Early Nomads

The article tells of the arrowheads from burial complexes at the Pokrovka burial grounds (6th – 2nd cc. BC)
which are situated in the Ilek left bank region of the South Urals. The author suggests a typology for the items
based on the traditional principles of classification. For all the types, their combinations in the assemblages
have been studied. Six groups of quiver sets have been identified, and their relative chronological order. Thus,
we can date the assemblages which contain the arrowheads.

Among all the hoards consisting the ceremonial akinakai, defining swords and daggers of Iranian origin), the assemblage of items discovered in 1882 near the Vettersfelde village (Poland) is the most reliable. Judging by the plots presented on the richly decorated golden objects in the animal style like a fish-shaped plaque, a clover-shaped phalera and a scabbard of a sword, they make up a unified ensemble, most likely made simultaneously in one workshop. The manufacture of treasure items from Vettersfelde is usually associated with the Milesian colonies of the Pontic region, while certain bilingualism is documented, allowing to use both Greek and barbaric expressive means. Most likely, the choice of metaphors for the narrative was not accidental and was recognized both by its performer and the recipient. If the localization of the treasure production is moved beyond the northern or western coast of the Black Sea, then it can be noted that the Milesian colonies of Eastern Greece can also claim the role of a workshop for Vettersfelde hoard. In particular, according to many parameters, Cyzicus is suitable.

Topal Denis, “Scythian blade weaponry of 7th–4th centuries BC (South-western part of Eastern Europe)”. For the scientific degree: PhD in History, Kishinev, 2018. Structure of the paper: Introduction, four chapters, general conclusions and recommendations, bibliography, four appendixes including the catalogue of artefacts, figures and maps. Obtained results were published in 15 scientific articles. Keywords: Scythian culture, Carpathian-Danube region, Scythian weaponry, blade weaponry, akinakes. Field of research: 613.01 – Archaeology. The aim of the thesis: generalization and systematization of data on blade weaponry from the territory of the European area of Scythian culture. Objectives of the thesis: Generalization of historiographic observations, allocation of functional groups in the mass of Scythian akinakai, identification of chronologically significant features, allocation of types which have chronological importance and verification of typological constructions on the material of western part of the Scythian area. Methodology: Comparative analysis of the empirical distribution of variation series of features, mapping, comparative chronological analysis of closed complexes, cross-dating. Scientific novelty. The data on the blade weaponry of the western part of Scythian culture were summarized for the first time, and as a result, the local features are revealed. These typological constructions were verified and a new grouping on the territorial principle was proposed, the links between the groups were identified, their chronological positions were refined. Analysis of the distribution of complexes and stray finds has made it possible to identify the routes of penetration of weaponry and their carriers into the Carpathian-Danube region. Solved scientific problem. As a result of research, a scientific problem related to the evolution of Scythian blade weaponry on the South-East of Eastern Europe was solved. The main chronological changes in morphology and origins of Scythian akinakes were identified (North Caucasus, Dnieper forest-steppe, Transylvania). In addition, the dynamics of the moving of these centres was documented chronologically. The theoretical value of the paper is determined by an integrated approach to solving the issues of the chronology of Scythian armament and the problems of penetration of early nomads into South-Eastern Europe. The practical significance of the paper. The results of the research could be used: in compilations on ancient history and archeology of Eastern Europe, as well as on the history of armament of nomads in the Early Iron Age; in the preparation of textbooks and manuals; in the process of the development of special courses in historical disciplines; in the creation of museum expositions. Implementation of scientific results. The results of the research were presented by the author during the 10 International conferences, seminars and colloquia.

