Victimization

The article investigates how the concept of victimhood is constructed within debates on transnational prostitution and trafficking, and how representations of victimhood intersect with representations of the person/self, class, ethnicity, gender and nationality. Using research findings based on observation and interviews with women from post-Soviet societies involved in prostitution in Norway, we discuss how the women embrace, resist or rework dominant representations of migrant prostitution and attendant notions of victimhood, as well as how they relate to multiple notions of the person/self, femininity and nation through their handling of the stigma of prostitution

In the current study, we propose an integrative approach, which will incorporate elements from the social learning and self-control theories of delinquency and crime to examine violence in an understudied, marginalized, and often discriminated subpopulation group—American Indian youth. The analysis is based on survey data collected between 2009 and 2013 from a sample of American Indian adolescents ( N = 3,380) enrolled in 27 school districts located in five regions of the United States (Northern Plains, Southwest, Upper Great Lakes, Southeast/Texas, and the Northeast). The main objective of the analysis is to identify the factors more likely to predict violent offending among American Indian adolescents, a vulnerable group that has an elevated risk of violent victimization. Results of the Tobit regression analysis indicate that in both gender groups a low level of self-control, association with delinquent friends, poor school performance, and underage alcohol consumption significant...

O artigo analisa o lugar comumente ocupado pela vítima nos debates científicos sobre segurança pública, conjugando estudos das ciências criminais e da teoria social. Problematiza-se como a vítima e os movimentos de vítimas são instrumentalizados pelo discurso político de “lei e ordem”, ensejando a dessubjetivação das pessoas concretamente afetadas pelo delito. Na sequência, o trabalho busca apontar alternativas de interpretação acerca do papel que estes atores sociais poderiam desempenhar no campo da segurança pública, se considerados como sujeitos empíricos e moralmente relevantes. Recorrendo à revisão sistemática de literatura como principal estratégia de análise, espera-se que o artigo contribua com novas perspectivas para a inclusão da vítima em temas de segurança pública na condição de sujeito reconhecido.

Over the past five years violence against women has been growing in Serbia. However, the aim of this paper is not to explore the reasons for the violence itself, but the way it is presented in the media. In this paper, representations of domestic violence are analysed by focusing on the image of women in newspapers, TV shows and film. Therefore, my intention is to examine: 1. How the media manipulate through the construct of gender; 2. The ways in which the media deepen gender differentiation and construct women as a weaker, inferior subject.

Tension between the ideal of analytic neutrality — although conceived and applied in various ways — and the putative danger of political neutrality is intrinsic to psychoanalytic investigations of culture and society. It presents itself with urgency in times of social conflict, especially when such conflict is characterized by or framed in terms of victimization, but it has not been a subject of rigorous debate. That the tension between analytic and political neutrality has not been widely examined might mean that when analysts engage in scholarly work outside of clinical settings (e.g., writing books or papers), we adopt a different set of norms to guide our behavior, norms that do not include whatever attitude of neutrality we may observe in the consulting room. 1 But it might also mean that this tension is a site of resistance, that we are unwilling to look closely at a difficult aspect of our work because we expect it to yield uncomfortable experience. Of course, this resistance may be largely unconscious, leading us to miss or mistake the meanings and consequences of our positions. Analytic Neutrality Due to limitations of space, in this essay I do not review the long history or many variations of the idea of analytic neutrality. There remains a healthy discourse on the subject, particularly as it pertains to the timing and nature of interpretations, the self-presence or self-absence of the analyst, and the establishment of an appropriate working atmosphere (see e.

