MINISTRY OF LANDS, AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES, WATER AND

RURAL DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION
DIPLOMA IN AGRICULTURE
ZNQF level 5

AFM 321: LAND USE PLANNING

Authors:
Sibanda T: MSc in Business Leadership, BSc Honours Degree in Agricultural
Education and Extension, Diploma in Agriculture, Certificate in Agriculture, Principal
Lecturer, Rio Tinto Agricultural College
Rudzingi P: BSc Natural resources management and Agriculture, Dip ED Agric,
Certificate in Agric, Lecturer, Mlezu College
Chiverengo J: MSc in Business Leadership, BSc Honours Degree in Crop Science,
Diploma in Agriculture, Lecturer, Shamva Agricultural College
Katonha S. C: BSc Agricultural Management, Diploma in Education, Further
Education Teachers Certificate, Certificate in Agriculture, Principal Lecturer, Gwebi
Agricultural College
Muwani R: BSc Hon Agricultural Economics, Lecturer, Gwebi Agricultural College
Reviewed by:
Madzime N, MSc in Environmental Policy and Planning, BSc in Agriculture,
Diploma in Adult Education, Diploma in Agriculture System Analysis,Principal,
Mlezu Agricultural College,
Muswehaurari C, MSc Business Administration, BSc Agriculture Management,
Diploma in Agriculture, Certificate in Agriculture, Vice Principal, Gwebi College
Nyaruwata C: Bsc Honours in Agribusiness Management, Lecturer, Chibero
Agricultural College

Coordinated by
Prof B. M. Mvumi, Prof E. Mashonjowa, Prof J. Masaka and Mr. P. Kasasa

December 2023

Acknowledgements
The authors extend their gratitude to the following institutions, stakeholders and
individuals for the invaluable support and contributions provided during the review
and development of the Agriculture Colleges Curriculum review:

The European Union for providing financial support to facilitate 'the review of
the agricultural colleges curricula under the auspices of the Zimbabwe
Agricultural Growth Programme (ZAGP).




Welt Hunger Hilfe (WHH) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO), lead partners for the ZAKIS and SAFE projects of the
ZAGP respectively who spearheaded the curriculum review process.




Community Technology Development Organization (CTDO), one of the

ZAKIS partners that jointly coordinated the curriculum review process with
the SAFE project team.




Consultants, agricultural experts, Agriculture College Principals, Vice

Principals and lecturers for their attention to detail and support offered during
the consultations and write shops.




The Director, Deputy Directors and Staff in the Department of Agriculture

Education within the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture, Fisheries, Water and
Rural Development for working tirelessly to ensure that this module is
finalised.

It is our conviction that the Agricultural Colleges Curricula will contribute

significantly to the Agriculture Transformation jigsaw in pursuance of Vision 2030
objectives.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 2
Module Introduction 5
Module Objectives 5
 Module Outcomes 5
UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION TO LAND USE PLANNING 6
1.1 Introduction 6
a. 1.2 Learning outcomes 6
b. By the end of this unit, you should be able to: 6
(ii) Analyse the importance of land use planning 6
(iii) Outline the steps in farm planning 6
(iv) Differentiate photo interpretation and photogrammetry 6
1.3 Importance of Land use planning, 6
1. Farm planning procedure 7
1. 2 Sources of land use information 9
1.3 Aerial photo Interpretation (API) 9
1.4 Tools used in land use planning 9
1.5 Summary 10
UNIT 2: FACTORS AFFECTING LAND USE 11
2.1 Introduction 11
By the end of unit 2, you should be able to 11
2.3 NATURAL FACTORS AFFECTING LAND USE 11
2.3.1 Soil 11
3.2.1 Soil preferences of major crops: 12
2.3.2 Topography 12
2.3.3 Water resources 13
2.3.5 Climate 14
2.4 ARTIFICIAL FACTORS AFFECTING LAND USE 18
2.4.1 Markets 18
2.4.2 Government Intervention 19
2.4.3 Labour availability 19
2.4.4 Infrastructure Development 19
2.5 Summary 20
2.6 Activities 20
3.0 UNIT 3: LAND SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT 21
3.1 Introduction 21
3.2 Learning outcomes 21
3.3.1 Definition of Land Suitability Evaluation 21
Suitable Order 21
3.3.2. Land Suitability Subclasses 22
3.3.3. Not Suitable Order 22
3.4 Summary 23
3.5 Activities 23
3.5 Further Reading 23
4.0 UNIT 4: LAND RESOURCES INVENTORY 24
 4.1 Introduction 24
4.2 Learning Outcomes 24
4.3. Land capability assessment 24
4.4.1.2 Soil coding and soil codes 25
4.4.5.2 Uses of map scales 27
5.0 UNIT 5: FARM PLANNING 31
5.2 Outcomes 31
5.3 Annual cropping area calculations 31
5.4 Crop planning 33
5.7 Determination of herd composition 38
5.8.Summary 40
5.9 Activities 40
UNIT 6 42
6.0. Emerging technologies 42
6.1. Introduction 42
6.4. Fundamental Considerations 43
6.4. The remote sensing system 44
6.5.5 Models of representing geographic data 60

Module Introduction

The main objective of this module is to provide you with the basic scientific and
technical concepts and methods on land use planning, factors affecting land use,
land capability assessment, land suitability, ranch planning, land resource
inventory, and remote sensing, Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and
Coordinate system and Geographical Positioning System (GPS), Mapping, map
production and reading, scaling and area measurement. The strategies for
delivering the module are formal lectures complemented by tutorials, class
presentations by students, class seminars by guest specialists, individual and
group assignments and class tests.

Module Objectives
The objectives of the module are to:

1.

Identify and solve problems arising from land use and evaluation.

2.
3.

Explain land use planning in agricultural farming businesses.

4.
 5.

Classify land according to capability and suitability using different tools.

6.
7.

Outline emerging technologies in farm map production.

8.

Module Outcomes

Upon completion of the course, you will be able to:

1.

Conduct land use planning for crop and livestock production.

2.
3.

Use remote sensing techniques and GIS in land use planning.

4.
5.

Draw up a digital farm plan .

6.

UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION TO LAND USE PLANNING

1.

Introduction

2.

Land use planning is a conscious selection of a given action in pursuing a given

objective. It is the planning of each hectare of land within its capabilities to achieve
maximum productivity. The unit is going to introduce to you the concepts,
importance, and planning procedures for farms, resettlements, and communal lands.
The plan should indicate the probability of achieving the objective and also contain an
estimate of the time required to implement the programme. Planning involves a
number of steps which involve a systematic collection of facts, analysis and
interpretation of facts, decision making, and implementation of the decision, and
evaluation of the outcome of the decision. However, planning is associated with some
problems which include what facts to collect, how to analyze the facts, and what
interpretation to put into facts, what to do as a result of interpretation, and what time
should be taken to interpret facts. The plan should answer the questions that include,
what would be done, when it will be done, how it will be done, with what resources
and by whom.

a.

1.2 Learning outcomes

b.
c.

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

d.

i.

Analyse the importance of land use planning

ii.
iii.

Outline the steps in farm planning

iv.
v.

Differentiate photo interpretation and photogrammetry

vi.

1.3 Importance of Land use planning,

Land use planning is important in Agriculture because the farmer needs to establish
the following factors before embarking on Agricultural activity:

Farm Potential

This includes size of the enterprises, annual cropping area (ACA), carrying
capacity (CC) and viability/economics of production.


 Mechanical conservation requirements

The requirements include the need for road alignment, waterways siting, storm
drains that are necessary, contour direction, logical land clearing sequence, fire–
break siting and lands to be separated or consolidated for agric/ rotational use.

Biological conservation requirements

In arable lands the requirements include hazards of use, soil type (fertilizer rates,
crop types), rotation requirements and irrigation suitability

a.

Veld

b.

The current status of the veld has to be considered bearing in mind the following
information:

subsequent management




legumes introduction




bush control

feeding policies (supplementary)Climatic factors/risks


 The climatic factors of Agricultural importance include total rainfall, planting
rain probability, season length, frost hazards, hail and guti hazards and drought
risks including mid–season droughts.

Water conservation and use (actual and potential)

The farmer needs to know the following factors to effectively manage water
resources and decide irrigation suitability such as river streamflow, water permit
situation, and irrigation advice and dam/weir sites

Farming systems

The recommended system and suitability of farmer’s intentions should be

considered.

Detail of Development priorities

This is affected by factors such as capital items for example dips and barns,
access roads and bridges, land clearing needs and sequence, water needs (human,
livestock and crops), fencing stages, stock acquisition for example cattle, labour
and housing and lands.

1. Farm planning procedure

a.

Determine or state goals for the farm business or operation. The goals must be
specific and measurable. These are the goals to be achieved by undertaking
farm production for the period under consideration. The goals stated will
therefore be the driving force for the enterprise selection combination.

b.
c.

List the resources available on the farm, these are the resources available for
application to achieve the stated goals and objectives. The resources include
physical and financial resources as well as their quality and quantity. The last
two are the most critical in choosing a crop enterprise. Some of the most
important resources are therefore; land, arable, non-arable and dry land.
Arable is subdivided into irrigated land and dry land.

d.
e.

Labour-permanent and part-time, skills availability and source of labour.

Machinery type, capacity and the age of the machinery water the irrigation
capacity of that water for summer and winter crop, sources of the capital and
interest rates of the capital as well as building and plans available on the farm.

f.
g.

List the feasible crops and livestock enterprises that can be carried out on the
farm. Identify resources required by each enterprise. Identify and list
constraints or limiting factors against each enterprise as well as enterprise
combinations. Some constraints can be labour availability and skills, markets,
land suitability for an enterprise, building plans, capacity and availability,
irrigation capacity and quantity available.

h.
i.

Calculate the gross margin for the enterprises identified as feasible given the
limiting factors. The budgets will help in evaluating the alternatives. The
budget is developed based on efficient management to ensure technical
efficiencies in inputs or resource use for the achievement of best output
performances to ensure maximum production.

j.
k.

List the gross margin for the various enterprises in descending order. Select
the enterprise type and size. Choose the enterprise with the highest gross
margin per unit. Select another enterprise with the highest gross margin but
with different resource requirements. This will ensure maximum resource use
without constraining them. (should be highest)

l.
m.

Determine fixed costs associated with each enterprise.

n.
o.

Re-evaluate the selected enterprises based on non-subjective and subjective

factors such as risk and uncertainty and sustainability of farm income
 p.
q.

