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Processing, Properties and Applications of Composite Materials

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Materials Science and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2023) | Viewed by 36037

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Alexey S. Prosviryakov

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Physical Metallurgy of Non-Ferrous Metals, National University of Science and Technology “MISiS”, Moscow, Russia
Interests: metal matrix composites; mechanical alloying; materials testing; material characterization; mechanical properties; materials; microstructure; metals; advanced materials; materials processing; material characteristics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

A composite material is most often understood as a material with a heterogeneous structure, between the individual components of which there is a clear interface. This class of materials can include nonequilibrium compositions, the phase components of which either do not interact, or interact very weakly with each other in a wide temperature range. At the same time, a composite material has properties that none of its components can have separately. In such a material, due to the rational selection of components, it is possible to realize the required set of properties. Compared to traditional materials, composites have improved physical (electrical conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion, etc.) and mechanical properties (strength, heat resistance, wear resistance, etc.). Due to the unique combination of properties, composite materials have found application in a wide range of areas: automotive, aerospace, construction, electrical engineering, etc.

The purpose of this Special Issue is to develop research in the field of creating new effective composites, mainly based on metals, containing various reinforcing elements (for example, particles, whiskers, short fibers) that can be added (ex situ) or formed in a matrix (in situ). Metallic and non-metallic additives can be used both for hardening and for imparting new properties. Composite materials can be obtained by methods such as powder metallurgy, mechanical alloying, stir casting, laser melting, and many others, which make it possible to obtain bulk materials and coatings.

Articles should be devoted to relevant new knowledge about the characteristics of composites, the study of their microstructure and physical and mechanical properties depending on the composition and technological parameters of production, the relationship between microstructure and properties, innovative manufacturing technologies, as well as the search for new areas of application.

Dr. Alexey S. Prosviryakov
Guest Editor

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • abrasion
  • additive manufacturing
  • advanced materials
  • alloy
  • aluminum
  • aluminum alloy
  • aluminum oxide
  • boron carbide
  • casting
  • coefficient of friction
  • composite
  • copper
  • deformation
  • dispersion strengthening
  • extrusion
  • fabrication
  • fatigue
  • forging
  • fracture
  • fracture toughness
  • friction
  • graphite
  • hardness
  • heat treatment
  • hot pressing
  • hybrid composite
  • in situ
  • iron
  • low cycle
  • fatigue
  • magnesium
  • material characterization
  • materials
  • materials processing
  • materials testing
  • mechanical alloying
  • mechanical behavior
  • mechanical properties
  • metal matrix composite
  • metals
  • microstructure
  • nanocomposite
  • nanocrystalline structure
  • nanostructure
  • nickel
  • particle size
  • particle reinforced composite
  • particle reinforcement
  • powder metallurgy
  • reinforcement
  • silicon
  • carbide
  • silicon nitride
  • sintering
  • squeeze casting
  • stir casting
  • strengthening
  • stress fracture
  • tensile property
  • titania carbide
  • titanium
  • tribology
  • volume fraction
  • wear resistance

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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24 pages, 7954 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Incorporating Juncus Fibers on the Properties of Compressed Earth Blocks Stabilized with Portland Cement
by Reda Sadouri, Hocine Kebir and Mustafa Benyoucef
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(2), 815; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14020815 - 18 Jan 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1574
Abstract
This study investigates the impact of incorporating Juncus fibers (JF) into compressed earth blocks (CEBs) stabilized with varying Portland cement contents, aiming to enhance local construction materials’ performance and reduce housing costs. CEB composites were produced with soil stabilized using different cement contents [...] Read more.
This study investigates the impact of incorporating Juncus fibers (JF) into compressed earth blocks (CEBs) stabilized with varying Portland cement contents, aiming to enhance local construction materials’ performance and reduce housing costs. CEB composites were produced with soil stabilized using different cement contents (4%, 8%, and 12% by weight) and JF reinforcement (0 to 0.2% by weight), compressed at 10 MPa with a hydraulic press. After 28 days of drying, the CEBs underwent diverse experimental characterizations to assess their physical, mechanical, thermal, and durability properties. The results revealed that incorporating JF led to a reduction in unit weight, ultrasonic pulse velocity (up to 36%), and dry compressive strength (approximately 17%). Higher fiber content correlated with increased water absorption and an increased capillarity coefficient. Thermal conductivity analysis indicated improved thermal performance, decreasing from 0.4350 W/m·K (12% cement without fibers) to 0.2465 W/m·K (4% cement with 0.2% JF). Despite the decrease in mechanical strength, CEBs with lower cement (4%) and higher fiber content (0.2%) demonstrated satisfactory durability (abrasion and erosion) and thermal insulation properties. This research suggests the potential of this material as a promising composite for the building materials industry. The findings contribute valuable insights into sustainable construction materials and have implications for cost-effective housing solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing, Properties and Applications of Composite Materials)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>The earth used in this work.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>SEM micrographs/energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) of cement.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Juncus fibers: (<b>a</b>) Juncus plant; (<b>b</b>) cleaned fibers with water; (<b>c</b>) cut Juncus fibers; (<b>d</b>) ground Juncus fibers.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) SEM of a longitudinal section of the stem of a Juncus plant; (<b>b</b>) SEM micrograph of a cross-section of the stem of a Juncus plant.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>a</b>) Schematic procedure for the fabrication and testing of sample blocks; (<b>b</b>) main steps in the production process of the blocks, including (<b>1</b>). after the mixture of the composite, (<b>2</b>). the filling of the mold, and (<b>3</b>). the block after compression.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Ultrasonic pulse velocity tester.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Capillarity absorption test.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Compressive strength test.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Thermal property measurement.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Apparent density of composite specimens at different fiber replacement levels.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Ultrasonic pulse velocity as a function of fiber content.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Effect of cement content and fiber replacement on the total water absorption after one day of immersion.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Total water absorption of composites as a function of immersion time for (<b>a</b>) 4% cement; (<b>b</b>) 8% cement; (<b>c</b>) 12% cement.</p> Full article ">Figure 13 Cont.
