The Balts

The article examines the political relations between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, especially Žemaitija as a constituent part, and Žemgala (Semigallia), from the beginning of the 1279 Žemgalian uprising against the Teutonic Order until the rule of Grand Duke Gediminas of Lithuania. The author tries to explain why Gediminas used the title of Duke of Žemgala in his letters of 1323, although in other cases, the title of the Lithuanian rulers does not include the name of Žemgala, and neither do other sources describing the territorial structure of the grand duchy mention Žemgala as part of it. Some historians have already argued that Žemgala was joined to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1279. The article re-examines this argument, and tries to validate it. The cooperation of Lithuania (especially Žemaitija) with the Žemgalians during the war of 1279–1290 shows that the integration of Žemgala into the Lithuanian state was in fact its integration into Žemaitija during the war. The author concludes that this integration was not denied by the time Gediminas took power, despite the fact that the Teutonic Order had already initiated a new phase in the invasion of Žemgala. Gediminas used the title of Duke of Žemgala because he actually controlled most of Žemgala. A substantial part of it remained permanently within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Ivangorodsky Kostiantyn. The Ethnic History of East Slavs in the contemporary historiography (Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian discourses).
In the study are analyzed modern historiographic discourses of Ukraine, Russia and Belarus, devoted to the ethnic history of Eastern Slavs communities during the pre-Mongol era.  Exactly scientific analysis of that problem is of great importance on the background of the great pressure of ideologies and political engagement, including the absence of such a historiographic study (especially based on a broad comparative approach) until now. We have established that for now in all the historiography, mentioned above, are dominated the models of the Slavs’ ethnic history, constructed in the Soviet era.
In the study have been found out the state of that topic scientific development, its factual priorities, has been formed representative base of sources, have been developed the conceptual and methodological foundations of the research, has been determined the theoretical specificity of ethno-historical reconstruction, taking into account the main trends in the development of modern ethnological science.
Also have been characterized the source study approaches in the newest Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian historiographies, and have been traced the potential of the corresponding verification of sources by historians in the course of «east-slavic» ethnic history study. Described theoretical and methodological models and the difficulties of their application in the ethnohistorical reconstructions of Eastern Slavic communities offered by modern researchers, are convinced us in the urgent need for a radical improvement in this segment of the entire post-Soviet humanities.
A detailed analysis of available sources, as well as outlining the weaknesses in theory, methodology and terminology that are involved in solving the problem, allowed us to reveal more deeply the essence of the latest concepts of the Eastern Slavic communities ethnic history  proposed by modern Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian scholars, to identify the main research strategy in this area, synchronously comparing the development of the corresponding historical thought in the designated national historiography areas.
According to Soviet tradition, archaeologists pay most attention to the Eastern Slavs communities ethnic history in modern post-Soviet historiographs. Although in the Belarusian discourse this problem is covered rather fragmentary and often depends on the specific scientific explored object of one or another archaeologist – usually from a certain archaeological culture associated with ethnogenesis and early East Slavic ethnic history. In general, modern Belarusian historiography cannot yet boast of any conceptual achievements in the field of Eastern Slavs ethnic history reconstruction, including the Belarusians ethnogenesis.
The most developed and popular, but at the same time extremely debatable, schematized and biased in modern Russian historiography is the V. Sedov concept. His controversial hypotheses receive many criticisms and refutations in the framework of «east-slavic» historiography. It does not stand up to criticism his apologeticism regarding the so-called «Old-Rus’ nationality», which the scientist seeks to prove (completely arbitrarily) solely on archaeological materials.
Most of the modern Ukrainian historiography versions of this problem study are also represented primarily by archaeologists. But it is worth to note, that within the framework of historical and ethnological reconstructions  of Eastern Slavs ethnic history, represented by Ukrainian experts, there are more variability of concepts and hypotheses, compared with similar discourses in Belarus and Russia. Although, as in the last two, the “nationalized” approach is also dominant in Ukrainian.

