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Nanosystems in Pharmaceutical Technology

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A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Nanochemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2021) | Viewed by 42769

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Valentina Venuti

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Guest Editor

Università degli Studi di Messina, Messina, Italy
Interests: drug delivery systems; polymeric materials; FTIR-ATR spectroscopy; Raman spectroscopy; neutron techniques; materials characterization

Prof. Dr. Rosanna Stancanelli

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Università degli Studi di Messina, Messina, Italy
Interests: cyclodextrins; inclusion complex; pharmaceutical development; nanotechnology in drug delivery

Prof. Dr. Silvana Tommasini

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Università degli Studi di Messina, Messina, Italy
Interests: cyclodextrins; inclusion complex; pharmaceutical development; nanotechnology in drug delivery

Prof. Dr. Cinzia Anna Ventura

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Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
Interests: drug delivery; drug/cyclodextrin inclusion complexes; polymeric nanoparticles; cancer diseases; antimicrobial drugs; Alzheimer’s disease
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Vincenza Crupi

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Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98122 Messina, Italy
Interests: drug delivery systems; polymeric materials; FTIR-ATR spectroscopy; Raman spectroscopy; neutron techniques; materials characterization
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Domenico Majolino

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Università degli Studi di Messina, Messina, Italy
Interests: drug delivery systems; polymeric materials; FTIR-ATR spectroscopy; Raman spectroscopy; neutron techniques; materials characterization

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The development of new therapeutic products is not very often adequate to properly enhance those properties that usually limit their biological applications, such as water solubility, circulation time, and pharmacokinetic profile. Furthermore, new potentially therapeutic molecules fail to permeate the cell membrane, thus requiring a high dose to obtain a good bioavailability with consequent toxicity and undesired side effects. In this scenario, nanotechnology, through the employment of materials in the nanoscale range, is currently being developed and looks particularly promising in revolutionizing targeted drug delivery, gene therapy, diagnostics, and many related areas of research.

The aim of this Special Issue is to go deep inside the challenges in “Nanosystems in Pharmaceutical Technology”, presenting recent innovations in nanomaterials for biomedical applications. As Guest Editors, we cordially invite you to contribute a research paper or comprehensive review on any aspect related to this topic.

Prof. Dr. Valentina Venuti
Prof. Dr. Rosanna Stancanelli
Prof. Dr. Silvana Tommasini
Prof. Dr. Cinzia Anna Ventura
Prof. Dr. Vincenza Crupi
Prof. Dr. Domenico Majolino
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Nanopharmaceuticals
Nanodiagnostics
Nanotherapeutics
Nanosized targeted drug delivery
Biomedical applications
Nanomedicine

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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17 pages, 2548 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of New Targeted Inulin Complex Nanoaggregates for siRNA Delivery in Antitumor Therapy

by Gennara Cavallaro, Carla Sardo, Emanuela Fabiola Craparo and Gaetano Giammona

Molecules 2021, 26(6), 1713; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26061713 - 19 Mar 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1974

Abstract

Here, a novel strategy of formulating efficient polymeric carriers based on the already described INU-IMI-DETA for gene material whose structural, functional, and biological properties can be modulated and improved was successfully investigated. In particular, two novel derivatives of INU-IMI-DETA graft copolymer were synthesized by chemical functionalisation with epidermal growth factor (EGF) or polyethylenglycol (PEG), named INU-IMI-DETA-EGF and INU-IMI-DETA-PEG, respectively, in order to improve the performance of already described “inulin complex nanoaggregates” (ICONs). The latter were thus prepared by appropriately mixing the two copolymers, by varying each component from 0 to 100 wt% on the total mixture, named EP-ICONs. It was seen that the ability of the INU-IMI-DETA-EGF/INU-IMI-DETA-PEG polymeric mixture to complex siGL3 increases with the increase in the EGF-based component in the EP-ICONs and, for each sample, with the increase in the copolymer:siRNA weight ratio (R). On the other hand, the susceptibility of loaded siRNA towards RNase decreases with the increase in the pegylated component in the polymeric mixture. At all R values, the average size and the zeta potential values are suitable for escaping from the RES system and suitable for prolonged intravenous circulation. By means of biological characterisation, it was shown that MCF-7 cells are able to internalize mainly the siRNA-loaded into EGF-decorated complexes, with a significant difference from ICONs, confirming its targeting function. The targeting effect of EGF on EP-ICONs was further demonstrated by a competitive cell uptake study, i.e., after cell pre-treatment with EGF. Finally, it was shown that the complexes containing both EGF and PEG are capable of promoting the internalisation and therefore the transfection of siSUR, a siRNA acting against surviving mRNA, and to increase the sensitivity to an anticancer agent, such as doxorubicin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanosystems in Pharmaceutical Technology)