<p>Total water absorption of composites as a function of immersion time for (<b>a</b>) 4% cement; (<b>b</b>) 8% cement; (<b>c</b>) 12% cement.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Effect of varying Juncus fiber contents on the capillarity coefficient of CEBs stabilized with different percentages of cement.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Result of dry compressive strength according to the fiber content.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Results of wet compressive strength according to the fiber content.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Dry to wet ratio of the compressive strength of CEBs as a function of the fiber content.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Thermal conductivity of CEB vs. fiber content.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>(<b>a</b>) Effect of fiber content on the abrasion coefficient of CEBs stabilized with different percentages of cement, (<b>b</b>) CEBs after abrasion test.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>CEBs after being tested for erosion resistance.</p> Full article ">
22 pages, 14540 KiB  
Article
Additive Friction Stir Deposition of AA7075-T6 Alloy: Impact of Process Parameters on the Microstructures and Properties of the Continuously Deposited Multilayered Parts
by Yousef G. Y. Elshaghoul, Mohamed M. El-Sayed Seleman, Ashraf Bakkar, Sarah A. Elnekhaily, Ibrahim Albaijan, Mohamed M. Z. Ahmed, Abdou Abdel-Samad and Reham Reda
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(18), 10255; https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810255 - 13 Sep 2023
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2381
Abstract
In the aircraft industry, the high-strength aluminum alloys AA7075 and AA2024 are extensively used for the manufacture of structural parts like stringers and skins, respectively. Additive manufacturing (AM) of the AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy via friction stir deposition to build continuously multilayered parts on [...] Read more.
In the aircraft industry, the high-strength aluminum alloys AA7075 and AA2024 are extensively used for the manufacture of structural parts like stringers and skins, respectively. Additive manufacturing (AM) of the AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy via friction stir deposition to build continuously multilayered parts on a substrate of AA2024-T4 aluminum has not been attempted so far. Accordingly, the present work aimed to explore the applicability of building multilayers of AA7075-T6 alloy on a substrate sheet of AA2024-T4 alloy via the additive friction stir deposition (AFSD) technique and to optimize the deposition process parameters. The experiments were conducted over a wide range of feed rates (1–5 mm/min) and rotation speeds (200–1000 rpm). The axial deposition force and the thermal cycle were recorded. The heat input to achieve the AFSD was calculated. The AA7075 AFSD products were evaluated visually on the macroscale. The microstructures were also investigated utilizing an optical microscope and scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an advanced EDS technique. As well as the presence phases, the mechanical performance of the deposited materials in terms of hardness and compressive strength was also examined. The results showed that the efficiency of the deposition process was closely related to the amount of heat generated, which was governed by the feeding rate, the rotational speed, and the downward force. AA7075 defect-free continuously multilayered parts were produced without any discontinuity defects at the interface with the substrate at deposition conditions of 1, 2, 3, and 4 mm/min and a constant 400 rpm consumable rod rotation speed (CRRS). The additively deposited AA7075-T6 layers exhibited a refined grain structure and uniformly distributed fragment precipitates compared to the base material (BM). The gain size decreased from 25 µm ± 4 for the AA7075-T6 BM to 1.75 µm ± 0.41 and 3.75 µm ± 0.78 for the AFSD materials fabricated at 1 and 4 mm/min deposition feeding rates, respectively, at 400 rpm/min. Among the feeding rates used, the 3 mm/min and 400 rpm rod rotation speed produced an AA7075 deposited part possessing the highest average hardness of 165 HV ± 5 and a compressive strength of 1320 MPa. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing, Properties and Applications of Composite Materials)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>(<b>a</b>) Consumable rod chamfer, (<b>b</b>) setup of the AFSD process of the AA7075 rod on the AA2024 plate, (<b>c</b>) onset of deposition process, (<b>d</b>) schematic drawing of thermocouple layout, and (<b>e</b>) final deposited product.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Sketch showing indenter locations for hardness measurements of the AA7075 DP.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Shows photographs of the deposited materials formed by the AFSD technique processed at different rotation speeds (1200–200 rpm) and various feed rates (1–5 mm/min) and the visual inspection remarks.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>AA7075 deposited part dimensions in terms of diameter (D) and height (H) and their D/H ratios processed at 400 rpm and different deposition feed rates.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Axial force cycle during the AFSD process of the AA7075-T6 deposited at various deposition feed rates of (<b>a</b>) 1, (<b>b</b>) 2, (<b>c</b>) 3 and (<b>d</b>) 4 mm/min and 400 rpm.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>) The scheme of an element at the friction interface and (<b>b</b>) the temperature measuring position in the substrate.