The aim of the paper: To review the weaponry of the 5th-9th c. of the Lithuanian tribe, found in the territory of the Barrow Culture of Eastern Lithuanian.
The tasks of the paper: 1. To describe the Lithuanian tribe, territory, burial traditions of the 5th-9th c. 2. To discuss the types of weaponry of the Lithuanian tribe in the 5th-9th c. 3. To highlight the peculiarities of the weaponry of a Lithuanian warrior of the 5th-9th c.
Darbo vadovas: doc. dr. Arvydas Malonaitis (LEU).
Bakalauro studijų baigiamasis darbas (2013 m.)

The subject of the article are interesting combs discovered in the stronghold in Pasym, NE Poland. For the older phases of the early Middle Ages, combs are unique finds, especially in the area of the West Balts. Results of the analysis show that combs from Pasym should be dated at the end of the 7th – the beginning of the 9th century AD. Numerous traces of bone and antler processing have been found in the stronghold in Pasym, however, no semi-products or waste left by comb manufac-ture were found, therefore, the existance of a local comb making workshop should be excluded. Combs of the types found in Pasym come from the Frisian areas, but there is no reason to treat these specimens as Frisian imports. The combs from Pasym bear the greatest resemblance to the artefacts from some of the early Slavic sites from the Polish Lowlands (Żukowice, Kałdus, Miszewko Strzałkowskie, Wyszogród) and Janów Pomorski as well as to a single find from Tumiany.

The article is meant as a commentary to the reference in Tacitus (Germania 45,3) to 'fustis', i.e., a non-metal trauma weapon of the Balt Aestii who have been identified with the Dollkeim-Kovrovo Culture. The word 'fustis' was understood by the Romans as a straight or a wavy stick. From the surviving Roman soldiers' gravestones, the fustis appears to have been used as a coercive measure, in restraining an unruly crowd or during tax collecting. The written and the archaeological sources are analysed for evidence on the use of cudgels/clubs from the metal age. Examples are invoked from ethnography of cudgel use in hunting and combat (from a distance and at close range). The Balt 'fustis' has been interpreted also as a battle axe. The author challenges this view stressing that in writing of the fustis Tacitus makes it plain that it was not made of metal. An argument is made for the use of 'fustis' as a hunting cudgel, something that is confirmed in the West Balt Barrow Culture, the predecessor of the Dollkeim-Kovrovo Culture. One explanation is that when Tacitus wrote his account the latter was still at an early stage when conservative cultural features presumably were still strong; alternatively the information about 'fustis' is an archaism drawn from the period of the West Balt Barrow Culture.

A. Bitner-Wróblewska, A. Rzeszotarska-Nowakiewicz 2016. "The Balt societies in Poland, 1-500 AD", in P. Urbańczyk, A. Rzeszotarska-Nowakiewicz (eds), "The Past Societies. Polish lands from the first evidence of human presence to the early middle ages", vol. 4: 500 BC - 500 AD, 257-306. Warsaw, The Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of Sciences.

Авторское резюме: В статье рассматривается участие в военных походах эпохи Великого переселения народов и предшествующего ей периода балтов-галиндов.

Abstract The paper is about military campaigns of the Baltic tribes (Galindians) during the Migration Period of Europe.

