Basal forebrain

Huperzia saururus (Lam.) Trevis. (Lycopodiaceae) known as cola de quirquincho is used in folk medicine to improve memory. The cholinergic neurons of the basal forebrain, including those in the medial septum, and in the vertical limbs of the diagonal band of Broca and the nucleus basalis of Meynert, provide a major source of cholinergic enervation of the cortex and hippocampus. These neurons have also been shown to play an important role in learning and memory processes. Thus, the effects of this traditional Argentinean species were studied in relation to its activity on synaptic transmission in the hippocampus. The alkaloid extract obtained first by decoction of the aerial parts and by subsequent alkaline extraction, was purified by using a Sephadex LH 20 packed column.Electrophysiological experiments were developed with the purified extract (E2) on rat hippocampus slices, thus eliciting long-term potentiation (LTP). Results show a marked increase in the hippocampal synaptic plasticity. The threshold value for generation of LTP was 22 ± 1.01 Hz on average for E2, while for controls it was 86 ± 0.92 Hz. All of these factors could explain the use of Huperzia saururus as a memory improver as is reported in the ethnomedicine.

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From the 'Meaning of Life' Folks

Given: Morality and Ethical is not the sole means for behavior, ‘’cause there are times when practical expedience for survival will force you to do what you’d otherwise not think of doing.

Having said that, having a disciplined life of (a-)moral and ethical “standards' ' makes you at a more arm’s length detachment from the limbic instincts of total amoral, self-serving expedience. That detachment is not for the perception by others of you as an amenable, civil person, or for you feeling good about yourself. The reason for being more detached from your carnal limibicity is that the dimensions you entertain in achieving and possibly aspiring for greater association in those dimension,s beyond being an expedient, self-serving limbic creature, puts you in the awareness of incidental/coincidental atmospherics that derivingly flow from the mechanics you do when navigating in those dimensional spaces.

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The need for such awareness is even greater today in the faux-civility of nuanced and complex sophistication of mental gymnastics that are the contemporary colloquial vernacular of human self-comprehension and self-conception. Despite the narratives promoted by their authoritative pimps, this world exists on different levels of nihilism, being in the most basic of terms, ‘A true nihilist would believe in nothing, have no loyalties, and no purpose other than, perhaps, an impulse to destroy or exists for whatever level of satiation is the individual creatures satisfied contentment’. Since most people see their mortal existence as the universe of their being, my description of nihilism encompasses the spectrum of nuances in which mortal life is lived!.

The ills and celebrations of the temporal world are different faces of the many-sided aspects that make the pursuit of mortal life so varied in its nihilistic camouflage of costumes.

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Yes. There are levels of modulation which increase the bandwidth in which more people may have a consensual agreement-to-tolerance with each other that would be recognized as an organized culture. That is an ephemeral and transitioning balance for which the instrumentalities of Time’s moment and the dynamics made possible by those instrumentalities-tangible and intangible-may change the dynamic’s balance into a dystopian chaos, similar to what we see and hear of the anecdotal outrages in our media today.

For navigation in this dimension on an other-than limbic struggle of strength to have or have-not, we seek that aesthetic amalgam of the preferred, the obligated, and the tolerable balance for our mortal navigating journey from first awareness to succumbing to the end of our carnal mortality. Whether based within the provincial narrative of your physical location’s confines or with some other historical and aesthetic meme of self-identity, you-the subject have chosen the temporal milieu as your circumscribing “universe”. IMNHO, that is so myopically, short sighted.

In doing so the Dante Alighieri description of purgatory is brought to the cynical expectations of Lucifer/Satan in Job 1 verses 6-11, in which he indicts the human species as irreparably corrupt. WE ARE by choosing what I’ve described as the nihilist of temporal relativistic standing.

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Until we realize that we exist on this stage of temporality to learn of the menu of deficiencies, then we DO imprison ourselves in the crab-basket of temporal though.

Basal forebrain cholinergic neurons influence cortical
state, plasticity, learning, and attention. They collectively
innervate the entire cerebral cortex, differentially
controlling acetylcholine efflux across different
cortical areas and timescales. Such control might
be achieved by differential inputs driving separable
cholinergic outputs, although no input-output relationship
on a brain-wide level has ever been
demonstrated. Here, we identify input neurons to
cholinergic cells projecting to specific cortical
regions by infecting cholinergic axon terminals
with a monosynaptically restricted viral tracer. This
approach revealed several circuit motifs, such as
central amygdala neurons synapsing onto basolateral
amygdala-projecting cholinergic neurons or
strong somatosensory cortical input to motor cortex-
projecting cholinergic neurons. The presence of
input cells in the parasympathetic midbrain nuclei
contacting frontally projecting cholinergic neurons
suggest that the network regulating the inner eye
muscles are additionally regulating cortical state via
acetylcholine efflux. This dataset enables future circuit-
level experiments to identify drivers of known
cortical cholinergic functions.