This article offers a qualitative, institutional analysis of the dynamics of revictimization as the accumulation of disadvantages over time and across different institutional contexts, and its multiple gender dimensions. It draws on 37 qualitative interviews with victims of intimate partner violence, detailing the institutional causal pathways to victimization and revictimization over the life course, through the in-debth analysis of one case. Drawing on the vulnerability approach, developed by Martha Albertson Fineman, the analysis demonstrates how victimization and revictimization have been facilitated, tolerated, and even produced by particular institutional contexts, illustrating how the ‘risk of revictimization’ is not a characteristic of the individual, nor is it destiny. The article contributes to a constructive social science, elucidating how victimization is contingent on social and institutional contexts, and how at several critical points, better institutions and better institutional responses to particular events might have prevented or interrupted the dynamics of accumulating victimization. Focusing on embodied, gendered subjects and the role of institutions in producing as well as remedying inequalities has far reaching implications for research and prevention of violence. In contrast to a risk-factor approach targeting particular groups and individuals, a vulnerability analysis calls for a responsive state and universal institutional solutions.

Signal detection theory has evolutionary foundations in which our ancestors who were able to detect signals of aggression survived, while those who could not were extinguished. The purpose of this study is to examine the detection of conflict escalation signals in a domestic argument in a married couple as a consequence of history with prior victimization and perpetration of violence.  The purpose of this study is threefold: 1. escalation detection differences between a trained special victim’s detective and untrained individuals, 2. escalation detection for individuals with domestic violence victimization, and 3. physiological arousal during escalation detection.  A series of hypotheses and research questions tested untrained people’s signal detection abilities with a trained, special victim’s unit police investigator as a consequence of male and female-initiated conflict.  Untrained viewers reported fewer aggression signals than the police investigator.  A repeated measures general linear model using two measures of physiological arousal revealed significant effects on electrodermal activity while watching escalating conflict as a function of victimization history.  Results are discussed in terms of signal detection and excitation transfer theories towards explaining responses to escalating conflict.

In Staying Alive While Living the Life, Sue-Ann MacDonald and Benjamin Roebuck unpack the realities of living on the streets from the perspective of homeless youth. While much is written about at-risk youth, most literature on youth homelessness reduces their lives to flattened images with little room for the diverse, complex and individual nature of their experiences. Challenging the dominant youth-at-risk conversation by putting forward a framework of survival and resilience, MacDonald and Roebuck illustrate the ways that young people who experience homelessness demonstrate tremendous resilience when facing adversity, social exclusion and various forms of oppression.

Drawing on conversations with homeless youth, this book focuses both on the external constraints imposed on their lives as well as the ways young people understand their circumstances and their approaches to problem solving. The result is a nuanced analysis that puts human agency at its centre, allowing readers to explore the challenges young people face and the internal and external resources they draw upon when making decisions about their lives.

Les aînés seraient le groupe le plus inquiet d’être victime de crimes alors qu’ils représentent le groupe le moins à risque. Nombre de facteurs peuvent expliquer cette inquiétude; le genre, le milieu de vie, les expériences de victimisation antérieure, la perception du risque n’en sont que quelques-uns. Toutefois, peu d’études se sont intéressées aux facteurs psychologiques permettant de prévoir la présence d’insécurités chez les aînés. L’objectif de cet article est d’explorer ce qui permet de prédire la présence d’insécurités liées à la victimisation criminelle chez cette tranche de la population en portant attention à l’effet de certaines caractéristiques psychologiques. Les 387 participants, âgés de 60 à 98 ans (M = 73,92) ont répondu à la version française du Worry about victimisation (WAV) et à différentes mesures pour évaluer leurs caractéristiques sociodémographiques, des variables relatives à leur environnement, incluant le taux de criminalité de leur quartier, des variables personnelles (santé, soutien social, victimisation antérieure), leur perception du risque d’être victime d’un crime et leur niveau d’anxiété. Les résultats de la régression logistique hiérarchique montrent que le trait anxieux et la perception du risque agissent comme facteur de prédiction lorsque les effets des autres variables sont contrôlés.

Qualitative research provides opportunities to study bullying and peer harassment as social processes, interactions and meaning-making in the everyday context of particular settings. It offers the possibility of developing a deep understanding of the culture and group processes of bullying and the participants’ perspectives on peer harassment as well. It gives participants opportunities to discuss their own understanding and experiences of bullying in their own words. This article reviews qualitative studies on bullying or peer harassment in school (including some studies in which qualitative and quantitative methods — so-called mixed methods — have been used).

