Non Pollen Palynomorphs

This study aims to trace changes in the River Nile flows over the Late Quaternary and is based on palynomorphs which were embedded in the sea floor of the Levantine Basin. The palynomorphs were extracted from two marine sediment cores, which cover the last 86 ka and are located at the two ends of the Levantine Basin: MD-9509, at the southern part of the Levantine Basin, and MD-9501, at its northern part. Core MD-9509 was taken from the Nile cone and is characterized by high sedimentation rates and a good state of palynomorph preservation. The assemblages included palynomorphs which were transported via the Nile headwaters and therefore enabled the reconstruction of the River Nile flows. The results demonstrate that the last glacial period (~75e16 ka) was characterized by a decrease in Nile water discharge and an increase in sediment influx, while opposite trends were observed prior to the last glacial period as well as during the deglaciation and the Holocene. Based on the study of the spores, it is suggested that during the last glacial, the main contributors of freshwater and sediment load to the Eastern Mediterranean Sea were the Blue Nile and the Atbara and only during interglacials was there a more significant contribution of the White Nile. Within the northern core, MD-9501, pollen was preserved only during the formation of sapropels S3 and S1. The comparison of the sapropelic palynological spectra in both core sites clearly indicates that during sapropel deposition, climate conditions were more humid in the Northern Levant, reflecting the north-south regional Mediterranean climatic moisture gradient. Sapropel formation was a result of the intensification of the monsoonal climate system which was most probably related to the maximum insolation values at 65 N, while, currently, the Atlantic is the main influencing climate system in the region. One of the most interesting observations in this study is that during Heinrich Events H2-H6, which originated in the north Atlantic and were identified in MD-9509 based on minimum arboreal pollen percentages, pollen originating from tropical regions was not embedded in the Levantine Basin. These results lend support to the view that episodes of dryness in tropical/sub-tropical Eastern Africa were associated not only with low-latitude climate controls, but also with high-latitude glacial stress.

The integrated results of micromorphology, plant macrofossil, pollen, phytolith, and non-pollen palynomorph analyses represent an important study of two thirteenth-century Teutonic Order castles at Karksi (Livonia), and Elbląg (Prussia). The research examines deposits that formed during the period of active crusading. At Karksi, the investigation of a midden and of the organic-rich sediment beneath allows the diachronic use of this area to be understood. Freshwater aquatic indicators are consistent with the occurrence of shallow stagnant water, as also suggested by a waterlaid pond sediment identified in thin-section. Coprophilous spore taxa suggest the use of the pond as a watering hole. Plant macrofossils from the midden represent a range of habitats, mostly from wet/damp areas, as well as pastures and meadows, and also woodlands. Fragments of millet are embedded within herbivore dung in thin-section showing the use of this grain as fodder. At Elbląg, parasite ova may derive from animal feces as they also occur in the dung observed in thin-section, and a range of coprophilous fungal spore taxa were extracted. The results reveal information about the range of livestock that the Teutonic Knights kept, whereabouts within the castles the animals were stabled, and what fodder was used.

An enhanced radiocarbon-dated pollen-stratigraphical record from Rovegno (Liguria, 812m asl), northern Apennines (Italy), has provided a history of vegetation succession from before 17,056-16,621 cal yrs BP to the present day. The record indicates the transition from open Pinus woodland to Artemisia dominated grassland, and finally Juniperus shrubland during the late Würm. This is succeeded by Betula and Pinus woodland, and the expansion of thermophilous taxa, namely Abies, Corylus and Quercus during the Late Würm Lateglacial Interstadial. The ‘Younger Dryas’ is possibly represented by an increase in Betula and Artemisia. During the early Holocene, mixed coniferous-deciduous woodland is dominant with Quercus, as well as Abies, Fagus and Corylus. Fagus woodland becomes established sometime before 6488-6318 cal yrs BP, but never becomes a major component of the woodland cover. Throughout the middle Holocene, Abies woodland fl uctuates, with marked declines between 6488-6318 cal yrs BP and 5287-4835 cal yrs BP, although the cause remains uncertain. Finally, the paper evaluates the application of non-pollen palynomorphs, especially coprophilous fungal spores, at Prato Spilla ‘A’ (Emilia Romagna) and concludes that greater caution must be used when interpreting middle Holocene human activity based upon pollen data alone.