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Thermal cycle of the AFSD process against the deposition time for the DPs processed at 400 rpm and different feed rates of (<b>a</b>) 1, (<b>b</b>) 2, (<b>c</b>) 3 and (<b>d</b>) 4 mm/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Macrographs of the AA7075 DPs processed at deposition feed rates of (<b>a</b>) 1, (<b>b</b>) 2, (<b>c</b>) 3 and (<b>d</b>) 4 mm/min and at a fixed CRRS of 400 rpm.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Optical microstructures: (<b>a</b>) AA7075-T6 rod BM, (<b>b</b>) at higher magnification of (<b>a</b>), (<b>c</b>) the AA2024 plate, (<b>d</b>) the interfacial region between AA7075 deposited layers and the AA2024 substrate of the specimen processed at 400 rpm and 3 mm/min, and (<b>e</b>) at higher magnification of (<b>d</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>OM-imegs of the obtained microstrctures of the AA7075 DPs processed at different deposition feed rates of (<b>a</b>) 1, (<b>b</b>) 2, (<b>c</b>) 3, and (<b>d</b>) 4 mm/min and at 400 rpm.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Grain size distribution histograms of the AA7075 DPs fabricated at feed rates of (<b>a</b>) 1, (<b>b</b>) 2, (<b>c</b>) 3 and (<b>d</b>) 4 mm/min and 400 rpm.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>XRD analysis for (a) the AA7075-BM, (b) the DPs processed at 1, (c) 2, (d) 3 and (e) 4 mm/min feed rates and 400 rpm.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>SEM-images show microstructures of (<b>a</b>) AA7075-T6 rod BM, (<b>b</b>) DP processed at 400 rpm and 3 mm/min, (<b>c</b>) EDS spot 1 (<b>d</b>) EDS spot 2 and (<b>e</b>) EDS spot 3.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Hardness map distribution of the (<b>a</b>) AA7075-T6 BM amd the deposited AA7075-T6 materials produced at different deposition rates of (<b>b</b>) 1, (<b>c</b>) 2, (<b>d</b>) 3, and (<b>e</b>) 4 mm/min and a constant CRRS of 400 rpm.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Compressive stress–strain curves for the AA7075-T6 BM and the DPs processed at different deposition conditions.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 2913 KiB  
Article
Thermochemical Analysis of Hydrogenation of Pd-Containing Composite Based on TiZrVNbTa High-Entropy Alloy
by Ivan Savvotin, Elena Berdonosova, Artem Korol, Vladislav Zadorozhnyy, Mikhail Zadorozhnyy, Evgeniy Statnik, Alexander Korsunsky, Mikhail Serov and Semen Klyamkin
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(16), 9052; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13169052 - 8 Aug 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1522
Abstract
The microcalorimetric hydrogen titration technique combined with conventional volumetric measurements has been used to reveal peculiarities of the hydrogenation of the single-phase TiZrVNbTa equiatomic high-entropy alloy. The alloy has been produced in the form of microfibers by the pendent drop melt extraction technique. [...] Read more.
The microcalorimetric hydrogen titration technique combined with conventional volumetric measurements has been used to reveal peculiarities of the hydrogenation of the single-phase TiZrVNbTa equiatomic high-entropy alloy. The alloy has been produced in the form of microfibers by the pendent drop melt extraction technique. Palladium coating of the fibers has been applied to enable first hydrogenation at room temperature without additional activation. An analysis of the obtained data allows us to evaluate the dependence of hydrogenation enthalpy on the hydrogen concentration in the alloy. Three concentration ranges, presumably related to the formation of the hydrogen solid solution, monohydride and dihydride phases, have been identified, and the corresponding ΔH values of about −100, −80 and −60 kJ/mol H2, respectively, have been determined. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing, Properties and Applications of Composite Materials)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>SEM image visualizing thickness of the palladium coating.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>SEM images of (<b>a</b>) palladium-coated TiZrVNbTa fibers; (<b>b</b>) multilayer EDX image; (<b>c</b>) element mapping; (<b>d</b>) thickness distribution of Pd (red); (<b>e</b>) signal intensity dependence on thickness of Pd.</p> Full article ">Figure 2 Cont.
<p>SEM images of (<b>a</b>) palladium-coated TiZrVNbTa fibers; (<b>b</b>) multilayer EDX image; (<b>c</b>) element mapping; (<b>d</b>) thickness distribution of Pd (red); (<b>e</b>) signal intensity dependence on thickness of Pd.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>X-ray diffraction patterns of the EBM-PDME fibers TiZrVNbTa alloy obtained by: (<b>a</b>) as prepared; (<b>b</b>) after hydrogenation; (<b>c</b>) after dehydrogenation; (<b>d</b>) palladium-coated fibers after hydrogenation; (<b>e</b>) palladium-coated fibers after dehydrogenation.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Hydrogen absorption isotherms of the T<sub>i</sub>ZrVNbTa alloy.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Concentration dependence of the enthalpy of hydrogen absorption by Pd@TiZrVNbTa; T = 308 K.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Normalized heat flow curves for a different hydrogen concentration range.</p> Full article ">
27 pages, 12482 KiB  
Article
Deep Drawing Behaviour of Steel–Glass Fibre-Reinforced and Non-Reinforced Polyamide–Steel Sandwich Materials
by Wei Hua, Mohamed Harhash, Gerhard Ziegmann, Adele Carradò and Heinz Palkowski
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(11), 6629; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13116629 - 30 May 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1772
Abstract
Thermoplastic-based fibre metal laminates (FMLs) have gained increasing interest in the automotive industry due to their forming potential—especially at higher temperatures—into complex components compared to thermoset-based ones. However, several challenges arise while processing thermoplastic-based FMLs. One the one hand, forming at room temperature [...] Read more.
