 311,
cropSyst, 404 312, 314, 315, 317, 318, 319, 322, 326,
crust control, 148 328, 335, 338, 341, 342, 343, 346, 352,
crusting, 135, 141–3, 144, 147, 148 365, 366, 367, 369
crusting process, 135, 142 division structures, 503
cultivar selection, 396, 404 downstream control systems, 501
cultivated crops, 207 drain envelopes, 445, 461
cutback, 305, 316, 317 fibrous polypropylene, 461
cutoff, 302, 303, 306, 307, 309, 310, 311, 313, granular mineral material, 461
320 granular polystirene, 461
gravel, 461
dairying, 3 mineral fibers, 461
Darcy’s law, 273–4, 276 synthetic materials, 461
limitations of, 274 drainable pore space, 432, 437, 448–9, 476
decision support system for agrotechnology guyon method, 436
transfer, 404 drainage, 91–3, 301, 302, 303, 307, 318, 319,
deficit irrigation, 418 390, 402, 403, 414, 415
controlled-(CDI), 289 drainage coefficient, 116
management, 289 drainage criteria, 449
deforestation, 14 design recharge, 442, 447
degradation, 137 drainage coefficient (see specific discharge)
degree of automation, 500 dynamic equilibrium concept, 449
delivery, 302, 319, 320, 321, 345, 361 specific discharge, 437, 449, 451, 459, 472
delivery on-demand, 494 steady-state conditions, 437
demand for agricultural products, 8, 9 unsteady-state conditions, 447, 450, 456,
dendrometers, 384 459
density, 141, 146 water depth, 468–9, 471–2, 474
depletion fraction for no stress, 242T, 243T, drainage equations
244T, 245T, 253, 254 Boussinesq equation, 459
desertification, 14, 413 Ernst equation, 453
design, 304, 306, 310, 311, 312, 325, 340, Glover-Dumm equation, 452
341, 342–3, 344, 352, 353, 356, 359, Hooghoudt equation, 451–4
361, 363, 366, 367, 369 Kirkham formula, 434
design load, 88 Krayenhoff van der Leur equation, 452
design rainfall, 443, 468 Toksöz-Kirkham method, 453
depth-duration-frequency relations, 443 drainage machines, 450, 459, 461
gumbel distribution, 443 draglines, 473
return period, 443, 467 excavators, 468, 473
developing countries laser technology, 461
mobility problems, 71–2 trench machines, 461–2
opening up, 75 trenchless machines, 462
road classification, 68 drainage network, 485
dielectric permittivity, 266–7, 281 drainage outlets, 444, 468–9, 479
dimensions, 44, 46, 48 culverts, 473
direct drilling, 138 flap gates, 474
discharge control, 498 outlet structures, 445, 474–75
disease, 390, 396, 401, 411, 413 pumping stations, 468, 474, 475
disking, 148 sluices, 474
disposal of drainage water, 476–9 storage reservoirs, 477
evaporation ponds, 477–8 sumps, 444
injection into aquifers, 479 tidal gates, 430, 468–9
disruption, 146 weirs, 473–4
548 Index
drainage pipes, 460 end unit, 486

clay tiles, 460 energy, 308, 322, 332, 337, 345, 352, 361, 362
concrete pipes, 459 energy balance, 214, 215, 216, 220, 221, 401
corrugated plastic pipes, 460 environment cleansing, 148
corrugated polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 459 environmental assessment, 479
diameter of the pipe, 445, 457, 459 environmental impact assessment, 32
pipe fittings, 460 EPICPHASE model, 290
polyethylene (PE), 459 equity, 24
polypropylene (PP), 459 erosion, 304, 306, 311, 318, 322, 325, 338, 344
drainage system, 485 erosion control strategies, 176
drainage water, 430, 468, 476–7, 479 ET, 389, 393, 394, 395, 397, 398, 399, 403,
peak flow, 444, 459, 479 414, 415
reuse, 477 ET0 , 412
water pollution, 476 ETc , 393
water quality, 430, 476 eutrophication, 14
water salinization, 476 evaluation irrigation system, 292, 293
DRAINMOD, 403 evaporation, 148, 213, 214, 220, 221, 235,
drip, 400 237, 238, 241, 247
drip/drippers, 298, 346, 347, 348F, 349, 351, evaporation from the soil/soil evaporation,
353, 356, 357, 359, 363, 364, 367 241, 245F, 246, 247, 248, 250, 251,
drought, 404, 413, 416–19 252
drought avoidance, 391, 392 evapotranspiration, 213, 214, 220, 221, 224,
drought resistance, 391, 392 225, 234, 254, 255, 390, 398, 402, 410
drought tolerance, 391, 392 actual, 284, 286, 288, 291
dryland conditions, 393, 408 reference (ET0 ), 287, 292
dryland farming, 405, 409, 411, 412 excess water, 386
dryland region, 404 exchangeable sodium percentage, ESP, 123,
DS, 82 125, 126, 512
DSS, 404 expert system, 404
DSSAT, 404 exudates, 146
durable safe (DS), 82
durable socioeconomic existence, 16, 53 farm size, 48, 50
farmers participation, 492
E, 393 farmyard manure, FYM, 198
earthworms, 146 fertigation, 318, 339, 344, 346, 349, 352, 368
EC, 398 fertilizer, 396, 399, 403, 415, 419
ECt , 398 fertilizer use, 10–12, 17
ecology, 14 fertirrigation, 285
ecological systems, 47 field evaluation, 310, 311, 312, 315, 317, 343,
economic analysis, 32 344, 368–9
economic decision-making model, 102 field irrigation methods, 485, 492
efficiency, 23 field level, 485
conveyance efficiency, 487 field system, 490
field application efficiency, 487 field units, 486
on- and off-farm distribution efficiency, 487 filters/filtration, 317, 346, 351, 352, 353, 357,
electrical conductivity, 122, 123, 125, 126, 398 358, 359, 360, 362, 368
soil, ECe , 122, 123, 125, 126 financial analysis, 32
water, ECw , 122, 123 fixed division structures, 501
embankments, 445, 468–9, 478 fixed division systems, 501
emitters, 298, 301, 346, 348F, 349, 351, 352, flexibility, 24
353, 354T, 355, 356, 357, 359, 362, flocculation, 139, 147, 148
363, 367, 368 flood hazard, 53
Index 549
flood irrigation, 416 groundwater flow, 438–9, 444