On the east Mediterranean island of Crete, a hierarchical society centred on large palatial complexes emerges during the Bronze Age. The economic basis for this significant social change has long been debated, particularly concerning the role of olive cultivation in the island's agricultural system. With the aim of studying vegetation changes and human management to understand the landscape history from Late Neolithic to Bronze Age, two palaeoenvironmental records have been studied at Kouremenos marsh, near the site of Palaikastro (Eastern Crete). Pollen, NPP and charcoal particles analyses evidenced seven phases of landscape change, resulting from different agricultural and pastoral practices and the use of fire probably to manage vegetation. Moreover, the Kouremenos records show the importance of the olive tree in the area. They reflect a clear trend for its increasing use and exploitation from 3600 cal yr BC (Final Neolithic) to the Early Minoan period, that is coeval with an opening of the landscape. The increase of Olea pollen was due to the expansion of the tree and its management using pruning and mechanical cleaning. The onset of olive expansion at c. 3600 cal yr BC places Crete among the first locales in the eastern Mediterranean in the management of this tree. Between c. 2780 and 2525 cal yr BC the landscape was largely occupied by olive and grasslands, coinciding with an increase in grazing practices. The high Olea pollen percentages (40-45%) suggest an intensive and large-scale exploitation of the olive tree. The results suggest that a complex and organized landscape with complementary land uses and activities was already in place since the Final Neolithic. The notable expansion of olive trees suggests the relevance of olive exploitation in the socioeconomic development of Minoan towns of eastern Crete. Other crops, such as cereals and vine, and activities such as grazing have also played an important role in the configuration of the past landscape.

NEW PALAEOECOLOGICAL DATA PROVIDED BY THE PREMERY FOREST CLOSED DEPRESSIONS (BURGUNDYFRANCE)
The closed depressions (CDs) located in the Premery forest on the Nivernais Plateau (Burgundy, France) are suitable natural
archives for palaeoecological studies as formerly demonstrated in the sixties. New pollen and non-pollen palynomorphs (mainly
algal and fungal remains) analyses performed on two  sequences, give complementary information about the context of the CDs infilling formation, and the vegetation dynamics on the Nivernais Plateau. The two cores chronologically complete each other: the first one concerns the Late Glacial and the Early Holocene (from 16 000 to 10 000 cal. yr BP), but it is less suitable for Mid- and Late Holocene because of hiatuses in the sedimentation. The second one documents only the end of the Late-Glacial period (Younger Dryas), but it continuously covers the whole Holocene. Concerning human impact, the indicators of agro-pastoral activities are very scarce and punctual during Prehistory and Bronze Age (from ca 5 000 to 800 BC). Even after this date, and despite further deforestation phases occurring during the Iron Age (800-50 BC), the classical Middle Ages (around 1000 AD) and the Modern period, the woodland remains dominant, and proximal pollen and fungal indicators of human activity are only present in one core, from the 16th to the beginning of the 19th century. However, the forest might be affected for other reasons than agro-pastoral purpose, such as fire wood, timber wood, palaeo-industries… If these two CDs have comparable evolutions during Late-Glacial and Early Holocene, running from a state of small pond to small peat bog, their later histories are different. This fact shows the role of the catchment area variability for each CD infilling process, and it highlights the very local value of each of the palaeoecological information they provide.

The numerous dystrophic (humic) lakes are a very important feature of Wigry National Park, NE Poland. As the most recent palaeoecological data indicate, at the beginning of its development (in the Late Glacial and Early and Middle Holocene) these water bodies functioned as harmonious lakes, and their transformation into dystrophic lakes and the stabilization of the trophic state took place at the beginning of the Subboreal. Palynological analysis of sediments from two such lakes (Lake Ślepe and Lake Suchar II), with special emphasis on non-pollen palynomorphs (NPPs), was aimed at a detailed biological characterization of dystrophic lakes during their long-lasting existence. The obtained results allowed for the designation of organisms characteristic for dystrophic lakes, of which representatives appeared with the decreasing pH of the water and the formation of Sphagnum peat around lakes. These organisms were divided into four groups: algae, fungi, testate amoebas, and animals. Their representatives appear in various developmental stages of dystrophic lakes.

Beckery Chapel, near Glastonbury, is the site which has the earliest scientific dating evidence for monastic life in the UK, and later in the medieval period became a Chapel that played a significant role as a destination for pilgrims, as part of the Glastonbury Abbey estate. The site was previously excavated in the 1880s and the 1960s, and in 2016 the South West Heritage Trust excavated a building, that proved to be an outbuilding used when the medieval chapel was in operation. Soil micromorphological analysis was conducted first to understand the sediments within the profile from this building, which appeared fairly homogenous and bioturbated in the field. It untangled the bioturbation processes and revealed a rare northern European, geoarchaeological example of a livestock enclosure from a dryland context in this temperate environment. The results of our innovative multi-proxy approach highlight the potential and methodological considerations for future studies to integrate micromorphology, palaeoparasitology and mycology to examine animal management on dryland archaeological sites. They increase the knowledge of the economic activities of the ecclesiastical occupation at Beckery, contributing to an enhanced understanding of the Chapel site, its wider landscape and its role as part of the Glastonbury Abbey estate.