Select alternatives that meet the subject and non-subjective requirements and
formulate a cropping programme. Do a financial analysis for the selected
production programme. This involves the determination of the whole farm
gross margin and the preparation of cash flow statements.

r.
s.

Implement the decision- implementation should not deviate significantly from

the original plan.

t.
u.

Monitor the result. This helps in comparing what you have planned and what
has happened and how it can easily be modified.

v.

1.

2 Sources of land use information

2.

Maps

Maps are obtained from the Surveyor-General, Agricultural Research and

Extension Services (AGRITEX), Government Ministries like Water
Development, Mines, Transport and Energy and Geological Surveys.

Government sources

AGRITEX - Where most of the information can be obtained (production, rainfall,

and marketing).


 Meteorological Department – Rainfall and temperature records




Central Statistical Office- other statistical figures like production




Parastatals - for example, GMB which is responsible for marketed output and
prices.




Private sectors

ZIMACE, Farmers organizations, marketing Companies e.g. COTTCO,

COTPRO, Cargill, Paprika Zimbabwe – Information like prices, marketed output
etc

Other Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

1.3 Aerial photo Interpretation (API)

It is the science of identifying photographic images to identify objects and determine

their significance. This can be done by the use of aircraft and satellites to produce
contact prints and satellite images respectively. There are three techniques/steps of
photo interpretation namely; photo reading, photo analysis and photo deduction
1.4 Tools used in land use planning

GIS (GPS receivers)




Computer packages (ILWIS, Arc GIS, Quantum, Computer hardware)



 Remote sensing tools




Drones and aircrafts

1.5 Summary

This unit has focused on the steps in API, sources and the procedures in farm planning
giving you an insight and appreciation on the uses of land use in agriculture. I hope
you appreciate that land use planning in agriculture will reduce the risk of sunk costs
and promote profitability.

1.6 Activities

1.

Differentiate photo interpretation and photogrammetry

2.
3.

Outline the importance of land use planning to the farmer

4.
5.

Describe the farm planning process.

6.
7.

Discuss the uses of land in agriculture.

8.

UNIT 2: FACTORS AFFECTING LAND USE

2.1 Introduction
There are many factors that affect land use planning. The factors can also affect
yields, rotations, crop establishment and herd composition. Basically they are
categorized into natural and artificial factors as described below.

2.2 Learning outcomes

By the end of unit 2, you should be able to

i.

Describe the factors that affect land use

ii.
iii.

Identify a rainy pentad from a given rainfall record

iv.
v.

Draw a map of Zimbabwe showing the five natural agro-ecological regions.

vi.
vii.

Identify indicator vegetation species and their importance

viii.

2.3 NATURAL FACTORS AFFECTING LAND USE

2.3.1 Soil

Parent rock. This determines the type of soil to be formed and the resultant
amount of clay. It also influences much of the soil’s physical and chemical
composition, for example granites generally give rise to light to medium-
textured soils, which are characterized by the presence of significant amounts
of coarse sand.




Soil depth

It is an important characteristic of soil affecting crop production. A shallow soil is

unable to carry sufficient moisture for plant growth and plant nutrients may be
 inadequate and root development of crops is negatively affected. Soil depth tends
to be affected by slope of the land, as weathered soil tends to erode from steep
slopes and build up in the flatter land at the bottom. Soils less than 25 cm are
considered to be very shallow and not capable of sustaining plant growth.

Soil texture

This generally refers to the relative proportions of the clay, silt and sand fractions.
Coarse textured soils (sands) have many pores and water passes through the soil
rapidly. They may suffer from drought in dry periods and are susceptible to
erosion. Fine textured soils (clays) may suffer from excess water, which depresses
plant growth. An ideal soil is one with a predominance of neither clay nor sand
(loam soils) and neither suffers from excess water nor low moisture content if
rainfall is normally distributed.

Soil drainage

Poorly drained soils cause water logging and can be compacted easily by heavy
machinery. This negatively affects plant growth. Drainage is linked to both soil
depth and texture. Fine textured soils (clays) drain slower than sands. Well-
drained soils are well-aerated and can support plant growth better than poorly
drained soils.

3.2.1 Soil preferences of major crops:

a) Tobacco does not like wet feet. Virginia tobacco does well on deep well-
drained sandy loamy soils, which have low levels of inherent nitrogen while
burley tobacco can be grown on clay soils.

a.

Cotton prefers deep, well-drained soils which are medium to heavy textured.

b.
c.

Soya beans do well on heavy, deep and well-drained soils and respond well to
residual fertilizer nutrients and heavy soils.

d.
e.
 Maize can be grown on a wide range of soils provided they are well drained
and deep with high fertility. Heavy-textured soils are the best and good
management should accompany light-textured soils.

f.
g.

Groundnuts prefer medium-textured soils. Extremely heavy soils are

discouraged because problems of lifting are likely to occur.

h.

2.3.2 Topography

This broadly refers to the natural slope of the land. It affects drainage, temperature
and workability of the soil.

a.

Landform affects production in terms of what crops can be grown and how the
land can be worked.

b.

There are limited opportunities for the farmer in mountainous areas for example
there is specialized farming in the Eastern Highlands mainly due to changes in
temperature as mean annual temperature declines with altitude (height above sea
level). On flatter plains, the land can be put on a diverse range of crops with
minimal erosion.

a.

Effects of slope is an important aspect in land use planning but often

neglected. At the micro–scale, the angle and direction of the slope may
influence the type of farming. Slope limits use of machinery and determines
the rate of run-off and hence soil erosion. On steep slopes, water moves
rapidly and if natural vegetation is destroyed, sheet erosion may remove the
topsoil and later gulling will destroy the land. This is most likely where
rainfall intensity and the impact of raindrops on the soil are high. Tree crops
are important for areas with very steep slopes because the soil is not ploughed
each year. Cereals are most suited to fairly flat land to minimize erosion.
Slope also affects the occurrence of frost. When air cools down, it becomes
heavier and will move downslope and force warm air upwards. This is why
frost often occurs on the lowest ground on clear still nights whereas the upper
slopes may remain frost-free.

b.

2.3.3 Water resources

 a.

Dam and weir sites have a bearing on irrigation potential and hence crop mix.
If the sites are closer to potentially irrigable lands, pumping costs are reduced
and as such, crops relatively lower in value could be irrigated.

b.

However, if the sites are far away from potentially irrigable lands, water would have
to be transported over a considerable distance and pumping cost may be high. Crops
with a relatively higher value have to be considered to recoup the irrigation cost.

a.

Underground water resources limit the potential use of that land for example
vleis. Very low water table might be a problem if one intends to drill
boreholes for irrigation purposes or watering livestock. Inadequate
underground water reserves limit the number of boreholes that can be drilled
on that land.

b.
c.

Natural waterways must be left unploughed to prevent stormwater from

overflowing into lands on either sides and the protective covering of the grass
must not be allowed to deteriorate. The grass cover needs to improve as the
waterway is now expected to carry more water than before. If the crop being
grown does not have adequate cover to minimize erosion, then the waterway
has to be properly maintained to prevent siltation and erosion of subsequent
lands downfield.

d.

2.3.4 Vegetation
This comprises of trees and grasses which are indicator species of the value of land
and its agricultural potential. Refer to table 2.1

Table 2.1 Vegetation as an indicator of land potential.

TREE SOIL TYPE RAINFALL

Parinari species Sand soils Common in high
Muhacha veld
Terminalia sericea Sand soils 600 - 800mm
Mususu
Julbernadia globiflora Well drained soils 700 – 900mm
Munhondo, mutondo
Syzigiumspp Vlei margins
Mukute (high water table)
Acacia polycantha Good fertile soil 500 – 700mm
Muunga Heavy vlei soils
Acacia karroo Heavier soils – indicates sweetest 500 – 700mm
minded yellow flower and best grazing land in Lowveld
Straight thorn
Baikaea physijuga Kalahari sands
(Zimbabwean teak)
Colophospermum Shallow poor drained alkaline Indicative of low
mopane soils – hardy tree rainfall 400 – 600mm
Mupani
Uapaca kirkiana Usually indicate shallow soils
Muzhanje
Monotes glaber Well drained sandy soil or gravely
Mushava, muvara sand
Combretum apiculatum Light textured loam sandy 600 – 800mm
Mupembere, mbondo
Commiphora spp Found among granite boulders and 400mm
paper tree, Mpapupa rocky kopjes
(paper peels off the peak
succulent trunk)
Burkea African Sandy soils and usually associated
Mukarati with Terminaliasericea
Brachystegia boehmii Shallow gravely soils 700 – 900mm
Mupfuti
Brachystegia spiciformis Light textured loam sandy 700 – 900mm
musasa

2.3.5 Climate
This is defined as the long-term manifestation of weather; however, it may be
expressed as the seasonal average of the main weather conditions. Weather is the state
of the atmosphere at any given time. It is a combined effect of conditions such as heat
and cold, wetness, and dryness, windy or calm and clearness or cloudiness. Local
climatic variations are caused by altitude, aspect (direction in which land faces), and
slope.

a.

Temperature is influenced by altitude, aspect and slope. Temperature

decreases as altitude increases. Under fine weather conditions, the temperature
of the air fall by one degree Celsius for any altitude increase of 100m.
(Compare the Eastern Highlands with Lowveld). Temperature affects
production in terms of what crops can be successfully grown in different areas
and at different times of the year, for example, wheat is grown in winter while
cotton cannot be grown in the high veld because of low temperatures.

b.
c.
 Rainfall is a very important climatic factor as agricultural production is based
on it. Total rainfall received however does not depict the distribution of
rainfall and quality of a season. Rain tends to occur in spells of a few days
duration followed by dry spells lasting a few days and as a result, a pentad
system was designed. A Pentad is a five-day period. Pentads are linked to
fixed calendar dates and they do not always coincide with wet or dry spells
and a threshold value is needed to classify a particular pentad as “rainy” or
“dry”.

d.

i.

Rainy pentad- Given the total rainfall in each pentad, the middle pentad of a
group of three is classed as “rainy” if there is at least 8mm of rain in each of at
least two pentads in the group and the total rainfall from all three pentads
amounts to at least 40mm. A rainy pentad is the centre of one of the 3x5–day
periods which together receive more than 40mm and two of which receive
8mm of rainfall each.

ii.

