Morphosemantics

In this paper I address a puzzle concerning different semantic interpretations of Polish NPs modified by basic cardinal numerals, e.g. dwaj studenci ('two students'), and NPs headed by numerals with the suffix-k-, e.g. dwójka studentów ('(a group of) two students'), with respect to distributivity and collectivity. The analysis uses formal semantic plurality framework of Landman (2000 a.o.).

In this chapter, I examine two types of Slavic derived collective nouns, namely spatial collectives such as Polish kwiecie 'clump of flowers' and social collectives like duchowieństwo 'collective of priests, clergy'. While the former refer to collections of objects perceived as coherent spatial configurations, the latter denote groups of human individuals performing a salient social role. Building on Grimm (2012) and Zobel (2017), I propose an analysis that treats the Slavic derived collective nouns in question as predicates true of spatial and social clusters, respectively. The proposal extends mereotopology to the abstract domain of social roles.

E ribotuar ne Gjermani në vitin 2017
Çështja e trajtimit semantik të mbiemrave nëpër gramatikat tona del një temë deri vonë e parrahur fare. Vështirësia e ndarjes së mbiemrave në klasa vjen si pasojë e mosvendosjes së parimeve të qarta për ndarjen e tyre në klasa. Kjo vështirësi e zgjidhjes së kësaj çështjeje më së miri mund të hetohet, po qe se e hulumtojmë këtë temë në mënyrë kronologjike gjatë rrugëtimit dhe zhvillimit historik të gramatikës së shqipes. Atëherë do të shohim se trajtimi semantik i mbiemrave fillon të trajtohet në pjesën e dytë të shekullit të kaluar, kurse para kësaj kohe, nga ndonjë autor është prekur intuitivisht ndonjë segment semantik i mbiemrave, por nuk është bërë ndonjë trajtim i plotë dhe i mbështetur në kritere kuptimore për ndarjen e tyre në klasa. Çështja e klasifikimit të mbiemrave në klasa mbështetur në parime shkencore u trajtua për herë të parë nga prof. Shaban Demiraj në veprën “Morfologjia e gjuhës së sotme shqipe” (1966). Këtë temë do ta vështrojmë në disa gramatika, duke filluar nga gramatika e Samiut e deri më sot.

In this paper I deal with the semantic properties of Polish NPs headed by numerals with the suffix -e, e.g. dwoje studentów (“two students”). I present constraints on the distribution of Polish -e numerals and provide evidence that these constraints follow on from their semantics. I examine three types of NPs in which numerals with the suffix -e can appear and propose a semantic interpretation of each type of such NPs. Furthermore, I argue that Polish numerals with the suffix -e are compositional and discuss the semantic contribution of each morpheme in their morphological make-up. The analysis is based on the formal semantic theory of Landman (2000).

ABSTRACT
The semantics of Ẹdo verbs has received some treatment in the extant literature.However, there exist certain research gaps in the semantics/morphosemantics of Ẹdo verbs such as the classification of Ẹdo verbs and its valence patterns, the readings of the -lv and -rV suffixes and the licensing conditions imposed by Ẹdo verbs on the -lv suffix. The study accounted for aspects of the semantics and morphosemantics of Ẹdo verbs by employing the aktionsart classification in classifying Ẹdo verbs and accounting for the valence patterns of Ẹdo verbs in terms of aktionsart, logical structures and the Actor-Undergoer Hierarchy (AUH). It also provided a unified reading for the -lv extension and highlighted the co-occurrence constraints imposed by Ẹdo verbs on the -lv suffix. The -rV suffix which has been considered the most controversial phenomenon in Ẹdo grammar was also analyzed.
The study utilized primary data in the form of elicited, verified and validated Ẹdo sentences from competent Ẹdo native speakers. Secondary sources of data used in the study include Ẹdo sentences extracted from the extant Ẹdo literature and the Ẹdo translation of the English Bible. Two theoretical frameworks were used in the analysis of
data collated for the study - Role and Reference Grammar (RRG) and Lexeme Morpheme Based Morphology (LMBM). The study found that Ẹdo verbs can be classified based on their inherent temporal properties (aktionsart), that this classification is very productive in that it can account for the valence patterns of Ẹdo verbs and the collocation patterns between Ẹdo verbs and the lv suffix. The Ẹdo language exhibits an intricate agreement relationship between verbs and arguments (internal and external) on one hand and between arguments (i.e. coargument relations) on the other hand. The study found that the Ẹdo -lv suffix generally serves to extend events temporally and must obey certain licensing conditions imposed by the Ẹdo verb. These conditions span all levels of linguistic analyses- phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics and that the -rV suffix is a marker of present perfect aspect contrary to previous analyses which argued for a simple past tense/perfective aspect reading of the-rV suffix.

