Blackness

This paper explores the importance of Kendrick Lamar in the entertainment industry, in hip-hop and in American History. The essence of this paper explores his celebrity black body in relation to history, identity and his contribution to rich black historical archives on the black experience. At large, this paper examines his performance in his DNA music video, to see how his lived body, equipped with its historical DNA, informs our modern perception of the black body.

This paper, written from a feminist perspective, seeks to understand the oppressed black body in popular culture to see how public figures like Kendrick Lamar are reclaiming their history. By creating a rich archive of soulful music and meaningful videos, Kendrick is mainstreaming the black reality in a time where the African-American body is at a political crossroads.

Kendrick Lamar is writing history with his embodied performances and his profound written reflections and ensuring that future generations have a reference point in understanding, participating with and learning from their collective history.

If, according to turn-of-the-twentieth-century observers, black Puerto Ricans were destined to become racially white in a few generations, how did 12.4 per cent of the population manage to remain black in 2010? And how did they survive in the face of both national and everyday forms of racism? How is the persistence and even increase in black identity in Puerto Rico supported? This article argues that there is a covert and largely unexplored social current at work in regard to how black Puerto Ricans live and reproduce their blackness. This is the desire to maintain and celebrate blackness. Using ethnographic data gathered during nearly two decades, the article illustrate that many Puerto Ricans have chosen not to engage in blanqueamiento, instead affirming their blackness, marrying within their communities, and valuing their own cultural practices and beliefs.

One of the challenges faced in post-secondary jazz education across the GTA is finding qualified instructors who are familiar with dialogical methods for teaching African American jazz histories. More specifically, finding and hiring African American instructors whose musical genealogy can be delineated from “black” oral/aural histories and can draw from these historicities. Unless the narratives of this music are unpacked, analyzed and taught from its internal elements, which embodies the symbiosis and synthesis of African American dance, theatrics, poetics and American black English that encapsulates the “African American-ness” in jazz, then there remains a risk that this folk music will become more and more diluted. Consequently, it is my belief that current music educators across the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) should consider alternative methods of pedagogy if students are to understand the historicity— the historical authenticity of this African American folk music. The idea for this study originated from my observation of a lack of “African American-ness”—African American narratives not being used as a pedagogical tool in post-secondary jazz curricula across the GTA. Therefore, this multi-case study will lead to the creation of an alternative curriculum that incorporates new teaching methods based on African American narratives. Dr. Barry Harris is one such educator who incorporates new teaching methods based on African American narratives. Therefore, I seek to unpack and analyze the musical and social upbringing that contributed to African American jazz pianist and educator Dr. Barry Harris’  primary contribution to jazz education, which is his concept of movement, while also expanding upon it.  When these antecedents of Harris’  concept of movement have been analyzed, they will use them as a compliance for the cultivation and filling in of gaps in post-secondary jazz curricula across the GTA.

Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) have consistently functioned as engines of social change and racial uplift and are among the few places where Black culture is placed at the forefront, appreciated, and sustained. Today and in the future, it will be paramount for HBCUs to not only embody their eminent legacies of social change, but to also serve as fierce settings that will ultimately champion action-oriented change for Black communities and the society at large. This cannot happen if Black students with additional oppressed identities feel ‘othered’ or shamed among their own within these unique post-secondary environments. In these tentative moments following the election, this work provides a call and challenge to HBCUs to capitalize on their unique abilities to serve as spaces of refuge for Black students, so long as they embrace the full spectrum of Blackness present.

Held annually, the Teaching Black History Conference aims to improve Black history curriculum decision-making and instructional practice. Individual sessions are led by classroom teachers as well as university professors. This year’s theme is Teaching Black History across the Disciplines: A Black Studies Approach. We are focusing on how teachers can bring aspects of Black history and continue to teach math, science, art, English, etc. This year, our guest panel features Karyn Parsons, founder of Sweetblackberry (http://www.sweetblackberry.org/). You may know Karyn as Hillary from the Fresh Prince of Bel-Aire, a popular sitcom during the 1990s. Sweetblackberry develops Black history cartoons for school children.

Featured presentations include also Black History 101 Mobile Museum (https://www.blackhistorymobilemuseum.com/) and Teaching Tolerance (https://www.tolerance.org/). The conference is for teacher candidates, practicing teachers, teacher educators, community educators, homeschool educators, and anyone interested in furthering Black History Education.

