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Blockchain Technologies: Trends, Challenges, Potentials and Applications
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Blockchain Technologies: Trends, Challenges, Potentials and Applications

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Computing and Artificial Intelligence".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 May 2025 | Viewed by 17440

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Ivo Pereira

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Science and Technology, Fernando Pessoa University, 4249-004 Porto, Portugal
Interests: artificial intelligence; machine learning; data science; marketing automation; combinatorial optimization; Industry 4.0
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Christophe Soares

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Science and Technology, University Fernando Pessoa, 4249-004 Porto, Portugal
Interests: blockchain; Web 3.0; artificial intelligence; machine learning; computer vision; ubiquitous computing
Dr. Rui Humberto Pereira

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. CEOS.PP, ISCAP, University of Maia, 4475-690 Maia, Portugal
2. Center for Organizational and Social Studies of the Polytechnic of Porto, Sao Mamede de Infesta, Portugal
Interests: blockchain; digital transformation; big data and data analytics
Dr. Ana M. Madureira

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Engineering, Polytechnic of Porto (ISEP/IPP), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal
Interests: artificial intelligence; metaheuristics; user modeling; dynamic scheduling; data science
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Filipe Sá

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Coimbra Institute of Engineering, Rua Pedro Nunes-Quinta da Nora, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal
Interests: software development; Internet of Things (IoT); information systems; databases; quality of service; e-government
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue, entitled "Blockchain Technologies: Trends, Challenges, Potentials and Applications", provides an in-depth analysis of the complex and diversified field of blockchain technology. It aims to examine the changing patterns, challenges, possibilities, obstacles, and wide-ranging application of blockchain technology across several fields. It also aims to provide a thorough overview of the latest developments and new paradigms in the field of blockchain, drawing on insightful contributions from top researchers and practitioners. The subjects addressed encompass a range of topics such as decentralized finance (DeFi), the interoperability of blockchain technology, solutions for scalability, processes for consensus, smart contracts, techniques for strengthening privacy, and scenarios for real-world deployment, among others. This Special Issue seeks to enhance comprehension of blockchain’s disruptive potential and promote its incorporation into practical systems and industries by combining state-of-the-art research findings and practical insights. Essentially, it will serve as a valuable resource for scholars, business experts, politicians, and enthusiasts seeking to navigate the rapidly evolving field of blockchain technologies.

Dr. Ivo Pereira
Dr. Christophe Soares
Dr. Rui Humberto Pereira
Dr. Ana M. Madureira
Dr. Filipe Sá
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • blockchain
  • smart contracts
  • privacy
  • interoperability
  • applications