flooding, 387 Darcy’s law, 439, 455
flotal, 147 entrance resistance, 460–61
flow control flow lines, 445
form of, 500 groundwater level, 433, 447–8
method, 495 groundwater map, 438
orientation of, 499 groundwater table, 430, 442, 446, 447, 476
structures, 488, 495 horizontal flow, 437
flow control system, 498 hydraulic gradient, 432, 457–8, 469
downstream control, 500 hydraulic head, 437, 445, 447, 449–50, 452,
upstream control, 500 456–8, 469
volume control, 498 hydraulic resistance, 431, 435, 439
flow of water in porous media, principles of, isohypses map, 438, 445
273–4 perched water tables, 430, 456
through saturated soil, 274–5 radial flow, 454, 460
through unsaturated soil, 275–9 radial resistance, 454, 459, 460
flow rate/discharge/inflow rate/flow, 301, 303, reaction factor, 452
304, 305, 307, 308, 310, 311, 313, 314, tail recession, 456
315, 316, 317, 319, 320, 323, 324, 325, total resistance, 460
326, 329, 332, 334, 335, 338, 341, 342, vertical hydraulic gradient, 439
343, 344, 345, 347, 350, 352, 353, 354, groundwater, 412, 417, 399
355, 356, 357, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, growth stages/growing periods, 214, 218, 239,
365, 368 240
flow resistance, 382 gully erosino, 192
foundation, 88 GYPSUM, 408
foundation course, 94
fungal hyphae, 140, 146 habitat fragmentation, 14, 70
furrows, 302, 303, 304, 305, 310, 311, 312, harvest index, 389
314F, 315, 318 HI, 389, 391, 393, 395
furrow irrigation, 297, 301, 303–6, 309, 318, HMT, 88
320, 416 humic material, 140, 147
HYDRA, 404
gaseous phase, 262, 267–9, 275 hydraulic conductivity, 135, 136, 143, 147,
gated pipes, 305, 315 263, 273, 277, 280, 309, 363, 368, 430,
gates, 303, 317 431, 432, 433, 434, 442, 450–2, 455,
geographical information systems (GIS), 38, 458–61, 464
404 auger hole method, 433, 434
GIS, 88, 106, 404 capillary hydraulic conductivity, 432, 434
GLEAMS, 403 horizontal conductivity, 432, 435
goals, 22, 23, 24 impervious barrier (see impervious layer)
good agricultural practices, GAPs, 541 impervious layer, 431–2, 435, 450, 453,
GOSSYM, 404 455–8
government action, 29 infiltrometer method, 434, 443
gradient, 142 inverse auger-hole method, 434
granulation, 139 isotropic conductivity, 435
gravimetric soil water content, 263–4, 265, method of the piezometer, 434
281 pervious layer, 455
gravitational head, 269, 281 of saturated soils, 274–5, 277, 280
gravitational potential, 268, 281 semipervious layer, 431
GRO, 402 transmissivity, 432, 434
groundwater contribution/contribution from of unsaturated soils, 275, 277–9
water table, 214, 255 vertical conductivity, 435, 439
550 Index
hydraulic seeding, 129–30 irrigation depth, 398

