Blends

Polymer blends are of significant interest for reinforcing bioplastics via addition of a second polymer and a blend compa-tibilizer or in situ reaction. However, increased costs associated with additional materials and extra processing steps can limit the viability of this solution. Here, a simple, continuous reactive extrusion processing method was examined for producing tougher bioplastic blends. p-Toluenesulfonic acid (TsOH) catalyst was added to two immiscible biobased polymers, poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and polyamide11 (PA11), to induce ester-amide exchange reaction. The mechanical properties of PLA were improved through mixing with PA11 by introducing copolymers at the interface thereby reducing interfacial tension. The morphology, chemical structure analysis , and tensile testing supported that copolymerization reaction occurred resulting in improved bonding between PLA and PA11 with 0.5 wt % TsOH catalyst in the batch mixing, but depolymerization dominated at higher shear stress (2000 rpm) and catalyst loading (over 2 wt %). The PLA/PA11 blend with 0.5 wt % TsOH catalyst displayed around 50% improvement in elongation at break in twin-screw extruder blending (around 5 min mixing time) at 250 rpm screw speed, which was similar to the improvement using batch mixing (20 min mixing time).

Blends, unlike compounds, are excluded from grammar and word-formation in the traditional view, hence they are dichotomous under the either-or paradigm. From a cognitive linguistic standpoint, this book investigates the nature of the link between compounds and blends. To accomplish such a task, a data set on both kinds of word-formation is investigated to determine whether the border between the two types of neologism is clear. The researcher’s hypothesis that the boundaries between compounds and blends are blurred is confirmed, including cases belonging to the fuzzy border. An alternative classification might be one that considers compounds and blends to be shades of grey. Only typical compounds and typical blends show some "difference" at the level of form, which can be explained as a metonymical extension. In addition, the internal structure of both compounds and blends is investigated to discover the schemas present. Compounds and blends have roughly the same schemas, according to the findings.

Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based
diesel fuel consisting of long chain alkyl (methyl, propyl or
ethyl) esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting
lipids with an alcohol. Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard
diesel engines and is thus distinct from the vegetable oils.
Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended with diesel. Biodiesel, a
promising substitute as an alternative fuel has gained significant
attention due to the predicted shortness of conventional fuels and
environmental concern. The utilization of liquid fuels such as
biodiesel produced from Jatropha oil by transesterification
process represents one of the most promising options for the use
of conventional fossil fuels.

the polymer blend of Polyamide66 and Polyamide6 (PA66/PA6) (80wt. %/20wt. %) were selected for the study. These blends were reinforced with 10,20 and 30wt. % of silane treated short glass fibers( SGF) and these composites were prepared by using melt mixing method with the help of twin screw extruder. The mechanical properties such as tensile strength, flexural strength, impact strength were studied in addition to hardness of the blend composites as per ASTM. The results revealed that the addition of SGF into PA66/PA6 blend enhanced the mechanical properties of the polymer blend. Low loading of SGF into the blend experienced deterioration in tensile and flexural strength. But the higher loading of SGF into the blend increased the strength of the composite remarkably. The density of PA66/PA6 blend increased after the SGF addition. The impact strength of the studied composites was appreciable after higher loading of SGF into the blend. The decreasing trend was due to the immiscible nature of PA66 and PA6 phases due to different structural geometry in the polymer chain. However, the effect of higher loading of SGF into the blend on the mechanical behavior is greatly appreciable.

Poly lactic acid (PLLA) is a promising biopolymer, obtained from polymerization of lactic acid that is derived from renewable resources through fermentation. The characteristic brittleness of PLLA is attributed to slow crystallization rates, which results in the formation of the large spherulites. Its glass temperature is relative high, above room temperature and close to 60 °C, and therefore its applications are limited. The additives poly((R)-3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB), poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc) and tributyl citrate (TBC) were used as compatibilizers in the
biodegradable polymer blend of (PLLA/PPC). Results from DSC and POM analysis indicated that the blends of PLLA
and PPC are immiscible. However, the blends with additives are miscible. TBC as plasticizer was added to PLLA to
reduce its Tg. PVAc was used as compatibilizer to improve the miscibility between PLLA and PPC. FT-IR showed
about 7 cm–1 shift in the C=O peak in miscible blends due to physical interactions. POM experiments together with the
results of DSC and WAXD showed that PHB enhances the crystallization behavior of PLLA by acting as bio nuclei
and the crystallization process can occur more quickly. Consequently an increase was observed in the peak intensity
in WAXD.

The preference given to biodiesel in a diesel engine has gained importance over the past two decades, due to its environmental and economic benefits. There are two methods of reducing the exhaust gas emission of the CI engine. First method is to reduce emissions by using exhaust gas treatment devices like catalytic converter, diesel particulate filter. However, use of this method increases the fuel consumption and affects the performance of the engine. A nanoparticle or Nano powder is a microscopic particle with at least one dimension less than 100 nm and is mixed with either one of the substances like water, oil or ethylene glycol in a required proportion(in ppm) to make Nano additives. In this work, we prepared biofuel from used cooking sunflower oil and also Nano additives. Then the blends of biodiesel (B-0, B-20, B-50, and B-100) tested on diesel engine to get optimum blend on performance and emission characteristics. Nano additives at different proportions will be added to this optimum blend to get the best proportion of blend with optimum quantity of Nano additives based on emission and performance characteristics.