The research was aimed to decribe the utterance about "ambulance carrying stones" through morphosemantics and pragmatics analyses that were shaded by the forensic linguistics paradigm. In this research, qualitative descriptive was applied as the method and case study was designed. The utterance about "ambulance carrying stones" was used as the data, meanwhile the data source was a screenshot of one of influencers' tweet on Twitter and then as known as SP. In this research, the researcher used morphosemantic and speech act theories in order to find the results to achieve the research objectives. The results of the data demonstrated that (1) SP attempted to construct the interpretation of his audience using 'carrier' as the diction related to the ambulance carrying stones, (2) SP's utterance could be concluded that it did not fulfill any of the requirements formulated by Austin (1962) and Searle (1969) regarding the felicity conditions, and (3) the results of the linguistic analysis and the elements in the legal documents demonstrated the constitutionality that those legal documents could ensnare SP.

The aim of this paper is to establish a particular type of denominal derivative, namely possessive thematic adjectives from neuter s-stem bases with a double zero grade in the root and the s-suffix of the underlying stem (viz. “russus-adjectives” after the prime example *h1reu̯dh-es- ‘redness’ → *h1rudh-s-ó- ‘having redness’ > Lat. russus ‘ruddy’; §§1–3). These adjectives will then serve as illustrative material to demonstrate different strategies for substantivizing thematic adjectives (viz. “simple” substantivization, substantivization via accent retraction , i-substantivization, u-substantivization, and n-substantivization; §§4–8), in the course of which a new etymological and morphological account of PIE *(H)uksé/ón- ‘bull, ox’ will be put forth (§9).

Cilj je rada Prezentska osnova u opisu hrvatskih glagolskih vrsta i razreda u glagola za izražavanje emocija prikupljanje svih potvrđenih glagola za izražavanje emocija hrvatskoga jezika unutar jednog rada i njihovo razvrstavanje prema pravilima pojedinih gramatika o glagolskim vrstama i razredima. Nastojalo se uvidjeti postoji li kakva leksička i morfološka povezanost u izražavanju ugodnih i neugodnih emocija, s osvrtom na kognitivnu lingvistiku.
Rad je koncipiran kao deskriptivni pragmatički priručnik koji kroz sinkroniju prikazuje razvrstavanje svih glagola za izražavanje emocija hrvatskoga jezika prema pojedinim gramatikama.

ABSTRACT:
https://portal.dnb.de/opac.htm?method=simpleSearch&query=xhafer+beqiraj
Adjectives as a word class with nominal and verbal features 1 The class of words, no matter of lexical and semantic differences they have from class to class, take and give from one another. This inteterrelationship of word classes is universal in human languages. But classes which represent a closer relation regarding lexical and semantic aspect with each other are nouns, verbs and adjectives. If we consider the semantic side of fhe words of these three classes in different languages, we shall observe that they are similar to each other. This semantic and lexical similarity of these classes derives from word formation themes which they are formed from. According to Dixon and Aikenvald, this interrelationship of word classes, differs from one language to another; in some languages adjectives are formed from nominal word formation themes (adjectives as nouns not as verbs); in some languages adjectives are formed mainly from verbs (according to them, adjectives in these languages are as verbs but not as nouns); in some other languages adjectives are formed from nominal and verbal word formation themes (according to them, adjectives in these languages are as verbs and as nouns) for example: Albanian, German. English etc. and eventually in some languages " their adjectives come out not as verbs and not as nouns " , which means that these languages are not familiar with the derivation of adjectives from nouns and verbs 2. Adjectives as a word class with nominal and verbal features are represented...

This study proposes to investigate the functions of morphosemantic in Meetei proverbs, particularly the attribution of different meanings of the lexical items in Meetei Proverbial verbs. Meetei society has been using proverbs in the all
ages, stages of development, social changes, and cultural diversifications to mark their wisdom of social expertise.
Meetei used proverbs as an important aspect of verbal discourses within the socio-cultural and ethno-civilization
contexts in which skills, knowledge, ideas, emotion, and experiences are communicating. The language used in
proverbs reflects the Meetei’s status of life, food habits, belief systems, philosophy, cultural and social orientations. At
the same time, various meanings attribute in Meetei proverbs in the forms of figurative, witty, pithy, didactic etc. The
construction of these forms are grammatically insightful thereby creating spaces for a whole range of possibilities for
investigating the features, functions and structure of verbal inflectional markers occurred in Meetei proverbial
sentences.