Using a novel combination of paleoecologic proxies including pollen, non-pollen palynomorphs (NPPs), macroscopic  charcoal, and Spheroidal Carbonaceous Particles (SCPs), 5000 years of landscape change, fire history and land-use have been reconstructed from Dune Pond, Santa Barbara County, California. The pond was sensitive to Holocene regional climatic variability, showing different phases of lower (4600 -3700 cal yr BP, 2100-700 cal yr BP, historical period) and higher (3700-2100 cal yr BP, 700-150 cal yr BP) local moisture availability. During this period the landscape was dominated by a coastal mosaic vegetation including dune mats, coastal scrub and salt marshes on the dunes and backdunes, with chaparral and oak woodland growing in the valley plains and foothills. Fire was intimately linked with such dominating mosaic vegetation, and the combination of wet conditions and the presence of nearby human settlement were a trigger favoring coastal fires for at least two periods: from 3100 to 1500 cal yr BP and from 650 cal yr BP until the 18th century. In both cases fire was an important tool to keep an open coastal landscape attractive to hunting wildlife. Finally, matching this varied range of high resolution paleoecological proxies with historical records we could characterize the development of colonial transported landscapes following the Euro-American settlement of Santa Barbara. The introduction of livestock grazing by Spanish colonists favored erosive processes and the introduction of fecalborne parasites in freshwater bodies, negatively impacted salt and brackish coastal marshes, and promoted the invasion of alien grasses and ruderals. This agro-pastoral landscape was consolidated during the American period, with a greater role for cultivation, the development of industrial activities and
increased population. Despite negative environmental consequences such as the loss of native habitats, exotic land-uses and plants introduced during the historical period significantly contributed to the configuration of a cultural landscape which forms part of the cultural heritage of California.

The integrated results of micromorphology, plant macrofossil, pollen, phytolith, and non-pollen palynomorph analyses represent an important study of two thirteenth-century Teutonic Order castles at Karksi (Livonia), and Elbląg (Prussia). The research examines deposits that formed during the period of active crusading. At Karksi, the investigation of a midden and of the organic-rich sediment beneath allows the diachronic use of this area to be understood. Freshwater aquatic indicators are consistent with the occurrence of shallow stagnant water, as also suggested by a waterlaid pond sediment identified in thin-section. Coprophilous spore taxa suggest the use of the pond as a watering hole. Plant macrofossils from the midden represent a range of habitats, mostly from wet/damp areas, as well as pastures and meadows, and also woodlands. Fragments of millet are embedded within herbivore dung in thin-section showing the use of this grain as fodder. At Elbląg, parasite ova may derive from ...

The microscopic examination of archaeological samples containing parasite ova and cysts can provide a wealth of information. A range of animal and human intestinal parasites (e.g., tapeworms and roundworms) produce identifiable and resistant eggs, which are usually found in anthropogenic layers, fossil coprolites, and mummified bodies. The study of these remains can contribute to the knowledge of living conditions in ancient settlements, providing data on health, dietary habits, social status, and use of the space.

Beckery Chapel, near Glastonbury, is the site which has the earliest scientific dating evidence for monastic life in the UK, and later in the medieval period became a Chapel that played a significant role as a destination for pilgrims, as part of the Glastonbury Abbey estate. The site was previously excavated in the 1880s and the 1960s, and in 2016 the South West Heritage Trust excavated a building, that proved to be an outbuilding used when the medieval chapel was in operation. Soil micromorphological analysis was conducted first to understand the sediments within the profile from this building, which appeared fairly homogenous and bioturbated in the field. It untangled the bioturbation processes and revealed a rare northern European, geoarchaeological example of a livestock enclosure from a dryland context in this temperate environment. The results of our innovative multi-proxy approach highlight the potential and methodological considerations for future studies to integrate micro...