T he auto-ignition of liquid fuel and lubricant oil droplets is considered as one of the possible sources of preignition. Researchers are continually finding new ways to form advanced lubricant oil by changing its composition and varying different oil additives to prevent the occurrence of this event. This study investigates additives for lubricants to suppress its auto-ignition tendency. Three sets of mixtures were prepared. The first set of mixtures were prepared by adding different alcohols namely ethanol, and methanol to the commercial lubricant oil (SAE 15W-40) in ratio of 1-5 % by vol The second set of mixtures were prepared by mixing SAE 15W-40 with aforementioned alcohols (1 % vol.) and H 2 O (1 % vol.). Lastly, the third set of mixtures were prepared by adding toluene to SAE 15W-40 in (1 %-5% by vol.). Two experimental setups were used in the current work. An Ignition Quality Tester (IQT) was used to investigate the mixtures' ignition delay time (IDT) following standard ASTM D6890 procedure, and a larger constant volume combustion chamber (CVCC) was used to investigate the combustion characteristics of a suspended single oil droplet. In the CVCC chamber, the droplet was ignited in an atmosphere of air at 300 °C and pressure ranging from 4 bar-22 bar at 6 bar interval pressures. IDT of lubricant oil was considered as the base IDT, which was compared to those of other mixtures. Addition of alcohols and water in lubricant oil showed a significant increase in IDT compared to toluene addition. On the contrary, the addition of toluene resulted in a decrease in IDT. Among the alcohols, methanol addition showed higher IDT than ethanol addition. Alcohols increased the IDT effectively only beyond the addition of > 4 % by vol.

Immiscible PLA/PA11 of 80/20 and 50/50 wt% were compati-bilized through addition of p-toluenesulfonic acid (TsOH) catalyst in reactive ultra-high speed twin-screw extrusion. Two mixing screw designs were compared for their ability to disperse the PA11 droplets in the PLA matrix as a function of screw speed up to 2 000 rpm. The size and polydispersity of droplets of dispersed PA11 decreased when a high shear (HS) screw was used, whereas broad droplet size distribution was produced in the low shear (LS) screw. Two models predicting the droplet size dependence on shear rate, viscosity ratio and interfacial tension were fit to the experimental data. The Serpe model including volume fraction effects produced a better fit compared to the Wu model, which does not include volume fraction effects. Mechanical testing indicated that the compatibility of PLA/PA11 blends was improved through addition of TsOH catalyst for 50/50 wt% blends due to ester-amide exchange reactions at the interfaces in the immiscible PLA and PA11 phases. The enhancement of ductility was greater after processing with the LS screw configuration than the HS screw configuration. The inferior properties after high shear mixing were likely due to molecular weight degradation during processing. While the aggressive shear in the HS screw design resulted in fine dispersion, care should be taken to minimize degradation, especially for shear sensitive polymers .

The present work deals with preparation of Bio-Diesel from schleicheraoleosa (kusum oil), optimization of bio diesel yield, comparing its properties with convectional diesel and carrying out performance for bio-diesel and various blends of bio-diesel with convectional diesel.Schleicheraoleosa oil methyl ester was prepared by two step transesterification process. It involves the reaction of schleicheraoleosa oil with methanol in presence of potassium hydroxide as catalyst and maintaining the reaction temperature at 60-650Cbefore which the free fatty acid is reduced by using esterification using catalyst H2SO4.Then using transesterification two layers were found to be separated upper layer being methyl ester and lower layer level being glycerol. Glycerol was removed and methyl ester was washed with warm distilled water. The bio-diesel yield obtained was about 99%.0.9% molar concentration of KOH and 1:6 molar ratio between oil and methanol give maximum yield. The schleicheraoleosa oil (kusum oil) methyl ester (KME) is tested in the laboratories for investigating various properties such as density, flash point, pour point, calorific value. And schleicheraoleosa properties such as flash point, pour point, viscosity, acid value, saponification value and density are also tested. Most of the properties were found to be superior to conventional diesel and in according with ASTM standards. Bio-Diesel shows stability against oxidation. The further study included the performance of conventional diesel, KME and various blends of KME with diesel on kirloskar engine. B50 showed superior properties with increased brake thermal efficiency, less exhaust gas temperature and reduced smoke opacity.