The apex of the hypothetical? On the reconstruction of Sudovian shields

In an attempt to reconstruct the shape of shields, the paper analyses the Sudovian Culture inhumation graves with weapons (Figs. 1, 2) that contained shield elements. A repetitiveness in the placement of shield bosses has been observed; they have been found in the vicinity of legs, e.g., at the knees, usually with a minimal shi towards one of them, at the mid-length of femurs, or at the le hip (Fig. 2). The fittings were oriented with the dome upwards, which means that the shield was placed in front of the warrior. Judging by the imprint of a fabric on the shield grip from barrow 25 at Osowa, Suwałki District, it seems that the shields were placed directly on the deceased (on his clothes). None of the cases indicate that the hands of the deceased rested on the upper edge of the shield. The shields were elongated (considering Balt specimens, probably roughly rectangular, sometimes with slightly arched sides – Fig. 3:1–4), and their lengths ranged from 0.6 to 1.1 m; their widths are more difficult to estimate (probably 0.3–0.6 m). Individual preferences may account for the differences in dimensions. Shields made entirely of organic materials, including specimens with wooden shield bosses with short, blunt spikes (Fig. 4) as well as – purely hypothetically – specimens without shield bosses, with a pair of bands for the forearm and palm, played an important role. A reconstruction of the appearance of a Sudovian warrior is shown in Fig. 5.

В статье рассматривается участие в военных походах эпохи Великого переселения народов племени вельтов. Освещаются малоизвестные события из истории древних балтских племён и их соседей в период античности – раннего средневековья. Особое внимание уделено гипотетическому нахождению балтов к западу от Вислы в древнейшую эпоху и принадлежности к «древнеевропейской» общности некоторых племён, традиционно считавшихся германцами и славянами.

English:

The Balts in the Migration Period: Veleti.

The article deals with the Veleti's military campaign during the Migration period. It is reported about little-known events from the history of ancient baltic tribes and their neighbours during Antiquity and the Early Medieval Period. Much attention is given to the Balts hypothetically being westwards of the Vistula in the ancient period and some tribes that were traditionally considered to be Germanic or Slavs being of the "old-european" origin.

A. Bitner-Wróblewska, A. Rzeszotarska-Nowakiewicz 2016. "Baltic communities present between 500 and 700 AD in today's Poland", in P. Urbańczyk, M. Trzeciecki (eds), "The Past Societies. Polish lands from the first evidence of human presence to the early middle ages", vol. 5: 500 AD - 1000 AD, 75-121. Warsaw, The Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of Sciences.

The Late Viking Age cemetery of Ostriv was discovered by an Institute of Archaeology of the Natonal Academy of Science of Ukraine (IA NASU) team in 2017, approximately 100 km from Kyiv in the Porossya region. To date, 67 inhumation graves have been excavated in an area of 1400 m2. Most of the artefacts found at Ostriv are uncommon in Ukraine, but are frequently found in the East Baltic region. The preliminary results describe the Ostriv population as East Baltic immigrants, who served as mercenaries at the Ros’ river frontier during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, in the first third-half of the 11th century AD.

The paper presents the inhumation grave in Barrow 2 from the cemetery of the Sudovian culture (NE Poland) at Szwajcaria. Detailed study of the equipment show the mixture of the local (Balt), Scandinavian and the Germanic (the Przeworsk culture) cultural traits. It shows contacts between the Scandinavian and Sudovian elites although the Przeworsk culture inspirations are traced. The image of ‘cultural cocktail’ apart from inspirations includes also the direct imports, all linked with the military sphere. It seems that the person buried in Barrow 2 at Szwajcaria was entangled in international enterprises during Phase C1b (1st half of the 3rd c.). It seems tantalizing to link it with the ‘Scandinavian wars’, documented by bog deposits from that age . One could imagine that the Sudovian warrior participated in those military events as a member of a retinue, supposedly of multi-ethnical character . Was the successful enterprise the key to his elevated position in his fatherland milieu?

Niniejsze opracowanie dotyczy zabytków, które znajdują się obecnie w Muzeum w Elblągu, pozyskanych przez niemieckich archeologów podczas badań prowadzonych przed II Wojną Światową. Głównym celem pracy było uporządkowanie luźnej, przemieszanej kolekcji, jaką dziś stanowią. Prócz tego, istotną kwestią była próba identyfikacji stanowisk, z jakich pochodzą omawiane eksponaty, a co za tym idzie – przywrócenie ich do obiegu naukowego. Z ponad 180 zabytków udało się ustalić, w wyniku kwerendy bibliotecznej i archiwalnej, pochodzenie 107 egzemplarzy. Przedmioty te pozyskano ze stanowisk w Elblągu (Benkenstein, ul. Moniuszki, Pole Nowomiejskie, Winnica, Modrzewina), Łęcza, Tolkmicka, Pasłęka, Chojnowa oraz Pęklewa.