There are presented some new and previously unknown findings of akinakai from the territory of the Republic of Moldova in this article. These akinakai belong to Scythian culture and could be attributed to Kelermes type. The chronological framework of this type is based on several funeral complexes and determined by 650—600 BC. Distribution of stray finds of Kelermes type swords and daggers allow to reconstruct routes of appearance of Early Scythian antiquities in steppes of Don, Volga region and Carpathian basin. Besides that, it is assumed a special cultural status of this type based on complementary indicators – on presence in burials, prestige exemplars and images. Also, a bronze model of akinakes (from Medgidia, Romania) is connected with Kelermes type swords and daggers, most likely produced as a decoration of the Scythian anthropomorphic sculpture.

The paper is an attempt to reveal the structure of the distribution of swords and daggers of Scythian period in Carpathian-Dniester region from the chronological, functional, cultural, landscape and contextual points of view. The Scythian type of blade weaponry became a part of the military tradition or even the cultural identity for the inhabitants of the region. Scythian blade arms of the given territory can help to describe the main trends to the evolution of akinakai at the western frontiers of Scythian culture. The compound of weapons also varies from one region to another. Thus, the spearheads are characteristic mainly for the steppes between the Dniester and the Danube, Southern Carpathians, and their biggest concentration is associated with Great Hungarian Plain. Most of the finds of axes are also linked with the territory of Hungary, although the finds of akinakai in the area of the Vekerzug culture are rare even for large burial grounds. An interesting picture is given by the cartography of the akinakai of various functional groups: daggers and short swords tend to Transylvania and the forest-steppe Carpathian-Dniester region, while the long and especially extra-long swords are characteristic of the steppe area. Basing on the panoply a new typological grouping of regions could be obtained. Thus, it is possible to move from small cultural groups, to cultural blocks, enclaves, communities of people who preferred similar types of weapons. The calculation of the relations with the help of the classification by unequal features has demonstrated several such enclaves: Carpathian, Steppe and Western. Obviously, the preferences in weaponry are directly related to the preferences in funeral rite and landscape localization, regardless of the chronological extent. I.e. the allocated cultural enclaves demonstrate uniformity not only in the weapons choice but also in the funeral features. Thus, for the Steppe enclave with the domination of the spears and long swords, the main type of the funeral construction is the barrow, whereas, for the Carpathian and Western (with the predominance of daggers and axes, respectively), flat graves are more characteristic.

Bronze cauldrons of the Scythian time are a rather rare find in the Northern Black Sea region, especially on its western borders. Therefore, those few items found on the territory of the Republic of Moldova occupy a worthy place in the collection of the National Museum of History of Moldova (NMHM). In particular, at the moment in the main archaeological exhibition two bronze cauldrons are displayed, which were discovered near the village of Nikolskoe in 1988 in burial mounds no. 14 and no. 15. In addition, already in 2020, two bronze cauldrons without any accompanying documents were found in the collection of NMHM; however, they were visually identified as coming from various excavations in the Low Dniester region: from the burial mound no. 45 near Dubossary and burial mound no. 1 near the Răscăieţii Noi village. Scythian bronze cauldrons in the west area are concentrated in three main regions: Bukovina Podolia (Iacobeni, Avrămeni, Ivane-Puste, Shvaikivtsy), the Lower Dniester (Răscăieţii Noi, Nikolskoe, Dubossary, Coiburciu), and the Lower Danube (Ograda, Castelu, Scorţaru Vechi, Mresnota Mogyla, Ostrovnoe). Some Scythian cauldrons have no reliable archaeological context. Nevertheless, in combination with the same “stray” finds like the Scythian statues, the finds of Scythian cauldrons mark the Scythian presence, most likely, not earlier than the late 6th century or even the turn of the 6th-5th centuries BC. There is a significant chronological difference between the northern (forest-steppe, Bukovina-Podolia) group of cauldrons and the southern (steppe, Lower Danube-Lower Dniester). At the same time, a chronological priority is characteristic of the first, where the cauldrons are known since the middle of the 7th century BC. Bronze cauldrons (with their carriers) penetrate the steppe region 150-200 years later, as well as the “military” burials that appear in the western steppe regions no earlier than the middle of the 5th century BC. Most of the burials with cauldrons (and, apparently, the stray finds) are dated back to the second half of the 5th century BC. Then, at the early 4th century BC their quantity is reduced and after the first quarter of the 4th century BC they will completely disappear from the cultural practice of the population of the steppes of the North-Western Black Sea region.

