Rhodian Peraia

Seit dem 3. Jh. v. Chr. verfügte Rhodos über einen umfangreichen Festlandsbesitz in dem der Insel gegenüberliegenden Teil Kariens. Der hier betrachtete Kern dieses Gebiets wurde rhodisches Staatsgebiet, die einheimischen karischen Bewohner waren seither rhodische Bürger. Im Laufe des 3. Jhs. v. Chr. zeigt sich im archäologischen Befund der Peraia eine tiefgreifende Veränderung, die auf ein doppeltes Interesse der Rhodier an ihrem Festlandsbesitz schließen lässt. Zum einen ging es um die Sicherung der Insel Rhodos durch eine militärische Kontrolle der Küsten des Festlands. Dies geschah durch die Einrichtung von Militär- und Flottenstützpunkten, für die starke Festungen und Schiffshäuser gebaut wurden. Zum anderen hatten die Rhodier ein wirtschaftliches Interesse an der Peraia. Überall wurden die Hänge terrassiert und Gehöfte errichtet, die mit großen Weinkeltern ausgestattet waren. Parallel dazu entstanden auf Transportamphoren spezialisierte Töpferwerkstätten. Ziel dieser Maßnahmen waren insbesondere die Produktion und der Export von ‘rhodischem’ Wein, der in die gesamte antike Welt verhandelt wurde.

Amos is situated on the Asarcık hill, which is located at the southwestern side of modern
Marmaris in Turkey. Archaeological surveys at Amos (Carian Chersonese) and its environments
started in 2019. The pottery gathered during the fieldworks are mainly from Asarcık, which
consists of the Acropolis of the city, İnbaşı and İncirlipınar Valley in the South, Zeytinburnu in the
North and the Sandaleylik hill in western direction. This paper aims to present the unpublished
ceramics and establish the ceramic chronology and repertoire of Amos. The pottery evidently
showed that the settlement activity in Amos begun in the Archaic period. Epigraphic data published
by various scholars point out that Amos was ruled by the city of Lindos at Rhodes politically and
benefited economically during the Hellenistic period. The quantity and the quality of ceramics
also point out that the Amians were wealthy during the Hellenistic period and could obtain
various goods and products from other Mediterranean sites. Transport amphoras from Rhodes and
Cnidos reflect the close ties of the city undoubtedly. Moreover, the existence and the density of
the amphoras produced by local workshops like Hieroteles reflect the scale of the intra-regional
relations. Besides, imported material from eastern Aegean sites reflect the active trade connections.
The latest datable material revealed that Amians inhabited the city and its environments until the
end of the late Antique Period uninterruptedly, contrary to common beliefs.

The Phoenix Archaeological Project (PAP) is an interdisciplinary and multinational cooperative survey project conducting in southwestern Turkey (Marmaris) in ancient Phoenix.

The center of the ancient Phoenix is located 4 km south of Taşlıca village in the southwestern part of the Bozburun Peninsula, Marmaris (Turkey). Hisartepe consists of the fortified acropolis of the city, and the core of the settlement measures approximately 2.5 ha. The top of the acropolis rises 250 m above the Sindili Plain and the lower town of the Phoenix.

The Apollo sanctuary and an early Byzantine basilica are situated 500 m north of the acropolis and connected by an ancient road. The necropolis of the Phoenix covers the northern and southern sides of the acropolis, and the stepped-base funerary monuments are still visible on site. The ancient agricultural terraces around the Sindili Plain complete the historical landscape that shows us the production scales of the site through the ages. The preliminary observations imply that the Serçe and Gedik Bay in the southern part of the Sindili Plain served as the ancient harbors of the Phoenix.

The region is entirely open to illicit excavations and looting of artifacts. The cultural and natural heritage in the southwestern part of the peninsula is heavily threatened by urban and agricultural expansion and change to the landscape visually, endangering its biodiversity. It is believed that the multidisciplinary and new generation approaches will advance awareness, education, fieldwork, preservation, publication, and research of the archaeological remains and cultural heritage in Phoenix and its territory, which is why PAP is designed as an interdisciplinary and multinational cooperative survey project to identify and document the tangible and intangible cultural heritage and reimage the settlement pattern and land use from antiquity through the modern period at Phoenix.

For these purposes, PAP is developing long-range multidisciplinary subprojects and collaborate with various areas such as geoarchaeology, architecture, archaeoseismology, ecology, anthropology, archaeometry, sociology, and history. PAP is also developing social responsibility and education programs in the peninsula with nonprofit organizations as the Mediterranean Conservation Society, American Research Institute in Turkey (ARIT), and the Şirince Archaeological Association.