В статье анализируются упоминания древних славян и их соседей в книге Андрея Ивановича Лызлова (ок 1655 – после 1696) «Скифская история». С точки зрения современной исторической науки автором рассматривается правдоподобность утверждений Лызлова и его источников о принадлежности ряда древних народов к славянам.

Early Skavs and theit neighbors in «History of the Scythians» by Andrei Lyzlov. Abstract: The article analyzes references to the early Slavs and their neighbors in the book History of the Scythians by Andrei Ivanovich Lyzlov (c 1655 – after 1696) The author considers credibility of Lyzlov’s statements and his sources regarding affiliation of the Slavs with some ancient peoples from the point of view of modern historical science.

This paper seeks to review the 5th – early 13th century weaponry of the Lithuanian tribe which inhabited the habitat of the Eastern Lithuanian Barrow Culture.
Darbo vadovas: doc. dr. Arvydas Malonaitis (LEU). Magistro baigiamasis darbas (2016 m.)

Anotacija. Atsižvelgiant į Lietuvos kaimo ir mažų miestelių gyventojų kultūrinėje sąmo-nėje vykstančius pokyčius, siekiama atlikti sistemišką mitologinių būtybių sampratos tyrimą. Straipsnyje analizuojama lauko tyrimo metu surinkta informacija, charakterizuojanti XXI a. Viduklės miestelio ir aplinkinių kaimų situaciją. Suformuoto sisteminio klausimyno pagrindu, atsižvelgiant į tokius aspektus kaip funkcijos, išvaizda, gyvenamoji erdvė, santykis su žmogumi, apibūdinamos dešimt populiariausių baltiškųjų mitologinių ir sakmių būtybių. Tyrimo metu surinkta informacija lyginama su XVI–XVIII ir XIX a. rašytinių šaltinių informacija, lietuvių liaudies sakmėmis ir mitologų darbais, siekiant nustatyti esminius skirtumus tarp ankstesnių laikotarpių ir XXI a. mitologinių būtybių sampratos. Esminiai žodžiai: mitologinės būtybės, Žemaitija, XXI a. visuomenė, mitologinės būtybės samprata, Viduklė. Abstract. Considering the changes in the cultural consciousness of Lithuanian rural and small town residents, intended to carry out a systematic study of the concept of mythological creatures. The article analyzes the field study collected information characterizing the twenty-first century town of Vidukle and surrounding villages in the situation. Formed a systematic questionnaire, taking into account aspects such as functionality, appearance, living space, the relationship with the man, described the ten most popular of the Baltic mythological and legendary creatures. The study collected information is compared with the sixteenth-eighteenth and nineteenth centuries written sources of information, Lithuanian folk legends and mythologists works to identify the essential differences between concept of mythological creatures in the earlier period and the twenty-first century.