Informal support systems play an important role in assisting primary victims cope with their experience post-crime. The experience of primary victims can have a vicarious impact on the individuals who comprise these support systems. This research explores the impact of child sexual assault on a sample of 26 non-offending parents, with a particular focus on examining the link between a parent’s thoughts and feelings about the assault and their subsequent support of, and assistance to, the primary victim. The results of the qualitative analysis show parents experienced a wide range of negative emotional responses to their child’s victimisation, and these reactions may have influenced what support the parent was able to provide. In particular, parents reported feelings of anger, sadness and guilt; they became overprotective and isolated from their children, partners, family, friends and community. The implications of these findings for the treatment and support of parents of victims of child sexual assault are also discussed.

Artykuł zawiera opis metodologii Ogólnopolskiej diagnozy problemu przemocy wobec dzieci. Przedstawiono w nim zastosowaną procedurę badawczą oraz omówiono etapy pracy nad kwestionariuszem — od adaptacji Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire, przez zmiany wprowadzone w wyniku pilotażu, po ostateczną jego formę. Artykuł zawiera również opis zastosowanych mechanizmów mających zapewnić bezpieczeństwo respondentów, charakterystykę badanej próby oraz ograniczenia badawcze.

In accordance with the social information processing model, how adolescents attribute cause to a particular social situation (e.g., bullying) they witness or participate in, influences their online social information processing, and hence, how they will act in the situation.
Objective 
The aim of the present study was to explore how older teenagers explain why bullying takes place at school, and whether there were any differences in explaining bullying due to gender.
Methods 
Two hundred and fifteen Swedish students in upper secondary school responded to a questionnaire. Mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative methods) were used to analyze data.
Results 
The qualitative analysis resulted in three main categories and nine subcategories regarding accounts of bullying causes. According to the findings, the youth explained bullying much more often with individualistic explanations (bully attributing and victim attributing) than non-individualistic explanations (social context attributing). Furthermore, girls tended to provide a greater number of bullying explanations and were more likely to attribute bullying causes to the bully and the victim, as compared to boys.
Conclusions 
The findings provide insights into older teenagers’ understanding of why bullying occurs in school. The study also identified some gender differences but also some mixed findings regarding gender differences in comparison with previous research with younger participants. The authors concluded that more research has to be done to investigate age and gender differences.

[AMAZON LINK BELOW TO BOOK ITSELF
-- TOC and book summary in downloadable .pdf] 
According to the poet Elias Canetti, "All the things one has forgotten / scream for help in dreams." To the ancient Egyptians they were prophecies, and in world folklore they have often marked visitations from the dead. For Freud they were expressions of "wish fulfillment," and for Jung, symbolic representations of mythical archetypes. Although there is still much disagreement about the significance and function of dreams, they seem to serve as a barometer of current mind and body states.

In this volume, Deirdre Barrett brings together the study of dreams and the psychology of trauma. She has called on a distinguished group of psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers--among them Rosalind Cartwright, Robert J. Lifton, and Oliver Sacks--to consider how trauma shapes dreaming and what the dreaming mind might reveal about trauma. The book focuses on catastrophic events, such as combat, political torture, natural disasters, and rape. The lasting effects of childhood trauma, such as sexual abuse or severe burns, on personality formation, the nature of memories of early trauma, and the development of defenses related to amnesia and dissociation are all considered. The book also takes up trauma and adult dreams, including Vietnam veterans and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Holocaust survivors and perpetrators, rape victims, and firestorm survivors. Finally, this volume concludes with a look at the potential "traumas of normal life," such as divorce, bereavement, and life-threatening illness, and the role of dreams in working through normal grief and loss.

Taken together, these diverse perspectives illuminate the universal and the particular effects of traumatic experience. For physicians and clinicians, determining the etiology of nightmares offers valuable diagnostic and therapeutic insights for individual treatment. This book provides a way of juxtaposing the research in the separate fields of trauma and dreams, and learning from their discoveries.