hydro-mulching, 129 irrigation depth/depth of irrigation, 238, 246,
hydromolecular, 145 247, 248, 252, 254, 255
hydrophilic, 147, 148 irrigation efficiency, 414, 417
hydrophobic, 147, 148 irrigation equipment, effects, 518–33
IBSNAT, 404 irrigation facilities, 484
impedence, 136, 146 irrigation management, 400, 401, 402, 404,
inceneration, 148 412, 418, 490
infiltrated depth (Z )/depth of infiltration, 300, conveyance part, 503
309, 312, 313F operational part, 503
infiltration (soil infiltration)/intake rate, 302, irrigation network, 485, 502
303, 306, 307, 308, 310, 311, 312, 313, main level, 485
316, 317, 318, 319, 321, 322, 325, 326, main system, 490
328, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 344, 352 irrigation performance, 297–301, 305, 308,
infiltration capacity, 142, 143, 145, 148 310, 311, 312, 314, 315, 317, 318, 322,
infiltration equations, 308–9, 310, 311 323, 341–6, 367
infrastructure, 25, 27 irrigation scheduling, 214, 231, 237, 255, 310,
inorganic colloids, 140 311, 319, 320, 339, 343, 345, 369, 401,
interceptor drains, 439, 457, 465, 469 416, 417, 419
effective distance, 457 irrigation scheme, 485
internal drainage, 429, 442 irrigation system, 398, 400, 403, 415, 418,
deep ploughing, 455 419
subsoiling, 430, 455 gated division systems, 502
international benchmark sites network for gravity irrigation systems, 487
agrotechnology transfer project, 404 irrigation time (duration of irrigation), 303,
irrigated agriculture, 397, 399, 413, 417, 314, 315, 317, 342, 343, 345, 368
419–20 irrigation uniformity, 417
irrigated crops/agricultural crops, 214, 242T, irrigation water requirement, 214, 255, 256
243T, 244T, 245T isohumic factor, 198
irrigated farming, 412
Irrigation, 397, 398, 400, 403, 404, 405, 414, kinetic energy, 142
416, 417, 420, 484 knowledge systems, 38, 55, 56
advisory systems, 292–3 labor, 303, 305, 308, 315, 317, 320, 322, 330,
application efficiency, 439, 449 331, 332, 333, 345, 351, 363
calendar, 286, 288 land and water use planning, 19, 20, 22, 24,
electrical conductivity of the irrigation 39, 43, 44
water, 441 land forming, 121–2
irrigation evaluations, 439, 448 land grading, 121
irrigation method, 440–1, 447 land quality, 6, 7, 30, 50
irrigation requirements, 439–40, 442 land quantity, 6, 7
irrigation return flows, 476, 477 land suitability, 24, 30, 31
irrigation season, 442, 449 land tenure, 25
irrigation water, 429, 439, 441–2, 448, land use, 20, 21, 22
449 land use plan, 33, 34, 35, 37
with saline water, 291 land-use planning, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 50, 51,
scheduling methods, 284, 285–7, 291, 292 77
scheduling models, 286, 288, 290, 293 lands
scheduling strategies, 284–5, 288 agricultural lands, 430, 476
surface irrigation, 463 flatlands, 430, 446, 462
irrigation area, 486 irrigated lands, 430, 447, 462, 467, 476
irrigation authority, 485, 491, 494 land drainability, 431
irrigation canals, 488 land grading, 462
Index 551
land leveling, 430 liquid phase, 262, 267, 270