The article is devoted to the weapons complex of the ancient nomads of Tien Shan region in Early Saka period (VIII — early half of VI centuries BC). Distance weapon presented by the bows of typical "Scythian" type played an important role in it. The quiver sets of this period were represented by bronze arrowheads of different types. The general percentage of them was light, shaped to defeat the enemy without defensive armor. Melee weapons were represented by a wider variety of means: short swords, daggers, spears and javelins, celt-axes and maces. Its composition suggests that the ancient population of Tien Shan region fought both on horseback and on foot. However, in the course of development of melee weapons, some arms typical for infantry disappeared by the end of the Early Saka period. This suggests to the
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evolution of warfare in the direction of the predominance of cavalry. Defensive armament in this period is represented poorly. There are known some finds of bronze helmets of the "Kuban" type, which were widespread on the territories from Northern China to Caucasus and North Pontic regions. Also, the ancient nomadic population of Tien Shan regions must have used the armor made from soft organic materials and light shields. Generally during the Early Saka period in Tien Shan region there was a gradual evolution of complex weapons in the direction of its adaptation to the needs of the cavalry and disappearance of arms typical for infantry except daggers, which were a universal weapon suitable for different usage.

Swords and daggers of the Scythian period, known under the generalizing term such as “akinakai” are characterized by encyclopedias and dictionaries as short swords of the Iranian peoples. Indeed, this definition is relevant for most of the akinakai of the 7th–4th centuries BC, however, the early nomads of Eurasia had a broad view of their blade weapons. The analysis of more than 2000 items from the territory of Eurasia allows us to highlight a series of swords, especially outstanding in size. Such “extra-long swords” include items with a blade length of more than 70 cm and their distribution covers almost all regions of Eurasia, where the swords of the Scythian tradition are known, with the exception of China, the Pamir, and the Minusinsk Hollow in the East and Central Europe in the West. The earliest Scythian extra-long swords are associated with the territory of the Caucasus. One of these swords was discovered in Transcaucasia, on the Karmir-Blur citadel, which was sieged no later than the mid. 7th century BC, another was found in the destroyed burial ground of Sauk-Dere in the Western Trans-Kuban. It is significant that one of the two extra-long swords of the pre-Scythian time was also associated with the Caucasus and was discovered in the elite proto-Maeotian burial of Ulka-I in the vicinity of Maykop in the second half of the 8th century BC. The next, the Middle Scythian period includes swords of the 6th century BC from the destroyed mound in Crimea near Izyumovka, Pokrovsky burial ground near Saratov and stray finds in the forest-steppe between the Volga and the Don rivers. The extra-long sword from the Novobinka mound in the Altai steppe with the pommel decorated with gold is also associated with this period. In the late Middle Scythian period or in the early 5th century BC extra-long swords reach their widest distribution and appear in the Romanian Carpathians, the Pontic forest-steppe, the Lower Volga, the Urals, the Aral Sea region and Altai. Nevertheless, the bulk of the finds (about 60%) belong to the Classical Scythian period (late 5th – late 4th centuries BC), are mainly associated with the territory of the Urals and represented by “transitional type” swords. Analysis of the extra-long swords could help us to feel the limits and the borders between the so-called “European Scythian” and “Asian Scythian” worlds, and the differences relate to both the chronology and the context, as well as the status of the thing. For instance, extra-long swords almost disappear to the west of the Volga, with the beginning of the Classical period, while they continue to be part of grave goods in the east. In addition, almost every extra-long sword (4 out of 6) in Asia is decorated with gold, and this tradition has been preserved for almost two centuries. On the other hand, the European area, which gives an abundance of ceremonial swords during its “Golden madness” in the Classical period, shows us no relationship between the redundant morphology of the swords and their prestige status. However, that does not exclude the cult function of extra-long swords in the communities which, according to Herodotus, considered “the old iron sword” the embodiment of the god of war.

