Tea industry

Factor utilization is a dynamic concept, and most of its measures are based on direct measures based on quantity of labor and capital. It ignores several factors such as seasonal fluctuations in price and demand. In less developed countries, there is a question of optimal factor proportion as the growing unemployment rate coexists with a rising capital-labor ratio. The study highlights the production behavior of Tea Industries using production function analysis. The CES production function is seemed to be consistent and fit the data well. So the elasticity of substitution of the Tea Industries in Assam is not variable or unity; instead, it is constant and less than one. The paper uses a composite model of the performance of Tea Industries based on Principal Component Analysis, and factory utilization will be measured using various ratios.

Bengal in the first half of the eighteenth century was a prosperous and flourishing province, noted for its wealth and manufactures. It was this affluence which induced the contemporaries to describe Bengal in such terms as 'Paradise of Nations', 'the Paradise of India', or 'the realm of Paradise'. It was the same lure of wealth which also brought to the shores of Bengal a host of foreign merchants from far and wide, including a great many Europeans of diverse nationalities. Their travel accounts and descriptions were no less copious in glorifying the land which had 'a hundred open gates to enter...and not one to come away again'.

The wealth of this nation was created of course by the bounteous soil of the region which produced a wide variety of agricultural commodities like rice, wheat and other grains, sugarcane, cotton, opium, indigo, oils of different kinds and vegetables. Other economic products found in abundance were lacca, wax, long pepper, salt and saltpetre. But more than anything else Bengal was then the general storehouse of a wide variety of cotton and silk products not only for Hindustan of the Empire of the Great Mughal, but also for the Kingdom and for Europe itself. The goods so manufactured were not only known for their exquisite fineness and delicacy of workmanship but were also relatively cheap. Bengal's industrial economy during the pre-colonial period compared thus very favourably with that of any nation on earth.

In this chapter, an attempt will be made to study the state of the major indigenous industries during the colonial period. An attempt will also be made to explain the causes of their ultimate collapse. In this connection, the role of the state which could stimulate or inhibit industrial development would be looked into to ascertain the real motive of British rule. Did they create an appropriate climate for promoting and encouraging indigenous industrial enterprises? Was the destruction due to natural causes or was it deliberate? The economic policies of the colonial state in relation to industries need, therefore, also to be looked into to ascertain the total effect of such policies on the domestic manufacturing industries.

The tea industry is found as a major partner for more than a century in Sri Lanka's economy. The tea industry serves as
our country's forex and source and employment. However, looking at the statistics from a few years ago, the tea industry's
contribution is said to be flawed. But, when you look at the past years, you can see gradual improvements. Moreover, Sri Lankan tea
has a unique place in the global market. Sri Lanka has to resort to various strategies and policies in order to maintain its position in
the global marketplace. Therefore, the problems faced by the tea industry can be solved and the development of the Sri Lankan tea
industry can be intensified while incorporating sophisticated technologies. In view of the difficulties faced by the tea industry in Sri
Lanka, the planting rate is low, productivity is low, tea growing land is stagnant or shrinking, production is high and labour shortage is
high. This is due to fluctuations in exports and production in the tea industry. Finally, some strategies are proposed to improve the
competitiveness of Sri Lanka in the global tea industry and the role of the tea industry in the Sri Lankan economy and other aspects of
the tea industry, such as location and other factors, raw material availability and demand.

With reference to annual reports of the Customs, annual trade reports of the British consul, early investigations carried out by Japanese colonial officials, photographs and historical materials of various sources, this paper traces the evolution of the labor pool employed for second-stage tea processing by firms in Dadaocheng, Taiwan during the nineteenth century and the early Japanese colonial era. The size of this labor pool was estimated using specific data on tea-processing firms, annual tea export statistics, and firmbased employee figures. This paper also explores the gendered division of labor, working conditions for different tasks, and the brief historical data on wages for laborers involved in this second-stage processing of oolong and baozhong tea in northern Taiwan.