For the purposes mentioned above, the first year of the fieldwork at Phoenix was conducted between September and October 2021. This presentation aims to present some data gathered from the 2021 fieldwork at Phoenix.

The “Coastal Survey of the Karian Chersonesos” is a new Turkish-German interdisciplinary project using the methods of underwater and land archaeology, and marine geology. The survey area covering the shores of the modern Bozburun peninsula in Southwest Turkey is very promising due to its density of well-preserved ancient ruins and sites, which are increasingly threatened by modern construction and tourism activities. As a case study, the results of the survey of the coastal necropolis of Thyssanous in the bay of Söğüt are presented. The tomb monuments of the Hellenistic to Roman Imperial periods are partly submerged due to a relative sea-level rise since antiquity. They were deliberately positioned at the shore and oriented towards the sea so that they were well in sight from ships sailing to or leaving from the harbour of Thyssanous.

One of the Rhodian demes in the Karian Chersonesos, Amos is located on a promontory called Asarcık, lies almost 20 km southwest of Physkos, modern Marmaris. This headland 102 m high, projected eastwards and jutting out between two bays to the north and the south. As a fortified settlement on a hill, Amos has a strong defense system consisting of ramparts, towers, and gates. The theatre and the small temple are the best-known buildings of the city. Information about the history of Amos is very limited. Archaeological evidence shows the history of the city dates back to the VIth century B.C. The city became a part of the Rhodian Peraea as a Lindian deme during the Hellenistic period. It is known that the fertile lands of Amos were leased throughout the period by the lease agreements which were found at Amos and in its vicinity. Amos displays the characteristics of a Hellenistic settlement. Concerning the layout, the city on the hill was enclosed by a fortification and towers. The city walls employed irregular ashlar masonry with a combination of polygonal and rectangular blocks. The public buildings of the settlement such as the theatre and the temple are situ-ated on the acropolis. Amos has one of the four theatre in the incorporated Peraea. Just to the west of the theatre, the acropolis terrace houses a sanctuary. The main goal of this study is to present new evidence and finds regarding the history of the city, the settlement and its architecture.

This brief contribution introduces a palimpsest of some main markers of the Karian imagery which are traceable in their homeland and abroad, in the light of the archaeological and scriptural background, dating back far as the Archaic period. As it seems, although they seem to be sunk into oblivion together with their language, these ancient and humble people, about whom we still know little, referred to permanent methods and achieved concise works (also supportable with evidence from the Khersonesos equated with Bozburun Peninsula) to show forth their distinguished identity.

Karia Bölgesi’ndeki mimari düzene sahip kaya mezarlarının saptanabilmiş örnekleri, yerli-yabancı bilim insanları tarafından yayımlanmıştır. Ancak Marmaris’teki (Yeşilbelde) kaya mezarı, bugüne kadar herhangi bir çalışmaya konu edilmemiştir. Mezar, Karia Bölgesi’ndeki Birleşik Rhodos Peraia’sında, bilinen, mimari düzene sahip tek örnektir. Anadolu’da bu tip mezarlarda çoğunlukla Ion düzeninin tercih edildiği görülmekle birlikte ele alınan örnek Dor düzenindeki az sayıda kaya mezarından biridir. Bu çalışmada Yeşilbelde’deki mezar, iç ve dış özellikleriyle ayrıntılı olarak tanıtılmış; mezarın, Dor düzenindeki diğer kaya mezarları ve başka tip mezarlarla karşılaştırılması yapılmıştır. Mezarlar dışında, Dor düzenindeki kamusal yapıların mimari elemanlarıyla da mezardakilerin benzerlik ve farklılıkları ele alınmıştır. Bunun yanı sıra mezardaki bazı mimari oranlamalar, başka yapılarda uygulanmış olanlarla karşılaştırılmıştır. Sonuç olarak Rhodos etkisiyle Dor düzeninde yapıl­mış olma olasılığı üzerinde durulan mezar için öncelikli olarak Augustus dönemi ve MS I. yüzyıl tarihleri önerilmiş, MS II. yüzyıl tarihi ise daha düşük bir olasılık olarak göz önünde bulundurulmuştur.
Determined examples of rock-cut tombs having architectural order in Caria region were published by local and foreigner scientists. However the rock-cut tomb which is in Marmaris (Yeşilbelde) has not been the subject of any study until today. The tomb is the only -known- rock-cut tomb which has architectural order in the Incorporated Rhodian Peraea of Caria region. Even though generally this type of tombs have Ionic order in Anatolia, this example is one of the few rock-cut tombs which has Doric order. In this article the tomb which is in Yeşilbelde has been introduced in detailed with inner and outer features and also was compared with other Doric rock-cut tombs and different type tombs. Except tombs, the similarities and differences of the architectural elements of Doric public buildings and the tomb’s were discussed. In addition to this, some architectural ratios of the tomb was compared with other buildings’ ratios. The executions in the tomb chamber was also examined and commented. As a result, for the tomb, which is thought to have been constructed on Doric order under Rhodian influence, initially the Augustus period and first century A.D. have been recommended, nevertheless the second century A.D. has been considered to have a lower probability.