Thermoplastic-based fibre metal laminates (FMLs) have gained increasing interest in the automotive industry due to their forming potential—especially at higher temperatures—into complex components compared to thermoset-based ones. However, several challenges arise while processing thermoplastic-based FMLs. One the one hand, forming at room temperature (RT) leads to early failure modes, e.g., fracture and delamination. On the other hand, warm forming can extend their forming limits, although further defects arise, such as severe thickness irregularities and wrinkling problems. Therefore, this study focuses on developing different approaches for deep drawing conditions to deliver a promising, feasible, and cost-effective method for deep-drawn FML parts. We also describe the defects experimentally and numerically via the finite element method (FEM). The FMLs based on steel/glass fibre-reinforced polyamide 6 (GF-PA6/steel) are studied under different deep drawing conditions (temperatures, punch, and die dimensions). In addition, mono-materials and sandwich materials without fibre reinforcement are investigated as benchmarks. The results showed that the best deep drawing condition was at a temperature of 200 °C and a die/punch radius ratio of 0.67, with a gap/thickness ratio of ≤2.0. The FEM simulation via Abaqus 6.14 was able to successfully replicate the anisotropic properties and wrinkling of the GF-PA6 core in an FML, resembling the experimental results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing, Properties and Applications of Composite Materials)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Tensile properties of: (<b>a</b>) TS275 and TS290 at different directions to RD, (<b>b</b>) TS275 and TS290 steel sheets at different temperatures.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Surface treatments of cover and core layers and the production scheme of the sandwich panels by means of hot pressing.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Tool design for warm deep drawing.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Different lubricant settings for deep drawing at RT (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>): F<sub>h</sub> = 6 kN and r<sub>d</sub> = 10 mm and at 235 °C (<b>e</b>,<b>f</b>): F<sub>h</sub> = 100 kN and r<sub>d</sub> = 10 mm.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Force–displacement curves of TS290 with different lubrication settings for the deep drawing conditions (a–f) shown in <a href="#applsci-13-06629-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Empirical stress–strain curves for TS275 with the Swift law.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Illustration of mixed-mode response of cohesive elements [<a href="#B35-applsci-13-06629" class="html-bibr">35</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>The mesh and boundary conditions of the model.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>(<b>a</b>) Force–displacement curves of TS290 at different holding forces and temperatures, deep-drawn up to 40 mm. (<b>b</b>) Strain evolution on both sides of TS290 at RT, drawn up to 50 mm.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Strain evolution of (<b>a</b>) TS275 and (<b>b</b>) TS290 in different directions.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Deep drawing behaviour of a mono-organosheet RG: (<b>a</b>) force–displacement curve; (<b>b</b>) failure mode; (<b>c</b>) simulation images of deep-drawn RG1.0 with different holding forces and die radii.</p> Full article ">Figure 11 Cont.
<p>Deep drawing behaviour of a mono-organosheet RG: (<b>a</b>) force–displacement curve; (<b>b</b>) failure mode; (<b>c</b>) simulation images of deep-drawn RG1.0 with different holding forces and die radii.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>(<b>a</b>) Force–displacement curves of MPM<sup>02</sup> with different core thicknesses; (<b>b</b>) strain evolution of the inner and outer steel sheets of MPM<sup>02</sup>-PA0.5; and (<b>c</b>) strain evolution of the outer steel sheet of MPM<sup>02</sup> with different core thicknesses and their corresponding FLC curves.</p> Full article ">Figure 12 Cont.
<p>(<b>a</b>) Force–displacement curves of MPM<sup>02</sup> with different core thicknesses; (<b>b</b>) strain evolution of the inner and outer steel sheets of MPM<sup>02</sup>-PA0.5; and (<b>c</b>) strain evolution of the outer steel sheet of MPM<sup>02</sup> with different core thicknesses and their corresponding FLC curves.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Strain evolution along a cross-sectional line of: (<b>a</b>) MPM<sup>02</sup> with different core thicknesses at different drawing depths; (<b>b</b>) monolithic TS290; and (<b>c</b>) strain distribution of MPM<sup>02</sup>-PA1.0 at RT.</p> Full article ">Figure 13 Cont.