You can register at www.bit.ly/carter-conference-2018. Registration is only 40.00 and can be paid by cash or check. Please send checks to 303 Townsend Hall, Columbia, MO 65211 attention to LaGarrett King, Director. Make the checks payable to the University of Missouri. Please register by June 1, 2018. Any questions, please email cartercenter18@gmail.com.

Thank you,
LaGarrett King
Director
CARTER Center for K-12 Black History Research, Teaching, and Curriculum

Challenging the popular perception of HIV as a consequence of the 'perverse intimacies' of sex and drug use, Anti-Black Racism and the AIDS Epidemic: State Intimacies argues that black racial disparities in HIV rates reflect the organization of anti-black, racialized poverty and structural violence. Racism, not race, ethnicity, or culture. The state has structured the ways in which black Americans have been made vulnerable to HIV exposure and infection far beyond the capacity of any individual or community to mitigate or control. From structured impoverishment to racial segregation, and from mass incarceration to the political death meted out to former prisoners, the primary structuring factor that has determined risk of HIV infection has been state intimacy, or the violent intimacy of the racist state.

Using critical rhetorical analysis (McKerrow, 1989) as a method of analysis and critique, and informed by critical whiteness studies (Nakayama & Krizek, 1995) and Black feminist thought (Collins, 1991), this project argues that NFL North Carolina Panthers’ quarterback Cam Newton and NBA Oklahoma City Thunder’s point guard Russell Westbrook rhetorically perform an alternative Black masculinity that symbolically contests whiteness’s surveillance of male bodies who occupy Black positionality in the NFL and NBA via their performance of cool pose (Majors & Billson, 1992). Focusing on news and sports media coverage in the 2015–2016 season, this project also interrog- ates whiteness’s strategies to reconstitute Newton and Westbrook’s expressions of cool pose by inscribing Black masculinity with belit- tling and dehumanizing controlling images that favor whiteness and White masculinity. This manuscript closes with a discussion of the harmful repercussions of whiteness’s strategies in pro sports as well as the possibilities that athletes like Newton and Westbrook bring forth for social justice initiatives.

An analysis of economic development strategy in West Baltimore n the 90s and how neoliberal economic theory produced the conditions leading to the Baltimore Uprising of 2015.

Concludes with an analysis of how investing in indigenous Black run microenterprise is an alternative disruptive and counterproductive large scale neoliberal economic interventions in Black communitites.

This article examines dub poetry as an artistic form located along several borderlines, both spatial and cultural. Formulated by poets of African descent, the creative language of dub poets was often conceptualized through the framework of identity politics and an anti-colonial approach. Yet from the 1980s, dub poetry became institutionalized simultaneously within the pop culture industry and in “respectable” venues such as academic research, a process that calls its initial political orientation into question. In light of its differentiated formations, audiences, mediating devices, and forms of reception, however, we might view and evaluate dub poetry not exclusively through the prism of political speech, but also as a cultural form. Based on texts, recordings and performance analysis this article is a call to acknowledge dub poetry, and artistic expression in general, as the result of aesthetic decisions rather than exclusively moral ones.

outdated Black Western imperialist/colonialist document carrying blatant insults and disregard to indigenous politico-religious governments nd sovereigns such as implying "backwads tribes of Africa" need "civilizing" and "conscientious spiritual worship" (Christianity). "Black nationalism" or "pan Africanism" had a foundation of Black colonial mentality built on INSULTING instead of CONSULTING indigenous Black civilizations, economic systems educational systems and utter disregard for indigenous governments as representing sovereign indigenous confederations/leagues/communities.

An important center of dancehall reggae performance, sound clashes are contests between rival sound systems: groups of emcees, tune selectors, and sound engineers. In World Clash 1999, held in Brooklyn, Mighty Crown, a Japanese sound system and the only non-Jamaican competitor, stunned the international dancehall community by winning the event. In 2002, the Japanese dancer Junko Kudo became the first non-Jamaican to win Jamaica’s National Dancehall Queen Contest. High-profile victories such as these affirmed and invigorated Japan’s enthusiasm for dancehall reggae. In Babylon East , the anthropologist Marvin D. Sterling traces the history of the Japanese embrace of dancehall reggae and other elements of Jamaican culture, including Rastafari, roots reggae, and dub music. Sterling provides a nuanced ethnographic analysis of the ways that many Japanese involved in reggae as musicians and dancers, and those deeply engaged with Rastafari as a spiritual practice, seek to reimagine their li...