As texting continues to serve as an increasingly common method of communication among emerging adults, increases in rates of sexting, or sending sexually explicit messages, pictures, or videos, have also been observed. While consensual sexting can facilitate intimacy in relationships, when used as a tool to victimize others, it has been shown to yield a range of negative outcomes-from embarrassment to severe depression and suicide. This chapter aims to review the existing literature on emerging adults' engagement in and evaluations of sexting, while also considering the risks associated with sexting victimization. The role that individual characteristics, such as attachment style and rejection sensitivity, play in the relationship between experiences with and evaluations of using sexting as a tool for victimization will also be explored. !

Why is support for marijuana legalization among African Americans notably modest given that such a policy would drastically reduce the number of African Americans arrested annually for nonviolent drug offenses? In this article I assess whether the urban frustration argument is an adequate explanation for Blacks’ generally low levels of support for marijuana legalization. I analyzed merged Supplemental Homicide Report and Drug Arrest data and General Social Survey data to determine the extent to which race-specific murder victimization rates and race-specific drug arrest rates in U.S. cities are predictive of support for marijuana legalization among Blacks and Whites between 1990 and 2000. Findings indicate that Blacks’ level of support for marijuana legalization is greatest in those cities with the highest Black drug arrest rates. Consequently, these findings provide no support for the urban frustration argument.

The existence of a rape culture in the West has, in recent years, been widely contested. Unreliable data from surveys and difficulty in providing a staunch definition of rape culture have largely contributed to the backlash triggered so-called “backlash” feminists such as Camille Paglia and Katie Roiphe. Much of the contemporary research on rape culture details and challenges the rhetoric which these backlash texts produced in the 1990s and early 2000s; the aim of this research piece is to highlight the continued existence of – if not proliferation and bolstering of – a rape culture as a worldwide phenomenon most keenly experienced and evident through its propagation in digital media and social networking websites.
Through analytic examination of a selection of Tweets gathered from a preliminary search on Twitter, this paper will highlight how rape culture is reified on microblogging website Twitter. The tweets selected specifically reference the Steubenville rape case which became an international event in August 2012. The case itself is of particular interest owing to its complicated relationship with online networks: the rapes and assaults were captured consistently over the night via the rapists’ and other onlookers’ online profiles while online hacktivist group Anonymous subsequently became involved in the court case.
It is owing to such unusual elements that Steubenville has since become an internationally infamous event in which many cultural commentators have supplied their two cents. The tweets which emerged from a basic search of “Steubenville” on twitter reveal an image of rape culture as rife in online forums. Rape myths such as victim blaming are in substantial supply while stereotypes relating to “real rape” consistently question the language of consent. A vast amount of these tweets both trivialize and normalize rape and thus coincide with the most frequent definition of a rape culture proving it true.

Conference Presentation link: https://sway.com/eh9h0Ezt8MFIJ2gd

Este documento busca 1) sintetizar los datos cuantitativos sobre denuncia y victimización disponibles para los principales delitos y formas de violencia en Lima, para 2) establecer preguntas de investigación e hipótesis de trabajo sobre la situación y tendencia de dichos fenómenos.

El documento se sostiene en la revisión de datos estadísticos de varias fuentes, recogidos y organizados mediante fichas de registro cuantitativo y tablas de contingencia. Es evidente que un ejercicio de inventario se traduce en una lista amplia de elementos con fenomenologías y estructuras diferentes. A su vez, cada uno de esos elementos requiere profundidad e implica modelos analíticos propios. Por eso, se requiere determinar qué fenómenos son recurrentes en la literatura, así como discriminar aquellos sobre los cuáles no se puede hacer aproximaciones basadas en evidencia, de aquellos que reportan datos cuantitativos que permitan establecer una aproximación epidemiológica (tasas muy altas de denuncia o porcentajes altos de victimización, por ejemplo, tasas mayores a 10X por 100.000) (Van Dijk, Van Kesteren y Smit, 2008) o una disposición analítica relevante, relacionada con indicios de alta prevalencia o de subregistro (Alvazzi, 2003; Sozzo, 2003). Ello ha permitido seleccionar ciertos fenómenos para el registro y para ilustrar ideas e hipótesis que se plantean en tres grupos: datos sobre denuncia y victimización criminal, datos sobre formas de violencia no criminal y datos sobre percepciones sobre el sistema control formal del delito y la violencia.