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18 pages, 3522 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Formulation of Cannabidiol in Colloidal Lipid Carriers

by Nadine Monika Francke, Frederic Schneider, Knut Baumann and Heike Bunjes

Molecules 2021, 26(5), 1469; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26051469 - 8 Mar 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4779

Abstract

In this study, the general processability of cannabidiol (CBD) in colloidal lipid carriers was investigated. Due to its many pharmacological effects, the pharmaceutical use of this poorly water-soluble drug is currently under intensive research and colloidal lipid emulsions are a well-established formulation option for such lipophilic substances. To obtain a better understanding of the formulability of CBD in lipid emulsions, different aspects of CBD loading and its interaction with the emulsion droplets were investigated. Very high drug loads (>40% related to lipid content) could be achieved in emulsions of medium chain triglycerides, rapeseed oil, soybean oil and trimyristin. The maximum CBD load depended on the type of lipid matrix. CBD loading increased the particle size and the density of the lipid matrix. The loading capacity of a trimyristin emulsion for CBD was superior to that of a suspension of solid lipid nanoparticles based on trimyristin (69% vs. 30% related to the lipid matrix). In addition to its localization within the lipid core of the emulsion droplets, cannabidiol was associated with the droplet interface to a remarkable extent. According to a stress test, CBD destabilized the emulsions, with phospholipid-stabilized emulsions being more stable than poloxamer-stabilized ones. Furthermore, it was possible to produce emulsions with pure CBD as the dispersed phase, since CBD demonstrated such a pronounced supercooling tendency that it did not recrystallize, even if cooled to −60 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanosystems in Pharmaceutical Technology)

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Figure 1
Kinetics of cannabidiol loading in emulsion MCT-P188-120 nm. Error bars represent the standard deviations but are mostly not visible. Full article ">Figure 2
(a) Achievable cannabidiol load (mass percent) in emulsions composed of different matrix lipids (emulsions MCT-P188-120 nm, TM-P188-120 nm, SB-P188-120 nm and RS-P188-120 nm). (b) Particle sizes of these emulsions before and after cannabidiol loading. (c) Experimentally observed increase in the volumes of the emulsion droplets as compared to a simulated volume increase based on the molecular volume of the loaded cannabidiol molecules. The molecular volume was based on the van der Waals surface which was computed with MOE Version 2018.01.01. Full article ">Figure 3
(a) Effect of cannabidiol on the density of soybean oil, demonstrated as density and calculation of the relative increase in density normalized to the cannabidiol concentration. (b) Simulated volume increase of soybean oil with increasing concentrations of cannabidiol. Full article ">Figure 4
Cannabidiol load (mass percent) of differently sized colloidal soybean oil emulsions (a); (b) illustrates the drug load in dependence on specific interfacial area of the emulsion droplets. Full article ">Figure 5
Cannabidiol load (mass percent) in a trimyristin emulsion and suspension of equal composition (from TM-P188-120 nm). Full article ">Figure 6
Stability of soybean oil emulsions stabilized with poloxamer 188 (P188) or poloxamer 407 (P407), respectively, and Lipofundin® (composed of phospholipids, medium chain triglycerides and soybean oil) before and after loading with cannabidiol (CBD). Shaking periods that did not induce instability are shown in green, intervals of unstable samples in red; the first destabilizing interval is marked with a color gradient. Investigated samples points are included as lines. Full article ">Figure 7
DSC reheating curve of cannabidiol (after heating to 85 °C and subsequent cooling to −60 °C). Full article ">Figure 8
Particle size and PdI of emulsions containing pure cannabidiol as dispersed phase and stabilized with poloxamer 188 (a) or poloxamer 407 (b). The results represent the mean values of n = 2. The error bar shows the upper and lower measured values. Full article ">