An academic history of rooibos tea and traditional usage of the rooibos plant.
The SA Rooibos Council commissioned historian Boris Gorelik to investigate historical records on the earliest usage of the rooibos plant (Aspalathus linearis) and the origins of the infusion known as rooibos tea. The following perceptions were objectively investigated:

1. The rooibos plant was used by San and Khoikhoi peoples in precolonial times.
2. The hot beverage we know as rooibos tea originated in precolonial times.
3. The traditional method of harvesting and processing rooibos for making an infusion or decoction originated in precolonial times.
4. Colonial-era settlers learnt about rooibos tea from the indigenous peoples of the Cederberg.

Records investigated by the author include archival documents; manuscripts; secondary written sources (such as early travellers’ records); anthropological and archaeological publications; theses; testimonies from archaeologists, historians, ethnobotanists, ethnologists and sustainable development facilitators; and current or former members of communities residing in the original rooibos-growing areas. Oral testimonies were conducted in Nieuwoudtville, Onder Melkkraal, Clanwilliam, Wupperthal, Esselbank, Brugkraal, Heuningvlei, Bosdorp, Jamaka and Lambert’s Bay. The oldest residents of these areas were, however, only able to recall events of the early twentieth century and not precolonial times.

First published on the South African Rooibos Council website: https://sarooibos.co.za/rooibos-an-ethnographic-perspective/

Productivity is the ultimate goal for a firm, and enhancing it is one of the big strategic challenges for organizations. Achieving optimum firm productivity is an elusive endeavor and firms hustle in continually improving their quantity level and efficiency. In Kericho County the tea industry has recently been beset by productivity challenges and tea firms have come up with human resource initiatives to address this so as to remain competitive. Therefore, the study sought to investigate the effect of human capital development on productivity in multinational tea companies in Kericho County, Kenya. Specific objectives are to determine the effect of mentoring and investigate the influence of training on firm’s productivity. The study used human capital and sustainable resource theories. Descriptive research design was employed by the study. The target population was 485 staff which included senior and middle-level management staff. Stratified and simple random sampling techniques were used to collect a sample of 146 respondents from the population. Descriptive statistics, especially the mean and standard deviation and inferential statistics were used. Data presentation was done using pie charts, graphs and frequency distribution tables. The results indicated that mentoring and training were significant on firms’ productivity. In conclusion mentoring is effected by induction, career development and personal change in both social and economic aspect that ensured high effectiveness, efficiency, quality and capacity of organization productivity. Training through on-job, off-job and informal training affected productivity of the organization.

Assam is the largest tea-growing state in the world and is known for its highly distinctive, rich, strong, dark and refreshing quality teas. Located in Northeastern India, Assam is also the only place in the world, other than the Yunnan province in China, that boasts an indigenous variety of the tea plant - Camellia Assamica. Camellia is an evergreen plant which has two distinct varieties: the small leaf variety, popularly known as Camellia Sinensis, thrives in the cool, high mountain regions of central China and Japan, and the broad leaf variety, known as Camellia Assamica, grows best in the moist, tropical climates found in Assam in India and in the Yunnan provinces of China.  This article is about the tea planatation  and about the romance of modern tea industry that started in Assam.

(EN) This study aims to analyze cooperative option for solving current problems in Turkeys' tea production, by discussing traditional cooperatives, new cooperatives, private companies, and state-owned enterprise comparatively. Another aim of this study is to discuss the possibility of an alternative model of production-consumption, beyond free-market. Findings of this study obtained from face-to-face semi-structured in-depth interviews made with managers (also producers) of cooperatives, and state-owned enterprise.