To investigate the possible correlation between peer aggression and peer victimization, 148 sixth-graders were asked to respond to the Reduced Aggression and Victimization Scales (RAVS). RAVS measures the frequency of reporting aggressive behaviors or of being victimized during the previous week prior to the survey. The scales are composed of six items each. Each point represents one instance of aggression or victimization. Specifically, the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (PMCC) was used to determine the correlations between the scores of the sixth-graders in the two scales, both in individual items and total scores. Positive correlations were established and correlations were significant at the 0.01 levels.

This is a book about victims of crime, survivors of abuse, the consequences of social harm, the nature of victimhood and the extent and impact of victimisation. It is a book concerned with the study of victims and victimisation, and is written from a critical perspective that seeks to: challenge taken-for-granted assumptions about the study of victimology; question key concepts and approaches to thinking about victims and survivors; critique ways of understanding the nature and extent of victimisation; and provide an alternative reading of many conventional approaches to responding to victims' needs and experiences. It is a book that provides students of criminology, criminal justice and victimology with an all-encompassing, in-depth critical analysis of the relationship between victims, crime and society. We hope it will become essential reading for anyone interested in understanding the social, political, economic and cultural context of victims in society, historically, contemporaneously and globally. Throughout its chapters the book addresses a number of critical questions including: Who are the victims of crime? How did the study of victims emerge? What is the nature, extent and impact of victimisation? What are the core perspectives that shape victimological thinking? How do media constructions influence our understanding of crime victims and victimisation? What is the relationship between social relations, politics, globalisation, the economy and structure and agency in generating, exacerbating and/or obfuscating forms of victimisation? What are the factors that drive unequal experiences of victimisation across social groups, geographical locations, jurisdictions and historical periods? How can victimisation be managed, prevented and/or responded to? Having studied and taught victimology for many years, it is our contention that these questions not only animate students' curiosity, and thus their criminological imagination, they also underpin important societal questions about the precise nature of crime, victimisation, harm and injustice in contemporary society. The study of victims and victimisation has converged with the discipline of criminology for many decades now. It is our view that over the next few decades victimology will become more contested as it continues to challenge at the heart of the study of crime and its control. Victimology has the potential to shape debates that affect the future landscape of victimisation and the ability and willingness of the state and its agencies to provide for victims of crime. Moreover, it has the capacity to challenge criminology to transform itself into a progressive social democratic discipline willing and able to provide a social blueprint for understanding and intervention. In order to explore those questions detailed above, and to bring alive what is after all a fast-moving (and exciting) area of academic study, the book is structured around three key central organising themes.

The aim of this study was to investigate how individuals;who had been victims of school bullying;perceived their bullying experiences and how these had affected them;and to generate a grounded theory of being a victim of bullying at school. Twenty-one individuals;who all had prior experiences of being bullied in school for more than one year;were interviewed. Qualitative analysis of data was performed by methods from grounded theory. The research identified a basic process of victimising in school bullying;which consisted of four phases: (a) initial attacks;(b) double victimising;(c) bullying exit and (d) after-effects of bullying. Double victimising refers to a process in which there was an interplay between external victimising and internal victimising. Acts of harassment were repeatedly directed at the victims from their social environment at school – a social process that constructed and repeatedly confirmed their victim role in the class or the group. This external victimising affected the victims and initiated an internal victimising;which meant that they internalised the socially constructed victim-image and acted upon this image;which in turn often supported the bullies’ agenda and confirmed the socially constructed victim-image. The findings also indicate the possible positive effect of changing the social environment.