In the spring of 1972 as a result of construction work in the Pîrjolteni village (Călărași district, Republic of Moldova) was occasionally discovered a cremation with a various grave goods represented by the ceramic items, elements of horse harness and weapons. This burial, as well as a number of other burials that form the eponymous (Pîrjolteni-Dănceni) horizon is differently interpretated, both in ethnocultural and chronological way. Some researchers consider it a link between the Thracian Hallstatt and the classical Getian culture, i.e. a burial of early Getian culture. Others scholars see in that complex the reflection of Scythian-Thracian syncretism without a pronounced dominant and note that ethnocultural attribution is impossible in this case. This largely characterizes not the burial itself, but the problem situation where the value judgments of the researchers collide. For example, it is described from the perspective of “continuity” or “cultural diversity”, how often the space between the Dniester and Prut is presented. Nevertheless, the Pîrjolteni burial is a unique funeral complex, which obviously belonged to a warrior and, judging by the inventory, mounted warrior. Besides that, the deceased was focused on nomadic traditions in his equipment. And the analogies to weapons and horse harness lie far to the east and reflect evolutionary processes covering almost all steppe regions of Eurasia. While there are no special premises for clarifying the chronological position of the burial within the framework of the late Middle Scythian period, however, the date can be limited to the 1st quarter of the 5th century BC basing on the design of the sword. And the border between the initial stage of the Middle Scythian period and its final, apparently, lies at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries BC. Despite the over-originality of the complex, the presence of a Scythian sword and animal style objects allows us to link Pîrjolteni burial with the general processes associated with the evolution of military equipment of Carpathian-Danube region.

Topal Denis, “Scythian blade weaponry of 7th–4th centuries BC (South-western part of Eastern Europe)”. For the scientific degree: PhD in History, Kishinev, 2018. Structure of the paper: Introduction, four chapters, general conclusions and recommendations, bibliography, four appendixes including the catalogue of artefacts, figures and maps. Obtained results were published in 15 scientific articles. Keywords: Scythian culture, Carpathian-Danube region, Scythian weaponry, blade weaponry, akinakes. Field of research: 613.01 – Archaeology. The aim of the thesis: generalization and systematization of data on blade weaponry from the territory of the European area of Scythian culture. Objectives of the thesis: Generalization of historiographic observations, allocation of functional groups in the mass of Scythian akinakai, identification of chronologically significant features, allocation of types which have chronological importance and verification of typological constructions on the material of western part of the Scythian area. Methodology: Comparative analysis of the empirical distribution of variation series of features, mapping, comparative chronological analysis of closed complexes, cross-dating. Scientific novelty. The data on the blade weaponry of the western part of Scythian culture were summarized for the first time, and as a result, the local features are revealed. These typological constructions were verified and a new grouping on the territorial principle was proposed, the links between the groups were identified, their chronological positions were refined. Analysis of the distribution of complexes and stray finds has made it possible to identify the routes of penetration of weaponry and their carriers into the Carpathian-Danube region. Solved scientific problem. As a result of research, a scientific problem related to the evolution of Scythian blade weaponry on the South-East of Eastern Europe was solved. The main chronological changes in morphology and origins of Scythian akinakes were identified (North Caucasus, Dnieper forest-steppe, Transylvania). In addition, the dynamics of the moving of these centres was documented chronologically. The theoretical value of the paper is determined by an integrated approach to solving the issues of the chronology of Scythian armament and the problems of penetration of early nomads into South-Eastern Europe. The practical significance of the paper. The results of the research could be used: in compilations on ancient history and archeology of Eastern Europe, as well as on the history of armament of nomads in the Early Iron Age; in the preparation of textbooks and manuals; in the process of the development of special courses in historical disciplines; in the creation of museum expositions. Implementation of scientific results. The results of the research were presented by the author during the 10 International conferences, seminars and colloquia.

