This thesis is a literary analysis of minor secondary characters in the Elisha narratives (2 Kings 2-8). I define a minor secondary character as one that appears once or twice in this corpus and either plays a minor role or a...
moreThis thesis is a literary analysis of minor secondary characters in the Elisha narratives (2 Kings 2-8). I define a minor secondary character as one that appears once or twice in this corpus and either plays a minor role or a leading role in a short story (seven verses or less). The great and diverse cast in the Elisha stories feature many common Israelites and foreigners, besides kings, high officials and the prophet himself. I contend that the narrative function of minor secondary characters is not only to provide indirect characterization for major characters, but also to express central themes of the Elisha narratives.
The prominence of minor secondary characters in the Elisha narratives reflects both on the particular historical context of the stories and the unique calling of Elisha ben Shaphat. In my introductory chapter, I offer a survey of recent scholarship on the Elisha story-cycle (1.1). First, I summarize the recent history of social-scientific analyses of these stories, which aim to reconstruct the social, economic and religious atmosphere of the Kingdom of Northern Israel (KNI) during the Omride dynasty. I draw on social-scientific criticism since it applies modern social theory to textual analysis with selective use of material evidence to establish the social context of the biblical text, while cautioning against its tendency toward generalization. During this period, the KNI endured unprecedented changes, transitioning from a tribal society to a centralized monarchy. Israelite peasants encountered extraordinary social pressures owing to the great economic, political and religious changes initiated by the Omrides in the KNI. The introduction of Phoenician cults endangered traditional worship of YHWH. The development of agriculture from subsistence farming on tribal plots to commercial latifundia to produce cash-crops for export threatened traditional social structures and transformed peasant land-owners into tenant farmers. Militarization to protect domestic interests introduced further competition for precious land and production resources. The Omrides' international and cosmopolitan outlook benefitted the royal house and nobles that aligned themselves with these new policies but left many others in extremis. I then turn to a history of the literary study of the Elisha narratives, including form critical and literary-aesthetic scholarship. I show how scholars of both schools have endeavored to establish the genre of these stories as foundational for understanding its meaning. Recent scholarship has proposed vastly different genre categories, including general and specific, genre labels. My survey demonstrates that genre analysis, in its tendency to establish the “correct” genre, unnecessarily limits the multivalence of the Elisha stories.
Following this survey, I open a case for the study of minor secondary characters in the Elisha narratives (1.2). The character of Elisha is primarily understood through his actions. Unlike his predecessor Elijah who contended with Ahab and the people of Israel for the sole worship of YHWH, Elisha is not distinguished by a correspondingly discernible divine message. This gap casts a shadow of ambiguity on the character of Elisha, despite his prominence in the book of Kings. Consequently, several scholars have attempted to fill this gap by interpreting his portrayal as negative. However, Elisha is consistently portrayed as available and helpful, and he is almost always portrayed in the company of others. Many of these “others” include minor secondary characters, representing common Israelites, who relate to Elisha as one who can solve various problems. Recent literary-aesthetic scholarship reveals that within the realm of biblical storytelling, minor characters are not intrinsically important, often functioning as an accessory to the plot. When they are important, their literary function is usually indirect characterization of the major characters. However, minor secondary characters in the Elisha narratives are distinctive in several ways that merit examination.
In my next section (1.3), I establish my thesis. I briefly discuss a recent trend in New Testament scholarship to recognize that minor characters are instrumental to the expression of key themes of the gospels. Similarly, I propose that minor secondary characters are key message-bearers in the Elisha story-cycle. The stories ascribe worth and importance to ordinary folk, counter-culturally, during a period in Israel's history when they were severely marginalized. Though they wield neither royal nor prophetic authority, they contribute positively and significantly to the outcome of the Elisha narratives and to the accomplishment of divine purposes therein.
In the following section, I discuss my methodology (1.4). I discuss the difference between generic realism and generic conceptualism as defined by Kenton Sparks, which provides a theoretical framework to the classification methodology I employ. I aim to classify types of minor secondary characters and analyze their role through comparison and contrast with stories within the Elisha corpus and without. The classification of literature or genre analysis is understood to be utilitarian, subject to the research aims of the scholar, not a universal or absolute taxonomy. As such, the literary categories I define are intended for the analysis of minor secondary characters in the Elisha story-cycle. They are “handles” to facilitate intertextual comparison and contrast. In analyzing similarities between minor secondary characters, common motifs and broad themes emerge. In elucidating their differences, the unique message of each story is afforded focus. Each chapter groups minor secondary characters together according to a specified function within the narrative and seeks to determine their literary role and corresponding theological theme. In each of these chapters, narrative elements of characterization and thematic considerations will be explored.
Chapter 2 analyzes characters who approach Elisha directly seeking a solution for a specific problem. I establish the category “Direct Appeal Miracle Stories” as one in which a secondary character approaches the prophet, who solves their problem by working a miracle. These stories have a similar literary structure that proceeds from the Presentation of the Problem (by the minor character) to the Presentation of a Solution (by Elisha) to the Resolution (cooperation of both Elisha and the minor character). Common elements of the working of the miracle in these stories include obedience of the secondary character, usage of physical material, prophetic action, and oracle/fulfillment formula in the name of YHWH. Not every element is present in the miracle of every story. As I show, the absence or presence of certain elements elucidates the unique situation of the story and bears thematic relevance.
Chapter 3 analyzes characters who appear abruptly and very briefly (typically only one verse) to dispense advice, which, when followed by a floundering leader, results in the successful outcome of the story. In these stories servants are the unsung heroes. Rarely in biblical literature are servants afforded such a pivotal role. I call such characters “Agents of Prophetic Referral,” since each one refers his or her master to the person or activity of Elisha. As opposed to the ordinary folk in the “Direct Appeal Miracle Stories,” kings and officials require the assistance of their sagacious servants. The employment of such characters subtly critiques the ruling class. These servants highlight the critical theme of submission in the Elisha story-cycle by offering their advice forcefully while avoiding insubordination. While their advice displays mundane wisdom, the execution of their advice achieves results that accomplish divine purposes for Israel and the surrounding nations. These characters demonstrate that divine providence is accomplished through ordinary people, as well as prophets and kings. Ultimately, kings, prophets, and servants all serve YHWH, and to faithfully discharge their duties demands submission to God's authority.
Chapter 4 analyzes characters who reveal a surprising element in the stories. I call such characters “Surprise Agents” because the reader discovers the surprise concurrently with and through the perspective of the character. In each case, the Surprise Agent reveals unexpected and relevant facts that change the course of the plot, and draws attention to thematic elements that accompany the plot twist. While major characters can similarly reveal a surprise, such a literary device is employed to draw attention to a previously undisclosed deficit in that character. Minor secondary characters, on the other hand, draw attention to the central moral theme the author wishes to convey, as they do elsewhere in the Elisha story-cycle.
Some of these key theological themes include the following. Despite the taxing policies imposed by the Omrides, YHWH has not abandoned his people but is actively working through his prophet Elisha to deliver and preserve his people. Despite the stratification of Israelite society, YHWH has not consigned his people to suffer as victims, but through the working of Elisha's miracles has assigned them an active role in national deliverance. Minor characters portray ordinary people as empowered and empowering. They do not wield prophetic or royal power, but they can participate in the miracles through their active obedience and contribute to the welfare of the kingdom by dispensing timely insights to their leaders. Relative to their cursory appearance in each story, their impact on its outcome is prodigious.