The aim of this study was to investigate how individuals;who had been victims of school bullying;perceived their bullying experiences and how these had affected them;and to generate a grounded theory of being a victim of bullying at school. Twenty-one individuals;who all had prior experiences of being bullied in school for more than one year;were interviewed. Qualitative analysis of data was performed by methods from grounded theory. The research identified a basic process of victimising in school bullying;which consisted of four phases: (a) initial attacks;(b) double victimising;(c) bullying exit and (d) after-effects of bullying. Double victimising refers to a process in which there was an interplay between external victimising and internal victimising. Acts of harassment were repeatedly directed at the victims from their social environment at school – a social process that constructed and repeatedly confirmed their victim role in the class or the group. This external victimising affected the victims and initiated an internal victimising;which meant that they internalised the socially constructed victim-image and acted upon this image;which in turn often supported the bullies’ agenda and confirmed the socially constructed victim-image. The findings also indicate the possible positive effect of changing the social environment.

The aim of the present study was to examine to what degree different mechanisms of moral disengagement were related to age, gender, bullying, and defending among school children. Three hundred and seventy-two Swedish children ranging in age from 10 to 14 years completed a questionnaire. Findings revealed that boys expressed significantly higher levels of moral justification, euphemistic labeling, diffusion of responsibility, distorting consequences, and victim attribution, as compared with girls. Whereas boys bullied others significantly more often than girls, age was unrelated to bullying. Moral justification and victim attribution were the only dimensions of moral disengagement that significantly related to bullying. Furthermore, younger children and girls were more likely to defend victims. Diffusion of responsibility and victim attribution were significantly and negatively related to defending, while the other dimensions of moral disengagement were unrelated to defending.

Le prospettive femministe in ambito criminologico si sviluppano tra gli anni Settanta e Ottanta, grazie alla contaminazione portata dall’elaborazione delle teorie femministe della cosiddetta «seconda ondata» in
ambito filosofico, sociologico e storico e all’emergere della critica ai fondamenti epistemologici e metodologici delle scienze sociali da parte di studiose e ricercatrici. La critica femminista alla criminologia dominante (mainstream – poi rinominata malestream) e a quella – critica – di
matrice realista di sinistra, si articola riflettendo le declinazioni storiche del femminismo più ampio, producendo, più che un corpus organico riconoscibile
a una criminologia femminista, un insieme di prospettive
che hanno radicalmente trasformato e trasgredito la criminologia sia dal punto di vista epistemologico che da quello metodologico.
In questo capitolo descriveremo la genealogia delle prospettive femministe dalla sua «irruzione» nel campo della criminologia; le sue articolazioni teoriche ed epistemologiche durante la seconda e la terza ondata
del femminismo; per poi analizzare il nucleo fondamentale delle analisi femministe, ossia l’analisi femminista dei processi di criminalizzazione e vittimizzazione fondati sul genere e dei loro «confini sfuocati », che le prospettive femministe superano gettando luce sull’agency dei
soggetti.

Student aggression and victimisation have been a prevalent concern in many schools not only in developed countries but also in developing ones (Akiba, LeTendre, Baker, & Goesling, 2002; Batsche & Knoff, 1994; Goldstein & Segall, 2013). Studies conducted on different aspects and areas of aggression in educational settings and towards learners have shown that peer aggression affects literacy and academic achievement, mental health, emotional, social and general wellbeing of an individual (Miles & Stipek, 2006; Sharp, 1995; Skrzypiec, 2008; Skrzypiec, Slee, Askell-Williams, & Lawson, 2012; Slee, 1995; Uhlenberg & Eggebeen, 1986; Stipek & Miles, 2008). Despite the focus of studies in other countries that emphasize the significant impact of aggression and victimisation in child development, in the Philippines the few studies available tend to focus on the prevalence of bullying (Laus, 2017) and there are no explicit studies that relate personal (e.g. demographic) information, relationships, feelings and school treatment among Filipino students with regard to the degree of aggression and victimisation they experience from peers. Thus, the status of student aggression and victimisation in the Philippines was investigated using the Student Aggression and Victimisation Questionnaire (SAVQ) (Skrzypiec, 2015). Convergent Mixed Methods Research was employed to undertake a study of student participants (n=200) aged 12-16 years in the Bicol Region in the Philippines using a correlational research design and statistical tools for quantitative data, and textual analysis (visual and content) for qualitative data. No differences between gender were found out, and the dominant forms of peer aggression reported were verbal and relational. Most of the victims and perpetrators felt neutral about their relationships because they belong to the same peers, friends, or bestfriends circle. Finally, barkadahan (friendship) greatly influences the involvement of Filipino students to peer aggression and victimisation. For this reason, a national study for an in-depth understanding of this topic is recommended.