land smoothing, 430 newtonian, 263
landforms, 431 LIS, 88, 106
polder lands, 447, 468 livability, 24
rainfed lands, 462 lixiviation of nutrients, 290
sloping lands, 444, 457–8, 465–6 loams, 142
undulating lands, 462, 465 location, 44, 45, 46, 47
wetlands, 476, 430, 478–9 lognormal function, 400
landscape, 13 low-traffic roads (LTRs), 60
large-scale grain production system, 4 LTR, 60
latent heat, 215, 216, 221 categories, 66
lateral drains, 430, 444–5
drain depth, 446–50, 457, 462, 465 macropores, 139, 141, 145
drain discharge, 447 main drains, 430, 445–6, 462, 466–8, 472–4
drain length, 445–46 bottom width, 471
drain level, 448, 451–3, 455, 458 freeboard, 471
drain slope, 445, 459, 472 hydraulic radius, 472
drain spacing, 437, 445–46, 450–1, hydraulic section, 445, 472–3
465 manning roughness coefficient, 472
drain trench, 451 manning’s equation, 471
laterals, 321, 323, 326, 327F, 328, 330, 331, slope of the bank, 472
332, 334, 335, 338, 339, 340, 341, 343, radii of curvature, 469
344, 353, 357, 359, 361 wet perimeter, 460, 472
latex, 147 maintenance, 101–9, 303, 313, 344, 353, 361,
lay-flat tubing, 305, 315 367, 369, 370
layer resistance, 389 management (irrigation management), 306,
layered soils, equivalent saturated hydraulic 310, 313–20, 322, 339, 344, 347, 368,
conductivity of, 275 369
leaching, 403, 408 management practices, 404
frecuency, 290–291 management-allowed deficit (MAD), 288,
leaching efficiency coefficient, 441 289, 299, 304, 319, 320, 345
leaching fraction, 441, 442, 477 manifold, 351, 359, 360, 362, 367
leaching requirements, 440–2 mass flux technique, 287
requeriment, 290, 291 mass movement, 155–6
salt balance, 442 matric potential, 268–9, 270, 277, 281
salt equilibrium equation, 441 ME, 88, 90
salt storage equation, 442 mechanical methods, 184–94
slightly soluble salts, 442 mechanization, 10, 11
leaching fraction, LF, 319, 343, 366, 511 mechnistic models, 286, 287, 288, 290
leaching fraction/leaching requirement, 214, Mediterranean agriculture, 3
255, 256 mellowing, 145
LEACHM, 403 mesh size, 63
leaf-water potential, 287 microaggregates, 140, 143, 145
length (furrow length/border length/basin microbial activity, 146
length/field length), 304, 307, 312, microcracks, 143, 145
313F, 313, 334, 353, 366 microirrigation systems, 297, 298, 300, 308,
leveling (land leveling/precision-leveling/ 318, 322, 346, 351, 352, 353, 359, 360,
laser-leveling), 301, 304, 307, 308, 362, 363, 366, 369, 370
312, 313F, 313, 318, 322 micromorphometric methods, 287
levels of planning, 37 microsprays, 298, 346, 349, 351, 353, 363
limitations of, 274 microstructure, 140, 141
line source, 358T, 365T mixed farming systems, 3
552 Index
models/modeling, 308, 309, 310, 312, 317, penetration resistence, 137

320, 345, 363 penetrometer resistence, 137
modular distributors, 499 Penman-Monteith equation (method), 214–19,
moisture content, 136, 143, 148 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 229, 230, 233
mole drainage, 456 percolation, 214, 237, 255
movement of water, 145 performance objectives, 504
mulch, 406, 409 periodic maintenance, 104, 105
mulch factor, MF, 204 permanent systems, 489
mulching, 148, 204 permeability, 139, 147
multicriteria analysis (MCA), 41, 42 pest, 390, 396, 401, 411, 413
MUST, 403 pesticide, 403, 415, 417
mycorrhize, 140 pesticide use, 12, 17
petroleum-based product, 406
N/T, 388 photosynthesis, 384, 385, 389, 402
nature, 13 photosynthetic WUE, 389
net radiation, 215, 216, 218, 219, 221, 223, physical and spatial conditions, 6, 7
224, 225, 227, 229, 237, 251 piezometers, 438–39
neutron probe, 286 piezometer density, 439
nitrate, 403 piezometer network, 438–439
nitrogen, 385, 397, 401, 402, 404, 408, 411 pumps, 474–475
nodule bacteria, 139 Archimedean screw, 476
non-governmental organizations, (n.g.o.), 25 axial pumps, 476
nonaggregate soil, 140 power requirements, 476
normal function, 400 pump efficiency, 476
nozzles, 298, 323–4, 325, 326, 328, 334, 337, radial pumps, 476
341, 343, 344, 346, 349 pipeline systems, 488
closed pipelines, 489
objectives, 23 open pipelines, 488
OECD, 60 permanent systems, 489
opening up portable systems, 489
agricultural areas, 73–5 semiclosed pipelines, 489
developing rural areas, 75–7 semi-permanent, 489
off-farm distribution level, 485 pipelines/pipes/hoses/tubing, 298, 305, 315,
off-farm distribution system, 485, 490 316, 321, 323, 329, 330, 332, 334, 339,
offtake structure, 485 341, 344, 346, 348, 350, 351, 353, 355,
on-farm application network, 485 358, 360, 362
OPUS, 403 plan-implementation, 34, 35
organic binding agents, 140 plan-monitoring, 36
organic by-products, 147 plan-revision, 36
organic manuring, 147 planning of rural road networks, 73–86
organic matter, 198, 199 concept of TCRA, 80
organic wastes, 147 integral traffic planning, 86
overirrigation, 285, 290 new trends, 70
overland flow, 142 solutions, 79
oxisols, 140 on a sustainable basis, 83
wider perspective, 78
pan-evaporation, 224, 235–6 planning table, 26
Pareto-optimal solutions, 122 plant-stress indicators, 285, 287
particle-to-particle bonds, 145 plantations, 3
particles flocculated, 140 plastic film, 406
pastoral nomadism, 2 plot erosion measurement
pavement, 95 Coshocton wheel, 163–4
Index 553
Fagna-type hydrological unit, 163–4 rainfall simulators, 168–70

