Wildlife Ecology and Conservation

Markhor Capra falconeri, the national animal of Pakistan, is globally recognized as endangered. The current study was conducted to find the population size, structure and the contribution of trophy hunting in conservation and development of Kashmir Markhor (Capra falconeri cashmiriensis) in Kiagah valley Kohistan. Point count method was used to collect data during February 2016 and 2018. The population recorded was 213 and 291 individuals in 2016 and 2018 respectively. Out of 213 individuals, 12 were adult male, 57 were female, while Young males (between age of 3 to 7 years) were 28, Yearlings (both male and female between 1 to 3 year) were 59, Kids (less than 1 year) were 33 and 40 were unknown (Markhor could not be classified by age and sex). The total density/Km 2 area in 2016 was 4.438 individuals/km 2 and average sex and age wise ratios; male to female ratio (M*: F**) was 1:4.75 and kids to female (K*****: F**) ratio was 1:1.727. While out of 291 individuals, 19 were adult male, 95 were female, while Yong males (between age of 3 to 7 years) were 51, Yearlings (both male and female between 1 to 3 year) were 64, kids (less than 1 year) were 50 and 12 were unknown (Markhor could not be classified by age and sex) individuals. The total density/Km 2 area in 2018 was 6.063 individuals/km 2 and Average sex and age wise ratios; male to female ratio

Swamp Deer is a globally threatened large-sized deer species confined within small patches of the Indian subcontinent.  Historically, Swamp Deer occurred in Chitwan National Park, Nepal but was extirpated in the 1960s primarily due to widespread hunting.  We assessed the habitat suitability at present for the Swamp Deer in Chitwan National Park using multi-criteria analysis in GIS and vegetation assessment using frequency, dominance, and cover.  Within the 952.63km2 area of the national park, the habitat suitability analysis identified 14.57km2 as highly suitable, 134.87km2 as suitable, and 803.19km2 as moderate to least suitable area.  Most of the national park’s grassland is suitable for Swamp Deer.  Grassland is dominated by Saccharum spp.; Imperata cylindrica is the most widely distributed grass species followed by Saccharum spp., Narenga porphyrocoma, and Apluda mutica.  Grass species of the Poaceae family are the most preferred species by Swamp Deer, which are found within short grasslands.  The study revealed that Padampur Phanta could be the most suitable site for the reintroduction of Swamp Deer due to its highest proportion of short grass and availability of preferred food species and good habitat in comparison to other blocks.  Invasion of swamps of Chitwan by Mikania micrantha and Eichornia crassipes could be a limiting factor for the habitat suitability of Swamp Deer.

O presente documental consolida o Resumo Executivo, referente às propostas de intervenção do “Programa Estrada Viva: perspectivas de gestão ecológica para a rodovia BR-262, região do pantanal, MS” apresentado à Empresa Brasileira de Planejamento de Transportes (GEIPOT-DF), como parte da conclusão contratual estabelecida em termo aditivo (51.400.000.557/98) junto ao convênio de cooperação técnica entre Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul e Ministério dos Transportes (23.104.005.420/98-14).
A fim de se subsidiar as propostas de intervenção necessárias para minorar os acidentes rodoviários ocasionados pela presença de animais silvestres na pista e acostamento da referida estrada, são apresentadas propostas para minimizar atropelamentos da fauna silvestre e acidentes rodoviários, baseados em dados históricos e atuais obtidos in situ, além de estarem apoiadas em estudos similares desenvolvidos no país e no exterior adequadas e/ou adaptadas às realidades locais da BR-262.

OBJETIVOS
• Manutenção e intensificação do monitoramento de animais silvestres (atropelados ou em atividade) na rodovia BR-262;
• Definição detalhada dos ambientes de grande atividade e utilização da fauna silvestre ao longo da estrada;
• Definição de técnicas, custos e aspectos legais pertinentes a cada região da estrada para a regulamentação e gestão das áreas comprometidas pelos impactos da BR-262;
• Elaboração de plano de gestão ecológica para a BR-262.