Our cultural constructions of masculinity and femininity are damaging our music and tourism industries as well as our youth. They are damaging the families that build the country as well as inducing a new kind of academic and cultural flight as people like Marlon James, Stacy Ann Chin and Diana King - standard bearers in arts and culture - who leave because as queer people they are persecuted locally. James just won the prestigious Man Booker prize, an award that will never be associated with Jamaica, except with the knowledge that he had to leave Jamaica to be emotionally healthy enough to write. The construction of Jamaican masculinity as unequivocally dominant has lead to national statistic wherein Jamaica has 3.5 times the global average rate of GBV. The explanations for these types of actions - intimate partner violence, homophobic violence, sexual assault and physical violence are usually cultural: Jamaican nuh inna dat, a so Jamaican stay, Jamaican man dis and Jamaican ooman dat. This violence, also bears the baggage of colonialism and the pressure of living in a country that is America's backyard, that internalizes first world expectations, but that has a decided Third World reality. It is also the result of Class and race frustrations in the country....Jamaican men are angry, the women are angry...that anger becomes our culture. Our failure to address gender as a cultural product is to our own detriment. Our unwillingness to query what it means to be Jamaican by gender creates blind spots of assumption and violence that cripple the mental and emotional health, academic and work performance of our people, and the viability of our cultural products on a world stage. They create frustrations of Jamaicans with being Jamaican and living in Jamaica that push them away from claiming their culture as a site of independence and profit generation...because they see clearly that it is the culture that harms them. But where is the space to talk back? And where is the support from the powers that be?

In this essay I examine the racial achievement gap in American education in terms of an impaired psychosocial developmental process. I argue that the well-documented academic underperformance of certain minority groups may stem from the unfavorable resolution of a key developmental crisis in constituent members’ early scholastic experience. I go on to suggest that individual educators can play an important role in eliminating the achievement gap by changing the way they teach in their own classrooms. In part, they may do so by adopting a "transcultural" pedagogy or teaching style, according to which both teachers and their minority students develop (at minimum) transcultural proficiencies and (at maximum) transcultural identities, as a promising way to achieve two important ends. First, the fostering of an academically-industrious self-concept in members of historically underachieving minority groups and hence, second, the closing of the achievement gap "from the bottom up"—one classroom at a time.

"This paper explores the dialectics of authenticity and hybridity – two concepts that tend to be theoretically conceived in terms of mutual exclusion, while fictional texts have for quite some time started to enact them as analogous and compatible ideas. With respect to two recent novels, Richard Powers' The Time of Our Singing and Jonathan Lethem's The Fortress of Solitude, I would like to show that hybridity these days can very well be employed to elicit an aura of authenticity, rather than conveying ironical distance, subversion or disruptive metafictional self-reflection.
Both novels stem from the realm of what has been called neo-realist fiction and both of them run counter to Jonathan Franzen's diagnosis of a contemporary literary market in which a naïve understanding of cultural identity rules supreme. After all, Powers and Lethem are white authors which capitalize on the subject of race. While both novels trace issues of identity and identification which have their origin in the structures of racial ascriptions and self-fashionings, they give a markedly new and critical slant to the mechanisms of testimonial identity politics which Franzen demarcated, without falling back on long-standing postmodern techniques of ironic distancing and de-authentication.
"

This screening and roundtable discussion focuses on interdisciplinary approaches to the aesthetics of "triple consciousness" in the work of acclaimed Ghanaian-American filmmaker Akosua Adoma Owusu. Owusu's visual elaborations of triple consciousness reflects the collision of identities and worlds experienced by African immigrants in the United States. Her work explores themes of the asymmetrical geographies of feminism, queer desires, displacement, and historical archives. The event will feature three short films introduced by Owusu and followed by reflections from Lauren McLeod Cramer (Cinema Studies), Jordache Ellapen (WGS), and Julie MacArthur (History).