runoff plots, 161–2 rainfall/precipitation, 214, 238, 247, 248, 253,
storage tanks, 164 254, 255
point source, 348, 358T, 363, 365T rainfed agriculture, 405–11, 412, 413
pollutant transport, 527 rainfed, 148
pollutants from agricultural activities, 521–30 ranching, 3
fertilisers, nitrogen, 523 rat run traffic, 71
fertilisers, phosphorus, 525 recession, 302, 303, 306, 310, 312, 313F
micro-organisms, 526 reclamation, 113
pesticides, 521 reclamation practice, 116
sediments, 526 reclamation procedures, 116, 123, 127, 131–3
trace metals, 526–7 recompaction, 136
pollution control, land-use management reconsolidation, 196–7, 198
practices, 541–3 reference evapotranspiration, 214, 219, 220,
pollution problems, other specific, 533 221–2, 223, 224, 225, 229, 230, 231,
pollution problems, production and manuring, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 241,
532–3 242T, 246, 247, 248, 250, 252, 254,
polycation of iron and aluminium, 140 412
polyfunctional polymers, 147 refractometry, 383
polysaccarides, 140, 147 relative water content, 383
polyurea polymers, 148 remote sensing, 286
polyvalent salt, 147 representative elementary volume, REV, 263,
population growth, 9, 25, 27 273
porometer, 384 residue cover subfactor, RC, 204
porosity, 136, 145, 147 resources, 13, 25, 17, 29, 47
potential gradient, 380, 381 revegetation, 130
pressure potential, 263, 268–270, 272–4, rhizosphere, 140, 143, 148
277–8, 280, 282 Richard’s equation, 403, 404
pressure, 305, 316, 321, 324, 325, 326, 327, ridge-furrow system, 186
328, 332, 333, 334, 335, 337, 338T, ripening, 132
339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, biological, 132
347, 348F, 349, 351, 352, 353, 356, chemical, 132
360, 361, 362, 365, 367, 368 soil, 132
pressurized systems, 488 road (see rural road)
production functions, 285, 288 road density, 63
project-cycle management, 76 root proliferation, 147
propylene oxides, 148 rotational grazing, 205
PRZM, 403 rotational reconsolidation, 197
psycrometer, 383 rotational system, 495
public involvement, 24 roughness, 307, 311, 312, 314, 318
puddles, 142 runoff, 214, 252, 254, 302, 303, 305, 306, 316,
317, 319, 322, 325, 337, 344, 406, 408,
quaternary unit, 486 409, 413, 415, 419
runoff farming, 409, 412
radiation/solar radiation, 215, 218, 227, 228, rural development, 55
230, 231, 235 rural road network
rain guns/traveller guns, 298, 321, 325, 328, classification, 65
332–5, 342, 343, 345 density, 63
rainfall design, 60
effective, 288, 290 incidental changes, 80
forecast, 290 integral traffic planning, 86
rainfall characteristics, 147 LTR, 62
554 Index
rural road network (cont.) slope, 303, 304, 306, 308, 311, 312, 313, 315,
mesh size, 63 326, 356, 367
network form, 62 sludge processing, 540
planning, 70, 73 sludges, 147, 148
problems, 59 slurries, 148
realization of DS principles, 82 social impact, 32
structural spatial changes, 79 social structure, 25
sustainable planning, 83 sodium, 387, 397, 408, 419
traffic problems, 70–1 sodium adsorption ratio, SAR, 511
rural roads sodium carbonate residual, SCR, 512
rutting, 137, 139 soils, 114, 122, 123, 125, 126, 127, 131,
RWC, 383 132
saline conditions, 397, 403, 404 anisotropic soils, 135, 431
saline soil, 419 degraded, 126–30
salinity, 397, 398, 402, 414, 415 derelict, 126–30
salinity control, 400, 402 electrical conductivity of the saturated
salinity management, 419–20 paste, 441
salinization, 414, 419 heavy clay soils, 449, 455–6
salinization of soil, 14 homogeneous soils, 431
salts, 397, 402, 408, 419 hydraulic properties, 286, 287
sap infiltration rate, 430, 431, 442–3
flow measurements, 287 isotropic soils, 431
percolation rate, 430
flux density technique, 287
permeability (see hydraulic conductivity)
saturation vapor pressure, 225, 226, 232, 233
porosity, 430
Scholander’s chamber, 287
saline, 123–5
sealing, 141, 143, 144, 147, 148
saline-sodic, 125–6
secondary unit, 486
salinity, 285, 290, 291
sediment transported, 142 salinization, 430, 440
sediment yield measurement salty, 122, 123
caesium-137 technique, 167–8 sodic, 126
free-overfall, 165–6 sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), 442
turbidity sensor, 166 stability, 457
ultrasonic-level probe, 166 stratified soils, 431, 435
venturi meter channel, 165–6 texture, 432, 435, 441, 471
water flow sample collector, 166 tidal, 131–3
seeding date, 391, 396 toxic trace elements, 476, 478
seeding rate, 391 unripened, 132
seedling emergence, 143 water balance, 285, 286, 287–8, 291, 292
seepage, 419 water depletion, 286, 288
semiarid, 148 water status, 292
semiarid area, 398, 412, 416 wet, 114–22
semiarid soil, 397 workability, 439, 449
semipermanent farming, 2 soil cohesion, 145
sensible heat, 214, 216, 221, 225, 251, 254 soil conditioners, 144, 147
set systems, 321, 326, 329, 345 soil consolidation, 141
sewage treatment, 540–1 soil degradation, 135, 137, 144
shape, 44, 45, 46, 49, 50 soil density, 146
shelterbelts, 207–9 soil domain, 145
shifting cultivation, 2 soil environment, 146
siphon tubes, 305, 307, 315 soil environmental conditions, 140
slaking, 143, 145 soil erodibility, 145, 148
Index 555
soil erosion, 14, 51, 404, 411 soil-water-plant relationship, 491