16 pages, 2464 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rutin-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Characterization and In Vitro Evaluation

by Federica De Gaetano, Maria Chiara Cristiano, Valentina Venuti, Vincenza Crupi, Domenico Majolino, Giuseppe Paladini, Giuseppe Acri, Barbara Testagrossa, Alessia Irrera, Donatella Paolino, Silvana Tommasini, Cinzia Anna Ventura and Rosanna Stancanelli

Molecules 2021, 26(4), 1039; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26041039 - 16 Feb 2021

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 3339

Abstract

This study was aimed at preparing and characterizing solid lipid nanoparticles loading rutin (RT-SLNs) for the treatment of oxidative stress-induced diseases. Phospholipon 80H^® as a solid lipid and Polysorbate 80 as surfactant were used for the SLNs preparation, using the solvent emulsification/diffusion method. We obtained spherical RT-SLNs with low sizes, ranging from 40 to 60 nm (hydrodynamic radius) for the SLNs prepared starting from 2% and 5% (w/w) theoretical amount. All prepared formulations showed negative zeta-potential values. RT was efficiently encapsulated within SLNs, obtaining high encapsulation efficiency and drug content percentages, particularly for SLNs prepared with a 5% theoretical amount of RT. In vitro release profiles and analysis of the obtained data applying different kinetic models revealed Fickian diffusion as the main mechanism of RT release from the SLNs. The morphology of RT-SLNs was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), whereas the interactions between RT and the lipid matrix were investigated by Raman spectroscopy, evidencing spectral modifications of characteristic bands of RT due to the establishment of new interactions. Finally, antioxidant activity assay on human glioblastoma astrocytoma (U373) culture cells showed a dose-dependent activity for RT-SLNs, particularly at the highest assayed dose (50 μM), whereas the free drug showed the lesser activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanosystems in Pharmaceutical Technology)

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Figure 1
In vitro release profiles of free RT (blue squares) and RT-SLNs (red circles). Full article ">Figure 2
SEM images of RT-SLNs at different magnification (a,b), together with the Gaussian distribution of the radius peaked at 25 ± 10 nm (c). Full article ">Figure 3
Experimental Raman spectrum of RT (a) and SLNs (b). Full article ">Figure 4
Experimental Raman spectra, respectively collected in the 1500–1710 cm−1 (a) 1220–1330 cm−1 (b) intervals, for RT (black line), SLNs (red line), and RT-SLNs (green line) systems. The negligible contribution of SLNs to the vibrational profile, in the investigated spectral range, is well evident. Full article ">Figure 5
Effects on U373 cell viability of 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h treatment with different concentrations of free RT (a), DMSO (b), and blank SLNs (c). Cell viability was measured using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) test, and the results are presented as the mean of three different experiments ± standard deviation (S.D.). The error bar, if not shown, was within the symbol. Full article ">Figure 6
Anti-oxidant effect of RT and RT-SLNs on U373 cells expressed as LDH release reduction. Cells were treated with increased concentration of RT and RT-SLNs for 24 h and then incubated with H2O2 (700 µM) for 1 h. Results are presented as the mean of three different experiments ± S.D. The error bar, if not shown, was within the bar. The data obtained for RT-SLNs are statistically significant with respect to the same concentration of free RT (* p < 0.05), while the data obtained for RT and RT-SLNs are statistically significant with respect to oxidation control (@ p < 0.05; @@ p < 0.001). Full article ">