<p>Strain evolution along a cross-sectional line of: (<b>a</b>) MPM<sup>02</sup> with different core thicknesses at different drawing depths; (<b>b</b>) monolithic TS290; and (<b>c</b>) strain distribution of MPM<sup>02</sup>-PA1.0 at RT.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>(<b>a</b>) Force–depth progress of FML02 with different core thicknesses and holding forces, and (<b>b</b>) strain evolution for two core thicknesses (0.5 and 1.0 mm).</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Strain evolution in (<b>a</b>) FML<sup>01</sup>-RG0.5 and (<b>b</b>) FML<sup>02</sup>-RG0.5 under deep-drawing conditions at RT.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>(<b>a</b>) Wrinkling and waviness in warm deep-drawn FML<sup>02</sup>-RG0.5; and (<b>b</b>) drawing force of FML for different cover sheets, core thicknesses, and forming temperatures.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Strain evolution in the outer and inner steel sheets of FML at (<b>a</b>) 200 °C and (<b>b</b>) 235 °C; (<b>c</b>) photogrammetry images; (<b>d</b>) strain evolution in the outer steel sheet of FML at 200 and 235 °C, with different core layer thicknesses at (<b>e</b>) 200 °C and (<b>f</b>) 235 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Comparison between strain evolutions in outer steel cover of (<b>a</b>) 1: FML<sup>02</sup>-RG1.0 at 235 °C and 2: FML<sup>01</sup>-RG1.0 at 235 °C and (<b>b</b>) 1: FML<sup>01</sup>-RG1.0 at 200 °C and 2: FML<sup>01</sup>-RG1.0 at 235 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Wrinkling in the flange region and waviness in the sidewall regions of FML after deep drawing at 200 and 235 °C with a drawing depth of 40 mm: (<b>a</b>) FML<sup>02</sup>-RG0.5-235 °C, (<b>b</b>) FML<sup>01</sup>-RG0.5-235 °C, (<b>c</b>) FML<sup>01</sup>-RG0.5-200 °C, and (<b>d</b>) FML<sup>01</sup>-RG1.0-200 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Fibre fracture in the core and the wrinkling of the inner steel sheet at a stoke of 25 mm.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>Simulation results of core RG in FML<sup>01</sup>-RG0.5 under the different interaction conditions in <a href="#applsci-13-06629-t007" class="html-table">Table 7</a> at strokes of 25 mm and 40 mm.</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>Simulation results of Set 4 in <a href="#applsci-13-06629-t007" class="html-table">Table 7</a>: (<b>a</b>) Mixed-mode delamination of cohesive elements at drawing depths of 10 and 25 mm, (<b>b</b>) stress evolutions of inner and outer steel sheets, and (<b>c</b>) strain evolution of each layer in FML<sup>01</sup>-RG0.5 at drawing depths of 40 mm and 200 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 23
<p>Comparison between experimental and simulation results: (<b>a</b>) force evolution of mono-materials at RT and FML<sup>01</sup>-RG0.5 at 200 °C; (<b>b</b>) strain evolution of monolithic TS275 at RT and FML<sup>01</sup>-RG0.5 at 200 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 24
<p>Thickness distribution of FML<sup>01</sup>-RG under deep-drawing conditions at different temperatures, with a drawing depth of 40 mm.</p> Full article ">
24 pages, 12779 KiB  
Article
Stretching and Forming Limit Curve of Steel–Glass Fibre Reinforced and Non-Reinforced Polyamide–Steel Sandwich Materials
by Wei Hua, Mohamed Harhash, Gerhard Ziegmann, Adele Carradò and Heinz Palkowski
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(11), 6611; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13116611 - 29 May 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1873
Abstract
This paper focuses on investigating the forming behaviour of sandwich materials composed of steel sheets and glass fibre-reinforced polyamide 6 (GF-PA6), i.e., thermoplastic-based fibre metal laminates (FML). Stretching and forming limit curve (FLC) determination of FML with different cover/core layer thickness ratios at [...] Read more.
This paper focuses on investigating the forming behaviour of sandwich materials composed of steel sheets and glass fibre-reinforced polyamide 6 (GF-PA6), i.e., thermoplastic-based fibre metal laminates (FML). Stretching and forming limit curve (FLC) determination of FML with different cover/core layer thickness ratios at various forming temperatures, i.e., at room temperature (RT), 200 and 235 °C, are the main approaches for characterizing their formability. In addition, the formability of mono-materials and non-reinforced sandwich materials is investigated as a reference. For a successful test and reliable results, several technical issues are considered, such as the suitable lubrication configuration and digital image correlation at elevated forming temperatures. The results revealed that the formability of non-reinforced sandwich materials with different core layer thicknesses exhibited compared formability to their monolithic steel sheet and no remarkable improvement in their formability with increasing the temperature up to 200 °C. Conversely, the formability of FML shows significant improvement (approx. 300%) with increasing temperature with a forming depth of about 33 mm at 235 °C compared to only 12 mm at RT. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing, Properties and Applications of Composite Materials)
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<p>Flowchart of the foreseen investigations and characterization methods.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Surface treatments of (<b>a</b>) core materials and (<b>b</b>) cover sheets.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Tensile properties of (<b>a</b>) TS290 and (<b>b</b>) TS275 at different temperatures.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Temperature profile inside the sandwich panel along the hot-pressing.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Tool design for warm stretch forming.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Temperature-time profile starting from pre-heating the sandwich panels in the furnace to final cooling at the end of the test: (<b>a</b>) preheating, (<b>b</b>) transfer and setting, (<b>c</b>) forming and (<b>d</b>) cooling and specimen removal. Solid lines refer to T1 and dotted ones refer to T2.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>(<b>a</b>) Illustration of heat streaks generated during warm forming and (<b>b</b>) their influence on the strain field measurement obtained by the DIC method.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>(<b>a</b>) Forming limit curve (FLC) and (<b>b</b>) specimen geometries: green arrow refers to the rolling direction (RD) of the steel sheets.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Illustration of the time-dependent method for FLC-determination [<a href="#B45-applsci-13-06611" class="html-bibr">45</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>(<b>a</b>) Force and (<b>b</b>) strain evolution of TS275 under stretch forming at RT and 235 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>(<b>a</b>) Force evolution of RGUD under stretch-forming conditions at RT; (<b>b</b>) DIC images of the crack propagation.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Force evolution and distortion of RG0.5 and RGUD0.5 under stretch forming at 235 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Stretch-forming behaviour in terms of: (<b>a</b>) Force and (<b>b</b>) strain evolution of the MPM01 with different core layer thicknesses at RT.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Force evolution of FML under stretch forming at (<b>a</b>) RT and (<b>b</b>) 235 °C for different core thicknesses and organosheets; (<b>c</b>) DIC images and force evolution of FML01-RGUD2.0 at 235 °C; (<b>d</b>) crack patterns of FML01-RG2.0 and FML01-RGUD2.0, (<b>e</b>) of FML01-RG0.5, (<b>f</b>) of FML01-RG1.0 at 235 °C; (<b>g</b>) specimen picture at RT and (<b>h</b>) at 235 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 14 Cont.
