Safflower

Türkiye, gerek yağlı tohum gerekse bir endüstriyel ürün olarak yağ açısından büyük ölçüde dışa ba-ğımlı durumdadır. Coğrafi şartları sayesinde ise Türkiye, çok sayıda yağlı tohum ve yağ elde edilen bitkilerin yetiştirilebildiği bir ülke olup söz konusu ürünlerde dünya ortalamasının üzerinde verim alınmaktadır. Öte yandan artan nüfusa karşılık yağ üretiminin düşük kalması ve sağlıklı beslenme adına kişi başına tüketilen yağın çok altında bulunuyor oluşu büyük bir problem olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Bu çalışmamızda son yıllarda dikkat çekici bir gelişme yaşanan ve 2014'te Cumhuriyet tarihinin en yüksek üretim değerine ulaşılan aspir, ziraat coğrafyası odağında incelenmiştir. Bitkinin botanik ve ekonomik özelliklerinin yanı sıra coğrafi dağılımı ve yetişme şartları analiz edilmiştir. Bunun için de başlıca aspir üreticisi Konya, Ankara, Yozgat ve Kırıkkale illerinde üretim yerinde in-celenmiş ve üreticilerle mülakatlar gerçekleştirilmiştir. Aspirin özellikle son yıllarda bir enerji bitkisi olarak biyodizel imalinde de aranan bir ürün haline gelmesi de çalışmamızda üzerinde durduğumuz bir konudur. Bu kapsamda Türkiye'nin aspir yetiştiriciliği, potansiyeli ve yapılması gerekenler bir bütün halinde ele alınmaya çalışılmıştır.

Turkiye is highly dependent on foreign oil as an industrial product and as oleaginous seed. By means of its geographical conditions Turkiye is a sufficient land where a lot of oleaginous seed and the seeds which are efficient for gaining oil from and the rendement obtained is above the world ava-rage value. On the other hand, an essential problems in this matter are that the oil production has a low ratio comparing the increasing of the population and the oil consumption per person in means of health nutrition. In this investment safflower which has reached its pike production value during of the republic history in 2014 is examined in terms of agriculture. The botanical, economical features , geographical distribution and growth conditions are analysed. For this reason the place of production has been examined and interviews were conducted with manufacturers in main producer of safflower Konya, Ankara, Yozgat and Kirikkale province. It is only emphasized in our study that safflower has become a highly demanded product for biodiesel production in terms of an energy plant during recent years. In this scope combination of the issues of safflower farming, potential of it and works ought to be done are tried to be submitted.

This study was conducted to determine yield and yield components and oil content of some safflower varieties during winter season of 2017-2018, in Hatay Mustafa Kemal University Research Field. The experimental design was a randomized block design with three replications. Eight safflower varieties (Olas, Asol, Linas, Zirkon, Göktürk, Balcı, Dincer, Olein) were used as plant material. The result of this study showed that the investigated plant parameters were significant among the tested safflower varieties. According to the results; seed yield (262.78 kg da-1), crude oil content (38.49%) and crude oil yield (101.17 kg da-1) were greater in Asol variety, number of heads per plant (16.20 pieces) and 1000 seed weight (45.56 g) were greater in Dinçer variety, first branch height (115.90 cm) and plant height (163.67 cm) were greater in Linas variety. Göktürk was a superior variety in terms of number of seeds provided per head (23.70 pieces). Although the number of branches per plant (8.50 pieces) was greater in Balci variety, seed and crude oil yield were lower in the same variety. The results indicated that safflower variety Asol can be successfully cultivated in Hatay conditions.

In this study the kinetics of oil extraction from partially dehulled safflower seeds under two moisture conditions (7 and 9% dry basis) was investigated. The extraction assays were performed using a stirred batch system, thermostated at 50 °C, using n-hexane as solvent. The data obtained were fitted to a modified diffusion model in order to represent the extraction kinetics. The model took into account a washing and a diffusive step. Fitting parameters were compared statistically for both moisture conditions. The oil yield increased with the extraction time in both cases, although the oil was released at different rates. A comparison of the parameters showed that both the portion extracted in the washing phase and the effective diffusion coefficient were moisture-dependent. The effective diffusivities were 2.81 10-12 and 8.06 10-13 m 2 s-1 for moisture contents of 7% and 9%, respectively.