soil erosion mapping by surveys, 170–1 soil water retention characteristics, 262, 270–3
soil erosion modeling determination of, 272
sediment delivery ratio estimation, 174–6 indirect estimation of, 279
sediment yield model, 174 soil water potential, 267–70, 276
USLE, RUSLE, 171–3 measurement of, 269–70
soil evaporation, 390, 393, 396, 398, 405, 406, solid phase, 262, 266
411, 412, 418 solid set systems, 298, 321, 329, 342
soil fauna, 139, 146 solid waste compost, 531–2
soil fertility, 391, 413 solid-phase components, 135
soil heat flux, 215, 216, 221, 223, 229, 251 SOYGRO, 402
soil improvement, 51 spacing, 304, 325, 326, 327F, 328, 329, 335,
soil loss tolerance, 173–4 337, 338T, 340, 341, 343, 347, 350,
soil management, 196–201, 312, 314, 318, 363, 364, 368
344, 405–10, 415 spatial conditions, 44, 51
soil microorganisms, 137, 139 spillways, 193
soil moisture, 439 splash erosion, 148
field capacity, 440 sprayers, 298, 324, 326, 334, 337, 339, 340,
permanent wilting point, 440 346, 355
pF curve, 436 sprinklers, 297, 320, 321, 322, 323–9, 330,
water retention capacity, 443 331, 333, 334, 337, 338, 340, 341, 342,
soil nutrient mining, 14 344, 348, 349, 353, 365
soil physical conditions, 139, 143, 144 sprinkler irrigation, 400, 416
soil regeneration, 135, 143 sprinkler irrigation systems, 297, 300, 308,
soil salinity, 391, 397, 402 318, 320, 322, 323, 344, 346, 352, 367,
soil solution, 140 370
soil strength, 136 spur roads, 97, 99, 101
soil structural characteristics, 144, 145 stabilizing structures, 184, 192–4
soil structural conditioning, 147, 148 stable cementing agents, 147
soil structural dynamics, 145, 146 standard cross section, 89
soil structural stabilization, 146 steered reconsolidation, 197
soil structure, 135, 143 stochastic analysis, 417
soil surface depressions, 142 stomatal conductance, 384, 393
soil survey, 431, 437 stomatal resistance, 384, 389, 390
geomorphologic map, 438 strategic planning, 32
reconnaissance surveys, 431 stress degree day, 287
semidetailed studies, 431 strip cropping, 202–3
soil water, 301, 309, 310, 318, 320, 346, 368 structural stability, 140, 148
soil water (soil moisture) content, 214, 230, subsistence farming, 2
238, 241, 247T, 253, 254 subsoil, 136
soil water balance, 221, 237, 238, 252, 254–6 substratum, 88–91
soil water budget, 403, 404 subsurface drainage, 430, 445, 456, 464, 476–7
soil water content, 137, 263–7, 270 subsurface drainage systems, 439, 443, 445,
measurement of 450, 455, 462, 465, 469, 476
direct methods, 264 composite drainage system, 444
indirect methods, 265 singular drainage systems, 444, 460
soil water deficit (SWD), 299, 311, 314, 319, subsurface irrigation, 403
320, 341, 343, 345 supply, 301, 306, 314, 321, 332, 340, 342,
soil water evaporation coefficient, 237, 238, 353, 359, 362
251 intermittent supply, 496
soil, definition, 262 proportional supply, 496
soil-plant nitrogen budget, 404 rotational supply, 496
556 Index
support system for decision-making, 292 tertiary distribution system, 490