13 pages, 7534 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lyophilized Drug-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Formulated with Beeswax and Theobroma Oil

by Hilda Amekyeh and Nashiru Billa

Molecules 2021, 26(4), 908; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26040908 - 9 Feb 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3703

Abstract

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) have the potential to enhance the systemic availability of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) or reduce its toxicity through uptake of the SLNs from the gastrointestinal tract or controlled release of the API, respectively. In both aspects, the responses of the lipid matrix to external challenges is crucial. Here, we evaluate the effects of lyophilization on key responses of 1:1 beeswax–theobroma oil matrix SLNs using three model drugs: amphotericin B (AMB), paracetamol (PAR), and sulfasalazine (SSZ). Fresh SLNs were stable with sizes ranging between 206.5–236.9 nm. Lyophilization and storage for 24 months (4–8 °C) caused a 1.6- and 1.5-fold increase in size, respectively, in all three SLNs. Zeta potential was >60 mV in fresh, stored, and lyophilized SLNs, indicating good colloidal stability. Drug release was not significantly affected by lyophilization up to 8 h. Drug release percentages at end time were 11.8 ± 0.4, 65.9 ± 0.04, and 31.4 ± 1.95% from fresh AMB-SLNs, PAR-SLNs, and SSZ-SLNs, respectively, and 11.4 ± 0.4, 76.04 ± 0.21, and 31.6 ± 0.33% from lyophilized SLNs, respectively. Thus, rate of release is dependent on API solubility (AMB < SSZ < PAR). Drug release from each matrix followed the Higuchi model and was not affected by lyophilization. The above SLNs show potential for use in delivering hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanosystems in Pharmaceutical Technology)

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Figure 1
Chemical structures of (a) AMB (amphotericin B), (b) PAR (paracetamol), and (c) SSZ (sulfasalazine). Full article ">Figure 2
NTA (nanoparticle tracking analysis) size distribution by intensity graphs for fresh (a) AMB-SLNs (solid lipid nanoparticles), (b) PAR-SLNs, and (c) SSZ-SLNs (n = 3). Full article ">Figure 3
DLS (dynamic light scattering) size distribution by intensity graphs for (a) freshly prepared, (b) stored (24 months), and (c) lyophilized AMB-SLNs, PAR-SLNs, and SSZ-SLNs (n = 3). Full article ">Figure 4
z-Average diameters and PDIs (polydispersity indexes) of freshly prepared, stored (for 24 months), and lyophilized AMB-SLNs, PAR-SLNs, and SSZ-SLNs (n = 3). Full article ">Figure 5
ZPs (zeta potentials) of freshly prepared, stored (24 months), and lyophilized AMB-SLNs, PAR-SLNs, and SSZ-SLNs (n = 3). Full article ">Figure 6
Cumulative drug release from freshly prepared and lyophilized AMB-SLNs, PAR-SLNs, and SSZ-SLNs in PBS (phosphate-buffered saline; pH 7.4). Full article ">Figure 7
FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy) spectra for (a,b) AMB, (c,d) PAR, and (e,f) SSZ. (a,c,e) Pure drugs. (b,d,f) SLNs. Full article ">

11 pages, 1200 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

An Underestimated Factor: The Extent of Cross-Reactions Modifying APIs in Surface-Modified Liposomal Preparations Caused by Comprised Activated Lipids

by Max Sauter, Jürgen Burhenne, Walter E. Haefeli and Philipp Uhl

Molecules 2020, 25(19), 4436; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25194436 - 27 Sep 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5573