This study investigates lexical blending from a synchronic perspective, with special focus on new blends in English. It analyses a sample of 245 English blends dated 1950-2010, from both quantitative and qualitative viewpoints, with the purpose of reassessing the importance of the blending phenomenon in terms of 1) its suitability in the coinage of new specialized vocabulary, and 2) its regularity in the creation of words containing frequent splinters. From the theoretical viewpoint, the study contributes to the issue of whether blending should be considered an extra-grammatical phenomenon of word-creation or a regular process of word-formation. It supports the claim that while some blends (e.g. gla-ma ← glamour + grandma) are unique instances, others are part of series (e.g. eatertainment, irritainment, shoppertainment, all obtained from the splinter -tainment ← entertainment), and therefore show a tendency towards greater regularity and productivity. The goal of the study is fourfold. First, it aims at identifying the contexts/registers which favour the formation of blend words, ranging from slang/colloquial registers to specialized domains. Second, this study addresses the question of whether blends are created with the intention of designating a new referent or to give a new name to an existing referent. Third, the study focuses on a particular type of blending, called ‘attributive’ or ‘headed’, which displays an endocentric relation with its head, as in rockumentary (← rock + documentary) and Clintonomics (← Clinton + economics). In particular, some attributive blends will be viewed as possible schema models for new lexical blends, with the second splinter -umentary and -(o)nomics as potential combining forms or secreted affixes for novel formations.

Some innovative solutions are proposed to the problem of the unavoidable physical migration of antioxidants from plastic films for packaging, in order to minimize the consequent undesirable effect of food contamination. In previous exploratory tests, phenolic antioxidant co-units were achieved and incorporated into polyethylene chain and now the work is extended to create new families of polymeric additives properly designed for specific materials. An effective route was designed to synthesize the functionalized comonomer, analogues of commercial 2,6-t-butyl-4-methoxy-phenol (BHA), containing eight methylene units as spacer between the aromatic ring and the polymerizable olefinic double bond (C8). Ethylene/1-hexene/C8 terpolymers, with 1-hexene concentration in the typical range found in commercial polyethylene grades, and propylene/C8 copolymers with microstructure similar to those of commercial packaging polypropylenes were produced. A careful 13C NMR study was conducted for the p...

Biodiesel is an attracted alternative fuel and biodiesel-diesel blends can be used as fuel in order to substitute some part of diesel in engine at various applications. In this study, the spray properties of different type of blends of biodiesel-diesel (25%, 50%, 75% and 100% biodiesel) as well as pure diesel is investigated under various ambient conditions by means of high-speed schlieren photography technique. A comparative analysis of blended fuels and diesel sprays is also presented. The experimental results show that when adopting fuel blends with variable biodiesel-diesel fractions in the swirl-type injector sprays, the spray developing patterns are not significantly changed. In the case of low ambient pressure (surrounding condition), the main spray tip penetration decreases and the spray angle increases with the increase of biodiesel fraction. Under the elevated ambient pressure condition, the difference of spray penetration amongst the blends shows inconspicuous, meanwhile ...

Due to the continuous consumption of energy resources, the price of conventional fossil fuel is increasing too fast and lead to additional burden on the economy of the importing nations. The scarcity and depletion of conventional petrol sources are cause of great concern worldwide and has promoted research into alternate energy sources for IC engine Spark Ignition Engine is widely used prime mover due to its smooth operation & low maintenance. The Blending of alternative fuel with the conventional fuel may be the solution of scarcity of conventional fuel for the spark ignition engine. The present work is mainly concerned with an experimental investigation to study the petrol engine performance, combustion, noise and emission characteristics using blends of petrol & kerosene. The performance characteristics for different blends are evolved in running the engine under steady state conditions. It is observed that 80 % Petrol and 20 % Kerosene provides the lesser NOX and emission of HC compared to other blends. 20 % and 40 % petrol give higher value of CO at lower load but as the load increases, the concentration of CO by volume decreases, and the 20 % kerosene can be preferred at higher load as it will give less CO emission. With the overall results of engine performance and emission characteristics the optimum percentage of blend of petrol and kerosene is found out to be 80:20 (80% petrol and 20% kerosene).

This research aims to investigate various vocabulary learning patterns of the Saudi learners majoring in English language at Prince Sattam Abdulaziz University. Studies have revealed that English as first language/English as second language (EFL/ESL) language abilities, which include both reading and writing, are heavily dependent on learners' vocabulary competency. A common practice in vocabulary learning is decoding and building vocabulary through word recognition and its meaning. However, despite several syntactical and morphological patterns for decoding and practice, some barriers still exist for Saudi learners in decoding their meaning accurately and cohesively. This research is based on investigating how the acquisition of blends can happen, and how it can be used comfortably as discourse markers. A blend (also termed a portmanteau) is not linguistic jargon, though its construction looks uncommon or abnormal. It is a type of lexical item in which the beginning of one word is combined with the final part of another word-for example, 'brunch' is a combination of 'breakfast' and 'lunch', and 'smog' comes from 'smoke' and 'fog'. This study has also attempted to segment portmanteaus according to their affixes and roots or morphemes, which could be seen as a theoretical and methodological contribution to the study of psycholinguistics. This study recommends a Vocabulary Acquisition Model (VAM) for vocabulary instructors to teach blends or portmanteaus.