Studies indicate that African American men report more personal experiences with discrimination than do African American women. According to the subordinate male target hypothesis, this gender difference reflects an underlying reality in which African American men are the primary targets of anti-Black discrimination. From the perspective of intersectionality theory, African American women and men experience racial discrimination differently; and therefore greater reports of discrimination among African American men might be a result of measurement bias that favors the experiences of African American men vis-à-vis African American women. To assess these perspectives, the authors analyze data from the 1995 Detroit Area Study and the 2001–2003 National Survey of American Life. The authors use multiplegroup confirmatory factor analytic models with latent means and categorical outcomes to observe the degree to which gender bias in measurement accounts for disparities in perceived discrimination among African American women and men. The results show that gender bias in the measures most often used to assess unfair treatment in social surveys is responsible for the gender gap in certain kinds of perceived discrimination among African Americans. Measures of everyday discrimination are mostly gender balanced, but measurement bias is responsible for a large portion of the gap in perceptions of major life discrimination and the entire gap when major life discrimination is attributed to race. The results highlight the importance of intersectionality theory for assessing discrimination, and the authors argue that revisions in the measurement of perceived discrimination are required to better reflect the experiences of African American women.

Segregation, known colloquially in the US as Jim Crow, was an outgrowth of the Maafa and is the trans-Atlantic uncle of the Holocaust. Antebellum America and pre-Renaissance Germany share a history of minority disenfranchisement and subjugation; these peculiar institutions transformed into state-sponsored terrorism and genocide in their respective nations. While there are obviously many differences in these countries application of separation, their similarities in worldview, social stratification and economic manipulation are more than just aesthetic; they have created a lasting legacy of racial and cultural intolerance amalgamated with political correctness. Ideally, the powerpoint should be viewed,  while reading the report.

"Las autoras de la presente obra hacen una relación de los procesos históricos de resistencia que permitieron la formación de los palenques en Colombia, y en este contexto reconstruyen cómo fue el pro- ceso en el Palenque San José de Uré. Esta metodología les permite mostrar que en aquellos terrenos, como en cualquier otro enclave palenquero, los movimientos de resistencia tenían como objetivo final encontrar espacios físicos de libertad corporal y espiritual en áreas de difícil acceso geográfico. Esto contribuyó a que los individuos pudiesen desarrollarse sin el control corporal de la colonia o de la república, eventualmente terminaron siendo espacios donde la historia racista del país los alcanza y genera la persecución, pero no por sus cuerpos laborales, pero si por los espacios que han creado de agricultura, ganadería y minería. Estos espacios que fueron abiertos con mucho sacrificio y dolor, terminan siendo espacios de conflicto de apropiación por esos intereses de “nación” o de la “ilegalidad” territorial del paramilitarismo y la expansión de la agricultura industrial como la de la palma africana.
"

This article insists on a reframe of mourning, away from a period of sadness or weeping alone, to a vision of its merits for discovering and unlocking possibility in Black Education. For example, mourning might be understood as involuntarily surrendered time necessary to properly grieve, concede, and embrace Black people’s subject position in the US sociopolitical con- text. Turning towards mourning, the dark moments that urge it and the dark(er) moments that it may produce, is argued as a launch pad to more fully understanding the depth and reach of Black people’s possibility. To make such an argument the author contemplates how mourning, and subsequent meditations on possibility, might have informed the activism of leaders in the Black radical tradition who urgently insisted that Black people’s human dignity be recognized and properly acknowledged. The article concludes with discussion of the significance of possibility to advance equity and excellence in education.

Mixing facts and fiction, Hollywood screen biographies have told the lives of popular music icons at least since The Jazz Singer (1927). However, biopics construct narratives that deal problematically with issues of race. This article aims to describe how representations of African American musicians have changed from 1970s ‘black jazz biopics’ (Gabbard 1996) to more recent films on rock, hip hop and rhythm ’n’ blues acts. On one hand, I analyse the way 1970s music biopics constructed a peculiar new narrative about race and popularity. On the other hand, I show the extent to which films such as Tina (1993), Ray (2004) and Notorious (2009) have subtly modified the racialized distinctions of former biopics, placing black musicians within a cinematic mythology which historically had been reserved to white subjects. The shift from jazz to other music genres, thus, is related to significant changes in biopics’ narratives and visual strategies. However, I argue that music biopics still deal with a distinctive notion of ‘the popular’ (Williams 1983), which frames blackness as otherness and whiteness (Dyer 1997) as just ‘human nature’.