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

31 pages, 1768 KiB  
Article
A Blockchain-Based Quality 4.0 Application for Warehouse Management System
by Tulay KorkusuzPolat and Erhan Baran
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(23), 10950; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142310950 - 25 Nov 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1043
Abstract
In today’s competitive conditions, firms compete in every aspect. It is essential to meet the quality requirements in all processes and to meet customer needs quickly. It should be ensured that all processes in the enterprises, all the technology used, and all the [...] Read more.
In today’s competitive conditions, firms compete in every aspect. It is essential to meet the quality requirements in all processes and to meet customer needs quickly. It should be ensured that all processes in the enterprises, all the technology used, and all the workforce employed are included in the total quality of the enterprise; necessary controls and corrections are made; and the quality is sustainable. In this study, (1) one of the critical processes of an enterprise, the process of a material arriving at the warehouse after its procurement and the process of its storage in the warehouse, is discussed. (2) The basic processes in storing raw materials or finished products have been redesigned based on quality with the help of the Blockchain (BC) method from Industry 4.0 (I-4.0) technologies. (3) A model has been developed for the BC-based Quality 4.0 (Q-4.0). This model was applied to the warehouse management processes of an enterprise and compared with the enterprise’s existing system. (4) As a result of the comparison, it has been seen that the developed Q-4.0 model is more effective and more comprehensive. (5) Due to the originality of the developed model, such a study is not encountered in the literature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain Technologies: Trends, Challenges, Potentials and Applications)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Flowchart of the study.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Quality 4.0 model.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Blockchain-based Quality 4.0 architectural structure.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Main operational processes.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Sub-processes.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Blockchain-based Quality 4.0 implementation.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Flowchart of the PFS-CoCoSo method.</p> Full article ">
29 pages, 4330 KiB  
Article
NexoNet: Blockchain Online Social Media with User-Centric Multiple Incentive Mechanism and PoAP Consensus Mechanism
by Junzhe Zuo, Wei Guo and Li Ling
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(21), 9783; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14219783 - 25 Oct 2024
Viewed by 860
Abstract
Online social media (OSM) has revolutionized the manner in which communication unfolds, enabling users to spontaneously generate, disseminate, share, and aggregate multimedia data across the internet. Nevertheless, in this exchange of information, OSM platforms assume a dominant, central role, wielding excessive power. Blockchain [...] Read more.
Online social media (OSM) has revolutionized the manner in which communication unfolds, enabling users to spontaneously generate, disseminate, share, and aggregate multimedia data across the internet. Nevertheless, in this exchange of information, OSM platforms assume a dominant, central role, wielding excessive power. Blockchain online social media (BOSM) seeks to mitigate the drawbacks of traditional centralized OSM by leveraging the decentralized nature of blockchain technology, migrating the functionalities of social media into a decentralized realm, and positioning the users at the core of the OSM ecosystem. However, current BOSM models often rely on tokens for incentives and are hampered by the centralized, inefficient blockchain consensus mechanisms, alongside vulnerabilities such as collusion attacks. This paper introduces a novel blockchain system, NexoNet, tailored for decentralized social media, exploring the application of blockchain technology in the realm of online social media from both technical and economic perspectives. The NexoNet quantifies and evaluates user participation within the system, employing a multiple incentive mechanism to equitably distribute value created by users without the need for tokens. Furthermore, we propose the Proof-of-Active-Participation (PoAP) blockchain consensus mechanism, enabling all users to partake in the maintenance of the blockchain system, thus ensuring its security and efficiency. Theoretical analysis and simulations across various scenarios demonstrate that the NexoNet, with extensive user engagement, achieves equitable value distribution through its multiple incentive mechanism. It successfully safeguards against a spectrum of malicious attacks and attains high transaction processing efficiency. The simulation results show that NexoNet achieves an average transaction throughput of 2000 transactions per second (TPS) and a consensus delay of 2.385 s with 100 maintainers in the network. Furthermore, our tests demonstrated that even collusion with users comprising 75% of the total would only allow an additional 30 chances to propose a block. By deeply integrating user behavior with the underlying mechanisms of the blockchain system, the NexoNet fosters a user-centric blockchain social media ecosystem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain Technologies: Trends, Challenges, Potentials and Applications)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>System model of the NexoNet.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Effect of the hyperbolic tangent function on the PV.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The PoAP consensus process.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>The execution stage of PoAP.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Changes in the average PV: (<b>a</b>) 5 user groups with equal levels of participation; (<b>b</b>) 5 user groups with different levels of participation.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>The accumulation of transaction fee: (<b>a</b>) 5 user groups with equal levels of participation; (<b>b</b>) 5 user groups with different levels of participation.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Distribution of block generating maintainers.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Comparison of consensus delay.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Comparison of TPS.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>The accumulation of transaction fee for launching rapid content publication attack.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Proposer election results under different levels of collusion attacks.</p> Full article ">