Abstract

Despite the nowadays available plentitude of strategies to selectively introduce functional surface modification of liposomes, in preclinical research this process is still primarily performed after liposomal preparation utilizing comprised activated phospholipids with functionalized head groups. However, because these activated lipids are present during the liposomal preparation process, they can cross-react with incorporated drugs, especially the particularly often utilized active esters and maleimide groups. Macromolecular drugs, being composed of amino acids, are particularly prone to such cross-reactions due to their often multiple reactive functionalities such as amino and disulfide groups. To demonstrate this impact on the formulation in liposomal surface modification, we assessed the extent of cross-reaction during the liposomal preparation of two activated phospholipids with typically used head group functionalized phospholipids, with the two peptide drugs vancomycin and insulin comprising disulfide and amino functionalities. Both drugs revealed a considerable fraction of covalent modification (estimated 2 to 12%) generated during the liposome preparation process with comprised activated lipids. Modification of the active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) was determined by high-resolution mass spectrometric analysis. These findings clearly demonstrate the non-negligibility of potential cross reactions using the post preparation liposomal surface modification strategy in preclinical research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanosystems in Pharmaceutical Technology)

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Figure 1
Scheme of the possible cross-reaction of activated ester and maleimide groups of phospholipids with amino and disulfide groups of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). Full article ">Figure 2
High-resolution mass spectrometric characterization of liposomes comprising Tfp-dPEG13-DSPE and encapsulated vancomycin. (A) Mass spectrum of vancomycin-containing liposomes comprising Tfp-dPEG13-DSPE. Visible is the formic acid mono-adduct of the conjugate of Tfp-dPEG13-DSPE and vancomycin ([M+3H+CHO2H]3+), while the remaining signals correspond to unmodified vancomycin with three being in-source fragments (desglycosyl-vancomycin, desvancosamine-vancomycin, and its corresponding sodium adduct). (B) Positive product spectrum of the [M+3H+CHO2H]3+ signal of the conjugate of Tfp-dPEG13-DSPE and vancomycin after collision-induced dissociation (CID) at 30 V. Besides the parent signal, the primary CID fragments are ions corresponding to vancomycin confirming the conjugates identity. Full article ">Figure 3
High-resolution mass spectra of liposomal formulations of insulin comprising lipids with maleimide and activated ester functions. (A) Liposomal formulation of insulin containing Tfp-PEG13-DSPE. Visible are the [M + 3H]3+ ion of insulin with its sodium adducts and the [M + 4H]4+ signal of the conjugate of insulin and Tfp-PEG13-DSPE with the corresponding sodium adducts. (B) Liposomal formulation containing Mal-PEG12-DSPE. Visible are the [M + 3H]3+ signal of insulin with its sodium adducts and the [M + 4H]4+ signal of the conjugate of insulin and Mal-PEG12-DSPE. Full article ">

21 pages, 5037 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Rheolaser Master™ and Kinexus Rotational Rheometer^® to Evaluate the Influence of Topical Drug Delivery Systems on Rheological Features of Topical Poloxamer Gel

by Maria Chiara Cristiano, Francesca Froiio, Antonia Mancuso, Federica De Gaetano, Cinzia Anna Ventura, Massimo Fresta and Donatella Paolino

Molecules 2020, 25(8), 1979; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25081979 - 23 Apr 2020

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 4658

Abstract

Poloxamer 407 copolymer is a versatile and widely used thermo-reversible material. Its use has many advantages, such as bio-adhesion, enhanced solubilization of poorly water-soluble drugs and many applications fields like oral, rectal, topical, nasal drug administration. Hydrogels made up of Poloxamer 407 are characterized by specific rheological features, which are affected by temperature, concentration and presence of other compounds. A strategic approach in topical therapeutic treatments may be the inclusion of drug delivery systems, such as ethosomes, transfersomes and niosomes, into hydrogel poloxamer formulation. The evaluation of the interaction between colloidal carriers and the Poloxamer 407 hydrogel network is essential for a suitable design of an innovative topical dosage form. For this reason, the Rheolaser Master™, based on diffusing wave spectroscopy, and a Kinexus Rotational Rheometer were used to evaluate the influence of nanocarriers on the microrheological features of hydrogels. The advantages of the Rheolaser Master™ analyzer are: (i) its ability to determine viscoelastic parameter, without altering or destroying the sample and at rest (zero shear); (ii) possibility of aging analysis on the same sample. This study provide evidence that vesicular systems do not influence the rheological features of the gel, supporting the possibility to encapsulate an innovative system into a three-dimensional network. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanosystems in Pharmaceutical Technology)