surface drainage, 430, 443, 462, 464–5, 466, tertiary level, 485
476–7 tertiary offtake, 486
catchment area, 467 tertiary unit, 486
curve number method, 468 thermocouple psychometer, 287
overland flow, 462 thermocouple psychrometry, 383
rational method, 467 tillage, 199, 200, 201, 305, 314, 318, 322, 325,
unit hydrographs, 467–8 338, 340, 344, 347, 363, 365, 391, 397,
surface drainage systems, 116–17, 443–4, 462 404, 406, 413
cross-slope system, 119–20 conservation practices, 200, 201
diversion system, 119 systems, 200
beds and dead furrows, 464 time-domain reflectometry, 266–7, 286
parallel shallow ditches, 464–5 time of opportunity for infiltration (τ )/
parallel system, 117–18 infiltration opportunity time, 302,
parallel surface drains, 464 303F, 307, 309, 320
random system, 118–19 topsoil, 127, 129
shallow ditches, 462 application, 129
surface irrigation, 297, 301–20, 322, 345, 352, conservation, 127–9
370 total dissolved salts, TDS, 510
surface resistance, 216, 218, 220, 222, 223, TR, 388, 389, 391, 395
230, 236 trace element, 419
surface roughness, 143 traffic calmed rural area (TCRA), 80
surface runoff, 142
traffic calming, 80
surface-temperature measurements, 287
traffic management plan, 86
surge-flow irrigation, 315, 317
traffic safety, 70
sustainability, 15–17, 24, 54
sustainable agriculture, 14, 15 trafficability, 138
sustainable land-use planning, 78 trampling, 148
sustainable rural traffic planning, 83 transition course, 94
SWARD, 403 transpiration, 213, 222, 238, 250, 251, 252,
SWATRE, 403 253, 389, 390, 391, 393, 394, 396, 398,
synthetic polymers, 147 402
system, system analysis, 15, 16, 17, 39, 40 transpiration coefficient, 388
transpiration efficiency, 389
T, 393, 397 transpiration rate, 388
tailwater reuse, 303, 305, 307, 318 transpiration ratio, 388, 389, 396
targets, 23 turnout, 485
TCRA, 80 turnout structure, 486
TDR (see time domain reflectometry) turnover, 146
technical support system, 292
technology, 29 ultusols, 140
technology transfer, 292 undisturbed soil, 140, 141
temperature, 386, 389, 406, 413 uniform function, 400
tensiometers, 269, 273, 286 unsaturated conditions, 270, 275–6, 278–9
terms of reference, 24, 25–6, 77 unsaturated soil hydraulic properties, 277–8
terraces, 184, 187–90
bench, 187 valves, 315, 317, 321, 330, 331, 332, 345, 351,
channel, 190 358, 359, 361, 362
diversion, 187 vapor pressure deficit, 216, 219, 223, 225,
hillside ditch, 187, 188 227, 233, 235, 248
orchard, 187 vegetation (crop) cover/ground covered by
retention, 187 vegetation, 236, 237, 240, 250, 253,
terracing of fields, 52 254
Index 557
vegetation surface/cropped surface, 215, 220, water delivery, 492