26 pages, 6258 KiB  
Article
Comparison between Blockchain P2P Energy Trading and Conventional Incentive Mechanisms for Distributed Energy Resources—A Rural Microgrid Use Case Study
by Alain Aoun, Mehdi Adda, Adrian Ilinca, Mazen Ghandour and Hussein Ibrahim
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(17), 7618; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177618 - 28 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1828
Abstract
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) energy trading is a new financial mechanism that can be adopted to incentivize the development of distributed energy resources (DERs), by promoting the selling of excess energy to other peers on the network at a negotiated rate. Current incentive programs, such [...] Read more.
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) energy trading is a new financial mechanism that can be adopted to incentivize the development of distributed energy resources (DERs), by promoting the selling of excess energy to other peers on the network at a negotiated rate. Current incentive programs, such as net metering (NEM) and Feed-in-Tariff (FiT), operate according to a centralized policy framework, where energy is only traded with the utility, the state-owned grid authority, the service provider, or the power generation/distribution company, who also have the upper hand in deciding on the rates for buying the excess energy. This study presents a comparative analysis of three energy trading mechanisms, P2P energy trading, NEM, and FiT, within a rural microgrid consisting of two prosumers and four consumers. The microgrid serves as a practical testbed for evaluating the economic impacts of these mechanisms, through simulations considering various factors such as energy demand, production variability, and energy rates, and using key metrics such as economic savings, annual energy bill, and wasted excess energy. Results indicate that while net metering and FiT offer stable financial returns for prosumers, P2P trading demonstrates superior flexibility and potentially higher economic benefits for both prosumers and consumers by aligning energy trading with real-time market conditions. The findings offer valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders seeking to optimize rural energy systems through innovative trading mechanisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain Technologies: Trends, Challenges, Potentials and Applications)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Evolution of the electric grid.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Dependent, independent, and interdependent energy markets.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Blockchain-based P2P energy trading model.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Simulated microgrid model.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Simulation algorithm flow chart.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Monthly solar radiation profile.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Total yearly gains—scenario 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Total yearly gains—scenario 2.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Additional gains generated by the addition of BESS.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Total P2P gains comparison between all scenarios.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Consumers savings from buying energy from Prosumers A and B.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Consumers savings from buying energy from Prosumers A′ and B.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Scenario 1 NPV—all prosumers.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Scenario 2 NPV—all prosumers.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Scenario 3 NPV—all prosumers (P2P).</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>PV size impact on total savings—Prosumer A.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>PV size impact on total savings—Prosumer B.</p> Full article ">
20 pages, 3294 KiB  
Article
Blockchain-Based Model for Incentivized Cyber Threat Intelligence Sharing
by Algimantas Venčkauskas, Vacius Jusas, Dominykas Barisas and Boriss Misnevs
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(16), 6872; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14166872 - 6 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1308
Abstract
Sharing cyber threat intelligence (CTI) can significantly improve the security of information technology (IT) in organizations. However, stakeholders and practitioners are not keen on sharing CTI data due to the risk of exposing their private data and possibly losing value as an organization [...] Read more.
Sharing cyber threat intelligence (CTI) can significantly improve the security of information technology (IT) in organizations. However, stakeholders and practitioners are not keen on sharing CTI data due to the risk of exposing their private data and possibly losing value as an organization on the market. We present a model for CTI data sharing that maintains trust and confidentiality and incentivizes the sharing process. The novelty of the proposed model is that it combines two incentive mechanisms: money and reputation. The reputation incentive is important for ensuring trust in the shared CTI data. The monetary incentive is important for motivating the sharing and consumption of CTI data. The incentives are based on a subscription fee and a reward score for activities performed by a user. User activities are considered in the following three fields: producing CTI data, consuming CTI data, and reviewing CTI data. Each instance of user activity is rewarded with a score, and this score generates some value for reputation. An algorithm is proposed for assigning reward scores and for recording the accumulated reputation of the user. This model is implemented on the Hyperledger Fabric blockchain and the Interplanetary File System for storing data off-chain. The implemented prototype demonstrates the feasibility of the proposed model. The provided simulation shows that the selected values and the proposed algorithm used to calculate the reward scores are in accordance with economic laws. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain Technologies: Trends, Challenges, Potentials and Applications)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Pillars of the model.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>View of Hyperledger Fabric network and client.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Data structures used in smart contracts.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>The general process of uploading and retrieving CTI data.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>The process of uploading CTI data into IPFS.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Workflow of review of CTI data.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>The user interface of the designed application.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>The user interface for the reviewer.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Value of reward score based on the number of participants.</p> Full article ">