Ivangorodsky K. Balts component in the Concept of East Slavic ethnogenesis by Valentin Sedov.
The ethnic specific of East Slav associations never lost the scientific actuality, without regard to the enormous studios devoted to this problem. It must be noticed their quality is not always proper. Speed evolution of modern post-soviet national historiography has outlined practically complete ignoring each other’s ideological field. Absence of such approach is undoubted, that is why there is the necessity of more attentive analysis of modern authors looks, among them - Russian. In modern Russian historiography there are researchers that try to modernize the soviet version of ethnogenesis of east slavs, although the new facts and approaches attracted by them certify complete methodological inadequacy of «Old-russian nationality» theory. Conception of the known Russian archaeologist Valentine Sedov (1924–2004) belongs to them.
In the article the brought analysis over of conception of Slavic етногенезу of V. Sedov in that her part that is sanctified to influence on this process of балтів. In particular and on forming of ethnos of Belaruss, and also reception of this hypothesis by modern Russian historiography.
To the factor of balts a researcher in all labours gave primary value, as considered justly, that problem of ethnogenesis of slavs and them early history can not be got to know it is isolated from historical processes that took place in the nearby regions of Europe, but initial history of slavs of closely is casebound with history of Celt, Germans, Scythians, Sarmats and balts. In one of the last interviews of V. Sedov said, that dreamed to write large research from ethnic history of balts, but, unfortunately, through death, already it did not go to court him to do it. However, he had time to publish as early as 1992 small labour by Latvian in Riga, sanctified to old balts. Mainly this range of problems is analysed to them in great numbers scientific studios. On ethnologic interpretation in the east slavs environment of medieval twenty-four hours there was the built and doctoral dissertation of V. Sedov (1967) a balts component. he first tried to distinguish balts substrat in medieval Slavic artifacts. Essentially a scientist analysed forming of specific of east slavs on territory of modern Belarus and North-west of Russia, as a result of assimilation of local балтських tribes by slavs that moved here westerly.
The looks of V. Sedov are analysed in relation to participating of balts in forming of ethnos of Belaruss. Territory of Belarussian ethnogenesis from ancient times was sufficiently densely populated by associations that belonged to balts of ethnic language array and, as data of archaeology, hydronimic and anthropology testify, assimilated east slavs. The archaeological and linguistic sources brought over to the Moscow scientists to the study of Belarussian ethnogenesis on the whole brought him over to the appropriate conclusion about powerful influence of balts on this process. However in modern historiography far not all accede to the chart of early ethnic history of east slavs offered by him.
Key words: Valentine Sedov, balts, slavs, east slavs, Belaruss, ethnogenesis, historiography.

Comparative ethnological research suggests that there is a certain uniformity to the patterns organising relationship terminology at a global level, which has made it possible to identify the general regularities that govern them. This paper deals with an attempt to reconstruct the semantic evolution of the Old Lithuanian appellative mótė “wife; woman mother” through the prism of the changes taking place in the Baltic kinship system. It is suggested that the initial kinship system of the Balts coincided with the Omaha-type kinship-terminology system, formed in the Proto-Baltic period in connection with the popularization of cyclical form of generalized exchange between patrilineal descent groups, which act as a segments of larger exogamous groups. This exchange was based on a prescriptive unilateral marriage of a man with a matrilateral cross-cousin (mother’s brother’s daughter) or its more distantly related collateral counterpart, called “mother” in the Proto-Baltic kinship terminology (i.e. relative from the mother’s descent group). The high level of compliance with this defined norm regulating martial selection was maintained amongst Lithuanians probably until the mid-12th century, when, against the background of  deepening socio-economic differences, there was a crisis of this form of matrimonial exchange. Despite this, the terminology of the Omaha type survived fragmentarily in the Lithuanian language until the 16th and 17th centuries, thus making it possible to try to highlight the structural features resulting from it. (The author assumes no responsibility for the English summary from the attatched paper).

W 2016 r. wznowiono badania grodziska w Pasymiu w powiecie szczycieńskim. Głównym ich celem była weryfikacja wyników dawnych prac, przede wszystkim w zakresie chronologii. Wykopaliska poprzedzone zostały badaniami geofizycznymi,  które miały się przyczynić między innymi do precyzyjnego zlokalizowania wykopów z lat 60. XX w. W trakcie prac wyeksplorowano trzy wykopy usytuowane w północno-zachodniej partii grodziska (wykop 1), na wschodnim stoku grodziska (wykop 2) oraz na płaskowyżu znajdującym się na północny wschód od wyniesienia. Łącznie badaniami objęto areał o powierzchni 4,75 ara. Odkryto zarówno relikty zabudowy mieszkalno-gospodarczej, jak i świadectwa niezwykle interesującego systemu obronnego.