Interleaves are pieces of paper which are meant to protect illuminations, illustrations, and opposite folios from pigment and ink deterioration. The Dalā’il al-Khayrāt or ‘Guidelines to the Blessings’, one of the most widespread prayer books for Muslims, was written by Muhammad ibn Sulaymān al- Jazūlī (died c.1465 CE), a Moroccan mystic Sufi. Depending on the place and date of production, from West (Morocco) to East (Southeast Asia), the manuscripts reflect local styles in the text design and the cover. From the sixteenth up to the end of the nineteenth century, some Moroccan copies were supplied with interleaves which were dyed in a colour range from pale yellow to bright fuchsia. This study comprises seven copies from collections in Qatar for which the physical features of the interleaves were studied and the dyestuffs were identified with HPLC. The analyses conducted at KIK-IRPA in Brussels have revealed that safflower was used as the main dyestuff until the industrial era, when imported synthetic dyes supplanted natural colorants. Conservation issues were also raised since early synthetic dyes found were very unstable to environmental factors. Then, the significance of these materials was explored in comparison with the silk curtains found in European medieval manuscripts. 
KEYWORDS: Dyestuff, safflower, interleaves, Moroccan manuscripts, Dalā’il al-Khayrāt, HPLC-DAD, safranin, mono azo dyes

Silver nanoparticles are widely used in industry, medicine, biotechnology and agriculture. As a consequence, these nanoparticles are reaching the environment as waste products, which might have a negative impact on the environment, especially on plants. In this study, the effects of two concentrations (5 and 7 ppm) of silver nanoparticles on safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) were investigated in vitro. Increased germination rate in from 70% (in non treated control) up to 90% (in 7 ppm nanosilver treated seeds) was bserved. 5% higher dry weight biomas in 5 ppm nanosilver treated plants and 12% lower biomas in 7% treated ones as compared to their non-treated controls confirmed that the toxicity threshold level is between these two concentrations. Increased thickness of epidermis layer and root hairs length as well as deletion of schloranchima cells in roots under silver nanoparticle was observed in anatomical study of safflower. The results also showed a remarkable decrease in and proline content in root while induction of MDA and proline content was observed in shoot under nanosilver treatment that can be an indicator for induction of oxidative stress in shoot by treatment. Moreover, nanosilver causes induction of chlrophyll a, total chlrophyll and carotenoid contenten in safflower.