<p>Force evolution of FML under stretch forming at (<b>a</b>) RT and (<b>b</b>) 235 °C for different core thicknesses and organosheets; (<b>c</b>) DIC images and force evolution of FML01-RGUD2.0 at 235 °C; (<b>d</b>) crack patterns of FML01-RG2.0 and FML01-RGUD2.0, (<b>e</b>) of FML01-RG0.5, (<b>f</b>) of FML01-RG1.0 at 235 °C; (<b>g</b>) specimen picture at RT and (<b>h</b>) at 235 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Thickness distribution of (<b>a</b>) FML01-RGUD0.5 and (<b>b</b>) FML01-RGUD2.0 after warm stretch forming at 235 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Deformation behaviour of organosheets (<b>a</b>) RGUD2.0 and (<b>b</b>) RG2.0 as core layer in FML01 after stretch forming at 235 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Crack patterns of FML01-RGUD2.0 at (<b>a</b>) RT and (<b>b</b>) 235 °C, of FML01-RG2.0 at (<b>c</b>) RT and (<b>d</b>) 235 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Force (<b>a</b>) and strain (<b>b</b>) evolution of FML01-RG2.0 with/without prebonding.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>FLC of TS290 (<b>a</b>) at RT with the evolution of major and minor strains at different strain paths, (<b>b</b>) at different temperatures and (<b>c</b>) FLC of TS275 at different temperatures.</p> Full article ">Figure 19 Cont.
<p>FLC of TS290 (<b>a</b>) at RT with the evolution of major and minor strains at different strain paths, (<b>b</b>) at different temperatures and (<b>c</b>) FLC of TS275 at different temperatures.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Strain evolutions along the section lines and DIC images for (<b>a</b>) TS275 and (<b>b</b>) TS290 under stretch forming condition at RT and 235 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 20 Cont.
<p>Strain evolutions along the section lines and DIC images for (<b>a</b>) TS275 and (<b>b</b>) TS290 under stretch forming condition at RT and 235 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>FLC levels of MPM02 (<b>a</b>) with different core thicknesses and (<b>b</b>) at different temperatures.</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>FLC levels for: (<b>a</b>) FML02 with different core thicknesses and (<b>b</b>) at different temperatures, influence of cover sheets on FLC levels: (<b>c</b>) FML01 and (<b>d</b>) FML02.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 3575 KiB  
Article
Novel Highly Dispersed Additive for Proton-Conducting Composites
by Aleksandr I. Aparnev, Anton V. Loginov, Nikolai Uvarov, Valentina Ponomareva, Irina Bagryantseva, Anton Manakhov, Abdulaziz S. Al-Qasim, Valeriy V. Golovakhin and Alexander G. Bannov
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(8), 5038; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13085038 - 17 Apr 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1738
Abstract
The proton conductivity and structural properties of (1–x)CsH2PO4–xZnSnO3 composites with compositions of x = 0.2–0.8 were studied. Zinc stannate ZnSnO3 was prepared by the thermal decomposition of zinc hydroxostannate ZnSn(OH)6, which [...] Read more.