The rain pentad system may be used for a single season to define the starting and
ending dates of the rainy season or by counting the number of rainy pentads in the
season to assess its value as a growing season.
Agro-ecological zoning of Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe is divided into five main regions based on rainfall, soil type, temperature,
and other climatic factors. A natural region is defined as a relatively large area where
agricultural development is and will be conditioned by a few dominant characteristics.
The dominant natural characteristic in Zimbabwe is rainfall and natural regions are
therefore predominantly demarcated according to the degree of adequacy and
efficiency of the rainfall. The rainfall considered here, is effective rainfall, that is, the
actual amount that becomes available as soil moisture for crop growth (see the map in
Figure 2.1).
 Figure 2.1: Revised Agro-Ecological Zones of Zimbabwe (ZINGSA, 2020)

Table 2.1: Recommended land use in Agro-Ecological Zones of Zimbabwe

Region Climatic Conditions Dominant soil Recommended Land-use
group(s)
I Annual rainfall > Orthoferrallitic Suitable for forestry
(6,008.8 km :
2
1000mm but possible plantations, banana apples,
1.5 % of the to get amounts less macadamia nuts, coffee, and
country) than 1000, Probability tea in addition to intensive
of exceeding 500 mm livestock production. The
at least 95%, length region is also suitable for long-
of rainfall season > season (late maturing) maize
 130 days and varieties - requiring >130 days
maximum to maturity), Irish potato, field
temperature between peas, and soya beans.
21 and 25◦C [Terracing is highly
recommended along steep
terrains to minimize soil
erosion considering the soils
are susceptible to erosion due
to a weakly developed crumb
structure. The soils require
regular soil pH monitoring].
IIa Annual rainfall Paraferrallitic Suitable for maize varieties
(22,085.4km :
2
between 750 and and Fersiallitic; requiring 120-130 days to
5.7 % of the 1000mm (it is not sporadic maturity, flue-cured tobacco,
country) unusual to get occurrence of groundnuts, Irish potato,
amounts below 750 orthoferrallitic cotton and soybean. Barley
and above 1000 mm and wheat are grown under
in places), Probability irrigation in the winter and
of exceeding 500mm drier months, Intensive
at least 90%, length livestock production (beef,
of rainfall season dairy and poultry) (based on
between 120 and pastures and pen fattening) is
130days and also recommended.
maximum
temperature between
23 and 27◦C
IIb Annual rainfall Fersiallitic Suitable for maize varieties
(36,304.7 km : 2
between 750 and requiring 115-120 days to
9.3 % of the 1000mm (it is not maturity, Cotton, Irish potato,
country) unusual to get barley, flue-cured tobacco,
amounts below 750 groundnuts, sorghum, sugar
and above 1000 mm beans, coffee and horticultural
in places), Probability crops can be successfully
of exceeding 500mm grown. Winter wheat is also
at least 80%, length grown under irrigation.
of rainfall season Intensive livestock production
between 115 and 120 is also recommended in this
days and maximum region.
temperature between
25 and 28°C
III Annual rainfall Fersiallitic Suitable for maize varieties
(63,215.2 km : 2
between 650 and requiring 110-120 days to
16.2 % of the 800mm while some maturity. Soybean,
country) places may receive groundnuts, cotton and
amounts exceeding sunflower are also suitable
800mm, Probability crops in this region.
of exceeding 500mm Supplementary irrigation is
between 75 and 80%, critical for successful crop
length of rainfall production. The region is also
season between 110 suitable for semi-intensive
and 120 days and livestock production (beef,
maximum dairy and small stock (e.g.
temperature between goats and poultry).
25 and 28°C
 IV Annual rainfall Fersiallitic;
Suitable for maize varieties
(11,3594.9 km : 2
between 450 and sporadic requiring 105-120 days to
29.1% of the 650mm which may be occurrences of
maturity. However, in the
country) exceeded in some the sodic,
absence of irrigation farmers
places within the lithosol and the
are advised to grow drought-
region, Probability of siallitic tolerant crops such as sorghum
exceeding 500mm (finger millet, pearl millet,
between 60 and 80%, watermelons and cowpeas.
length of rainfall Extensive cattle ranching,
season between 105 rearing of small stock (e.g.
and 120 days and goats and poultry) and wildlife
maximum are ideal farming systems for
temperature between this region. [Rainwater
27 and 29°C harvesting techniques are
required to capture the little
moisture in the region].
Va Annual rainfall less Fersiallitic; Suitable for extensive cattle
(11,5041.2 km : 2
than 650mm in the sporadic ranching and goat production.
29.4% of the southern areas while occurrences of The region is marginal for
country) Region Va areas in vertisol and the drought-tolerant crops such as
the Zambezi Valley to siallitic sorghum, finger millet, pearl
the north of the millet and cowpeas.Sugarcane
country mostly is an ideal crop under
exceed this amount, irrigation, particularly in the
Probability of vertisol and siallitic soils. Tree
exceeding 500 mm plantations, mainly oranges,
between 60 and 80%, lemons and lime are also
length of rainfall recommended where irrigation
season between 100 is available. This region is also
and 120 days and suitable for extensive game-
maximum ranching and tourism
temperature between
28 and 30°C
Vb Annual rainfall below Siallitic; Tree plantations, mainly
(34,499.8 km :
2
600mm, Probability sporadic oranges, lemons and lime are
8.8% of the of exceeding 500 mm occurrences of recommended where irrigation
country) less than 60%, length the sodic and is available. This region is also
of rainfall season less regosols suitable for extensive cattle
than 110 days and ranching, goats and wildlife
maximum tourism.
temperature between
28 and 32°C

2.4 ARTIFICIAL FACTORS AFFECTING LAND USE

These are artificial restrictions (non–farm developments) that affect land use for the
farm. The following are some of the factors that affect the value of land.

2.4.1 Markets
As the distance from the market increases a farmer changes the combination of his
crops and livestock to maximise profit. Highly perishable crops or products like milk
and vegetables are produced closer to the marketing outlets. Products with a high
value per unit weight like tobacco may be produced at some distance from the market
as they can tolerate the high cost of transport to market. Products with low value per
unit weight like hay must be produced near the market because the transporting cost
per unit will equal the price received at the market after a very short distance.Some
perishable goods may be processed into less perishable commodities, which also have
a higher value per unit weight. Therefore the important factors to consider are value
and perishability.Market availability is another important factor to consider before
production.

2.4.2 Government Intervention

This refers to the methods by which the government intervenes in agricultural

production and markets resulting in the proper utilisation and or reduction in the use
of the land. Examples include Tariffs, price controls, quotas, Subsidies, etc

2.4.3 Labour availability

The quantity of labour required for any given enterprise is determined by the
operations to be undertaken and the time it will take to complete the operations in
terms of labour days.
Periods of peak labour demand are the most critical and one should ensure that supply
of labour meets demand. Enterprise combination should be adequately catered for by
the available labour force.

2.4.4 Infrastructure Development

This is the description of the infrastructure that the farm is endowed with. The
infrastructure includes the following:

a.

Farm buildings

b.

The farm sheds; barns and housing should be adequate. Housing (especially for farm
workers) should be defined as brick under asbestos, pole and dagga under thatch and
units should be known.
ii) Farm roads
They should be sited on crests. Adequacy and state of maintenance should be noted.
Adequacy is reflected by the ability to access every point of the farm.
Maintenance has to be standard for easy accessibility.
iii) Fencing
The length, condition, and extent of the fence have to be known. The top strand
should not be less than 1.2m above the ground and there should be a minimum of 4
strands of wire. Spacing from the top of the post to the first wire should be 40 mm and
between wires from top to bottom 305mm, 250mm, and 195mm. Straining posts
should be a maximum of 420m apart and at all points of change in line of fence and
standards should be a maximum of 14 m apart.
 iv) Water supplies
The number of boreholes and dams and their yield and/or capacities should be
determined. The yield of boreholes is given in terms of m /hr or litres per second. The
3

capacity of dams is usually in cubic meters. Any existing water permits for the farm
have to be known. This information gives an insight to the irrigation potential of the
farm.
v) Dips and cattle handling facilities
These should be adequate and generally, there should be one dip tank per 2400- 3200
hectares.
vi) Electricity
The availability and distribution of electricity on the farm should be known and
whether it meets demand. To estimate the cost of supplying electricity to a farm or
section of the farm the following is needed:

distance of line from the nearest supply point;




kilowatts required

2.5 Summary
The chapter looked at the factors affecting land use and how they are described. This
helped you in the analysis and providing necessary recommendations to the farmers
based on the use of land and enterprise selection.

2.6 Activities

1. Discuss how the following factors affect land use;

Market availability

Distance from the Market,



 Labour availability,




Climate

2. From the rainfall records for any five consecutive seasons identify the rainy and dry
pentads and compare the season quality for the seasons.
3. Criticise the production of small grains in Agro-ecological region l
4.Draw the map of Zimbabwe to show the current agro-ecological zones.

3.0 UNIT 3: LAND SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT

3.1 Introduction

There are many tools used in assessing or evaluating land potential for agricultural
purposes. This include Land Suitability, Land Capability, Agricultural Land
Classification (ALC), Versatile Cropping Land (VCL) and Good Quality Agricultural
Land (GQAL). In this Unit the Land Suitability method is going to be explained. Land
suitability is very useful since it relates a specific land use type to soil limitations.

3.2 Learning outcomes

At the end of the unit you should be able to:

i.

Apply knowledge of Land Suitability in crop and animal production.

ii.
iii.

Classify land according to land suitability.

iv.
v.

Evaluate land using using land suitability method

vi.
vii.

Practically assign various land classes to their suitable uses

viii.
ix.
 Describe other tools of land evaluation

x.

3.3.1 Definition of Land Suitability Evaluation

This is the fitness of a given type of land for a defined use. For example, is the land
suitable for furrow irrigated cotton, dry land soybeans? The specific land use is
assessed against a range of limitations like soil water availability, rockiness, sloping
and soil capping... This is the appraisal and grouping of specific areas of land in
terms of their suitability for defined uses... There are basically two Orders of Land
Suitability namely Order S (Suitable) and
Order N (Not Suitable).
Suitable Order
This is land on which sustained use of the kind under consideration is expected to
yield benefits that justify the inputs without unacceptable risk of damage to land
resources. Order S ranges from S1 to S5 with the limitation levels increasing from S1
to S5

Table 3.1 Land suitability and their description

Land suitability Description
S1 Suitable land with negligible limitations
S2 Suitable land with minor limitations
S3 Suitable land with moderate limitations
S4 Unsuitable land with severe limitations
S5 Unsuitable land with extreme

3.3.2. Land Suitability Subclasses

These reflect the kind of limitations like moisture deficiency, and erosion hazard.
Subclasses are indicated by lowercase letters. The number of subclasses should be
kept to a minimum that will satisfactorily distinguish lands within a class. One
limitation letter should be used alone unless two limitations are equally severe.