It is commonly assumed that basic cardinal numerals such as English three are simplex expressions whose primary function is to quantify over entities denoted by the modified NP (e.g., Kennedy 2015; Rothstein 2017; Ionin & Matushansky 2018). In this paper, we explore cross-linguistic marking patterns suggesting that cardinals in fact lexicalize complex syntactic and semantic structures derived from the primitive notion of the number scale. The evidence we will investigate comes from various morphological shapes of cardinal numerals when used to count objects and when used for abstract arithmetical counting.

In standard lattice-theoretic approaches to natural language (e.g., Link 1983, Land-man 2000, Champollion 2017) singularities and pluralities are presumed to involve two distinct mereological structures and it is commonly supposed that quantificational expressions do not access subatomic part-whole relations. In this paper, I argue that i) certain quantificational expressions are sensitive to subatomic part-whole structures, ii) quantification over parts is subject to identical restrictions as quantification over wholes and iii) counting presupposes certain topological relations. I present new evidence in favor of a mereotopological approach to natural language (cf. Grimm 2012) as well as novel data concerning the interaction between quantification and subatomic part-whole relations.

In this paper, I present novel data concerning quantification in the adjectival domain. I examine semantic properties of Slavic multipliers such as Polish podwójny, Czech dvojitý, Russian dvojnoj, and Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian dvostruki (all 'double') which seem to involve what I call subatomic quantification. Unlike cardinal numerals, multipliers do not count entities or events, but rather their particular parts. Since Slavic multipliers are derivationally complex, I argue that they are in fact compositional. Building on the system of Krifka (1989, 1990, and 1995), I propose an analysis which accounts for a representative subset of data. The main claim is that in Slavic numeral roots simply denote numbers whereas specialized morphemes restrict the domain of quantification by introducing a special measure function yielding a number of self-sufficient parts, i.e., elements which have a property of a whole, constituting an individual or event denoted by a noun.

Though in recent years considerable attention has been dedicated to the semantic interpretation of certain suffixes making up Slavic derivationally complex numerical expressions (e.g., Dočekal 2013, Wągiel 2014, 2015, to appear, Dočekal and Wągiel 2019), thorough research on the meaning of different forms of basic cardinal numerals has not been pursued so far. The goal of this paper is to provide novel evidence revealing non-trivial constraints on the distribution of Slavic marked cardinals and indicating that such forms used as modifiers and predicates are in fact semantically complex expressions involving classifier semantics.

In this paper, I investigate certain intriguing properties of two types of quantificational adjectives exemplified by the English two-time and double and their interactions with event semantics. I explore their semantic behavior in phrases such as two-time champion and double murder and show that they operate on hidden eventive components within the semantics of the modified NPs. Building on Zobel's (2017) analysis of social roles and Wągiel's (2018) theory of subatomic quantification, I propose an analysis that accounts for their puzzling properties. In particular, I argue that two-time counts events of acquiring of a salient and conventionalized social role by an individual, whereas double is a subatomic quantifier that counts essential parts of an event.

In this paper, we bring in novel data concerning distribution and semantic properties of two classes of adverbs of quantification in Czech, i.e., event numerals such as dvakrát ('twice/two times') as opposed to degree numerals such as dvojnásobně ('doubly/twofold'). We explore the contrasts between the expressions in question including the interaction with comparatives and equatives as well as scope asymmetries. We propose that degree numerals target values on a provided scale and are, hence, best analyzed as predicates of degrees whereas event numerals have a more general semantics which primarily allows for quantification over individuated events, but also enables to operate on degrees.

The paper proposes a unified morpho-semantic account for the typological variation in form and meaning of cardinal numerals across languages. In particular, we investigate the morphological marking of different types of cardinals and argue that it is possible to identify cross-linguistically stable semantic ingredients, which compositionally provide the attested types of numerals. We adopt the framework of Nanosyntax (Starke 2009 et seq.) as a model of morphology which, when applied to the semantic structures we propose, delivers the relevant marking patterns. The model we develop is broadly based on the idea that the meaning components are uniformly structured across languages, and they must all be pronounced, though languages differ in how they pronounce them. All cardinals share an underlying scale of natural numbers but differ in a number of operations subsequently applied to that scale.