235, 251 adequacy, 493
vertical drainage, 444 equity, 493
vertical interval VI, 189 reliability, 493
void ratio, 136 rotational supply, 494
volume control method, 501 on-demand supply, 494
volume specific, 136 semi-demand supply, 494
volumetric soil water content, 263, 265, 267, water delivery policy, 496
270, 281 water delivery schedules, 492
volumetric water content, 136 water distribution function, 400
water excess, 386–8
wastewater, 414 water flow, 381, 403, 404
wastewater processing, 539 water harvesting, 409, 413
wastewater to land, 530–1 water holding capacity, 391, 408, 409, 415,
water 419
applied, 285 water infiltration, 145
availability, 284 water level control, 498
balance, 287–8, 292 water management, 52, 412–9
balance models, 286 water potential, 381, 382, 387, 416
deficit, effect of, 288 water quality, 6, 7, 50, 508–18
demand, 284 boron, 512
salinity, 284, 290–2 effects of trace elements, 514–16
scarcity, 284 heavy metals, 513
stress, 285, 287, 288 material in suspension, 509
stress indicators, 289 nutrients, 516
waste, 284 organic substances, 516
water balance, 391, 416, 437, 443, 446, 447, pathogenic agents, 516–17
466 pH, 509
capillary rise, 437 reducing substances, 516
effective precipitation, 441, 442 residual sodium carbonate, 512
evaporation, 437, 477 salinity, 510
evapotranspiration, 443 temperature, 508
excess rainfall, 439, 442, 443, 444, 458, water infiltration rate and sodium, 511
466, 467 water quality monitoring and modelling,
irrigation application, 440, 442–3, 533–7
447–9 water quality policies, 543
lateral seepage, 445, 457, 474 water quality treatment systems, 537–41
leakage, 439 water regulator, 136
natural drainage, 430 water retention, 147
percolation, 437, 439, 443 water saving, 417
recharge, 437, 439, 442, 447, 450 water scarcity, 416–19
saturated zone, 447 water soil erosion, 156
seepage, 437, 439, 450, 457–8, 478 gullies, 161
surface runoff, 439, 443–4, 446, 462, 465, interrill erosion, 158–9
476–7 rill erosion, 159–61
unsaturated zone, 443 splash erosion, 156–8
vertical seepage, 431, 439 water status, 381, 382
water conservation, 405–11, 415 water storage, 405
water contamination, 14 water stress, 382, 384, 385, 390, 402, 418
water control/irrigation control, 303, 310, 314, water suitability for agricultural use, 507
315, 320, 339, 345, 352, 359, 362, 367, water supply, 416
368, 370 water table, 403, 414
water deficit, 390, 397, 413, 418 water use, 21
558 Index
water-use efficiency, 388–93, 396 wetted diameter, 323, 324, 325, 327, 328, 329,
water users’ organization, 485 333, 334, 335, 337, 338T, 341, 363,
water yield function, 393–400 364T
water-balance method, 401 wind, 322, 323, 327, 328, 329, 335, 337, 340,
water-table management, 477 341, 342, 343, 344, 370
water-user associations, 473 wind erosion, 153–5, 206
waterlogging, 387, 403, 414, 430, 449, 456 wind velocity/wind speed, 216, 217, 223, 224,
waterways, 184, 186, 190–2 231, 232, 236, 248, 249, 252
artificial, 190 windbreaks, 207–9
ballasted, 192 World Health Organisation (WHO), 543
diversion channels, 190 WUE, 388, 389, 390, 391, 393, 397, 402, 405,
grass, 190, 191, 192 410, 411, 418
prefabricated concrete, 192
terrace channels, 190 yield ET relationships, 393–7
weather data, 224, 225, 230, 233 yield irrigation-depth relationships, 398–400
weed, 391, 397, 401, 406, 411, 412, 413 yield salinity relationship, 397–8
wet microbial processing, 148 yield WUE, 389, 390
wet rice cultivation, 2
wetted bulbs, 349, 353, 364 zero-tillage system, 138

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CIGR Handbook

Edited by CIGR–The International

LCCN 98-93767 ISBN 1-892769-01-8

For Information, contact:

Manufactured in the United States of America

El Houssine Bartali, Editor of Vol. II (Part 1)

Osamu Kitani, Editor-in-Chief and Editor of Vol. V

Hubert N. van Lier, Editor of Vol. I

The late Richard A. Spray

Bill A. Stout, Editor of Vol. III

Fred W. Wheaton, Editor of Vol. II (Part 2)

1 Balancing Agriculture Between Development and Conservation 1

2 Land- and Water-Use Planning 19

3.4 Construction of Rural Roads 86

4 Land Reclamation and Conservation 113

5 Irrigation and Drainage 213

5.2 Water Retention and Movement in Soil 262

5.7.5 Management of Conveyance and Distribution Systems 490

Hubert N. van Lier

1.1 Agriculture: a Description

1.1.2 Description of Agricultural Systems

Subsistence Farming and Shifting Cultivation

Table 1.1. Milk and cheese production in 1992

Milk Production Cheese Production

1.1.3 Characteristics of Agricultural Systems

1.2 Dynamics in Agriculture

1.2.1 Limiting Conditions for Agriculture

Table 1.2. Characteristics of agricultural systems

Source: J. Kostrowicki (1976) as cited in [3] p. 3.

Physical and Spatial Conditions

Table 1.3. World water use

Access to Inputs and Services

1.2.2 Improving the Limiting Conditions for Agriculture

Table 1.4. Effects of measures to improve agricultural conditions

Measure Positive Effects Negative Effects

1.2.3 Demand for Agricultural Products

Table 1.5. Population growth trends

Number of People (million) Growth Rate (%)

1990 2000 2010 1980–1990 1990–2000 2000–2010

Compiled from [10].

1.2.4 Major Trends in World Agriculture

Table 1.6. Agricultural production

Period Growth Rates (%)

decade. There are a few explanations for this development:

Source: Compiled from [8].

Table 1.8. Fertilizer use

Compiled from [11].

1.3 Agriculture and the Countryside

1.3.2 Countryside Values

medical research). In general, resources are more or less sensitive to mismanagement by

1.3.3 Countryside Values and Agriculture

1.4 Farming: a Balance

1.5 Sustainability in Farming and the Countryside

2.1 The Planning Issue

2.1.1 Why Land- and Water-Use Planning Are Important

Figure 2.1. The hydrological cycle. Source: [4].

2.1.3 The Planning Process

• Step 9: Implement the plan.