(first publication by Jazz Research Journal and Equinox)

O presente trabalho situado dialogando com teorias e conceitos sobre as relações entre marginalização dentro das estratificações sociais de raça, gênero e classe, pretende investigar dimensões simbólicas de identidades, performances e políticas. Compreendendo tais relações, com enfoque em corpas transfemininas negras na atualidade da era farmacopornográfica do capitalismo. Subsequentemente, perceber de que formas se articulam politicamente para defender seus interesses, projetos e acesso às políticas públicas, partindo amplamente de metodologias qualitativas.

Niniejszy artykuł stanowi wprowadzenie do kwestii murzyńskości (négritude). Przedstawia się w nim pokrótce pojęcie murzyńskości, genezę, istotę, następstwa koncepcji négritude oraz najważniejsze cechy charakterystyczne dla reprezentantów tego nurtu. Artykuł podkreśla rolę czarnych reprezentantów Ameryki Łacińskiej nie tylko w dekolonizacji struktur międzynarodowych, lecz także w dekolonizacji w sferze intelektualnej. Ostatnia część artykułu podsumowuje wcześniejsze rozważania oraz wyjaśnia przyczyny kryzysu koncepcji négritude.

Is Africa a non-racial continent inhabited by racially undifferentiated peoples unschooled in, and unfamiliar with, the power and privileges of whiteness? This article surveys the quotidian, conceptual, spatial, and symbolic landscapes of racialized privilege and prestige in postcolonial Africa. I analyze this salient but discernible architecture of racial tropes, perceptions, and continuities as a counterpoint to the popular myth of contemporary Africa as a place in which race is an unintelligible and invisible factor in social relations, a place in which the colonial work of race and racism purportedly expired with political independence. Using examples from across Africa, I argue that colonial racial signs have persisted in the postcolonial public space, inflecting elite aspirational cultures and marking social distinctions disguised with the language of class and culture. In addition, African elites and common folk alike have actively expanded and added to a vast, variegated system of socio-cultural valuation and devaluation that is rarely acknowledged as racial in origin or interpellation, and whose connections to contemporary transnational structures of racial privilege remain hidden beneath non-racial signifiers. Deploying the popular Anglophone African conversational idiom of “colonial mentality,” which is often advanced to designate a range of practices, behaviors, and ways of seeing, acting, and conceptualizing the world, I contend that postcolonial Africa is saturated with numerous social idioms of race and racism. Africans, I argue, have not been passively imbricated in this universe of racial meanings; rather, they have been active participants in it.

I teach courses such as “Black Popular Culture in D.C.” and “Beyoncé,” and other topical courses in race, gender, sexuality, class, spatial politics, and language using popular culture. This is a lesson plan I've designed for use in Sexuality Studies, Gender Studies, or Africana Studies courses.

My main research is titled blue blood is black blood (1100-1848)(2005) and states that Europe began as a Black, a North African civilization, but was whitened in 1848, when the Black elite gave power and citizenship, as well as human rights to the pinks or whites, immigrants of central Asia, who became a majority. These Blacks were for the meantime defined as black Caucasian, only externally degenerated, and given time to become light skinned or white, by marrying light skinned elites. Black Athena by Martin Bernal has become a important source, but he did not get at the thruth why history had to be whitened first, to make the transfer of power invisible. So, it remained a state secret till 2005, when I started writing and publishing about the brown and black faces of the European elite, royalty, nobility and bourgeoisie, of persons presented to us as whites. With my latest ouvrage titled Review of sources, I explore my scholarship and collected all pieces written from 2005, to show how my insight matured. The old pieces are amended by notes marked ; Marrakech, 2015. A researches does not simply copy sources, he mentions them and shows why there is a need for new research, where the old science fails. So, naming a source can lead to misunderstandings by the reader as often im my research a source is also a source for not giving certain information, for not asking a certain question, for not digging deeper. When Alison Macqueen wrote about; the Cult of Rembrandt in 19th century France, she forgot to mention that in order to arrive at a new esteathism, all old master portraits had to be restored, and the figures were over painted beige, pink and white: in order to give the pink majority, newly emancipated and given human rights and the right to vote: a history. As if they were always citizens of Europa, and founders of the European Civilization. They were not. Lately I realize that I am perceived as a heretic, and people try to purge science of my researches. The usb stick containing the first edition was purged at the Royal Library in The Hague, saying I tried to upload virusses. They deleted the whole publication, containing all the pieces I worked on in the same library for 10 years. A reconstruction of the lost publication by downloading of the beginnings of the articles, and when I tried to print, again raised an alarm. But I could print elsewhere whithout a hitch. Now I am banned for two years from the library on a ridiulous charge. But I can study noble culture in Morocco, and monitor the waging holocaust that will go wild in June 2015.