3.3.3. Not Suitable Order

This is land that has qualities that appear to preclude sustained use of the kind under
consideration.
Land can be classified as Not Suitable for a given use due to many reasons. The
proposed land use may be technically impossible like planting maize in waterlogged
soils or cultivation of steep slopes. The reason might be that the expected benefits
might not justify the expected costs of the inputs required.

Table 3.2 Unsuitable Land Classes

Class Description
N21 Land having limitations which may be summonable in time but which cannot
be corrected with existing knowledge at currently acceptable cost. The
limitations are so severe as to preclude successfully sustaining the land in the
given manner.
N2 Land having limitations that appear as severe as to preclude any possibilities
of successful sustained use of the land in the given manner.
 1.

Summary

2.

Land suitability is a very important tool for evaluating land because it relates a specified
land use to a number of limitations. Land suitability maps can be developed after
evaluation and rating a number of soil and area parameters like slope, drainage, soil
depth, erosion level, and texture

3.5 Activities
1. Investigate the soil and land properties of a paddock and of arable land.
2. Determine the suitability classes for each specific livestock and crop enterprise.
3 Describe each of the following tools of land evaluation:

a.

Agricultural Land Classification (ALC),

b.
c.

Versatile Cropping Land (VCL)

d.
e.

Good Quality Agricultural Land (GQAL)

f.

1.

Choose one uncultivated land in your college. Determine the Suitability class
and Subclass against soya bean production.

2.

3.5 Further Reading

Akins H, Ozalp AY, Yungut B (2013) Agricultural land use suitability analysis using
GIS and AAHP technique. Comput Electron Agric 97: 71 - 82

Barakat A, et al (2017) Multivariate analysis and GIS-based soil suitability diagnosis

for sustainable intensive agriculture in Beni-Mousa irrigated sub perimeter (Tidal
plain, Morocco). Model Earth Syst Environ 3 (1): 3
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 18, 1073 – 1088
(2021)
Sys. I , Van Ranst E, Debaveye J (1991) Land evaluation, Part 1 Principles in land
evaluation and crop production calculations, General administration for development,
cooper ation: Brussels2

4.0 UNIT 4: LAND RESOURCES INVENTORY

4.1 Introduction

This unit will review the basic scientific and technical concepts about land resources
inventory evaluation. The topics to be looked upon include; land capability
assessment, soil coding, vegetation coding and soil classification.

4.2 Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of the unit, you will be able to:

i.

Derive soil codes after pit coding.

ii.
iii.

Produce vegetation code after paddock assessments.

iv.
v.

Assign uses of land to different soil and vegetation assessed.

vi.

4.3. Land capability assessment

Land capability classification
Land capability classification (LCC) in Zimbabwe is concerned with the ability of the
land to produce permanently under specific uses and treatments. Land is therefore
classified and arranged in terms of nature and increasing degrees of limitations. This
is done as to show intensive safe use without risk of soil erosion, management
requirements and permanent hazards attached to land. For more information follow
the following links;
https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/land-use-planning/land-capability-assessment
Activity
 1.

List major land resources that land use planners ought to assess.

2.
3.

Describe the features of soil and vegetation that can limit its use.

4.

4.31. Soil as land resource

The best method of assessing the capability of soil is studying and examining it in its
natural state. This involves the digging of a soil pit and the examination of the various
features in situ. The vertical faces of the pit, as exposed, present the profile. The
profile must not be taken as being the entire soil body but rather as one dimension of a
three-dimensional body extending in all directions to make up the landscape.
Description of a soil profile involves describing its various horizons. A soil horizon is
a layer of soil approximately parallel to the soil surface with specific characteristics
produced by soil-forming processes. The following link as more detail;
https://byjus.com/biology/soil-profile/#:~:text=A%20soil%20profile%20is%20a,are
%20known%20as%20soil%20horizons.&text=The%20soil%20is%20arranged
%20in,known%20as%20the%20soil%20profile.
4.4.1.2 Soil coding and soil codes
Soils are coded to determine the hazard or limitation in the use of land, particularly
for arable purposes. Soil characteristics that determine the hazard of use are not
independent of each other (they are interrelated), for example, slope is very important
but the erosion hazard associated with any particular slope depends on the resistance
of the surface soil to dispersion by raindrop impact and the frequency with which run
off may be expected. The shallow soils are more prone to erosion than deep soils.
Refer to the book referenced below for more information;
Peter I, (1981), A Guide to Soil and Land Capability Classification for Land Planers,
Department of Conservation and Extension, Ministry of Agriculture, Zimbabwe.
Activity

1.

From the college farm and the field of your choice, dig a pit up to a point you
reach the parent rock and collect the following data:

2.

i.

Soil depth
 ii.
iii.

Depth of the three or four horizons

iv.
v.

Soil texture of each horizon

vi.
vii.

Soil colour

viii.
ix.

Soil permeability

x.
xi.

Any factor limiting cultivation

xii.
xiii.

Any factor affecting effective depth

xiv.
xv.

Slope of the land

xvi.
xvii.

Erosion status of the area

xviii.
xix.

Parent material

xx.

2. Using the data you collected from the field, derive a code for each data collected.

4.4.4 Soil Classification Systems

Agricultural land can be classified in a number of ways depending on the objectives
of the classification. In this unit, the classification is going to be based on land use
planning as practiced in Zimbabwe. It is based on the capability of the land to produce
permanently under specific uses and treatments. Refer to the book referenced below
for more information;
Peter I, (1981), A Guide to Soil and Land Capability Classification for Land Planers,
Department of Conservation and Extension, Ministry of Agriculture, Zimbabwe.
Methods of determining land classes in arable lands.
Unlike non-arable land classes which can easily be picked from aerial photographs,
land classification in arable lands relies entirely on pit coding. After a pit code is
produced, the flow diagrams like the ones below are used to arrive at the appropriate
land class.
Activity

1.

From the codes assigned from the previous activity, ascertain a probable land
class for the pit.

2.
3.

Identify other arable land classes around the college farm.

4.
5.

Determine non-arable land classes around the college farm.

6.

4.4.3 Vegetation as a Land Resource

Vegetation classification is based on vegetation coding which basically emphasizes
the dominant tree and grass species present in an area. Vegetation has a great link
with soil condition and in most cases, a certain type of vegetation determines the
carrying capacity of the area, erosion, and drainage and soil fertility. Some vegetation
coding must be made out of field surveys. The vegetation codes describe the
physiognomic type, dominant trees, dominant grasses, bush encroachment, coppice
growth, soil texture/parent material, erosion and wetness of the veld. Refer to the
book referenced below for more information;
Peter I, (1981), A Guide to Soil and Land Capability Classification for Land Planers,
Department of Conservation and Extension, Ministry of Agriculture, Zimbabwe.
Activity

1.
 Survey the whole grazing area of the college farm and determine the
vegetation codes for the vegetation conditions available.

2.
3.

Assess the grazing capacity of each vegetation class.

4.

4.4.5 Mapping
Maps are produced by the Surveyor General in Zimbabwe though a few private
companies have come into play. The published maps are known by their scales which
enable further grouping of maps into small-scale map, medium-scale map, and large-
scale map. Map production starts with contact prints. These can be several times
enlarged to produces a generally clearer photographic picture.
Maps: A map is the plan of the ground or generally speaking, is the ground as seen
from the air (bird’s eye view). Maps are produced from aerial photographs
Map production
There are basically two methods by which one can produce a map for land use
planning, that is, from aerial photographs of the land and through ground survey.
Follow the following link for more details;
https://www.esri.com/arcgis-blog/products/mapping/mapping/map-making-step-by-
step/
Also, refer to the book referenced below for more information;
Peter I, (1981), A Guide to Soil and Land Capability Classification for Land Planers,
Department of Conservation and Extension, Ministry of Agriculture, Zimbabwe.
Activity

1.

Collect coordinates of the college farm using a GPS receiver.

2.
3.

Using the collected coordinates draw the college map.

4.
5.

On the map for the college indicate the grazing area, cropping area and farm
buildings..
 6.

4.4.5.2 Uses of map scales

Map scales are very important in map reading because:
1. Enable a large area to be represented on a small piece of paper
2. Identify a linear object on the map
3. Undertake linear measurements on the map
4. Interpretation of measurement from the map and relating to ground detail.
Map availability
Maps may be obtained from the Surveyor General, AGRITEX, Geological Survey,
Road and water development, Local government, Council, and municipalities
depending on the type of information one is looking for. The Surveyor General is the
controller of all map production for the government.
4.4.5.3 Concepts of map production
Science and Geography tell us that the earth or globe is round, is a sphere, and is
spheroid or a geoid. However, all that has to be produced on a flat sheet of paper
(map) or a computer screen with minimum distortions. There is no way an ellipsoid or
a spherical surface can be flattened without distortions. It follows then that a certain
projection from the centre of the globe can be used to represent the globe on a flat
sheet of paper. The link below has more information;
https://docs.qgis.org/2.8/en/docs/gentle_gis_introduction/map_production.html
Activity

1.

List and explain the three types of map projections.

2.
3.

List the pieces of information the maps contain

4.

4.4.6 Scaling
There are three types of scale used:
- a representative fraction (e.g., 1:24,000),

- a verbal scale (e.g., “One inch to the mile”),

- or a graphic scale bar.

Each of these can easily be added to your layout in ArcMap.

Activity

1.

From the college map you drew, determine the scale using the following
methods

2.

a.

Photo – map method

b.
c.

Photo–ground method

d.
e.

Focal length and flying height

f.

4.4.7 Types of maps for land use planning

There are basically four types of maps that are used for land use purposes which are:

land capability classification map




vegetation classification map




present land use map



 proposed land use map

Land Capability Classification map

As mentioned earlier, there are eight land capability classes in Zimbabwe which are
classified according to the degree of limitation and natural ecological regions. These
land classes are divided into two categories which are potential arable land classes
and non-arable land classes. The potential arable land classes can only be determined
through soil or pit coding and the non-arable land classes can easily be seen and can
be delineated through the use of a stereoscope. Land capability classification maps for
land use planning should show all land classes on the farm for easy planning and
effective land use for each land class. Certain symbols are used to represent the land
classes on the maps.
Vegetation classification maps
This classification is based on vegetation coding which basically emphasizes the
dominant tree and grass species present in an area. Vegetation has a great link with
soil condition and in most cases, a certain type of vegetation determines the carrying
capacity of the area, erosion, and drainage, and soil fertility. Land use maps should
show the most dominant tree species and these are more sensitive to soil conditions
and variations than grasses.
Present land use maps
This shows all the physical features and structures on the farm. This includes
buildings, boreholes, dip tanks, roads, dams, arable and non-arable lands as well as
grazing areas.
Proposed land use maps
This shows the structures and intended changes that can be implemented to boost
production and in the short run increase profits of the farm. It is generally a
combination of what is found in the present land use and the intended proposals.
Activity

1.