Desde un enfoque descriptivo, con sustento en un marco tipológico funcional, se analiza la marcación de las categorías de persona y número en la palabra verbal del chichimeco jonaz (ISO-639-3 pei), lengua otopame hablada en el estado de Guanajuato. Con base en la distinción entre recursos concatenativos y no concatenativos, se describe en detalle cada paradigma pronominal y de número, a saber: prefijos de TAM-persona-número, sufijos de objeto, sufijos de número, mutaciones consonánticas y alternancias tonales. Además, se identifican diferentes recursos para la marcación de número verbal, categoría que no había sido mencionada para las lenguas otopames.

In this paper I discuss issues related to the semantic interpretation of the plural. I review two alternative approaches to the problem, namely the inclusive and exclusive interpretation of the plural, and recall arguments against the inclusive approach. Furthermore, I propose that the developed here unified semantics of pair supports the exclusive account. The analysis accounts for the supposedly heterogeneous behavior of pair in phrases in which it combines with regular plural nouns and, on the other hand, with pluralia tantum. The puzzle concerns different cardinality of denoted objects. I posit that the denotation of regular count nouns includes only sums of individuals, whereas pluralia tantum denote complete semi-lattices. In each case, pair selects a minimal element of the denotation of a noun, i.e., either a sum consisting of two individuals or an atom, and turns it into a group which can be further counted.

За предмет истраживања у овом раду узети су глаголи визуелне перцепције у српском језику који имају богату полисемантичну структуру и од којих, додавањем префикса, настају многи нови глаголи, понекад и са другачијим значењем (гледати, видети, вирити, мотрити и пазити). Значења свих анализираних глагола, који су најпре представљени појединачно са својим префиксалима, а потом и упоредно проучавани, утврђена су на основу речникâ Матице српске. Циљ овог истраживања је увиђање значењског односа међу издвојеним глаголима ове лексичко-семантичке групе, као и међу њиховим префиксалним твореницама. Примарна значења пет мотивних глагола подразумевају способност вида и дефинисана су коришћењем именица очи и поглед или синонимних, детерминисаних глагола (нпр. скривено гледати код вирити или пажљиво гледати код мотрити и пазити). За разлику од других, префикс за- има могућност додавања свим овим глаголима, с тим што се једино код глагола завидети губи значење визуелне перцепције. Из анализе проистиче да глаголи са више значења (гледати, видети) учествују у грађењу већег броја префиксалних твореница, које су такође, у већини, полисемантичне (прогледати, превидети).

What has been taken as the subject of the research in this work are the verbs of visual perception in the Serbian language that have rich polysemantic structures and from which, by adding prefixes, many new verbs, sometimes even with different meanings, are derived (look, see, peek, observe and look out). The meanings of all analysed verbs, which are primarily presented separately with their prefixal derivatives, and then studied comparatively, are formulated on the basis of the dictionaries of ‘Matica srpska’. The aim of this research is to gain the insight into their the meaning relation among the separated verbs of this lexico-semantic group, as well as among their prefixal derivatives. Primary meanings of five motive verbs involve the ability to see and are defined by the use of the nouns eyes and a look or synonymous, determined verbs (for example looking furtively when it comes to peeking or looking carefully when it comes to observing and looking out). As opposed to all others, the prefix ‘za-’ in Serbian can be added to all these verbs, with the exception of the verb ‘zavideti’ (English – envy) which loses the meaning of visual perception. On the basis of analysis, it can be concluded that verbs with several meanings (look, see) take part in the formation of a large number of prefixal derivatives which are also, in most cases, polysemantic (‘progledati’ English – see again, ‘prevideti’ English – oversee).

In this squib I discuss a puzzle concerning the Polish measure word para (‘pair of’) and its supposedly heterogeneous behavior in phrases in which it combines with regular count nouns and, on the other hand, with pluralia tantum. The puzzle concerns the different cardinality of denoted objects and the relationship between atomicity and collectivity. Building on the theory of Krifka (1995) which I extend with the group-forming operation developed by Landman (1989) I propose a unified semantic interpretation of para. I posit that the denotation of regular count nouns includes only sums of individuals whereas pluralia tantum denote complete semi-lattices. In each case, para selects a minimal element of the denotation of a noun, i.e., either a sum consisting of 2 individuals or an atom, and turns it into a group which can be further counted.