The proton conductivity and structural properties of (1–x)CsH2PO4–xZnSnO3 composites with compositions of x = 0.2–0.8 were studied. Zinc stannate ZnSnO3 was prepared by the thermal decomposition of zinc hydroxostannate ZnSn(OH)6, which was synthesized by hydrolytic codeposition. To optimize the microstructure of ZnSnO3, thermal decomposition products of ZnSn(OH)6 were characterized by thermal analysis and X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, low-temperature nitrogen adsorption, and electron microscopy. The study reveals that the thermolysis of ZnSn(OH)6 at temperatures of 300–520 °C formed an X-ray amorphous zinc stannate with a high surface area of 85 m2/g possessing increased water retention, which was used as a matrix for the formation of the composite electrolytes CsH2PO4–ZnSnO3. The CsH2PO4 crystal structure remained in the composite systems, but dispersion and partial salt amorphization were observed due to the interface interaction with the ZnSnO3 matrix. It was shown that the proton conductivity of composites in the low-temperature region increased up to 2.5 orders of magnitude, went through a smooth maximum at x = 0.2, and then decreased due to the percolation effect. The measurement of the proton conductivity of the ZnSnO3–CsH2PO4 composites revealed that zinc stannate can be used as a heterogeneous additive in other composite solid electrolytes. Therefore, such materials can be applied in hydrogen production membrane reactors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing, Properties and Applications of Composite Materials)
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<p>Synthesis scheme of the precursor.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>X-ray diffraction patterns of initial ZnSn(OH)<sub>6</sub> (1) and thermolysis products obtained at temperatures of 300–520 °C (2), 600 °C (3), and 700 °C (4).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>SEM images of freshly deposited ZnSn(OH)<sub>6</sub> (<b>a</b>) and after its calcination at 520 °C (<b>b</b>) and 700 °C (<b>c</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Synchronous thermal analysis curves obtained during the thermal decomposition of a ZnSn(OH)<sub>6</sub> sample: mass change (TG), thermal effects (DSC), and the ionic current of the mass spectrometer measured for the atomic mass number <span class="html-italic">m</span>/<span class="html-italic">z</span> of 18 amu corresponding to water molecules evolving from the sample.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>a</b>) FTIR spectra of ZnSn(OH)<sub>6</sub> (<span class="html-italic">1</span>) and ZnSnO<sub>3</sub> obtained by the thermolysis of ZnSn(OH)<sub>6</sub> (<span class="html-italic">2</span>) and kept in air for some time (<span class="html-italic">3</span>). (<b>b</b>) Dependence of mass change (TG) of a ZnSnO<sub>3</sub> sample after storage in an air atmosphere of a desiccator.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>) X-ray diffraction patterns of (1–<span class="html-italic">x</span>)CsH<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>–<span class="html-italic">x</span>ZnSnO<sub>3</sub> composites of various compositions in the comparison with the starting compounds: CsH<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> (1); <span class="html-italic">x</span> = 0.2 (2); 0.4 (3); 0.8 (4); ZnSnO<sub>3</sub> (5). (<b>b</b>) Electrochemical impedance spectra for 0.8CsH<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>–0.2ZnSnO<sub>3</sub> sample obtained at 230 °C (black symbols) and 190 °C (empty symbols). Points are experimental data; lines are theoretical curves obtained for the equivalent circuit, with the parameters listed in <a href="#applsci-13-05038-t002" class="html-table">Table 2</a>. The parameters of the equivalent scheme are described in detail the texts and Equations (5)–(7).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Temperature dependence of conductivity for composite systems (1–<span class="html-italic">x</span>)CsH<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>–<span class="html-italic">x</span>ZnSnO<sub>3</sub> (<span class="html-italic">x</span> = 0.2–0.8) in comparison with CsH<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> and ZnSnO<sub>3</sub>. The conductivity measurement was carried out on two to three pellets with the same composition, but the different size. The relative error in the determining the conductivity is 2–5%.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Isotherms of the proton conductivity for the composite systems (1–<span class="html-italic">x</span>)CsH<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>–<span class="html-italic">x</span>ZnSnO<sub>3</sub> at different temperatures: 138 °C (<b>a</b>) and 227 °C (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Dependence of conductivity of (1–<span class="html-italic">x</span>)CsH<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>–<span class="html-italic">x</span>ZnSnO<sub>3</sub> (<span class="html-italic">x</span> = 0.2) system on the time of long-term storage at 230 °C (water vapor content was 20 mol%).</p> Full article ">
12 pages, 3371 KiB  
Article
The Study of Thermal Stability of Mechanically Alloyed Al-5 wt.% TiO2 Composites with Cu and Stearic Acid Additives
by Alexey Prosviryakov and Andrey Bazlov
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(2), 1104; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13021104 - 13 Jan 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1907
Abstract
In this work, we studied the effect of thermal exposure on the microstructure and mechanical properties of an Al-5 wt.% TiO2 composite material with additions of 5 wt.% Cu and 2 wt.% stearic acid as a process control agent (PCA), obtained by [...] Read more.