Imagine you are the incoming manager for your college farm, produce the
following maps;

2.

1.

land capability classification map

2.
 3.

vegetation classification map

4.
5.

present land use map

6.

3.

As part of your new assignment, you were asked to propose more viable land
uses for the college, and draw a proposed land use map for the proposal you
made.

4.
5.

Carry out the land resource inventory for your home area

6.

5.0 UNIT 5: FARM PLANNING

5.1 Introduction
This unit introduces you to the process of annual cropping area calculation, crop
planning, livestock planning and production policy. This will help you to be able to
calculate the most suitable carrying capacities of rangelands.
5.2 Outcomes

Upon completion of the unit, you will be able to:

1.

Calculate the annual cropping area for a farm

2.
3.
 Appreciate the stages to follow in determining annual cropping area

4.
5.

Use appropriate crop rotations that increase yield

6.
7.

Determine the herd composition of a given stock

8.
9.

Describe the steps in ranch planning

10.

5.3 Annual cropping area calculations

Annual Cropping Area (ACA) refers to the estimated area that can be used for
cropping annually. In order to come up with a suitable rotation one needs to calculate
the annual cropping area.
Late planting and poor crop stands result in an inadequate cover and the advantages
got in the early season are wasted when planting a crop. The recommended plant
population must aim at giving maximum crop cover.
Experiments done by Research and Specialist Services have shown that continuous
cropping has an effect of increasing erosion. Crop rotation means that crops are grown
in a regular order year after year within a field.
Rotations are necessary for pest and disease control, soil conservation and soil fertility
maintenance.
ACA calculations procedure
In order to determine the annual cropping area of a particular region the following
procedure must be considered:

i.

Determine the land number

ii.
iii.

Determine the map area from the land capability map

iv.
 v.

Determine the gross area that is, from the land capability map, a deduction of
20% of the arable area mapped gives the gross arable area. This deduction
caters for land lost in squaring off lands for homesteads, roads, reservations,
inaccessible pockets of arable land, and marginal soil areas.

vi.
vii.

Determine the Net Arable Area – an allowance of 10%-25% must be deducted

from the squared-off gross area in order to assess the net arable area. This
caters for mechanical conservation measures, the land taken up by contours,
access roads, and artificial waterways.

viii.

Where the land slope is 0-2%, deduct 10% from the gross arable area, 2.1-5%,
deduct 15% from the gross arable area, 5.1-8%, deduct 20% from the gross
arable area and 8.1-12%, deduct 25% from the gross arable area.

i.

Determine the Net Annual Cropping Area (Net ACA) – the net annual
cropping area is obtained by applying the percentage of cash crop in the
rotation to the net arable area for each of the following soil divisions table

ii.

Table 5.1 Calculated annual cropping areas

Soil type slope Land % crop in Map Gross Net ACA

class rotation area area area
Sands 0-2 II & III 100 100 80 72 72
With or without 0-2 IV 50 100 80 72 36
behaviour textured 2-5 II 50 100 80 68 34
subsoil 2-3 IV 33 100 80 68 23
 5-8 IV 25 100 80 64 16
Sandy loams to clay 0-2 II & III 100 100 80 72 72
loams 0-2 IV 50 100 80 72 36
2-5 II 66 100 80 68 45
2-5 III 50 100 80 68 34
2-5 IV 33 100 80 69 23
5-8 III 33 100 80 64 21
5-8 IV 25 100 80 64 16
8-12 V 25 100 80 60 15
Clay loams to heavy 0-5 I & II 100 100 80 70 70
clays 5-8 III&IV 50 100 80 64 32
8-12 IV 30 100 80 60 20
Marginal vleisoils 0-5 IV 50 100 80 70 35

5.4 Crop planning

Rotation
A crop rotation means that crops are grown in a regular order year after year on the
same piece of land. The primary purpose of rotation is to interrupt the progressive
development of unfavourable features, for example the introduction of grass to restore
structure.
Reasons why rotations may be desirable:

A change of crop to break up the build of pests or diseases




A change of crop in rooting depth to vary the uptake of moisture or nutrients




A nurse crop to prepare the way for a subsequent crop




Maintaining of soil fertility

Crop intensity calculations

100% Cash crop in rotation (M MM M) means 5/5 x 100 = 100%
66% Cash crop in rotation (M C M C M C G G G) means /9x100/1 = 66%
6
 50% Cash crop in rotation (M S M G G G) means /6 x 100 = 50%
3

33% Cash crop in rotation (T M G GG G) means /4 x100/1 =33%

2

25% Cash crop in rotation (T G G G) means ¼ x100 =25%

5..5 Livestock planning
Ranch planning
This planning involves the integration of good animal husbandry and veld
management for optimum sustained production.
Definition of terms
1. Conception rate
This Refers to the number of females that are pregnant as a percentage of the total
number of females that are put to the bull.
2. Calving percentage
This is the number of calves born per females bulled.
3.Weaning percentage
Thisrefers to the number of calves reared to weaning stage per 100 cows bulled
4. Bulling percentage
This refers to the number of bulls per 100 females. This is normally 4%i.e one bull
per 25 cows. The figure can vary for example when using young bulls, when there is
a high population of heifers in the herd, the percentage must be bigger when having a
multi breeding schemes.
5. Livestock unit (LU)
It is the equivalent of an animal that is 500kg.
6. Livestock equivalent factor (LSE)
Its use is to indicate the fraction of a livestock unit for example 250kg cow =250/500
=0.5 LSE
6.Offtake
This refers to the proportion of animals that are to be sold in a livestock enterprise.
7. Carrying capacity (CC) or grazing capacity
This refers to the area of grazing land that is required to support ILU in good
productive or reproductive conduction for a full year without degrading veld or
pasture for example 5 ha/LU or1 LU to 5 HA
8. Stocking rate
It is the area which is allowed per LU during the grazing period or season 20 LU/ha
9. Stocking intensity or grazing intensity or intensity of utilization
For example LU x day /ha or cattle days /ha (CDH)
Steps in ranch planning
1.Fact collection - One must collect as much facts as possible for example using air
photo photographs and field surveys. The aim is to establish natural resources
available on the farm and also the man-made resources available for example water
points, fences, roads, dip tanks, handling facilities, carrying capacity also look at the
farm history for example poisonous plants, the occurrence of predators and prevalence
of diseases.
2. Estimate the carrying capacity – after the collection of facts, work out the carrying
capacity of each vegetation to get the total LUs the farm can support.
3. Plan for livestock- determine the beef production policy and herd composition.
4. lay out fencing – this involves the allocation of paddocks, planning rotations and
water and handling facility requirements.
5.6 Determination of production policy
Beef production systems
The main production options for farmers include breeding, buying stock and the
combination of the two.
Breeding system
In breeding option, there is a range of possibilities that a farmer may market his
livestock at different stages. These range from weaners to slaughter stock finished by
various stages. Categories of breeding in system include:

Breed and sell weaners. Aim at least 75% weaning percent for profitability
assuming recommended supplementary feeding. If selling older stock, aim at
greater than 65% weaning percent.




Breed and sell as yearlings (plus or minus 18 months) or long weaners.




Breed and sell feeders 2 years - 2 and half years as feeders or slaughter stock.




Breed and sell steers as slaughter stock.



 Bred and sell at 4 and half years as slaughter stock

Production Policies
Selling of slaughter stock

Sale of slaughter stock from 2 to 4 years old.




Sale of two and half-year-old feeders




Sale of one and half yearlings or older weaners.




Sale of 6-7 month-old weaners.




Buying weaners




Profitability under the breeding system is highly dependent on cow

productivity.

Buying in system
The production may be based on the buying of different stages of livestock for
example weaners, yearlings or feeder which is finished on the farm either through pen
fattening or off veld.
Factors influencing the choice of policy
1. Farmers' inclinations, ability and resources
Most people will operate most efficiently under a system of production in which they
are most interested. If a farmer has limited interest in cattle, the policy suggested
must be very simple. A hardy breed is most suitable for use under harsh conditions.
Exotic breeds can be used where higher management levels are available.
2. Available grazing and farming development
The smaller the unit in terms of livestock units, the simpler in terms of numbers or
types of stock the farm can carry at any time. The production policy must favour
fewer herds, less/smaller paddocks and water development.
3. Other enterprises on the farm
Ensure that these are compatible for example calving can clash with tobacco reaping
if not well planned. Planting, seedbeds or reaping or can end up being neglected and
eventually profitability may be affected. Consider relative importance of cattle and
consider complimentary enterprises
4. Markets – supply, demand and profitability)
As far as possible, use production lines already established in the district. Systems
involving the production of slaughter stock are much more stable due to guaranteed
prices. This enables accurate planning.
NB: Retention of animals that should have been sold easily upsets a cattle policy on a
fully stocked farm. Farm turnover is reduced and the farm becomes overstocked
resulting in lower conception, reduced weight gains, decreased weaner weights and
profit is affected.
5. Topography and Vermin (predator incidence)
Where these are unfavorable conditions, breeding enterprises are not generally
recommended for example a hilly country with leopards, jackals and hyenas. These
areas are not suitable for calves.
6. Efficiency of production
Calving percentage, weaning percentage, cow productivity and mass for age, must be
realistically estimated. Consider efficiency in relation to input costs.
7. Planted pastures
These serve to increase the carrying capacity of the property and this widens the
choice of production systems that can be considered.