PRODUTOS ESPECÍFICOS
• Estratégia de ação e plano de manejo para a BR-262
• Programas de gestão ambiental rodoviária para a BR-262
• Proposta de criação do selo e da certificação ESTRADA VIVA

Butterflies are the biological indicators of the ecosystem; these insects tell us the healthier ecosystem. These are natural pollinators; butterflies visit the flower to eat nectar and this is mutually beneficial relationship. Some species of butterflies migrate over long distance; carry pollen to be shared across plants which are far apart from one another. This migration of pollens induces genetic variation in plants species and give a better chance of forest health. These insects also provide food for other group of organisms, for example; birds, reptiles, amphibians and also helps in biological diversity. But the population of these insects decline rapidly due to human activities, habitat destruction, uses of pesticides and unawareness of people about the importance Butterflies. Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary is situated on the Southern bank of the Brahmaputra River and lies in the district of Kamrup (Metro). Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary lies within 91ᵒ 55'' E Longitude and 26ᵒ 10'' N latitude. The sanctuary falls under East Kamrup Forest Division. The total area is 78.64 sq km. of this 7.7 sq km area. The sanctuary comprising of Amchang, South Amchang and Khanapara Reserve Forest is spread over 7,864 hectares. The present study deals with diversity of butterfly found within the study area and to prepare a preliminary checklist of the butterflies in the study site. It is found that Nymphalidae is represented by 16 species followed by Hesperidae 4 species and Pieridae 4 species, Papilionidae 2 species, Lycaenidae 1 species,. The relative abundance of Nymphalidae is highest (63%) followed by Pieridae (16%), Hesperidae (12%) , Papilionidae (5%) and Lycaenidae (4%). Human encroachment to forest land and anothropogenic disturbances from cutting of tree are posing threats for the ecosystem and fauna of the area and thus this survey presents a future work on for conservation of the Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary.

Differential resource use allows a diversity of species to co-exist in a particular area by specializing in individual ecological niches. Four-horned antelope Tetracerus quadricornis is endemic to the Indian subcontinent and has a restricted distribution in Nepal and India; however, the barking deer Muntiacus vaginalis is relatively common throughout its wide distribution range. We wanted a better understanding of their habitats and how these two similarly sized solitary ungulates manage to coexist in lowland Nepal. We used fecal pellet belt transect surveys in the Babai valley, Bardia National Park to study the habitat associations of both species. We found empirical evidence that four-horned antelope prefer hill sal forest and deciduous hill forest at higher elevations, whereas barking deer preferred riverine and sal forest in lower elevations. We found a clear niche differentiation of four-horned antelope and barking deer that made the coexistence of these similarly sized solitary ungulates possible. Hence, resource partitioning is the key to coexistence of these solitary ungulates, and the fine-grained habitat mosaic of different forest types in the study landscape appears to be the underlying feature. Therefore, maintaining the habitat mosaic and preserving valuable hill sal and deciduous hill forests will facilitate the coexistence of herbivores in sub-tropical regions.

Dispersal can strongly influence the demographic and evolutionary trajectory of populations. For many species, little is known about dispersal, despite its importance to conservation. The Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) is a species of conservation concern that ranges across 11 western U.S. states and 2 Canadian provinces. To investigate dispersal patterns among spring breeding congregations, we examined a 21-locus microsatellite DNA dataset of 3,244 Greater Sage-Grouse sampled from 763 leks throughout Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota, USA, across 7 yr. We recaptured ~2% of individuals, documenting 41 instances of breeding dispersal, with 7 dispersal events of 50 km, including 1 of 194 km. We identified 39 recaptures on the same lek up to 5 yr apart, which supports the long-held paradigm of philopatry in lekking species. We found no difference between the sexes in breeding dispersal distances or in the tendency to disperse vs. remain philopatric. We also documented movements within and among state-delineated priority areas of conservation importance, further supporting the need to identify movement corridors among these reserves. Our results can be used to better inform the assumptions of count-based population models and the dispersal thresholds used to model population connectivity.

