Political History of Southern Africa

This paper deals with the background, role players, sequence of events, geopolitical considerations and history of the Angolan War which took place from 1975 to 1990 between the Soviet Union and its allies & proxies on the one hand, and the Republic of South Africa and its allies on the other. It also has a section presenting a rebuttal of previously published material on this subject, and a section on disinformation techniques used in and by the Soviet Union.

Regional integration is usually thought of as the domain of contiguous states making up
the region. Closer analysis reveals, however, that non-state actors i.e. political parties,
interest groups and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are also players in their own
right in this sphere where states set the rules. To be sure, most research endeavours on
regional integration concentrate on its economic aspects and the action of states in
strengthening it. What is frequently overlooked is the role of non-state actors and the
way in which they promote regional integration.
This paper will depart from the state-centric analysis of regional integration. It will
examine the transnational lobby campaign of the Movement for Democratic Change
(MDC)—Zimbabwe’s main opposition political party—and interest groups and NGOs to
influence the Zimbabwean government to abide by the SADC Principles and Guidelines
Governing Democratic Elections (the Mauritian Protocol). This paper will therefore
investigate how non-state actors are promoting regionalisation within SADC through the
endorsement of the Protocol. The main problem to be addressed is to what extent have
non-state entities created a new normative cross-border region within SADC? In
addition, what were the strategies and tactics used by these actors and what is the
significance of these actions on regionalisation in SADC?
The paper consists of five parts. In the first, the relationship between regionalisation and
norms is outlined, followed, in the second part, by a discussion of the origin and nature of
the Mauritian Protocol. In the third part, the lobbying campaign of the non-state entities
is examined. The penultimate part is an analysis that looks at the implications of their
actions on regionalisation in SADC, while the last section forms a conclusion.

Various multi-dimensional governance models have been suggested by scholars and policy makers alike as suitable conceptual lenses through which to view the complexity of water governance, particularly in international river basins. While these models, most notably, the Government–Society–Science and the Hegemonic Politicians models, do provide more holistic pictures of the multiple actors at play and their interactions, the nature of these actor interactions is overly linear, and make them incapable of explaining the numerous processes within complex governance systems. They assume the dominance of a limited number of actors while ignoring various feedback loops. This paper therefore provides a critical review of the Government–Society–Science and the Hegemonic Politicians models. Our alternative perspective is derived from complexity theory as it pertains to water governance. Explaining water governance through the complexity lens highlights the myriad of actors that act within international river basins and the consequences of their actions; something that is lacking within the traditional models. This holds implications not only for decision-making in river basins and water resources management in particular, but also for theoretical developments that feed back into the policy arena. Complexity theory paints a more nuanced picture for the decision maker. We put forward this view using the proposed Epupa Dam on the Kunene River as a case study where various actors interact in the debate around the suggested dam.