5.7 Determination of herd composition

It is important to calculate theoretical herd composition for any production system
because of the following reasons.
In order to arrive at a herd which will fit the estimated CC i.e. to avoid
overstocking
In order to plan the formation of sub-herds
In order to plan paddocking
 In order to plan veld management
To plan general management feed requirement and bull requirement
For budgeting
The herd composition depends on production policy. The herd composition is usually
compiled for the period when carrying capacity is most limiting or when stock
number is greatest, so that overstocking does not occur for example midsummer, in
February when arable lands and vleis are inaccessible and stock numbers are usually
greatest with calves at foot because of spring calving

Assumptions
Certain information is needed to calculate any accurate herd composition for example
the following:
Livestock Equivalency (LSE) using summer figures.
Production policy
bulling ratio or percentage,
calving percentage and weaning percentage
replacement rate
Culling percentage which is usually 16 - 25 %.
Age to bull heifers and how to dispose of extra heifers
Total farm carrying capacity
Time of disposing cull cows
Example of herd composition
Assumptions
Production policies-breed and sell excess heifers and 3 and half year steers
Bulling ratio 4%
Calving percentage 80 %
Age of bulling heifer 2 years
Replacement rate 20 %
Extra heifers for replacement 25% of the 20 % in case of mishaps for final selling
Heifers bred on farm
Culling of cows prior to bulling (just before)
Excess heifers and steers are fattened on veld and sold in the autumn of that year.
(Final selling of heifers done prior to bulling)
Farm carrying capacity - 500 L.U
No mortality
Livestock Unit Equivalents factors are as follows:
Bulls 1.4
 Mature cows 0.9
Calves 0.37
1 year steer 0.6
1 year heifer 0.56
2 year heifers 0.7
2 year heifers 0.77
2 year steers 0.79
3 year 0.98

Table 5.1 100 cow unit

Class Number End of Livestock Total Total LU x Actual

summer equivalent LUs factor (1.93) animals
weight
Breeding 80 450 0.9 72 1.93 138
cows
Breeding 20 385 0.77 15 1.93 28
heifers
Bulls 4 700 1.4 6 1.93 11
Calves 80 450 0.37 18 1.93 34
Cull cows 20 450 0.9 30 1.93 57
1 year 40 300 0.6 24 1.93 46
steer
1 year 40 280 0.56 22 1.93 42
heifer
2 year 40 395 0.79 32 1.93 62
steer
3 year 40 490 0.98 39 1.93 75
steers
Total 258 493

5.8.Summary

The topics looked at how livestock herds can be determined. The unit also covered the
importance of carrying out the activity. Annual area calculations are carried out as
well to improve the use of land.

5.9 Activities
You are an extension agent in your area carry out the following calculations:
Annual cropping area
Cropping intensity
Livestock carrying capacity
Identify some inappropriate land use practices and advise accordingly

Aspect Economic Research and Entrepreneurship

Value Innovation (Business
Opportunity Opportunity)
Factors affecting land Setting up of Research on Executing business
use planning viable value suitability of consultants services
chains on farms various crop and for farmers.
animal
enterprises under
different land
classes
Adding value on Research on best Adoption and
Land Suitability land by adapting and effective implementation of
Assessment it to suit various ways of possible sustainable
Sustainability in classes of land improvements proposals for a given
agricultural for example eco- which can be farm.
development,. tourism done on a piece
of land or a farm
Determination of Research on Implement viable
Livestock planning carrying economic ways and sustainable
(Herd composition) capacities of of stocking livestock value
various farms. livestock chains.

UNIT 6

6.0. Emerging technologies

6.1. Introduction
 This unit will deal with the integration of new technologies within the existing ones.
As new technology becomes integrated with traditional methods, it results in
improved production of maps and easier identification of land features. The unit gives
an overview of how the remote sensing system works. Remote sensing is one of the
data sources used in GIS. Through the use of satellites, we now have a continuing
program of data acquisition for the entire world with time frames ranging from a
couple of weeks to a matter of hours. We also now have access to remotely sensed
images in digital form, allowing rapid integration of the results of remote sensing.

6.2. Unit Objectives

Students should be able to:

· Identify new technologies being used in farm planning.

· Explain different platforms which carry sensors in remote sensing.

· Describe how remote sensing acquires images from an overhead perspective.

· Demonstrate data collection and analysis using the global positioning system and GIS.

6.3. Unit outcomes

By the end of this unit students are able to:

· Apply remote sensing techniques in land resources inventory and evaluation.

Demonstrate data collection and analysis using the global positioning system
and GIS.

· Use GPS receiver and GIS packages in map production.

6.4. Fundamental Considerations

Energy Source in Remote Sensing.

Sensors can be divided into two broad groups—passive and active. Passive sensors
measure ambient levels of existing sources of energy, while active ones provide their
source of energy. The majority of remote sensing is done with passive sensors, for
which the sun is the major energy source. The earliest example of this is photography.
With airborne cameras, we have long been able to measure and record the reflection
of light off-earth features. While aerial photography is still a major form of remote
sensing, newer solid-state technologies have extended capabilities for viewing in the
visible and near-infrared wavelengths to include longer wavelength solar radiation as
well. However, not all passive sensors use energy from the sun. Thermal infrared and
passive microwave sensors both measure natural earth energy emissions.

By contrast, active sensors provide a source of energy. The most familiar form of this
is flash photography. However, in environmental and mapping applications, the best
example is RADAR. RADAR systems emit energy in the microwave region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The reflection of that energy by the earth's surface
materials is then measured to produce an image of the area sensed. There are two
main types of remote sensing which are active and passive. Active remote sensing
devices include such as radar, direct radiation of a particular form towards an object
and then detect the amount of that energy which is radiated by the object. Passive
remote sensing relies on the radiation originating from some other source, principally
the sun.

Most remote sensing devices make use of electromagnetic energy. However, the
electromagnetic spectrum is very broad and not all wavelengths are equally effective
for remote sensing purposes.

When electromagnetic energy strikes a material, three types of interaction can follow:
reflection, absorption, and/or transmission. if we look at the nature of this reflected
component over a range of wavelengths, we can characterize the result as a spectral
response pattern.

In the visual interpretation of remotely sensed images, a variety of image

characteristics are brought into consideration: color (or tone in the case of
panchromatic images), texture, size, shape, pattern, context, and the like. However,
with computer-assisted interpretation, it is most often simply color (i.e., the spectral
response pattern) that is used.

Remote sensing (RS) is the science and art of acquiring information about an object,
area or phenomenon without actually being in contact with it. RS involves using
sensors to record reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing and applying
the information. Remote sensing devices may be carried on a variety of platforms.
Characteristics of both the platform and sensing device determine the type of the
remotely sensed data: spectral, spatial, radiometric and temporal aspects of data
resolution and extent. Remotely sensed images have a number of features which make
them ideal land resources inventory and GIS data sources

Remote sensing provides a regional view and repetitive looks at the same
area
Remote sensors "see" over a broader portion of the spectrum than the human
eye Sensors can focus in on a very specific bandwidth in an image,they can
also look at a number of bandwidths simultaneously
Remote sensors often record signals electronically and provide geo-
referenced, digital, data

6.4. The remote sensing system

Remote sensing normally acquires image from an overhead perspective.The image is

a result of detecting electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted from the earth’s
surface.

Figure 1 below describes the remote sensing system.

Figure 1: Remote Sensing System

6.4.1. The Electromagnetic radiation

Principally is the energy from the sun of different wavelengths (spectrum). EM

energy is characterized by wavelength and frequency. The energy travels in waves at
the speed of light. Wavelength is the distance between successive crests and is
measured in (m) or metres. The number of cycles of the waves passing a fixed point is
known as frequency. Frequency is specified as cycles per second (Hz). Long waves
have low frequency and short waves have high frequency.

C = λ x ϰ Where; C = speed of light; λ is wavelength and ϰ is frequency.

Figure 2 below describes the EM spectrum

Figure 2: Electromagnetic Spectrum

The EM spectrum lists categories of all possible sizes of EM waves and their names.
Only a portion of these will be useful for RS.

Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is the shortest wavelength with practical application in

remote sensing. Some Earth surface materials, primarily rocks and minerals, fluoresce
or emit visible light when illuminated by UV radiation

The Visible region is defined by a wave range from approximately 0.4 to 0.7 mm.
The longest visible wavelength is red and the shortest is violet. Common wavelengths
of what we perceive as particular colors from the visible portion of the spectrum are
Violet (0.4-0.446μm), Blue (0.446-0.500μm), Green (0.5-0.578 μm), Yellow (0.578-
0.592 μm), Orange (0.592-0.629 μm) and Red (0.620-0.7 μm).

The Infrared region (IR) covers the wavelength range from 0.7 to 100 μm. The
infrared region is divided into two sub-regions: the reflected-IR (0.7 to 3 μm) and
thermal-IR (3-10 μm). In remote sensing, the reflective IR spectrum is used in a
similar way to the visible spectrum. The source of energy for the thermal infrared RS
is the object itself and it is used for temperature measurement

The Microwave region is a region which has gained much importance in remote
sensing applications in recent times. The microwave region extends from 1mm to 1m
wavelength. This covers the longest wavelengths used for remote sensing.

RS may be classified accurately to wavelength as, Visible and reflective infrared RS,
Thermal infrared RS, and Microwave RS.

The energy source of the visible and reflective infrared is the sun. The detective of
objects is based on their reflectance. The source of energy for the thermal infrared RS
is the object itself.

6.4.2. Energy interaction with the atmosphere

As energy travels from the sun through the atmosphere to the objects on earth it is
reflected and travels again through the atmosphere to the airborne sensor. As EM
waves travel through the atmosphere they may be scattered, absorbed or transmitted.

6.4.2.1Absorption and transmission

Part of the EM radiation is absorbed by Ozone, Carbon dioxide and water vapour. The
absorption depends on wavelength. As a result, some ranges of wavelength cannot be
used for RS because energy at such wavelength is absorbed. The part of the EM
spectrum that is not absorbed by atmospheric gas and available for RS is known as the
atmospheric window.

The atmospheric window includes a Window in the visible and reflected IR region
(0.4 to 2 μm) used by optical RS. Windows in the thermal IR region between 3 to 5
μm (two windows) and between 8 to 14 μm.

Energy detected by the sensor may be taken in different ways, direct from the sun,
reflection from the ground, reflection by clouds, and emission from the atmosphere.
Gases in the atmosphere absorb solar radiation such that the energy received on earth
is different from that which can be measured from outer space.
6.4.2.2. Atmospheric scattering

Scattering occurs when particles of gaseous molecules in the atmosphere cause EM

waves to be redirected from their original path. The amount of scattering depends on
wavelength, amount of particles and distance. There are 3 types of scattering, namely,
Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering and non-selective scattering. Rayleigh scattering
occurs when EM radiation interacts with particles that are smaller than the wavelength
of incoming light. Examples of particles which cause Rayleigh scattering are nitrite
and oxygen. Rayleigh scattering causes the sky to look blue because of all short
wavelengths (blue) and diminishes the contrast in photos.