Study of habitat characteristics and distribution pattern of Tokay Gecko (Gekko gecko) was carried out in Barak valley of southern Assam by transect method. 112 individuals were recorded during the study period. Out of which, highest individuals were found in Irongamara of Cachar district. In the study area, the average encounter rate was 6.92/km. Gekko gecko is distributed thoughout the Barak valley. In addition, it was found in houses like mud house, pucca house and RCC buildings, irrespective of trees which is its natural habitat. Mud house as their most preferred habitat as they were mostly found perching on the mud walls, individuals were found perching at medium level height i.e., 2m above the ground. Trees with good canopy cover are their other suitable habitat. Among plants, the species was more abundant in Ficus sp. due to moderately high temperature and moderate moisture inhabiting in the hole. Most of the calls were given during evening hours, which is the peak hour for feeding by clinching on the outside wall of the house at night. The species mainly feed on the insects. Cockroach, moth and spider are recorded as their favourite prey. The local village men have a social taboo for the species and it is believed that it occurrence in houses bring 'good fortune' for the family. Of late, severe illegal trading of the animal has brought about drastic decline of the species from the study area.

Protected areas are essential for conservation of wildlife populations. However, in
the tropics there are two important factors that may interact to threaten this
objective: 1) road development associated with large-scale resource extraction
near or within protected areas; and 2) historical occupancy by traditional or
indigenous groups that depend on wildlife for their survival. To manage wildlife
populations in the tropics, it is critical to understand the effects of roads on the
spatial extent of hunting and how wildlife is used. A geographical analysis can help
us answer questions such as: How do roads affect spatial extent of hunting? How
does market vicinity relate to local consumption and trade of bushmeat? How does
vicinity to markets influence choice of game? A geographical analysis also can help
evaluate the consequences of increased accessibility in landscapes that function
as source-sink systems. We applied spatial analyses to evaluate the effects of
increased landscape and market accessibility by road development on spatial
extent of harvested areas and wildlife use by indigenous hunters. Our study was
conducted in Yasunı´ Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador, which is impacted by road
development for oil extraction, and inhabited by the Waorani indigenous group.
Hunting activities were self-reported for 12–14 months and each kill was
georeferenced. Presence of roads was associated with a two-fold increase of the
extraction area. Rates of bushmeat extraction and trade were higher closer to
markets than further away. Hunters located closer to markets concentrated their
effort on large-bodied species. Our results clearly demonstrate that placing roads
within protected areas can seriously reduce their capacity to sustain wildlife
populations and potentially threaten livelihoods of indigenous groups who depend on these resources for their survival. Our results critically inform current policy
debates regarding resource extraction and road building near or within protected
areas.

Relationships between foraging habitat and reproductive success provide compelling evidence of the contribution of specific vegetative features to foraging habitat quality, a potentially limiting factor for many animal populations. For example, foraging habitat quality likely will gain importance in the recovery of the threatened red-cockaded woodpecker Picoides borealis (RCW) in the USA as immediate nesting constraints are mitigated. Several researchers have characterized resource selection by foraging RCWs, but emerging research linking reproductive success (e.g. clutch size, nestling and fledgling production, and group size) and foraging habitat features has yet to be synthesized. Therefore, we reviewed peer-refereed scientific literature and technical resources (e.g. books, symposia proceedings, and technical reports) that examined RCW foraging ecology, foraging habitat, or demography to evaluate evidence for effects of the key foraging habitat features described in the species' recovery plan on group reproductive success. Fitness-based habitat models suggest foraging habitat with low to intermediate pine Pinus spp. densities, presence of large and old pines, minimal midstory development, and herbaceous groundcover support more productive RCW groups. However, the relationships between some foraging habitat features and RCW reproductive success are not well supported by empirical data. In addition, few regression models account for 30% of variation in reproductive success, and unstandardized multiple and simple linear regression coefficient estimates typically range from 0.100 to 0.100, suggesting ancillary variables and perhaps indirect mechanisms influence reproductive success. These findings suggest additional research is needed to address uncertainty in relationships between foraging habitat features and RCW reproductive success and in the mechanisms underlying those relationships.