There are known at least 69 swords decorated with precious metals from 52 locations of Eurasia in 8th–4th centuries BC. The ceremonial swords and daggers are usually longer (than ordinary items) and older (than the rest of the grave goods). The overwhelming majority of finds of swords and daggers of the Iranian world are associated with aristocratic burials. The closest practice of conspicuous consumption for the Iranian nomads became the funeral one, for which the weapon turned into ceremonial (as a rule, it was covered especially with a thin gold leaf). It is easy to see that the Iranian ceremonial weaponry, found in isolation from the concentrations of graves: from Ziwiye, Oxus and Vettersfelde, is outside the nomadic world and possibly designates its borders for different periods. And the very tradition of ceremonial swords, placed in a funeral context, pulsates throughout the history of Iranian-speaking nomads. It appears in the finale of the pre-Scythian period. The context of its appearance is the fading practice of deposition of the swords and daggers in hoards, linked to the traditions of Late Bronze Age. Then the tradition of golden swords is actively manifested in the Scythian time and after a while, it is revived already in the Sarmatian period. In the Scythian time, the tradition of ceremonial swords is accompanied by chronological lacunae that run between the main links of the periodization chain (the early 7th, early 6th, the late 5th centuries BC). Even though the maximum number of Scythian swords and daggers (in full accordance with the Gauss's Law) falls on the Middle Scythian period, the bulk of ceremonial forms refers to the finale of the Classical Scythian culture, illustrating the thesis that such conspicuous consumption coincides with periods of political instability and crises. And indeed, after the period of maximum distribution of the ceremonial akinakai in the third quarter of the 4th century BC, after just one generation, we see the disappearance of the classical Scythian culture, along with its characteristic weaponry, horse harness, animal style and monumental funeral architecture.

The overwhelming majority of finds of ceremonialswords and daggers (i.e. decorated with gold and put in the special context) of the Iranian world are associated with aristocratic burial complexes, including “stray finds”, which, probably, originate from the destroyed burials. Apparently, the closest practice of conspicuous consumption for the Iranian nomads became the funeral one, for which the weapon turned into ceremonial. It is easy to see that the Iranian ceremonial weaponry, found in hoards is located outside the nomadic world and possibly designates its borders for various periods. And the very tradition of ceremonial swords, placed in a funeral context, pulsates throughout the history of Iranian-speaking nomads. The context of its appearance is the fading practice of deposition of the swords and daggers in hoards, linked to the traditions of Late Bronze Age. Then the tradition of “golden swords”is actively manifested in the Scythian time and after a while, it is revived in the Sarmatian period. In the Scythian epoch, the tradition of ceremonial swords is accompanied by chronological lacunae that run between the main links of the periodization chain. Despite the fact that the maximum number of ordinaryScythian swords and daggers (in full accordance with the Gauss's Law) falls on the Middle Scythian period, the bulk of ceremonial forms refers to the finale of the classical Scythian culture — the “Golden fall” of Scythia with its huge royal burial mounds and an abundance of gold, illustrating the thesis that such conspicuous consumption coincides with periods of political instability and crises.

The paper provides a rationale for the specific features of the economic and cultural type of the Andronovo culture population in Baraba, Novosibirsk and Tomsk Ob River region, Kuznetsk Hollow, Achinsk–Mariinsk forest-steppe and Middle Yenisei River. It states the facts of a small number of settlements and practically absolute absence of the Andronovo dwellings further north of the 53/54 parallels, to the East of Irtysh and Ob Rivers. The author features paleo-climatological conclusions of researchers about the xerothermic period which began in the Andronovo period. According to a comparison of these and other data, a conclusion was made about the transition of the Andronovo communities of Southern Siberia to nomadic or semi-nomadic model of cattle-breeding with its inherent mobility and special forms of social organization.