Mie scattering is caused by particles which are about the same size as the radiation
wavelength such as aerosol ( a mixture of gases) water vapour and dust. It is restricted
from the lower atmosphere where larger particles are more abundant and dominate
under overcast cloud formation and affect the entire spectral region from the near UV
up to and including near IR. Non-selective scattering occurs when the size of the
particle is much larger than the radiation wavelength. All the wavelengths are
scattered equally as a result. Objects which cause non-selective scattering such as
clouds appear white in colour.

6.4.3. Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with the Earth’s surface

We see things only when there is light, it is the reflected light that makes objects
visible. All matter reflects, absorbs and transmits electromagnetic radiation in a
unique way. This is because all matter is composed of atoms and molecules with a
particular composition therefore the appearance of all matter is characteristic. Remote
sensing is concerned with the reflected portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Reflectance is defined as the ratio of incident radiation on a sample surface to
reflected radiation from the surface. Reflectance with respect to wavelength is called
spectral reflectance. A basic assumption in remote sensing is that spectral reflectance
is unique and different from one object to an unlike object. When a surface is smooth
we get specular or mirror-like reflection where all (or almost all) of the energy is
directed away from the surface in a single direction. Diffuse reflection occurs when
the surface is rough and the energy is reflected almost uniformly in all directions.
Most earth surface features lie somewhere between perfectly specular or perfectly
diffuse reflectors.

6.4.3.1. Spectral reflectance curves

Spectral reflectance curves show a fraction of incident radiation that is reflected as a

function of wavelength. They are used to determine the specifications of the sensor
that can be used to monitor a target.

Reflectance properties of vegetation

Reflectance of vegetation depends on leaf orientation, structure of the canopy, cell

structure of the leaves, leaf development and water content in the plant. Reflection of
red and blue is low as compared to green and plants have high reflectance of the near
IR. In the middle infrared reflection is determined by free water in leaf tissue, more
free water results in less reflectance. Plants look yellow towards harvest time because
there is more reflection of the red portion of EM spectrum (no photosynthesis) and
also leaves are dry and there is high reflectance of the middle IR portion. The spectral
characteristics of the plant allow its health and type to be studied from optical RS
data. Figure 3 below is a typical Spectral reflectance curve of vegetation.

Figure 3: Spectral reflectance curve for vegetation

Reflectance properties of soil

Soil reflectance depends on; organic matter content which exhibits absorption in all
wavelengths in the visible but with higher absorption in the green part due to antho-
cynin compounds created by breakdown of chlorophyll.The higher the organic matter,
the lower the reflectance, moisture content which selectively absorbs at all
wavelengths and increases absorption at longer wavelengths. Reflectance is low when
the soil is wet, chemical content which affects reflectance due to selective
absorption; the most obvious are ferric compounds that absorb green and blue bands
therefore appearing red. Surface roughness on which rough surfaces reflect lower
than fine textured ones due to shadowing

Reflectance properties of water

Water reflects less incoming radiation as compared to vegetation and soil. Longer
wavelength visible and near infrared radiation is absorbed more by water than shorter
visible wavelengths. Water typically looks blue or blue-green due to stronger
reflectance at shorter wavelengths, and darker if viewed at red or near infrared
wavelengths. Suspended sediment in the upper layers of the water body, gives a
brighter appearance to water. Absorbs all energy beyond 1200 nm and high reflection
in water indicates presence of impurities including silt, algae or sediments. Figure 4
describes the reflectance properties of different features
Figure 4: Reflectance properties different land features

Spectral response and object identification

The objective of remote sensing is to identify objects or features on the surface.

Target can reflect different wavelength energy which can be used to detect them with
special sensors which are a sensitive at reflected wavelength

Objects or features can be viewed at different wavelengths depending on their

reflectivity. The reflectivity will also depend on the condition of the surface. The
identification of objects or features therefore involves selecting the wavelengths
(window) which will reveal more clearly the desired features. The colour of the
features or objects will differ if looked at different wavelengths and clarity of the
images will also differ. Remote sensing devices are equipped with sensors which can
detect reflected/emitted radiation at different wavelengths in order to utilize different
properties of the features and objects at different wavelengths to identify them. The
specific window where EM radiation is monitored is known as channels or bands. A
spectral channel is a discrete portion of the spectrum measured by a satellite
instrument, defined by a filter function (vs. wavelength). Satellite channels have a
finite width, typically ranging from around 0.2 to 10.

6.4.4. Sensors and platforms

Given recent developments in sensors, a variety of platforms are now available for the
capture of remotely sensed data. Remote sensing devices may be carried on a variety
of platforms. Characteristics of both the platform and sensing device determine the
type of the remotely sensed data in terms of spectral, spatial, radiometric and temporal
aspects of data resolution and extent. Sensors are devices that measure and record EM
energy. This is the primary focus of RS because the recorded energy is the data that
will be used to identify the types of targets or objects. They are divided into passive
and active types. Passive sensors depend on external source of energy, so they depend
on reflected or emitted energy. Active sensors have their own source of energy.
Figure 5: Passive and active sensors

Platforms are structures which bear the sensors, maybe stable or moving. Most
common for RS are aircrafts and satellites which give rise to two major types of RS
namely airborne and space borne. Airborne observations are carried out using aircraft
carrying cameras or scanners, other vehicles may include balloons, airships or kites.
Aircrafts present difficulty in RS because of difficulty in navigation. Comparatively
satellites have no problem of navigation and will produce more geometrically good
data.

Airborne RS is possible from 100m to 40 km. In space borne RS Satellites for earth
observation are placed at 150 to 36000 km altitude. The specific orbit depends on the
objective of the mission e.g. continuous observation of large areas or detailed
observation of small areas. Different types of satellites available include: Weather
satellites; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (launched by
USA), METEOR (launched by RUSSIA), Land Observation satellites; LANDSAT
(launched by USA), Système Pour L'Observation de la Terre (SPOT) (launched by
France), IRS (launched by India), ERS (launched by European Union) and Marine
observation Satellites; MOS (Marine Observation satellite) to mention a few.

6.4.5. Remote sensing images

Images are as a result of recording electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted by

an object. These images are found in analogue and digital form. Images from scanners
are in digital form in contrast to analogue images from cameras.

Analogue images are a pictorial representation of surface/feature. The image is

created by using light sensitized material or ink/electrostatic plots. Digital image is
representation of surface/feature by numerals representing the level of intensity of
response received on a photo diode or similar. Image is stored in raster format with
the intensity of each cell or pixel represented by digital number DN. Choice between
Analogue and Digital depends on the wavelength of energy source measures and the
desired method of analysis. Advantages of digital images is that Image processing can
be done using computer automatically and Image appearance may be enhanced for
visual interpretation

6.4.5.1. Digital images

Remote sensing image data are measurements of Electromagnetic energy; the image
data are stored in a regular grid or raster format. The single elements are called pixels
(picture elements). For each pixel the measurements are stored in digital number (DN)
values for each wavelength (band). Each image exists in several bands and the
number of bands depends on the type of the sensor. For example a LANDSAT image
has seven bands.

Figure 6: Data structure of satellite image

The 'quality' of image data is determined by image resolution, separated into; spatial,
spectral, radiometric and temporal resolution. Spatial resolution is the size of the
smallest possible feature that can be detected. Objects that are smaller than cell
resolution cannot be detected.

Images where only large objects are visible are said to have low or coarse resolution
while images where smaller objects can be seen are said to have fine or high
resolution. Spectral resolution is defined as the number and width (wavelength) of
bands of electromagnetic energy detectable by a given sensor. Spectral resolution can
range from one to hundreds of channels in a digital sensor, from the upper end of the
ultraviolet light to the thermal infrared for optical sensors.

Radiometric resolution of an imaging system describes its ability to discriminate

differences in energy. Sensors with finer radiometric resolution are more sensitive and
can detect small differences in reflected or emitted energy. The satellite images are
made up of recorded brightness values which represent the magnitude of the reflected
electromagnetic energy in a given channel. The radiometric resolution here would
refer to the sampling rate of the brightness values from low brightness say (0 for
black) to highest brightness (say 16 or 256 for white). Radiometric resolution differs
according to the way a sensor stores the image. Two most common types of images
are 4-bit and 8-bit. 4-bit images record brightness values with values from 0 to 15
while 8-bit images record values from 0 to 255) 8-bit images have higher resolution
than 4-bit images and present more clear details.

Temporal resolution is the time between two successive image acquisitions over the
same location on earth. This time differs from satellite to satellite. This time is also
known as revisit time.

6.4.5.2. Analogue images

Aerial photography is the oldest and most widely used method of remote sensing.
Cameras mounted in light aircraft flying between 200 and 15,000 m capture a large
quantity of detailed information. Aerial photos provide an instant visual inventory of a
portion of the earth's surface and can be used to create detailed maps. Aerial
photographs commonly are taken by commercial aerial photography firms which own
and operate specially modified aircraft equipped with large format mapping quality
cameras. Camera and platform configurations can be grouped in terms of oblique and
vertical. The resulting images give a view as if the observer is looking out an airplane
window. These images are easier to interpret than vertical photographs, but it is
difficult to locate and measure features on them for mapping purposes.

High oblique photography is taken with the axis of the camera intentionally tilted so
as to include the horizon; it is useful where panoramic views of large areas are
required as visual aids to supplement existing maps or vertical air photographs. Low
oblique photographs are taken with the axis of the camera tilted to a lesser angle so as
not to include the horizon. It has specific applications in various fields of photo
interpretation. Although the oblique tend to present the ground in a natural way, their
major disadvantage is that the incorporate a lot of “dead ground” in areas where there
is intervening high terrain or vegetation

Vertical aerial photography is taken with the camera pointed straight down. The
resulting images depict ground features in plan form and are easily compared with
maps. Aerial photos depict features such as field patterns and vegetation which are
often omitted on maps. Comparison of old and new aerial photos can also capture
changes within an area over time. Vertical aerial photos contain subtle displacements
due to relief, tip and tilt of the aircraft and lens distortion.

Overlapping images can be viewed with a stereoscope to create a three-dimensional

view, called a stereo model.