The paper presents a model of morphosemantic patterns
based on the model of Guiraud’s morphosemantic fields. The main reason
for introducing this model into the description of the architecture of the
Croatian lexicon is the fact that Croatian is a morphologically rich language,
in which grammatical and semantic mechanisms interact in lexical
organization. The model of morphosemantic patterns at this stage of its
development consists of two basic models: the model of morphosemantic
fields and the model of morphosemantic grounds. Although the model is
based on structuralist tenets, it is our intention to demonstrate how it is
related to some of the most prominent contemporary theoretical frameworks,
namely Cognitive Linguistics and Construction Grammar, especially
Construction Morphology.

In this paper I argue in favor of the compositionality of derivationally complex numerals counting objects in Polish. Following Dočekal (2012, 2013) and Wągiel (2014), I propose that it is always the root that defines the cardinality of counted entities, different suffixes, however, modify the meaning of the numeral by introducing additional truth conditions that specify what type of objects is counted.

Θέσπις is an epic adjective commonly interpreted as a short form secondarily created from the compound θεσπέσιος. Gathering evidence from Indo-European and Ancient Greek morphology and semantics and taking into account θέσπις meaning extensions in Homeric poetry, this paper suggests that this word can be more satisfactorily explained as a primitive noun from which θεσπέσιος may have originated rather than the contrary.

Resumen El término latino senex 'anciano' presenta una alternancia senec-/sen-en su flexión. En este artículo pretendemos demostrar que dicha alternancia se originó en la necesidad de atenuar el efecto pragmático del significado de sen-'anciano' en el vocativo por medio de la derivación diminutiva. Realizamos para ello un análisis semántico y comparativo de los términos que desig-nan la vejez, así como de las categorías del vocativo y del diminutivo. Palabras Abstract. Attenuation in Indo-European Languages: On Latin Senex Latin senex 'old [man]' shows a stem alternation senec-/sen-. Our aim in this paper is to prove that this alternation was originated in the need of attenuation, caused by the pragmatic effect of sen-'old [man]' in the vocative, by means of diminutive derivation. We propose a semantic and comparative study of terms meaning 'old' and a linguistic inquiry of vocative and diminutive categories.

In this paper I trace the semantic change the Polish measure word para (‘pair’) and quantifier parę (‘several, a few’) have undergone. I show that both words originated from the Old Polish group noun pår (‘pair’) and explore both historical and Modern Polish data concerning puzzles related to the distribution and interpretation of para and parę in phrases with regular count nouns and pluralia tantum. Building on Krifka’s (1995) theory of common nouns which I extend with the group-forming operation developed by Landman (1989, 2000) I propose a semantic analysis of the Modern Polish measure word para which can be further used to reconstruct its semantic development. The analysis assumes distinct denotations of singular and plural regular count nouns on the one hand and mass nouns and pluralia tantum on the other.

Whether predicates describe events as inherently bounded (telic) or unbounded (atelic) is usually understood to be an emergent property that depends on several factors; few, if any, spoken languages have dedicated morphology to mark the distinction. It is thus surprising that sign languages have been proposed to have dedicated morphology for telicity, and moreover that it takes a form which iconically reflects the underlying event structure-this is known as the "Event Visibility Hypothesis" (EVH) (Wilbur 2008). The EVH has been extended with claims about its universality in sign languages (Wilbur 2008; Malaia & Wilbur 2012), its gradient nature (Kuhn 2017), and its iconic transparency (Strickland et al. 2015). However, in this paper we argue that the status of this relationship between form and meaning remains an open question due to (a) lack of independent tests for telicity, (b) lack of lexical coverage, (c) lack of demonstration that formal expressions of telicity are morphological in nature, rather than a lexical property, and (d) inability to sufficiently dissociate telicity and perfectivity. We present new data coming from verbs that alternate in both form and meaning in ASL that is in line with the EVH, and conclude that while there is evidence supporting a morphological marker, the proposed form and telicity are not isomorphic in their distribution, significantly limiting the "visibility" of the event structure. We further propose that much of the related iconicity is the result of several independent factors also found in spoken languages, so that sign languages may be more similar to spoken languages than typically implied in this domain.

In this paper, I examine properties of two Polish indefinite quantifiers, namely ileś 'some, some number' and kilka 'several, a few'. I argue that they share morpho-syntactic properties with cardinal numerals rather than with vague quantifiers such as mało 'little, few' and dużo 'much, many' and propose that they should be modeled as involving a built-in classifier comprising both a measure function and choice function. The difference between the two indefinites boils down to the type of set the choice function selects a member from and the type of measure function that is employed.