"The Industrial Development of Bengal, 1900-1939. By A. Z. M. IFTIKHAR-UL-AWWAL. Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1982. pp. 256 (Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Advent Books, New York.) "

PREFACE:

The present work examines the industrial experience of Bengal during the period 1900 to 1939 with particular emphasis on the role of the government as the main instrument for growth. For this work, available statistical material has been utilized for the sake of precision as well as to strengthen the qualitative evidence. The book contains eight chapters. While Chapter I builds up the case for industrial development, Chapter II examines in detail the industrial policy of the Bengal government in the light of its own limitations as a subordinate authority to the Government of India and that of Whitehall. Chapter III is an investigation of the labour market in Bengal with emphasis on the supply of labour to jute, tea and coal industries in relation to wages and conditions of work. In Chapter IV, I have examined the rates of profitability and security of industrial investments. In this chapter, I have also examined the financial institutions of the time and their role in the industrial development of the province. Chapter V points to some of the difficulties experienced by Indian entrepreneurs, and in the above light looks at their contribution to the larger industrial establishments of Bengal. The next two Chapters VI and VII examine the growth and development of the two biggest manufacturing industries of our period--jute and handloom cotton weaving industries. The concluding chapter is an estimate of the industrial progress made in the province during the period under review.

This book is a slightly revised version of my Ph.D. thesis submitted to the University of London in 1978. In the preparation of this thesis, I have accumulated an enormous debt of gratitude to my Supervisor, Dr. K. N. Chaudhuri whose careful vigilance and timely intervention saved me from many factual errors and infelicities of style. My thanks are also due to Mr. I. B. Harrison, who went through some of my preliminary chapters during the absence of Dr Chaudhuri in 1975-76 and made many useful observations. I am also indebted to Dr. Sirajul Islam of Dacca University for helping me with some necessary corrections.

Here I take this opportunity also to express my deep gratitude to the UK Commonwealth Commission which offered me a scholarship for three years which enabled me to undertake this research work. Needless to say, without their financial help it would have been virtually impossible to pursue this course of studies. I also wish to thank the University of Dacca for granting me the necessary study leave.

There remains also a special group of people - without whose co-operation, patience and tolerance, this work would not have seen the light of day. In this group belong the library staff of the British Library (including the Newspaper Section at Colindale), Senate House Library, the library of the School of Oriental and African Studies, and particularly, the India Office Library and Records (including their Newspaper Section at the Bush House). I take this opportunity to thank Mr. J. Sims of the India Office Library and Records for being so helpful in tracking down apparently untraceable official documents. I wish to thank the staff of the Bangladesh Secretariat Record Room and of the Secretariat Library, Dacca for extending me all possible facilities in carrying out my research work. Finally, I owe a special debt of gratitude to my wife, Lilly whose support and constant encouragement over these years was invaluable in completing this work.

The concept of reliability is necessary in the study of 'Maintenance Planning and Control'. Improving the reliability is synonymous to better quality and productivity of an industry. This work identifies the scale of possible improvement in the measure of reliability by addressing each section of a tea industry. In doing so, the processes in a tea industry have been studied. During the analysis of each process, the existing reliability is determined and the scope for reliability improvement has been identified at each section. Reliability analysis of each section has been carried to obtain the present reliability of the system. The achievable reliability has been estimated by applying the necessary relations, considering each section. The scope and calculations follow the concept of Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis (FMECA). It has been observed that some simple yet effective measures may be enough to improve the overall reliability of the system.

This article deals with the tea industry's contribution to Iran's economy during the oil nationalization movement and assesses the role of the tea industry in achieving the oil-free economy policy in the National government. This article is based on unpublished documents from the National Iranian Documents’ Organization and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Records also in order to enhance our understanding of the situation  newspapers and some other published sources have been emphasized onto depict the importance of the issue. The research method of this study is that of an descriptive-analytical approach, thus this study seeks to show how the ups and downs of tea imports were during the economic sanctions in the period of oil nationalization and how the government managed to expand the domestic production of tea to save money, also what role this industry played to compensate the currency shortages. Therefore, the main question of this paper is whether the policy of restricting imports and developing domestic tea production could have solved an important problem amongst the  many problems of the national government or not. The results show that despite the government's efforts to increase tea production and prevent its unauthorized entry into the country, the product failed to play a significant role in implementing the oil-free economy program.