6.5 Geographic information Systems

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and

analyzing geographic phenomena that exist, and events that occur, on Earth. GIS
technology integrates common database operations such as query and statistical
analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by
maps. These abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and make it
valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises for explaining events,
predicting outcomes, and planning strategies. Map making and geographic analysis
are not new, but a GIS performs these tasks faster and with more sophistication than
do traditional manual methods.
In general Geographical Information System refers to a system for input, storage,
analysis and output of georeferenced information.Geographic implies that locations
of the data items are known or can be calculated in terms of geographic coordinates
(latitude, longitude). Information implies that the data in a GIS are organized to yield
useful knowledge. In fact data can be defined as verifiable facts about the real world
and information is data organized to reveal patterns. System implies that a GIS is
made up of several interrelated and linked components with different functions: input,
management, analysis and presentation.
Spatial data is data whose location (x,y) is known or data that is spatially referenced
or georeferenced data.
6.5.1. Geographical data types
Geographic data fall into five categories:

Nominal data describing names, for example field G2, Harare, Bulawayo




Ordinal data describing quality between two extremes, for example, High
altitude, Medium, Low




Ratio data describing quantities which are expressible, as a ratio of whole

numbers, for example, 0,1 2,3,4,5,…,n




Interval for example. -20,-18,0,1,2,5




Cyclic or directional, for example Compass direction. Special problem is that

the number that follows 359 degrees is 0 degrees

6.5.2. GIS data types

The basic data type in a GIS reflects traditional data found on a map. Accordingly,
GIS technology utilizes two basic types of data. These are:Spatial data; describes the
absolute and relative location of geographic features. Attribute data which describes
characteristics of spatial features. These characteristics can be quantitative and/
qualitative in nature. Attribute data is often referred to as tabular
The coordinate location of a vegetation stand would be spatial data, while the
characteristics of that vegetation stand, e.g. cover group, dominant species, crown
closure, height, etc., would be attributed data.
6.5.3. Purpose of GIS
The ultimate purpose of GIS is to provide support for decision making based on
spatial data. GIS applications include mapping, measurement, analysis, monitoring,
modeling and management. Geographic databases have 6 major components aimed at
answering the following questions

Where is it? That is geographic location of a feature on the earth’s surface that
is coordinates




What is at? That is the object or feature that is occupying a certain location

What is it? That is the description of the object or feature (attributes)

When did it exist? That is time when the object or feature occupied a certain
location




What has changed? That is the changes that have happened to an object or
feature with time (trends)




What if? That is the predictions of what may happen (modeling)

6.5.4. GIS subsystems

GIS is a computer based system that provides four sets of capabilities to handle
georeferenced data. A GIS has four main functional subsystems. These are:

Data Input subsystem

 


Data storage and retrieval (management) subsystem




Data Manipulation and Analysis subsystem




Data output and display subsystem

Data Input
A data input subsystem allows the user to capture, collect, and transform spatial and
thematic data into digital form. The data inputs are usually derived from a
combination of hard copy maps, aerial photographs, remotely sensed images, reports,
survey documents, etc.
Data Storage and Retrieval
The data storage and retrieval subsystem organizes the data, spatial and attribute, in a
form which permits it to be quickly retrieved by the user for analysis, and permits
rapid and accurate updates to be made to the database. This component usually
involves use of a database management system (DBMS) for maintaining attribute
data. Spatial data is usually encoded and maintained in a proprietary file format.
Data Manipulation and Analysis
The data manipulation and analysis subsystem allows the user to define and execute
spatial and attribute procedures to generate derived information. This subsystem is
commonly thought of as the heart of a GIS, and usually distinguishes it from other
database information systems.
Data Output
The data output subsystem allows the user to generate graphic displays, normally
maps, and tabular reports representing derived information products.

Components of GIS
An operational GIS also has a series of components that combine to make the system
work. These components are critical to a successful GIS and they are six as in figure
Hardware
Hardware is the computer system on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs
on a wide range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop
computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations.
Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display
geographic information.

GIS subsystems
GIS is a computer based system that provides four sets of capabilities to handle
georeferenced data. A GIS has four main functional subsystems. These are:

Data Input subsystem




Data storage and retrieval (management) subsystem




Data Manipulation and Analysis subsystem




Data output and display subsystem

Data Input
A data input subsystem allows the user to capture, collect, and transform spatial and
thematic data into digital form. The data inputs are usually derived from a
combination of hard copy maps, aerial photographs, remotely sensed images, reports,
survey documents, etc.
Data Storage and Retrieval
The data storage and retrieval subsystem organizes the data, spatial and attribute, in a
form which permits it to be quickly retrieved by the user for analysis, and permits
rapid and accurate updates to be made to the database. This component usually
involves use of a database management system (DBMS) for maintaining attribute
data. Spatial data is usually encoded and maintained in a proprietary file format.

Data Manipulation and Analysis

The data manipulation and analysis subsystem allows the user to define and execute
spatial and attribute procedures to generate derived information. This subsystem is
commonly thought of as the heart of a GIS, and usually distinguishes it from other
database information systems.
Data Output
The data output subsystem allows the user to generate graphic displays, normally
maps, and tabular reports representing derived information products.
6.5.4. Components of GIS
An operational GIS also has a series of components that combine to make the system
work. These components are critical to a successful GIS and they are six as in figure
6.1.
Hardware
Hardware is the computer system on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs
on a wide range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop
computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations.
Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display
geographic information. Examples of open source and commercial softwares are
presented in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1: GIS software

Commercial Open Source

ESRI ArcINFO, ArcView, GRASS

ArcGIS QGIS
MapInfo JUMP
Genamap GeoTools
ILWIS (Academic) FGIS
Microimages TNT GMT
Manifold OGR
Mapwindows

Data
Perhaps the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and
related tabular data can be collected in-house, compiled to custom specifications and
requirements, or occasionally purchased from a commercial data provider. A GIS can
integrate spatial data with other existing data resources, often stored in a corporate
DBMS. The integration of spatial data (often proprietary to the GIS software), and
tabular data stored in a DBMS is a key functionality afforded by GIS.
People
GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and
develop plans for applying it to real world problems. GIS users range from technical
specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use it to help them
perform their work. The identification of GIS specialists versus end users is often
critical to the proper implementation of GIS technology.
Procedures
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed implementation plan and
business rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to each
organization.

Network
A centralized computer server which combines the five components listed above to
desktop computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations.

6.5.5 Models of representing geographic data

The two fundamental ways of conceptualising geographic phenomena which are:
Discrete objects (entities), in this view, the world is empty, except where it is
occupied by objects with well-defined boundaries that are instances of generally
recognized categories e.g. dams. Continuous (e.g. temperature and altitude), the
continuous field view represents the real world as a finite number of variables, each
one defined at every possible position, e.g. temperature and altitude. In the object
view, objects are distinguished by their dimensions, and naturally fall into categories
of points, lines, or areas (polygons). Continuous fields, on the other hand, can be
distinguished by what varies, and how smoothly, for example, cliffs are places in
continuous fields where elevation changes suddenly, rather than smoothly.
Continuous fields can be distinguished by what is being measured at a location.

Continuous fields and discrete objects define two conceptual views of geographic
phenomena, but they do not solve the problem of digital representation. A continuous
field view still potentially contains an infinite amount of information if it defines the
value of the variable at every point, since there is an infinite number of points in any
defined geographic area. Discrete objects can also require an infinite amount of
information for full description – for example, a coastline contains an infinite amount
of information if it is mapped in infinite detail. Two methods are used to reduce
geographic phenomena to forms that can be coded in computer databases, and we call
these raster and vector. In principle, both can be used to code both fields and discrete
objects, but there is a strong association between raster and fields, and between vector
and discrete objects.
6.5.6 Vector data model
All spatial data models are approaches for storing the spatial location of geographic
features in a database. Vector storage implies the use of vectors (directional lines) to
represent a geographic feature. Vector data is characterized by the use of sequential
points or vertices to define a linear segment. Each vertex consists of an X coordinate
and a Y coordinate. Vector lines are often referred to as arcs and consist of a string of
vertices terminated by a node. A node is defined as a vertex that starts or ends an arc
segment.
Point features are defined by one coordinate pair, a vertex. Polygonal features are
defined by a set of closed coordinate pairs. In vector representation, the storage of the
vertices for each feature is important, as well as the connectivity between features,
e.g. the sharing of common vertices where features connect.

A point may be described by an ordered pair of coordinates {x,y} defining

its location, as well as a list of attributes.




A line or polylines may be described as an ordered set of n points defining

its location (x ,y ,…,x ,y ) together with an associated list of attributes.
1 1 n n

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

Polygon (Area) may be defined by a line which describes the location of its
boundary, together with a list of attributes of the area itself. Generally, the
first and last points of the boundary are the same (x ,y ,…,x ,y
n 1 n 1)

Module Summary
The module covered the importance of carrying out plans for farms, resettlements and
communal areas. Students were introduced to the concepts of map production for land
use , crop and livestock planning. Different methods of farm planning were
covered.The developments of graphical and analytical functions in GIS software
provide numerous valuable tools that facilitate map creation and distribution.
Compared to analog methods of map creation, the application of GIS software tools
represents a significant simplification of the production process and an important
reduction of creation time and production costs.Within GIS software, manipulation
and analysis of various types of geomorphological information, for example,
delineation, measurement, mathematical operations and others, and the design and
production of the map are possible.

Activity
i) Describe the following terms and apply them where necessary:

Geographic and Plane coordinate system

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

Map projections
 
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Global Positioning System (GPS)

Reference Materials
Buckley, D. J. (2013). The GIS Primer. An Introduction to Geographic Information
Systems: www.esri.com/library: http://www.usgs.gov/research/gis/title.html: US
Geological Survey contains a lot of information about basic GIS concepts.
www.gis.com: The homepage of GIS on the web.
http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/
David Watson. 2016. Cambridge IGCSE ICT Theory Workbook, Cambridge
IGCSE ICT

http://www.merit.edu/~tmwhite/design.html

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Web Wonk - http://www.dsiegel.com/tips/index.html

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Yale C/AIM Web Style Guide -http://info.med.yale.edu/caim/manual/

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Guide to Web Style from Sun Microsystems - http://www.sun.com/styleguide/

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http://www.wikispaces.com/help+teachers

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http://educationalwikis.wikispaces.com

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 Sylvia Langfield& Dave Duddell Computer Science Book

GeoComm International Corporation. April 2000. Internet Publication: GIS Data

Depot. URL http://www.gisdatadepot.com
Jones, Jim. April 2000. Personal Interview. Director, Southern Piedmont
Agricultural Research.
Radford University. March 2000. Department of Geography. Internet Publication:
Department of Geography’s Geoserver. URL http://www.runet.edu/~geoserve/and
Extension Center.
USGS National Mapping Information. April 2000. Internet Publication: URL
http://mapping.usgs.go.