20 pages, 1084 KiB  
Article
Efficient and Secure Management of Medical Data Sharing Based on Blockchain Technology
by Xiangke Mao, Chao Li, Yong Zhang, Guigang Zhang and Chunxiao Xing
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(15), 6816; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14156816 - 5 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1387
Abstract
In the current landscape of medical data management, processing data across diverse institutions and maximizing their value are paramount. However, traditional methods lack a secure and efficient mechanism for end-to-end traceability and supervision, posing challenges in distributed scenarios lacking mutual trust. Leveraging blockchain’s [...] Read more.
In the current landscape of medical data management, processing data across diverse institutions and maximizing their value are paramount. However, traditional methods lack a secure and efficient mechanism for end-to-end traceability and supervision, posing challenges in distributed scenarios lacking mutual trust. Leveraging blockchain’s decentralized, tamper-proof, and traceable features, this paper introduces a blockchain-based medical data management platform. This platform enables full-process management of raw data, operational behaviors, intermediate data, and final data, meeting the needs of trusted storage and supervision of data. We propose two methods, namely, naive method and DAG-based method, to realize forward tracking and backward tracing of medical data stored on the blockchain, respectively. We validated and analyzed the storage and query performance of the medical data management platform on real medical data, and we also conducted experimental analyses on the efficiency of the proposed traceability algorithm under different data scales and processing path lengths. The results demonstrate that our platform and traceability methods effectively meet the management needs of medical data distributed across institutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain Technologies: Trends, Challenges, Potentials and Applications)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Medical data management process.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Blockchain network structure diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Example of medical data provenance.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Linkage between medical data and operational behaviors data.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Forward tracking adjacency list.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Backward tracing adjacency list.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Deployment of organizations.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Throughput changes with the number of organizations.</p> Full article ">
25 pages, 2158 KiB  
Article
Application and Evaluation of a Blockchain-Centric Platform for Smart Badge Accreditation in Higher Education Institutions
by Christos Kontzinos, Evangelos Karakolis, Panagiotis Kokkinakos, Stavros Skalidakis, Dimitris Askounis and John Psarras
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(12), 5191; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14125191 - 14 Jun 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1100
Abstract
Since its conceptualization in 2008, blockchain technology has advanced rapidly and been applied in multiple domains. In higher education, blockchain can be applied to develop ICT systems that can revolutionize student accreditation through certificate verification and micro-accreditations, which represent skills and other learning [...] Read more.
Since its conceptualization in 2008, blockchain technology has advanced rapidly and been applied in multiple domains. In higher education, blockchain can be applied to develop ICT systems that can revolutionize student accreditation through certificate verification and micro-accreditations, which represent skills and other learning outcomes, in the form of digital/smart badges. While there are multiple studies that highlight the significance of blockchain in higher education and propose digital systems, few of those studies include the evaluation of such proposed systems by real users. As such, the research question of how useful a higher education blockchain system would be for its relevant stakeholders remains largely unanswered. In the research publication at hand, a blockchain-powered higher education platform was applied in the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering of the National Technical University of Athens, where it was used and evaluated by students and professors at the school. The evaluation of the platform was positive, and participants found that the smart badge functionality was among the most useful. Finally, the execution and evaluation of the pilot led to several lessons learned and policy recommendations towards dealing with existing barriers and further promoting blockchain in higher education. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain Technologies: Trends, Challenges, Potentials and Applications)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>QualiChain technical architecture.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Pilot execution methodology.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Smart badge awarding screen.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Smart badge tab in a user’s profile.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Policy recommendations methodological approach.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Policy recommendations template for collecting input.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Policy recommendations taxonomy.</p> Full article ">