Factor utilization is a dynamic concept, and most of its measures are based on direct measures based on quantity of labor and capital. It ignores several factors such as seasonal fluctuations in price and demand. In less developed countries, there is a question of optimal factor proportion as the growing unemployment rate coexists with a rising capital-labor ratio. The study highlights the production behavior of Tea Industries using production function analysis. The CES production function is seemed to be consistent and fit the data well. So the elasticity of substitution of the Tea Industries in Assam is not variable or unity; instead, it is constant and less than one. The paper uses a composite model of the performance of Tea Industries based on Principal Component Analysis, and factory utilization will be measured using various ratios.

It is assumed that companies that utilize sustainable supply chain management as a strategic tool in business management are likely to have a competitive edge over others. However, this is contrary to the Tea Industry in Kenya. The main purpose of this research was to establish the role of sustainable supply chain management as a strategic tool for competitive advantage in the tea industry in Kenya. The specific objective was to find out to what extent the supply chain collaborative strategy as a tool for competitive advantage is used by the companies in tea industry in Kenya. The mixed research design was used in the study. The target population was the tea companies in Kenya and the sample of eight Tea Companies were purposively selected for the study. Data collection was done by use of both structured questionnaires and oral interview to get the primary data while the secondary data was obtained by documentary analysis. The results finding indicated that sustainable supply chain ...

The general objective of this study was to determine the effects of value chain management practice on firm performance of
Kenya’s tea subsector industry. The theoretical framework of the study was guided by Resource Based View Theory (RBV)
and Porter’s Value Chain Theory. This research adopted a quantitative research design to address the formulated hypotheses.
Stratified random sampling technique was used to select a sample size of 155 firms from the target population of 254 firms in
the tea subsector industry in Kenya. The study selected 2 respondents from every firm sampled of 155 firms each drawn from
top management and middle level management to make a sample size of 310 respondents. Primary data was collected by use
of self-administered structured questionnaires which were distributed through the drop and pick method. Secondary data
collected from various tea subsector bodies websites, in annual and published financial statements, in national newspapers,
during annual general meetings and in-house magazines, important business disclosures in journals, manuals and the various
firm’s documents were used to cross validate the primary data information collected. A total of 229 questionnaires were
completed, returned and used for analysis. Data was analyzed by use of descriptive statistics and inferential statistics using
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 24.The Pearson’s product moment correlation analysis and standard
multiple regression analysis were used for hypotheses testing. The data was presented using tables, and figures for the purpose
of giving a pictorial view of the results. The findings indicated that product diversification management practice had a
statistically significant and positive effect on firm performance of Kenya’s tea subsector industry; product innovation
management practice had a statistically significant and positive effect on firm performance of Kenya’s tea subsector industry
and product process management practice had a statistically significant and positive effect on firm performance of Kenya’s tea
subsector industry. The study recommended for the adoption of value chain management practices by the tea subsector
industry in Kenya in order to enhance firm performance of Kenya’s tea subsector industry.

Tea sector of Sri Lanka earns US$ 1.6 billion net foreign exchange annually while caring over one million direct and indirect employments and 2.5 million dependents. Controlling of problematic weeds is important to maintain steady and quality crop levels in commercial tea. Real effectiveness of plant killer chemicals (weedicides) in commercial tea is questionable against the emergence of various unintended and unforeseen detrimental side effects on the eco-systems, human health and tea bushes. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the economic, environmental and social benefits of Herbicide Free Integrated Weed Management (HFIWM) over chemical weeding in the commercial tea industry.

A commercial scale trial on HFIWM was conducted in Hapuhastenne Estate, where natural regeneration of vegetation was allowed to form a ground cover, ceasing the usage of weedicides completely, whilst selective periodic removal of harmful weeds grown in the experimental tea area. These results were compared against the control plots of non-HFIWM tea area in the garden. Analysis showed an improvement in overall performance of tea bushes in the long run with HFIWM, enhancing the product quality and soil environment. Moreover HFIWM approach exhibits many direct and indirect benefits over chemical weeding in commercial tea in the lines of crop productivity, cost of inputs, public health, environment and the socio-economic factors. HFIWM approach was therefore, found economically, socially and environmentally more desirable. The study reveals HFIWM approach could be a sound solution to mitigate many of the constraints faced by the present day commercial tea industry in Sri Lanka.