High resolution palynological and geochemical data of sediment core GeoB 3910-2 (located offshore Northeast Brazil) spanning the period between 19 600 and 14 500 calibrated year bp (19.6–14.5 ka) show a land-cover change in the catchment area of local rivers in two steps related to changes in precipitation associated with Heinrich Event 1 (H1 stadial). At the end of the last glacial maximum, the landscape in semi-arid Northeast Brazil was dominated by a very dry type of caatinga vegetation, mainly composed of grasslands with some herbs and shrubs. After 18 ka, considerably more humid conditions are suggested by changes in the vegetation and by Corg and C/N data indicative of fluvial erosion. The caatinga became wetter and along lakes and rivers, sedges and gallery forest expanded. The most humid period was recorded between 16.5 and 15 ka, when humid gallery (and floodplain) forest and even small patches of mountainous Atlantic rain forest occurred together with dry forest, the latter being considered as a rather lush type of caatinga vegetation. During this humid phase erosion decreased as less lithogenic material and more organic terrestrial material were deposited on the continental slope of northern Brazil. After 15 ka arid conditions returned. During the humid second phase of the H1 stadial, a rich variety of landscapes existed in Northeast Brazil and during the drier periods small pockets of forest could probably survive in favorable spots, which would have increased the resilience of the forest to climate change.

This study is part of the international research project “Beyond Lake Villages” dealing with prehistoric lake villages of Austria, Germany and Switzerland in a collaboration between Austrian, Swiss and German archaeologists and palaeoecologists (DACH-FWF-I-1693; Zeitensprung). Prehistoric lacustrine settlements offer outstanding preservation conditions for organic matters and are therefore key sites for the understanding of socio-economical and ecological changes during the Neolithic and Bronze Age Periods (4300–800 BC) in the European pre-Alps. Our interdisciplinary research programme is dealing with palynological, palaeoethnobotanical, dendrochronological, archaeological, geological, and sedimentological as well as GIS-analyses. The objectives are to understand past agricultural sustainability, livestock husbandry systems, climatic alterations, fire history, as well as potential anthropogenic forest degradation, and subsequent secondary succession/reforestation processes. A special focus was put on the onsite analysis of lake stratigraphies recovered during the underwater-archaeological excavation of the Neolithic site of Weyregg-II in 2016. Today, the settlement remains are located in shallow water along the eastern shoreline of Lake Attersee (Upper Austria). The former village is culturally associated with the so-called Mondsee-group (4000-3000 BC). Systematic palynological investigations of the cultural layers rich in organic matter (including the quantification of Non-Pollen Palynomorphs (NPPs) such as spores from coprophilous fungi or algal cysts) and comparison with the content of preceding and overlying lake marl sediments of natural origin revealed detailed information on the local flora and vegetation changes under climatic and anthropogenic constraints. First results display strong emergence of cultural indicators such as Cerealia-type pollen reflecting crop cultivation around the former village and/or local crop processing within the village. Seasonal deposition of the archaeological layers is proposed given certain winter and early spring flowering plant taxa such as Hedera helix (ivy) and Allium ursinum-Type (ramson). High frequencies of spores from coprophilous fungi imply the important local presence of livestock. The occurrence of intestinal parasitic eggs gives direct evidence for disease, health, and quality of life of prehistoric people. Furthermore, patterns in sedimentation at the site represent different stages of depositional and erosive processes (traced by e.g. Glomus fungal spore finds). Finally, focus is given on the comparison with adjacent palaeoenvironmental records in order to track similarities and differences for short- and long-term transformation processes of prehistorical cultural landscapes.

In alkaline cave sediments, the presence of faecal spherulites is regarded as a reliable indicator of animal dung. Spores of coprophilous fungi are nowadays frequently employed as grazing indicators in palaeoecological sequences, but their use in dryland pastoral deposits is not routine in geoarchaeological practice. The paper assesses the relationship between the occurrence of spherulites and dung fungal spores from an abandoned rock shelter used as a stable for several decades. A clear match between these proxies is shown, and their distribution across the sediments is discussed, highlighting the potential of coprophilous spore analysis from archaeological stabling deposits, alongside other established dung indicators. The abundance of other microfossils (parasite eggs, coccolith plates and freshwater indicators) is also quantified and discussed.

On the east Mediterranean island of Crete, a hierarchical society centred on large palatial complexes emerges during the Bronze Age. The economic basis for this significant social change has long been debated, particularly concerning the role of olive cultivation in the island's agricultural system. With the aim of studying vegetation changes and human management to understand the landscape history from Late Neolithic to Bronze Age, two palaeoenvironmental records have been studied at Kouremenos marsh, near the site of Palaikastro (Eastern Crete). Pollen, NPP and charcoal particles analyses evidenced seven phases of landscape change, resulting from different agricultural and pastoral practices and the use of fire probably to manage vegetation. Moreover, the Kouremenos records show the importance of the olive tree in the area. They reflect a clear trend for its increasing use and exploitation from 3600 cal yr BC (Final Neolithic) to the Early Minoan period, that is coeval with an...