Der Survey in Loryma auf der Karischen Chersones hatte zum Ziel, die karische Siedlungsstruktur anhand einer repräsentativen und gut erhaltenen Siedlung exemplarisch zu erforschen. Dazu sollten alle sichtbaren archäologischen Denkmäler erfasst und auf diese Fragestellung hin ausgewertet werden. In fünf Kampagnen wurde ein Gebiet von 7 km2 kartiert, darunter die Stadt Loryma, die Nekropole, die hellenistische Hafenfestung und 18 Gehöfte. Es zeigte sich, dass die Siedlungsstruktur entsprechend der politischen Struktur dezentral ist und eine dreischichtige Bundesstruktur widerspiegelt. Darüber hinaus wurden wichtige Erkenntnisse für die hellenistische Epoche gewonnen, als die Karische Chersones Teil des rhodischen Staats wurde. Die Rhodier bauten Loryma zum einen als Militär- und Marinestützpunkt aus, zum anderen wurde nun in großem Umfang Wein angebaut und exportiert.

Die Karische Chersones ist mit Knidos und Rhodos zwei bedeutenden griechischen Poleis benachbart, weist jedoch eine ganz unterschiedliche Siedlungsstruktur auf. Die griechischen Poleis besitzen ein städtisches Zentrum, umgeben von der landwirtschaftlich genutzten Chora. Auf der karischen Chersones haben wir stattdessen etwa zehn kleinere, ummauerte Siedlungen. Die bisherige Forschung zog aus dem Fehlen eines Zentrums den Schluss, dass diese Siedlungen zu Rhodos oder zu Knidos gehört haben müssen. Dies gilt aber erst für die hellenistische Epoche, als die Chersones Teil der Rhodischen Peraia wurde. Davor war die Chersones eine politisch eigenständische Einheit, die im Rahmen des karischen Bundessystems zu verstehen ist. Die Siedlungen waren im regionalen Bund der Chersonesier zusammengeschlossen, der inschriftlich bezeugt ist, eigene Münzen prägte und als Einheit Tribut an den attischen Seebund entrichtete. Die Chersonesier waren wiederum Mitglieder im Bund der Karer, in dem alle Karer zusammengeschlossen waren. Die einzelnen Siedlungen der Chersones waren ebenfalls als lokale Bünde organisiert, so dass sich eine Bundesstruktur auf drei Ebenen rekonstruieren lässt. Auf der karischen Chersones gelang es erstmals, die Struktur eines karischen Bundes archäologisch nachzuvollziehen. In der Siedlung Loryma konnten zwei Orte von politischer Bedeutung identifiziert werden: zum einen die Agora mit der Residenz des lokalen Dynasten und einer Halle, zum anderen das außerhalb gelegene Apollonheiligtum, wo Inschriften und Ehrenstatuen errichtet worden sind. Die Chersones hatte als politische Versammlungsorte zwei Heiligtümer, Kıran Gölü und Kastabos. Beide verfügen über eine theaterartige Cavea, die für solche Versammlungen geeignet war.