Review

Jump to: Research

25 pages, 3426 KiB  
Review
A Systematic Literature Review on the Revolutionary Impact of Blockchain in Modern Business
by Medina Ayta Mohammed, Carmen De-Pablos-Heredero and José Luis Montes Botella
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(23), 11077; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311077 - 28 Nov 2024
Viewed by 2421
Abstract
Blockchain technology and its business applications have attracted considerable scholarly interest, leading to a surge in academic studies. While this wealth of research is beneficial, it also poses challenges in identifying the most relevant publications. Despite the availability of survey articles, research on [...] Read more.
Blockchain technology and its business applications have attracted considerable scholarly interest, leading to a surge in academic studies. While this wealth of research is beneficial, it also poses challenges in identifying the most relevant publications. Despite the availability of survey articles, research on this topic remains fragmented and concentrates on specific industrial sectors. This review addresses this gap by providing a detailed literature analysis, highlighting key themes, recent advancements, the benefits of blockchain adoption for businesses, and associated challenges. This study employs a multi-method literature review approach called bibliometric systematic literature review (B-SLR), combining bibliometric analysis with systematic literature review (SLR) techniques. This review critically examines studies of blockchain adoption in modern business from 2017 to 2023. Our findings reveal a decline in academic publications on blockchain for businesses since 2023, along with a shift in core themes from traditional supply chains to exploring blockchain’s role in environmentally sustainable supply chains, such as reverse logistics, green supply chains, and the circular economy. Additionally, there is an emerging focus on the role of blockchain in virtual environments, such as the metaverse and digital twins. Drawing from our analysis, we also present a theoretical framework and highlight ten crucial areas for future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain Technologies: Trends, Challenges, Potentials and Applications)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>The identification and screening process using the PRISMA model.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The number of publications over the years.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Co-word network (2017–end of 2021).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Co-word network (2022–October 2024).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>A conceptual framework for blockchain adoption by businesses.</p> Full article ">
30 pages, 2481 KiB  
Review
Blockchain-Driven Food Supply Chains: A Systematic Review for Unexplored Opportunities
by Rizwan Matloob Ellahi, Lincoln C. Wood and Alaa Ei-Din A. Bekhit
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(19), 8944; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14198944 - 4 Oct 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6398
Abstract
This systematic review critically examines the diverse applications of Blockchain technology in the food supply chain and identifies areas where its potential remains underutilized. By analysing 60 Blockchain-based frameworks, the study highlights the most frequently employed drivers such as transparency, traceability, and security [...] Read more.
This systematic review critically examines the diverse applications of Blockchain technology in the food supply chain and identifies areas where its potential remains underutilized. By analysing 60 Blockchain-based frameworks, the study highlights the most frequently employed drivers such as transparency, traceability, and security within food supply chains. Additionally, underexplored applications such as food donation and redistribution, supply chain financing, animal welfare, food waste management, and data analysis are identified, revealing opportunities for further innovation. The research employed NVivo 14 to analyze the extent of Blockchain’s implementation in various food supply chain drivers, and the findings informed the development of a more diverse framework for Blockchain integration. Key insights demonstrate Blockchain’s transformative potential, particularly in enhancing data integrity, trust, and operational efficiency through its immutable ledger and smart contracts, which streamline transactions, cut administrative costs, and reduce fraud. In terms of sustainability and safety, Blockchain improves traceability, accelerates safety responses, promotes environmental sustainability by tracking resource usage, and enhances humanitarian efforts with transparent, efficient resource distribution. Additionally, Blockchain facilitates food waste reduction by optimizing inventory and distribution, while ensuring surplus food reaches those in need. The study concludes by offering a roadmap for future research, pointing toward untapped dimensions of Blockchain’s application in food traceability, sustainable supply chain management, and environmental & social impact. While the review provides a comprehensive understanding of Blockchain’s current usage in food supply chains, the scope is limited by the systematic review process and specific inclusion criteria. This study serves as a foundation for exploring Blockchain’s broader potential in shaping the future of food supply chains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain Technologies: Trends, Challenges, Potentials and Applications)
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<p>Blockchain application in food supply chain (accurate, authentic, reliable, secure, and trustworthy data).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Blockchain application in food supply chains (automation and reduction in intermediaries).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Blockchain application in food supply chains (improved traceability, transparency, tracking, monitoring, and response times).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Blockchain application in food supply chain (verifiability, auditability, accountability and provenance).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Blockchain application in food supply chains (cost cutting, improved efficiencies, and fraud reduction.).</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Blockchain application in food supply chain (food safety and quality).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Blockchain application in food supply chains (environmental and food sustainability).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Number of refugees supported by building blocks [<a href="#B48-applsci-14-08944" class="html-bibr">48</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Blockchain application in food supply chain (donation and redistribution).</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Blockchain application in food supply chains (supply chain finance).</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Blockchain application in food supply chains (improved animal welfare).</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Blockchain application in food supply chains (food waste).</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Blockchain application in food supply chains (data analysis).</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>A framework of Blockchain-driven food supply chains.</p> Full article ">
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