In 1894, an iron dagger was discovered in the vicinity of Vršac in Serbia and later given to the City Museum. Afterwards, this dagger had been repeatedly entered in various archaeological publications illustrating the different cultural phenomena and processes of Early Iron Age at Middle Danube. The first Scythian akinakai reach the Great Hungarian plain in the Early Scythian period, but not later than at the turn of 7th—6th centuries BC (e.g. strayfinds of bronze and bimetal daggers). Nevertheless, the bulk of the Scythian swords and daggers are part of the Middle Scythian period. Probably, the first funeral complexes are associated with the period of transition from the Early Scythian stage to the Middle one during the early 6th century BC, and several strayfinds (of the Šumejko and Vettersfelde types) with the beginning of Middle Scythian period at 1st half of 6th century. The single-edged sword (from the grave at Bátmonostor) and the bulk of the strayfinds of the Nógrád type could be also connected with the first part of Middle Scythian period during the 6th century BC. By the end of Middle Scythian period, in the 1st half of the 5th century BC, appear swords and daggers decorated with the elements of Animal style and “segment”-like hilts, among which the akinakes from Vršac could be also placed.

Китайские лаки из могильника cкифской эпохи Чинета II (Алтай) В статье описываются и анализируются фрагменты лаковых покрытий, обнаруженные в курганах пазырыкской куль-туры № 21 и 31 могильника Чинета II в Северо-Западном Алтае. С учетом места расположения в могиле, материала и фор-мы скоплений остатков этих покрытий сделано предположение о том, что в курганах находились деревянные чашечки. В работе приводятся результаты исследования находок методами аналитической химии, а также инфракрасной-и Фурье-спектрометрии. Установлено, что остатки окраски на не сохранившихся до наших дней артефактах из могильника Чине-та II имеют сходство с образцами китайских лакокрасочных покрытий, созданных на основе ци-лака. Исследования стра-тиграфии слоев показали, что покрытия были изготовлены по традиционной для Древнего Китая технологии. Верхние слои красного цвета аналогичны слоям краски чжу-ци (чшу-чи) и нанесены на слои темно-коричневого ци-лака. Аналоги рассматриваемых находок выявлены среди представленных в коллекции Государственного Эрмитажа фрагментов архе-ологических лакокрасочных покрытий из погребальных комплексов Пазырык, Ноин-Ула, Бугры II и др. Сравнение образцов из могильника Чинета II и из элитных памятников скифской эпохи Алтая показало, что лаковые предметы, возможно, поступали к кочевникам из одной зоны лакового производства Древнего Китая VI-IV вв. до н.э. Поскольку известно, что импортные лаковые изделия были очень дороги, можно сделать предположение о высоком социальном статусе людей, по-хороненных в кург. № 21 и 31 могильника Чинета II, уступавшим по параметрам «царским» курганам некрополей Туэкта, Пазырык, Башадар, Берель, Катанда и др. Ключевые слова: китайские изделия из ци-лака, пазырыкская культура, Алтай, ИК-Фурье спектроскопия, научно-тех-нологические исследования, погребальный обряд. This article describes fragments of lacquer from the early nomadic burials in mounds 21 and 31 at Chineta II, northwestern Altai. Their location in the graves, material, and distribution pattern suggest that these fragments belonged to wooden cups. The analysis, which included methods of analytical chemistry, infrared and Fourier spectrometry, revealed that the remains of paint resembled that on Chinese lacquer ware coatings based on qi-lacquer 生漆. The analysis of paint layers showed that lacquer coatings were manufactured following the traditional technology used in ancient China. The red upper layers, similar to those known as zhu-qi 朱漆, were applied over the dark brown layers of qi-lacquer (漆). Parallels are found among the Chinese lacquers from Pazyryk, Noin-Ula, Bugry II, etc., owned by the State Hermitage Museum. The comparison of samples from Chineta II with those from high-ranking Scythian Age burials in the Altai suggests that lacquer items were imported by the nomads from a single manufacturing