Many studies show that regardless of local characteristic in terms of globalization criminal networks are transnational, and local and regional crime are under control of organized crime. At the same time national countermeasures doesn’t have the same effect as those at international level. Many times research data and scientific papers set  questions about methods and resources, which the countries should apply as part of general  efforts to combat transnational organized crime taking into account her local specifics.
Много изследвания показват, че независимо от своите локални характеристики в условията на глобализация престъпните мрежи са транснационални, а местната и регионална престъпност е под контрола на организираната престъпност. В същото време мерките за противодействие на местно равнище нямат същия ефект както действията на международно ниво. Данни от изследвания и доклади нееднократно поставят въпроси по отношение на методите и средствата, които страните трябва да приложат като част от общите усилия за борба с транснационалната организирана престъпност, като имат предвид локалните й специфики.

Özet: Ceza hukukunda suçun pasif süjesi olarak da adlandırılan mağdur; doktrinde, suçu meydana getiren fiiller vasıtasıyla varlık ya da menfaatleri doğrudan saldırıya uğrayan kişi veya kişiler olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Ceza hukukunda mağdur kavramı, suçun işlenmesi aşamasında özellikle ilgilinin rızası halinde veya haksız tahrik kurumunun varlığında ya da suç oluşturan fillerin cezalandırılması aşamasında karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Suçun oluşumda mağdurun etkisi önemli olduğu kadar, mağdurun şahsi konumundan kaynaklı olarak cezalarda da değişik sonuçlarla karşılaşılabilmek mümkündür. Viktimoloji kavramı, dilimizde mağdur bilimi olarak karşılık bulmuştur. Viktimolojinin amacı; mağduru psikolojik, sosyal ve hukuki açıdan inceleyerek suç mağdurunun söz konusu mağduriyetinin giderilmesi için gerekli durumların oluşturulabilmesine olanak sağlamaktır. Viktimoloji açısından ceza hukuku müesseselerinde mağdurun ne gibi bir katkısı olduğu konusu her iki disiplin açısından önemlidir. Özellikle mağdurun suçun ortaya çıkışında nasıl bir konumda bulunduğu ve bunun ceza hukuku açısından ne gibi sonuçlara yol açtığının tespiti teorik açıdan olduğu kadar uygulamada da önem arz etmektedir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: viktimoloji, mağdur bilimi, ceza hukuku, suç, kriminoloji

The current study focused in particular on the role that age and socio‐economic differences between classmates could play on bullying. Logistic and multilevel analyses were conducted using data from 53,316 5th
and 9th grade students from a representative sample of public and private Colombian schools. Higher age and better family socio‐economic conditions than classmates were risk factors associated with being a bully, while younger age and poorer socio‐economic conditions than classmates were associated with being a victim of bullying.

The aim with the present study was to investigate bystander actions in bullying situations as well as reasons behind these actions as they are articulated by Swedish students from fourth to seventh grade. Forty-three semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with students. Qualitative analysis of data was performed by methods from grounded theory. The analysis of the student voices of being a bystander in bullying reveals a complexity in which different definition-of-situation processes are evoked (a) relations (friends and social hierarchy), (b) defining seriousness, (c) victim’s contribution to the situation, (d) social roles and intervention responsibilities, and (e) distressing emotions. There are often conflicted motives in how to act as a bystander, which could evoke moral distress among the students. Our analysis is unique in that it introduces the concept of moral distress as a process that has to be considered in order to better understand bystander actions among children The findings also indicate bystander reactions that could be associated with moral disengagement, such as not perceiving a moral obligation to intervene if the victim is defined as a non-friend (‘none of my business’), protecting the friendship with the bully, and blaming the victim.