Although Down syndrome (DS) can be diagnosed prenatally, currently there are no effective treatments to lessen the intellectual disability (ID) which is a hallmark of this disorder. Furthermore , starting as early as the third decade of life, DS individuals exhibit the neuropathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD) with subsequent dementia, adding substantial emotional and financial burden to their families and society at large. A potential therapeutic strategy emerging from the study of trisomic mouse models of DS is to supplement the maternal diet with additional choline during pregnancy and lactation. Studies demonstrate that maternal choline supplementation (MCS) markedly improves spatial cognition and attentional function, as well as normalizes adult hippocampal neurogenesis and offers protection to basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) in the Ts65Dn mouse model of DS. These effects on neurogenesis and BFCNs correlate significantly with spatial cognition, suggesting functional relationships. In this review, we highlight some of these provocative findings, which suggest that supplementing the maternal diet with additional choline may serve as an effective and safe prenatal strategy for improving cognitive, affective, and neural functioning in DS. In light of growing evidence that all pregnancies would benefit from increased maternal choline intake, this type of recommendation could be given to all pregnant women, thereby providing a very early intervention for individuals with DS, and include babies born to mothers unaware that they are carrying a fetus with DS.

Oestrogen, progestagens and androgens are able to modulate several brain functions. Receptors for gonadal steroids have been identified in several brain areas: amygdala, hippocampus, cortex, basal forebrain, cerebellum, locus coeruleus, midbrain rafe nuclei, glial cells, pituitary gland, hypo- thalamus and central grey matter. The mechanism of action of sex steroids at this level is similar to that observed in the

The cortical representation of the sensory environment is continuously modified by experience. Changes in spatial (receptive field) and temporal response properties of cortical neurons underlie many forms of natural learning. The scale and direction of these changes appear to be determined by specific features of the behavioral tasks that evoke cortical plasticity. The neural mechanisms responsible for this differential plasticity remain unclear partly because important sensory and cognitive parameters differ among these tasks. In this report, we demonstrate that differential sensory experience directs differential plasticity using a single paradigm that eliminates the task-specific variables that have confounded direct comparison of previous studies. Electrical activation of the basal forebrain (BF) was used to gate cortical plasticity mechanisms. The auditory stimulus paired with BF stimulation was systematically varied to determine how several basic features of the sensory input ...

Galanin (GAL)-containing fi bers enlarge and hyperinnervate
remaining cholinergic basal forebrain (CBF) neurons
within the anterior nucleus basalis (NB) in late-stage
Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Whether GAL hypertrophy occurs
in the CBF in the prodromal or early stages of AD
remains unknown. The present study used GAL immunohistochemistry
and an unbiased semiquantitative
scoring method to evaluate GAL innervation in the anterior
NB of subjects clinically diagnosed as having no cognitive
impairment, mild cognitive impairment or earlystage
(mild/moderate) AD. There was no difference in
GAL fi ber staining within the anterior NB across the three
clinical groups examined. Furthermore, GAL fi ber innervation
was not correlated with the number of NB neurons
expressing the nerve growth factor receptors p75 NTR
or TrkA or with cortical choline acetyltransferase activity
in the same cases. Single-cell gene expression analysis
demonstrated that cholinergic NB neurons express
mRNA for the GAL receptors GALR1, GALR2 and GALR3, yet the levels of these mRNAs were unchanged across
the three diagnostic groups. These observations indicate
that GAL hypertrophy within the anterior NB subfi eld is
a late-stage AD response, which may play a role in regulating
the cholinergic tone of remaining basocortical projection
neurons.

Endocytic alterations are one of the earliest changes to occur in Alzheimer's disease (AD), and are hypothesized to be involved in the selective vulnerability of specific neuronal populations during the progression of AD. Previous microarray and real-time quantitative PCR experiments revealed an upregulation of the early endosomal effector rab5 and the late endosome constituent rab7 in the hippocampus of people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and AD. To assess whether these select rab GTPase gene expression changes are reflected in protein levels within selectively vulnerable brain regions (basal forebrain, frontal cortex, and hippocampus) and relatively spared areas (cerebellum and striatum), we performed immunoblot analysis using antibodies directed against rab5 and rab7 on postmortem human brain tissue harvested from cases with a premortem clinical diagnosis of no cognitive impairment (NCI), MCI, and AD. Results indicate selective upregulation of both rab5 and rab7 level...