Издание освещает самый ранний период истории кочевников центральной части степной Евразии – формирование и развитие сакских культур Южного Зауралья, Северного и Центрального Казахстана в VIII–VI вв. до н. э. Рассматриваются природно-климатические условия, определившие сложение пастбищно-кочевой системы, являющейся основой становления и функционирования общности культур ранних кочевников Центральной Азии. На основе анализа предметов материальной культуры дается характеристика отношений ранних кочевников Жайык-Иртышского междуречья с окружающим миром.

The monograph highlights the earliest period of the history of nomads in the central part of the steppe Eurasia - the development of the Saka cultures of the South Trans-Ural area, North and Central Kazakhstan in the VIII-VI cc. BC. The natural and climatic conditions that determine the composition of the pasture-nomadic system, which is the basis for the development and functioning of the community of cultures of the early nomads of Central Asia, are considered. On the basis of the analysis of objects of material culture, the relationship of the early nomads of the Zhayik-Irtysh interfluve with the surrounding world is given.

The archaeological landscape of the Lower Danube was changing with the importance of the Danube itself, which either became, or a cultural watershed, or an artery, connecting the ancient communities. In the Early Iron Age, it seems that the Danube did not become an invincible barrier for the spread of offensive weapons of Scythian origin. Moreover, Dobruja itself looks like a territory mastered by the Scythians, starting from the Archaic period. The Lower Danube group forms a separate “steppe” cultural assemblage together with the Lower Dniester, South Carpathian and South Danube groups, for which the spear became the main type of weapon. However, these preferences were reflected in the morphology of the Scythian akinakes. So, for this steppe or Danube enclave, swords are more characteristic than daggers. Daggers are connected mainly with the forest-steppe part of the Carpathian-Dniester region and Transylvania. The warrior graves of the Lower Danube region mainly belong to the Classical Scythian period, while the only exception is related to the right bank of the Lower Danube. However, there are no burials with akinakai and even stray finds in Classical time outside the steppe. The main funeral practice is the burial mound and inhumation (one exception of cremation was recorded to the west, in northeastern Bulgaria, near Branichevo). In Late Classical time (350—300 BC) the Scythian akinakes also evolves in the steppe: an original series of single-edged akinakai of the Chaush type appear; besides that, Thracian combat knives are borrowed. Then the Scythian akinakes dissolves with the disappearance of the Classical Scythian culture at the turn of 4th—3rd centuries BC. Something similar happens a century earlier in the forest-steppe between the Dniester and Siret rivers. The complete disappearance of akinakes dates back there in the late 5th century BC. Thus, in the Scythian time, the Lower Danube becomes kind of frontier, or the territory, where cultures meet, clash, and grapple with each other, often in contexts of highly asymmetrical relations of power. Or, in other words, it was the territory where the cultural conflict and, as a consequence, cultural dialogue, lead to the cultural exchange. And the Lower Danube panoply of the Scythian period could be considered a special case of this phenomenon.