Özet Yağlarda kaliteyi belirleyen önemli yağ asitlerinden olan oleik asit (C18:1), tekli doymamış bir yağ asidi olup, genetik katkının yanında çevre faktörlerinden de fazlaca etkilenmektedir. Oleik yağ asidi ve diğer doymamış bir yağ asidi olan linoleik yağ asidi arasında ters oranda güçlü negatif bir ilişki olup, linoelik asidi yüksek yağlar (ayçiçeği, aspir, pamuk, vd) genelde yemeklik yağ olarak nitelendirilirken, oleik tip yağlar (zeytin yağı, kanola, vd) ise kızartmalık yağ olarak kullanılması son derece uygundur. Orta oleik tip olan kanolaya ilaveten son yıllarda seleksiyon ve mutasyon yoluyla ayçiçeği ve aspirde %90'a varan yüksek oleik tip çeşitler ıslah edilmiş olup, bunların dünyada kullanımı giderek artmaktadır. Bu tür çeşitlerde, her ne kadar iklimsel faktörlerin etkisi giderek azalsa da, genelde oleik yağ asidi, dane doldurma dönemindeki sıcaklık (özellikle de yüksek gece sıcaklığı), coğrafi konum ve ekim zamanı vb faktörlerden olumlu ve olumsuz yönde etkilenebilmektedir. Kuzey enlemlerden güneye doğrul inildikçe, oleik asit oranı artmaktadır. Yine erken ekimlerde oleik asit oranı artarken, ekim geciktikçe, oleik asit oranı düşmektedir. Örneğin tane doldurma periyodundaki sıcaklıktaki her 1 °C'lik artış, oleik asitte yaklaşık % 2 oranında artışa neden olmaktadır. Bu artışın, oleik asidin linoleik aside dönüşümünde önemli rol oynayan " Desaturaz " enziminin, yüksek sıcaklıklarda faaliyetinin azalmasından kaynaklandığı tahmin edilmektedir. Ayrıca kurak şartlarda oleik asit oranı düşerken, yağışlı sezonda ise artmaktadır. Yine oleik asit oranına yağlı tohumlarda yapılan gübrelemenin etkili olduğu belirlenmiş olup, potasyumun oleik asit oranının az miktarda azaltırken, linoleik asit oranında az da olsa bir artışa neden olmaktadır. Yine azotlu gübre dozu arttırıldıkça, oleik yağ asidi oranında da düzenli olarak artmıştır. Abstract In addition to genetic contribution, oleic acid (C18: 1) which is an important fatty acid that determines the quality of the oil, is a mono unsaturated fatty acid, is highly affected by environmental factors. There is a strong inversely negative relationship between oleic acid and linoleic acid which is other unsaturated fatty acid, higher linoleic type oil (sunflower, safflower, cotton, etc.) is know generally as cooking oil, oleic type oils (olive oil, canola, etc.) is so suitable for frying oil. In recent years, in addition to Mid-oleic type canola, up to 90% high oleic type of sunflower and safflower varieties were developed through selection and mutation and their use has increased year by year recently in the world. Although there is less gradually decreased effect of climatic factors influence in these type of cultivars, oleic acid usually are influenced from the temperature (especially high night temperature) in grain filling period, geographical location and planting time, etc. in both positive and negative ways. The ratio of oleic acid increases from the North to South latitude. While Oleic acid ratio increased again in early planting, delayed plantings decrease oleic acid contents. For instance, each 1 ° C increase in temperature in the grain filling period results about a 2% increase in oleic acid. This increase is estimated by because of reduction of activity of "Desaturase" enzyme at high temperatures which play an important role on in the conversion of linoleic acid to oleic acid. Also, oleic acid content redcue amount in arid conditions and it increases in the rainy season. However, it is determined that the fertilizer affects oleic acid rate in oil crops and while potassium application reduce the oleic acid content, it decrease linoleic acid content in a smaller amount. Furthermore, while nitrogen fertilizer rate is increased, the ratio of oleic acids has increased regularly.

Oilseed crops are an important natural resource because they can be used for food and renewable energy production. However, oilseed seedling establishment and vigor depend upon the capacity to overcome functional transition , a developmental stage characterized by the consumption of the remaining oil reserves, through b-oxidation and glyoxylate cycle, and the onset of autotrophic metabolism. The increased growth and the acclimation to full photosyn-thetic activity lead to production of reactive oxygen species and a reorganization of the cell antioxidant systems to achieve a new redox homeostasis. In the present study, catalase (CAT) was inhibited by 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole application during functional transition in sunflower and safflower seedlings to understand the effect of this antioxidant enzyme impairment on the mRNA expression of the glyoxylate cycle enzymes isocitrate lyase (ICL) and malate synthase (MLS), as well as the superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and ascorbate per-oxidase (APX) activity and expression. CAT inhibition led to significant seedling growth reduction and increases in H 2 O 2 content, SOD activity, and mRNA expression of CAT and APX in both species. However, APX activity was induced only in safflower plants. Additionally, ICL and MLS mRNA expressions were upregulated after 6 h of treatment when compared to the control values. These results indicate that under CAT impairment conditions, redox homeostasis at the functional transition phase was partially supported by the SOD and APX antioxidant systems to maintain the seedling photosynthetic establishment.