In this work, we studied the effect of thermal exposure on the microstructure and mechanical properties of an Al-5 wt.% TiO2 composite material with additions of 5 wt.% Cu and 2 wt.% stearic acid as a process control agent (PCA), obtained by mechanical alloying. The composite was processed in a ball mill for 10 h. Composite granules were consolidated by hot pressing at 400 °C. SEM, XRD, and DSC analyses were used to study the microstructure, phase composition, and thermal behavior, respectively. Studies showed that the hot pressing of the material with copper addition leads to the precipitation of Al2Cu particles from the supersaturated solid solution and a decrease in the microhardness to 233 HV in comparison with the as-milled state (291 HV). In the material with a PCA additive, on the other hand, the microhardness increases from 162 to 187 HV due to the formation of aluminum carbide nanoparticles. In both cases, no reduction reaction products were found. At the same time, the Al-5TiO2-2PCA material after hot pressing shows a more stable grain structure than the Al-5TiO2-5Cu material. In addition, the compressive strength at 300 °C of the former material is 1.7 times higher than that of the latter one. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing, Properties and Applications of Composite Materials)
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<p>Morphology of composite granules containing (<b>a</b>) 2% stearic acid and (<b>b</b>) 5% Cu after 10 h of milling.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>DSC curves of composite powders with additions of (<b>a</b>) 2% stearic acid and (<b>b</b>) 5% Cu.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The effect of annealing temperature on the microhardness of cold-pressed powders.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>XRD patterns of as-milled and hot-pressed composites with (<b>a</b>) 2% stearic acid and (<b>b</b>) 5% Cu.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>The Williamson-Hall plots for (<b>a</b>) Al-5TiO<sub>2</sub>-2PCA and (<b>b</b>) Al-5TiO<sub>2</sub>-5Cu composites.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>SEM images of hot-pressed composites with additions of (<b>a</b>) 2% stearic acid and (<b>b</b>) 5% Cu.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Bright-field TEM images of the hot-pressed sample with addition of 2% stearic acid: (<b>a</b>) nanocrystallite structure, and (<b>b</b>) lamellar nanoparticles of Al<sub>4</sub>C<sub>3</sub>.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Compression stress-strain curves of the hot-pressed materials in different states at 300 °C.</p> Full article ">

Review

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42 pages, 7626 KiB  
Review
Ceramic Matrix Composites for Aero Engine Applications—A Review
by George Karadimas and Konstantinos Salonitis
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(5), 3017; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053017 - 26 Feb 2023
Cited by 65 | Viewed by 22231
Abstract
Ceramic matrix materials have attracted great attention from researchers and industry due to their material properties. When used in engineering systems, and especially in aero-engine applications, they can result in reduced weight, higher temperature capability, and/or reduced cooling needs, each of which increases [...] Read more.
Ceramic matrix materials have attracted great attention from researchers and industry due to their material properties. When used in engineering systems, and especially in aero-engine applications, they can result in reduced weight, higher temperature capability, and/or reduced cooling needs, each of which increases efficiency. This is where high-temperature ceramics have made considerable progress, and ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are in the foreground. CMCs are classified into non-oxide and oxide-based ones. Both families have material types that have a high potential for use in high-temperature propulsion applications. The oxide materials discussed will focus on alumina and aluminosilicate/mullite base material families, whereas for non-oxides, carbon, silicon carbide, titanium carbide, and tungsten carbide CMC material families will be discussed and analyzed. Typical oxide-based ones are composed of an oxide fiber and oxide matrix (Ox-Ox). Some of the most common oxide subcategories are alumina, beryllia, ceria, and zirconia ceramics. On the other hand, the largest number of non-oxides are technical ceramics that are classified as inorganic, non-metallic materials. The most well-known non-oxide subcategories are carbides, borides, nitrides, and silicides. These matrix composites are used, for example, in combustion liners of gas turbine engines and exhaust nozzles. Until now, a thorough study on the available oxide and non-oxide-based CMCs for such applications has not been presented. This paper will focus on assessing a literature survey of the available oxide and non-oxide ceramic matrix composite materials in terms of mechanical and thermal properties, as well as the classification and fabrication methods of those CMCs. The available manufacturing and fabrication processes are reviewed and compared. Finally, the paper presents a research and development roadmap for increasing the maturity of these materials allowing for the wider adoption of aero-engine applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing, Properties and Applications of Composite Materials)
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<p>Oxide and non-oxide CMC material categories.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>CMC materials research published since 1986.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Oxide vs. non-oxide CMC materials research.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Oxide CMC material categories.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Non-oxide CMC material categories.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Representation of CMC component parts in a gas turbine engine.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Comparison of compressive strength vs. specific stiffness.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>(<b>Left</b>) Compressive strength and (<b>right</b>) specific stiffness of available CMCs and comparison with superalloys.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Comparison of fatigue strength vs. fracture toughness of the available CMCs.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>(<b>Left</b>) Fatigue strength at 10<sup>7</sup> cycles and (<b>right</b>) fracture toughness of the available CMCs and comparison with superalloys.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Comparison of thermal expansion coefficient vs. thermal conductivity of the available CMCs.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>(<b>Left</b>) Thermal expansion coefficient and (<b>right</b>) thermal conductivity of CMCs and comparison with superalloys.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Comparison of maximum service temperature vs. thermal shock resistance of available CMCs.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Comparison of (<b>left</b>) maximum service temperature and (<b>right</b>) thermal shock resistance of CMCs.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Fabrication procedure steps for CMCs.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Fabrication procedure steps for CMCs.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Embodied energy and price per unit volume of CMCs.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Interrelation of standards, databases, life expectance models, and design codes of CMCs.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>CMC development process steps.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>CMC requirements needed to be met for wider adoption.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>CMC materials, coatings, and manufacturing processes for aero-engine applications Roadmap (the same key as <a href="#applsci-13-03017-f020" class="html-fig">Figure 20</a> applies).</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>CMC material performance against other composite matrices.</p> Full article ">Figure 23
<p>Technology indicators (arrows indicating trends).</p> Full article ">Figure 24
<p>Technology staircase.</p> Full article ">
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