""De la guerre de Sept ans aux émancipations nationales de l’Amérique ibérique, les sociétés européennes et coloniales de l’espace atlantique connaissent une série de ruptures politiques majeures qui redessinent la carte politique des Amériques comme de l’Europe. L’hémisphère occidental se peuple de nouveaux Etats, républiques ou empires, l’un éphémère – le Mexique –, l’autre durable – le Brésil. Or, si les Révolutions américaine et française, et, depuis peu, haïtienne, ont pris toute leur place dans la séquence prestigieuse des révolutions atlantiques, les indépendances hispano-américaines et brésilienne continuent à apparaître comme des mouvements incomplets ou ratés. Ce jugement sévère ne fait pas justice à la richesse et à la complexité de ces révolutions d’indépendance qui posèrent de façon précoce la question de l’égalité civile et de l’esclavage, au sein de sociétés coloniales où les libres de couleur et les Indiens étaient souvent majoritaires.
Rassemblant des contributions de spécialistes reconnus des trois continents, L’Atlantique révolutionnaire : une perspective ibéro-américaine traduit la richesse et le dynamisme de l’historiographie actuelle sur le moment révolutionnaire ibérique et ibéro-américain. Il place le sous-continent au centre de l’attention sans pour autant négliger la question devenue classique des imbrications et des interactions impériales, aux Antilles, notamment. Inscrit dans la perspective de la nouvelle histoire atlantique, il explore les dimensions sociales, politiques et « raciales » d’un moment décisif pour la modernité politique et la construction de sociétés plurielles confrontées à la dialectique de la liberté et de l’esclavage, de l’égalité et de la discrimination. ""

Dawoud Bey: Constructing Nature, Decolonizing Landscape

Inspired by the work of African American photographer Roy DeCarava and the poetry of Langston Hughes, Dawoud Bey’s Night Coming Tenderly Black series provides a blueprint for the kind of political art our time truly needs. The series of darkened gelatine silver prints visualizes the Underground Railroad – a network of safe houses and locations across the Cleveland and Hudson, Ohio landscapes in which fugitive slaves could find shelter on their way towards Lake Erie and the final fifty-mile passage to freedom in Canada.

            Leaving people entirely out of the picture, Bey makes his political statement through images of an often eerie and ambiguous American landscape at twilight. Across the series, non-affirmative aesthetics are entrusted with the task of revealing the inherent white supremacist power-structures that have defined three hundred years of European and American landscape painting.

The Afrocentric view concerning Jamaicans who bleach their skins is that they suffer from self-hate, a result of the lingering psychological scars of slavery. The self-hatred thesis is tested by comparing the self-esteem scores of a small convenience sample of skin bleachers with the scores of a control group. The two groups have almost the same average scores above the median, which indicates that skin bleaching did not occur because of low self-esteem. The preliminary results suggest that there are varied reasons for skin bleaching and there is a range of Black identities as each person constructs his or her identity in a multicultural society.

We analyze the Nike Pro Hijab Spring 2018 marketing campaign and
how it commodifies a product intended for Muslim women consumers
to make it palatable to white audiences. Although Muslim
designers have been selling sports hijabs for over a decade, the
Nike marketing team positions the Nike Pro Hijab as cutting-edge
and innovative by targeting professional athletes. The Nike Pro Hijab
advertisements and websites discursively reconstruct Muslim
women’s gender to mark the Muslim athletic body as secular and
therefore safe. To this end, the Nike Pro Hijab marketing campaign
circulates rhetorics of blackness to recast the Muslim woman body as
athletic, and thus able to participate in national identity performance.
Through our analysis, we establish how the Nike Pro Hijab
marketing campaign deploys whiteness to render Muslim bodies
and texts safe, palatable, and “moderate” in an increasingly anti-
Muslim landscape in the United States.