Ungulates are one of the most important groups in terrestrial ecosystems across the tropics. Also, ungulates are an important source of protein for people who inhabit tropical forests, and numerous studies have been conducted to evaluate the impact of hunting on the size of ungulate populations. However, little is known about other potential effects of hunting on these species. This study aims to analyze the effect of landscape accessibility to hunters on the daily activities of ungulates in Yasuní Biosphere Reserve, a protected area located in the Amazon region of Ecuador. We compared activity patterns (i. e., distribution of hours of activity along the day) and activity levels (i. e., proportion of hours of the day that an animal is active) for five ungulate species (white-lipped peccary Tayassu pecari, collared peccary Pecari tajacu, red brocket deer Mazama americana, brown brocket deer M. nemorivaga, and tapir Tapirus terrestris) in four sites differing in the degree of access to hunters. To this end, in each of the four study areas, a grid of camera traps was placed within a polygon of approximately 100 km 2 ; traps operated continuously for three to four consecutive months. We recorded the date and time of detection for each species. Daily activity patterns and activity levels were estimated with kernel density analysis for circular data. Our work included a total of 9,506 effective trapping days for the four study sites, resulting in 1,063 separate records of the five ungulate species. In the four study areas, the brown brocket deer and the two species of peccaries concentrated their activity in daytime hours. The red brocket deer was most active in twilight hours, and the tapir was primarily nocturnal. At sites most accessible to hunters, the activity patterns of the collared peccary included a higher proportion of nighttime hours. The red brocket deer also seemed to increase the proportion of nighttime hours of its daily activity. The overall daily activity level was higher in the site with higher accessibility, but was statistically significant only for the collared peccary and the red brocket deer. Our findings include moderate statistically significant evidence suggesting that the access of hunters to the landscape influences the daily activity of ungulates in Yasuní. One species that is clearly affected by the access of hunters is the collared peccary, which becomes more nocturnal and increases its nighttime hours of activity when accessibility to hunters is higher. When our results are compared with other studies, it is evident that the species may display different behavioral responses to hunting, and that these responses may vary with the scale of analysis. This study was limited by sample sizes, which did not allow performing comprehensive analyses for all five species. To further understand the effects of hunting and other human activities on animal behavior, additional studies specifically designed for this purpose should be conducted. Los ungulados constituyen uno de los grupos de mayor importancia en los ecosistemas terrestres de los trópicos. Adicionalmente, los ungulados son una fuente importante de proteína para los habitantes de los bosques tropicales y existen algunos estudios que evalúan el im-pacto de la cacería en el tamaño de las poblaciones de estas especies. Sin embargo, se conoce poco sobre otros efectos que la cacería puede tener en los ungulados. El propósito de este estudio fue evaluar el efecto de la accesibilidad de cazadores al paisaje en la actividad diaria de los ungulados en la Reserva de Biosfera Yasuní, un área natural protegida localizada en la región amazónica de Ecuador. Se comparó los patrones de actividad (i. e., distribución de horas de actividad en el día) y niveles de actividad (i. e., proporción de horas del día que un animal está activo) de cinco especies de ungulados (pecarí de labios blancos Tayassu pecari, pecarí de collar Pecari tajacu, venado colorado Mazama americana, venado marrón Mazama nemorivaga y tapir Tapirus terrestris) en cuatro sitios con diferente grado de accesibilidad de cazadores al paisaje. Para este propósito, en cada sitio se estableció una grilla de cámaras trampa en un polígono de aproximadamente 100 km 2 , y que funcionó conti-nuamente de tres a cuatro meses consecutivos. Para cada especie se registró su fecha y hora de detección. Los patrones y niveles de actividad diaria se estimaron por medio de un análisis de densidad de kernel para datos circulares. El esfuerzo total del presente trabajo fue de 9,506 días efectivos de muestreo entre los cuatro sitios de estudio que resultó en 1,063 registros independientes de las cinco especies de ungulados. En los cuatro sitios estudiados, el venado marrón y ambas especies de pecarí concentraron su actividad en la mañana. El venado colorado fue más activo en los crepúsculos y el tapir fue principalmente nocturno. En los sitios con mayor acceso de cazadores, el patrón de actividad del pecarí de collar incluyó una mayor proporción de horas de la noche. El venado colorado también pareció incrementar la proporción de horas noctur-nas en su actividad diaria. En general, el nivel de actividad diaria fue más alto en el sitio de mayor acceso aunque estadísticamente significativo únicamente para el pecarí de collar y el venado colorado. Nuestro estudio encuentra pocas evidencias estadísticamente significativas de que la accesibilidad de cazadores al paisaje tiene un efecto en la actividad diaria de los ungulados en Yasuní. Una especie que muestra efectos claros es el pecarí de collar, que incrementa sus horas de actividad cuando la accesibilidad de cazadores al paisaje aumenta. Por medio de comparar nuestros resultados con otros estudios, observamos que la cacería puede tener efectos diferentes en el comportamiento de las especies, y que además, estos resultados pueden variar según la escala de análisis. Es importante notar que este estudio estuvo limitado por los tamaños de muestra que no permitieron realizar los mismos análisis para todas las especies. Para conocer a más profundidad los efectos de la cacería y otras actividades humanas en el comportamiento animal, sugerimos realizar más estudios específicamente diseñados para este propósito.