Abstract: Tea subsector in Kenya shows declining profitability due to rising cost of production that is
largely wage bill driven. Firms have sought to mitigate this by adopting mechanical tea
harvesting technology. The uptake of this technology is surprisingly varied. The study sought to
establish the influence of institutional factors namely, firm size and managerial skills on
adoption of the technology in Kenya’s tea subsector. The target population was therefore tea
plantation firms. A descriptive explanatory survey design was used where both quantitative and
qualitative data was collected by employing census technique due to small nature of the target
population. Data analysis was done using descriptive and inferential statistics. F value of 72.023,
significant at p<0.01 and R square of 0.83 was obtained indicating good fit and a high predictive
model. Both firm size and managerial skills variables were significant at p<0.01 but had
negative and positive effect on adoption respectively.
Key words: Mechanical tea harvesting technology, firm size, managerial skills, strategic choice

Much has been written about the scarcity of labour supply to mills, factories, mines and plantations in India during the twentieth century. Such shortages in the labour supply have been identified with various causes. One of the commonest was the belief that the Indians were determinedly immobile and therefore to get adequate supply of labour they had to be coaxed and humoured all the time.To this cause was also attributed the growing poverty of the people with which they were threatened. But the myth of labour immobility does not stand up to test in view of the large emigration of indentured coolies from India to overseas colonies like Fiji, Malay States, Natal, Trinidad, Jamaica, Dutch and British Guiana, Mauritius, Ceylon, etc., where labour was attracted by higher wages and better standards of life. Nor was it valid to say as was claimed by Messrs Bird and Company of Calcutta that Government of India's famine relief work competed with the supply of unskilled labour or the claim that Indian labour was unresponsive to the stimulus of higher pay. The fact was that, as Sir Henry Cotton pointed out, there had been no shortage of labour in India but the supply always exceeded the demand, and whatever difficulty there might have been among capitalists in obtaining labour was due entirely to their own reluctance to pay higher market rate or wages which the increased cost of living had made inevitable. In this regard, The Times also pointed out : It is often said that, whereas in many countries the supply of labour exceeds the demand, in India the demand exceeds the supply. But this is not strictly accurate. India has an immense mass of potential labour, and the supply is probably more elastic than in countries in a more advanced stage of industrial development. An increase in the rewards offered to labour does not fail to evoke a fairly rapid response, and the rewards offered have not always been the highest that the industry could bear.

In addition to wages, labour supply also to a very great extent depended upon the conditions of work. Such conditions included a host of factors a more kindly and sympathetic management, better housing, congenial working hours, the healthiness of a place, the supply of good and sufficient filtered water, accessibility to a good bazaar, and freedom from interference.

In this paper we propose to study the question of labour supply in the tea industry of Bengal in relation to wages and conditions of work and will endeavour to find out how far those factors were conducive to the supply of labour and to what degrees.

Tea subsector in Kenya shows declining profitability due to rising cost of production that is largely wage bill driven. Firms have sought to mitigate this by adopting mechanical tea harvesting technology. The uptake of this technology is surprisingly varied. The study sought to establish the influence of institutional factors namely, firm size and managerial skills on adoption of the technology in Kenya’s tea subsector. The target population was therefore tea plantation firms. A descriptive explanatory survey design was used where both quantitative and qualitative data was collected by employing census technique due to small nature of the target population. Data analysis was done using descriptive and inferential statistics. F value of 72.023, significant at p&lt;0.01 and R square of 0.83 was obtained indicating good fit and a high predictive model. Both firm size and managerial skills variables were significant at p&lt;0.01 but had negative and positive effect on adoption respectiv...