Günümüzde Muğla’nın Marmaris ilçesi, Turunç mahallesi, Kumlubük mevkiindeki Asarcık burnu üzerinde yer alan Amos, antik dönem boyunca Karia Khersonesos’unun (Bozburun Yarımadası) önde gelen yerleşimlerinden biri olmuştur. Bir koinon’a liderlik yaptığı bilinen Amos’un sınırları çok daha geniş bir alana yayılmaktadır.
Amos’a dair oldukça kısıtlı tarihsel kaynaklar içerisindeki en erken kayıtlar MÖ 5. yüzyılı işaret etmektedir. Attika-Delos Deniz Birliği’ne üye olan kent, İÖ 428’de birliğe 0,38 talent vergi ödemiştir. MÖ 4. yüzyılın başından itibaren Rhodos Peraea’sına (Birleşik Peraia) bağlı bir deme (muhtemelen Lindos’un deme’si) olan Amos güçlü tarım ekonomisi ile önemli bir kırsal yerleşim olarak tarih boyunca kendini var etmeyi başarmıştır.
G.E. Bean’in 1948’de gerçekleştirdiği kazı, Amos’taki tek arazi çalışması olma özelliği taşımaktaydı. 2019’da başlayıp, halen devam eden yüzey araştırması ile birlikte, 2020 ve 2021 yıllarında Marmaris Müze Müdürlüğü başkanlığında yürütülen kazılar, kent tarihini aydınlatmaktadır. Bu sunum ile Amos ve çevresinde sürdürülen yüzey araştırmasına ait verilerin ve kazı bulgularının paylaşılması amaçlanmaktadır. 2020 ve 2021 yılları yüzey araştırması verileri çoğunlukla kentin tarım teraslarının dağılımını ve bunların kira kontratları ile olan bağlantılarından hareketle arazi kullanımını içermektedir. Yüzey araştırmasında tespit edilen koinon’a bağlı kome’ler ile bunların oluşturduğu Amos Koinon’u sınırı, sunumun bir diğer içeriğini teşkil etmektedir. Kazı çalışmaları ile ilgili olarak da kent nekropolisindeki bir platform mezara ve akropolisteki tapınağa ait bulguların aktarılması hedeflenmektedir. Karia Khersonesos’una özgün tarzda bir aile mezarı olarak tasarlandığı anlaşılan mezar MÖ 2. yüzyılda inşa edilmiş ve MS 2. yüzyıla kadar yaklaşık dört yüz yıl kullanım görmüştür. Kremasyon ve inhumasyon gömülerin bir arada yer aldığı mezarda toplam 10 gömü alanı bulunmaktadır. Akropolisteki mevcut tapınak MÖ 4. yüzyıla ait olup, ilk evresi MÖ 6. yüzyılda inşa edilmiştir. Tapınaktan önce aynı noktada var olduğu tespit edilen ve MÖ 10. yüzyıla ait apsidal yapı ve bununla bağlantılı seramikler, Amos tarihinin Erken Demir Çağı’na kadar uzandığını ortaya koymaktadır.

The cultural relations of southern Karia and the Dodekanesos seem to be connected to the political relations between these regions. In the 4th century BC, the Hekatomnid satrapy of Karia ruled mainland Karia as a province of the Persian empire and extended its influence and power to the Dodekanesian islands. In this period, the Halios temple in Rhodos was built on a high terrace, visually dominating the city of Rhodos; at the same time, the lower and middle terraces of the Asklepieion of Kos were erected. Both are following the model of Hekatomnid terrace sanctuaries like Labraunda, Kastabos, the Maussolleion of Halikarnassos, and the Athena temple in Priene. Apart from that, the building traditions remained separate and followed their different geological conditions: in Karia, monumental architecture was erected from white limestone and marble, while Rhodos used its soft and coarse muschelkalk which was covered with stucco. The only formal influence from Rhodos to Karia in this time is the krepis with stepped recesses which comes from the Doric architecture and was adopted at the Ionic Heimithea temple at Kastabos.
During the Hellenistic period, this Rhodian building technique appears in southern Karia at three temples which have not yet received attention in architectural history. They all belong to the mainland possessions of Rhodos, the “Rhodian Peraia”. In the 3rd century BC, two temples in the Karian Chersonesos which was part of the “integrated Peraia”, adopted the Rhodian construction technique: the Apollon temple in Loryma and the Apollon Samnaios temple in Amos, both in Doric order. The Rhodian Peraia has later been extended further to the “subjected Peraea”, and in the 2nd century BC also included Kaunos. At that time, the “Corinthian temple” has been erected there, again in the described Rhodian technique but in the, at that time, still rather new and rarely used Corinthian order.
Along with the material, formal influences from Rhodes at these temples include the Doric order in Loryma and Amos, and the stepped recesses at the krepis blocks attested in Amos. Apart from that they follow Karian traditions unknown in Rhodos. The temples in Amos and Kaunos show a rather peculiar feature with Ionic columns in antis, i.e. of another order than that of the respective peristasis. This has parallels in Kastabos, Lagina, and the Letoon of Xanthos. So the Hellenistic temples of Karia were deeply rooted in the building tradition of southwestern Asia Minor, but open to adopt certain features from Rhodes, often in an experimental manner.

Im Laufe des archäologischen Surveys in Loryma wurden zwischen 1995 und 2001 mehrere Inschriften neu entdeckt, darüber hinaus waren zu bereits bekannten Inschriften neue Beobachtungen möglich. Weiterhin konnten zwei Inschriften, die heute auf Symi aufbewahrt werden, in die Publikation mit einbezogen werden. In einem Anhang werden eine Inschrift aus Kasara, drei neue Inschriften aus Amos sowie drei wiedergefundene Inschriften aus Phoinix vorgestellt.