Topal Denis, “Scythian blade weaponry of 7th–4th centuries BC (South-western part of Eastern Europe)”. For the scientific degree: PhD in History, Kishinev, 2018. Structure of the paper: Introduction, four chapters, general conclusions and recommendations, bibliography, four appendixes including the catalogue of artefacts, figures and maps. Obtained results were published in 15 scientific articles. Keywords: Scythian culture, Carpathian-Danube region, Scythian weaponry, blade weaponry, akinakes. Field of research: 613.01 – Archaeology. The aim of the thesis: generalization and systematization of data on blade weaponry from the territory of the European area of Scythian culture. Objectives of the thesis: Generalization of historiographic observations, allocation of functional groups in the mass of Scythian akinakai, identification of chronologically significant features, allocation of types which have chronological importance and verification of typological constructions on the material of western part of the Scythian area. Methodology: Comparative analysis of the empirical distribution of variation series of features, mapping, comparative chronological analysis of closed complexes, cross-dating. Scientific novelty. The data on the blade weaponry of the western part of Scythian culture were summarized for the first time, and as a result, the local features are revealed. These typological constructions were verified and a new grouping on the territorial principle was proposed, the links between the groups were identified, their chronological positions were refined. Analysis of the distribution of complexes and stray finds has made it possible to identify the routes of penetration of weaponry and their carriers into the Carpathian-Danube region. Solved scientific problem. As a result of research, a scientific problem related to the evolution of Scythian blade weaponry on the South-East of Eastern Europe was solved. The main chronological changes in morphology and origins of Scythian akinakes were identified (North Caucasus, Dnieper forest-steppe, Transylvania). In addition, the dynamics of the moving of these centres was documented chronologically. The theoretical value of the paper is determined by an integrated approach to solving the issues of the chronology of Scythian armament and the problems of penetration of early nomads into South-Eastern Europe. The practical significance of the paper. The results of the research could be used: in compilations on ancient history and archeology of Eastern Europe, as well as on the history of armament of nomads in the Early Iron Age; in the preparation of textbooks and manuals; in the process of the development of special courses in historical disciplines; in the creation of museum expositions. Implementation of scientific results. The results of the research were presented by the author during the 10 International conferences, seminars and colloquia.

В статье рассматривается 20 погребений ранних кочевников Южного Урала,  в  которых  захоронены  человеческие  пары  —  взрослые  мужчина  и  женщина. Расположение покойных в них можно отнести к двум основным типам — «нейтральному»
по отношению друг к другу, и демонстрирующим «отношения близости». К каждому отнесено по 10 захоронений. В погребениях первого типа покойные лежат вытянуто на спине  параллельно  друг  другу,  иногда  на  значительном  расстоянии  друг  от  друга. Погребения  второго  типа  показывают  несколько  способов  демонстрации  «отношения близости» — теснейшее расположение покойных, положение «рука в руке», положение
«один сверху на другом», а также подхоронение женщины к ранее захороненному мужчине. Изучение  парных  погребений  ранних  кочевников  позволяет  прийти  к  выводу,  что  это захоронения семейных пар.
The article deals with 20 burials of early South Urals nomads. The burials contain pairs of humans – adult men and women. The disposition of the deceased can be attributed to two types – “neutral” in relation to each other and showing “close relations”. Each type includes 10 graves. In the burials of the first type the deceased lie straight on their backs parallel to each other, sometimes at a considerable distance from each other. The burials of the second type demonstrate various means of showing “close relations” – the deceased are placed very close to each other, a “hand-in-hand” position, a “one-on-top-of-another” position, and also a woman buried to the already existing grave of a man. The study of paired burials of early nomads leads to the conclusion that these are burials of family couples.

During the early 1st millennium BCE, the Early Nomads of Central Asia utilised an iconographic repertoire of wild animals, including raptors, to decorate personal objects that is considered to belong to the so-called Scytho-Siberian ‘animal style’. The concept of an ‘animal style’ arose at the beginning of the 20th century and was based in the traditional art historical approach that led to the ordering of zoomorphic imagery within Western hierarchies of design, execution and evolution. When looking at Early Nomadic golden raptor decorations the striking nature of their visuality leads to analysis that privileges the physical form of the decorated object over the social processes that they were embedded within. The avian forms, however, are also depicted as flat silhouettes in scenes of rock art that are located in secluded places in the landscape. By focusing on examples of grave goods and rock art from the Kazakhstan fresher perspectives can be gained about raptor imagery by re-examining their contextual complexities through the biography of objects. The raptors were much more than mere ornamentations as they were part and parcel of local knowledges deeply entangled in the lives of peoples from past societies.