We highlight hitherto unreported populations of two globally threatened Phalangeridae species on southeast Sulawesi’s offshore islands – Bear Cuscus Ailurops ursinus and Small Sulawesi Cuscus Strigocuscus celebensis – and observations of a third range-restricted species – Peleng Cuscus Strigocuscus pelengensis. Our data are based on records made during 11 years of seasonal surveys on Buton, and short-term expeditions to Kabaena and Manui. Our observations of S. celebensis on Buton, where it occurs in three protected areas, represent an important range extension for this species, as do our observations of A. ursinus on Kabaena, where it is also widespread. We also report the unexpected presence of S. pelengensis on Manui. Buton in particular appears to be an important stronghold for both A. ursinus and S. celebensis, given that forest ecosystems here remain extensive and relatively intact. Both these species may also display a previously unreported adaptability to disturbed forest and even some non-forest habitats within our study area. Hunting pressures, a proven threat to these species in northern Sulawesi, may also be lesser here.

Functional connectivity, quantified using landscape genetics, can inform conservation through the identification of factors linking genetic structure to landscape mechanisms. We used breeding habitat metrics, landscape attributes, and indices of grouse abundance, to compare fit between structural connectivity and genetic differentiation within five long-established Sage-Grouse Management Zones (MZ) I-V using microsatellite genotypes from 6,844 greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus uropha-sianus) collected across their 10.7 million-km 2 range. We estimated structural con-nectivity using a circuit theory-based approach where we built resistance surfaces using thresholds dividing the landscape into "habitat" and "nonhabitat" and nodes were clusters of sage-grouse leks (where feather samples were collected using non-invasive techniques). As hypothesized, MZ-specific habitat metrics were the best predictors of differentiation. To our surprise, inclusion of grouse abundance-corrected indices did not greatly improve model fit in most MZs. Functional connec-tivity of breeding habitat was reduced when probability of lek occurrence dropped below 0.25 (MZs I, IV) and 0.5 (II), thresholds lower than those previously identified as required for the formation of breeding leks, which suggests that individuals are willing to travel through undesirable habitat. The individual MZ landscape results suggested terrain roughness and steepness shaped functional connectivity across all MZs. Across respective MZs, sagebrush availability (<10%-30%; II, IV, V), tree canopy cover (>10%; I, II, IV), and cultivation (>25%; I, II, IV, V) each reduced movement beyond their respective thresholds. Model validations confirmed variation in predictive ability across MZs with top resistance surfaces better predicting gene flow than geographic distance alone, especially in cases of low and high differentiation among lek groups. The resultant resistance maps we produced spatially depict the strength and redundancy of range-wide gene flow and can help direct conservation actions to maintain and restore functional connectivity for sage-grouse.