The goal of this book is to explore the relationship between the cognitive notion of parthood and various grammatical devices expressing this concept in natural language. The monograph aims to investigate syntactic constructions and lexical categories, e.g., partitives, whole-adjectives, and multipliers, encoding different kinds of part-whole structures both in Slavic and non-Slavic languages. It is envisioned to inspire radical rethinking of the ontology of models accounting for nominal semantics. Specifically, it provides novel evidence for a mereotopological approach to meaning, i.e., a theory of wholes that captures not only parthood but also topological relations holding between parts. This evidence comes from the phenomenon of subatomic quantification, i.e., quantification over parts of referents of concrete count nouns.

This work points out a semantic approach to the morphological level, strongly based on
Bayer (1997) and Hoeksema (1985). Based on Categorial Grammar, a syntactic semantic tool commonly used by semanticists and computational linguists, I look at the morphological level through the same syntactic rules adopted by the model. In this way, it is possible to gain a theoretical improvement since I look at morphological, semantic and syntactic levels through the same formal structure. I will briefly introduce Categorial Grammar showing its application in Brazilian Portuguese. I have chosen a nominalizer suffix, -ura, present in such words as abertura ‘opening’ and assadura ‘baking/rash’.

Cilj je rada Prezentska osnova u opisu hrvatskih glagolskih vrsta i razreda u glagola za izražavanje emocija prikupljanje svih potvrđenih glagola za izražavanje emocija hrvatskoga jezika unutar jednog rada i njihovo razvrstavanje prema pravilima pojedinih gramatika o glagolskim vrstama i razredima. Nastojalo se uvidjeti postoji li kakva leksicka i morfoloska povezanost u izražavanju ugodnih i neugodnih emocija, s osvrtom na kognitivnu lingvistiku. Rad je koncipiran kao deskriptivni pragmaticki prirucnik koji kroz sinkroniju prikazuje razvrstavanje svih glagola za izražavanje emocija hrvatskoga jezika prema pojedinim gramatikama. Među literaturom koja se bavi tematikom emocija, izabrana je ona koja cjelovito opisuje cijeli dijapazon emocionalnih stanja, a to je ona Zorana Milivojevica: Emocije. Iz njegove knjige preuzeti su termini koji kao vrsti rijeci pripadaju imenicama. Tim imenicama su zatim pronađeni glagolski ekvivalenti koji izražavaju emocije i kojima je određena vrijednost:...

This paper investigates reduplication in Kodi, an under-documented and understudied language spoken in Sumba Island, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province, eastern Indonesia. Reduplication in Kodi shows various patterns that fall under two major types: full reduplication and partial reduplication. Full reduplication mostly involves reduplication of the entire disyllabic base. In partial reduplication, the salient patterns that are copied are initial parts (a syllable and a foot), an internal part (a syllable), or final parts (foot) of the base. Furthermore, the reduplication process serves to express salient semantic properties, such as verbal number or pluractionality, indirect noun pluralization, attenuation or numeral distributivity. It is argued that (i) stress determines the reduplication process in Kodi in that the syllable or foot which is reduplicated is predictable from the stress patterns, (ii) semantic context triggers reduplication processes, and (iii) the framework of the theory of (Generalized) Paradigm Function Morphology ((G)PFM) (Stump 2001, 2016; Stewart & Stump 2007; Spencer & Stump 2013; Spencer 2013; Nikolaeva & Spencer 2019) can satisfactorily capture how stress determines the reduplication of the base and how semantic context triggers the reduplication process. This study provides additional evidence in support of the (G)PFM theory, which can arguably be extended to handle complex reduplicative patterns beyond Kodi.

French -age developed from Latin relational adjectives in -aticus which were by and by nominalized, thereby incorporating the traditional head noun as a semantic constituent. In this article, it is argued that the Modern French
-age derivation originated from the (re-)association of a semantically vacuous formative and an abstract semantic feature. This semantic feature gradually emerged through abstraction from the existing concrete derivatives and, once
established, determines the range of possible interpretations of newly coined formations up to this day. The most important result of the analysis is that, apart from a structural reanalysis of the Latin substantivized relational -aticus adjectives, French -age did not undergo any meaning change at all, the stability of its meaning being due to the above-mentioned continuous
interplay between the abstract semantic feature and the usage of the various concrete -age-nominalizations.