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7 pages, 222 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Different Commercial Mineral Water Brands to Produce Oil-In-Water Nanoemulsions

by Pedro A Rocha-Filho, Antonio D. Monteiro, Luciana C. Agostinho and Marina P. A. Oliveira

Molecules 2020, 25(3), 603; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25030603 - 30 Jan 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2985

Abstract

Nanoemulsions are submicron-size colloidal systems that have the ability to encapsulate, protect, and deliver active ingredients. They have been used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and food industries to improve the absorption of drugs by the skin or via the gastrointestinal tract, aide in food conservation, and treat skin problems. To proper formulate a nanoemulsion, it is important to know the characteristics of its components (aqueous and oil phases, surfactants and additives), as well as the influence on the production method that will be used. This study investigates the influence of aqueous phase composition, stability and particle size in an oil-and-water nanoemulsion formation. By using a low energy method, the purified water was exchanged for different commercial mineral water and saline solutions, and the results of stability, particle size, pH and conductivity tests, were compared. These results show that the minerals present in commercial waters may alter the particle size, pH and conductivity values of nanoemulsions, as well as their stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanosystems in Pharmaceutical Technology)

Review

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30 pages, 2538 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Influence of Materials Properties on Bio-Physical Features and Effectiveness of 3D-Scaffolds for Periodontal Regeneration

by Nicola d’Avanzo, Maria Chiara Bruno, Amerigo Giudice, Antonia Mancuso, Federica De Gaetano, Maria Chiara Cristiano, Donatella Paolino and Massimo Fresta

Molecules 2021, 26(6), 1643; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26061643 - 15 Mar 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4489

Abstract

Periodontal diseases are multifactorial disorders, mainly due to severe infections and inflammation which affect the tissues (i.e., gum and dental bone) that support and surround the teeth. These pathologies are characterized by bleeding gums, pain, bad breath and, in more severe forms, can lead to the detachment of gum from teeth, causing their loss. To date it is estimated that severe periodontal diseases affect around 10% of the population worldwide thus making necessary the development of effective treatments able to both reduce the infections and inflammation in injured sites and improve the regeneration of damaged tissues. In this scenario, the use of 3D scaffolds can play a pivotal role by providing an effective platform for drugs, nanosystems, growth factors, stem cells, etc., improving the effectiveness of therapies and reducing their systemic side effects. The aim of this review is to describe the recent progress in periodontal regeneration, highlighting the influence of materials’ properties used to realize three-dimensional (3D)-scaffolds, their bio-physical characteristics and their ability to provide a biocompatible platform able to embed nanosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanosystems in Pharmaceutical Technology)

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29 pages, 2356 KiB

Open AccessReview

Chitosan Nanoparticles-Insight into Properties, Functionalization and Applications in Drug Delivery and Theranostics

by Jhanvi Jhaveri, Zarna Raichura, Tabassum Khan, Munira Momin and Abdelwahab Omri

Molecules 2021, 26(2), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26020272 - 7 Jan 2021

Cited by 157 | Viewed by 10001

Abstract

Nanotechnology-based development of drug delivery systems is an attractive area of research in formulation driven R&D laboratories that makes administration of new and complex drugs feasible. It plays a significant role in the design of novel dosage forms by attributing target specific drug delivery, controlled drug release, improved, patient friendly drug regimen and lower side effects. Polysaccharides, especially chitosan, occupy an important place and are widely used in nano drug delivery systems owing to their biocompatibility and biodegradability. This review focuses on chitosan nanoparticles and envisages to provide an insight into the chemistry, properties, drug release mechanisms, preparation techniques and the vast evolving landscape of diverse applications across disease categories leading to development of better therapeutics and superior clinical outcomes. It summarizes recent advancement in the development and utility of functionalized chitosan in anticancer therapeutics, cancer immunotherapy, theranostics and multistage delivery systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanosystems in Pharmaceutical Technology)

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