ARBEITSBERICHTE
Geographisches Institut, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
Dannenberg, P., T. Göttert, G. Nduru and U. Zeller (Hrsg.):
Land Use and Nature Conservation – Proceedings of the 2nd
International Workshop of the Quality Network Biodiversity
in Sub-Sahara Africa 2012
Heft 175
Berlin 2013
Arbeitsberichte
Geographisches Institut
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
Heft 175
Dannenberg, P., T. Göttert, G. Nduru and U. Zeller (Hrsg.):
Land Use and Nature Conservation – Proceedings of the
2nd International Workshop of the Quality Network Biodiversity in Sub-Sahara Africa 2012
Berlin 2013
ISSN 0947 - 0360
Geographisches Institut
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
Sitz: Rudower Chaussee 16
Unter den Linden 6
10099 Berlin
(http://www.geographie.hu-berlin.de)
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Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop of the Quality
Network Biodiversity in Sub-Sahara Africa
Innovative Approaches for Balancing Land Use and Nature Conservation
on a Trans-National Scale
Peter Dannenberg1, Thomas Göttert2, Gilbert Nduru3 and Ulrich Zeller2
1
Geography Department, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin
Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin
3
School of Environment and Natural Resources Management, Karatina University College P.O. 1957-10101
2
The Quality Network Biodiversity in Sub-Sahara Africa
The ‘Quality Network Biodiversity in Sub-Sahara Africa’ forms part of the DAAD-funded
‘Course-related University Partnerships with Developing Countries’. The core unit is the MSc
program ‘Biodiversity Management and Research’ (Zeller and Göttert, 2009). This Joint Degree program is successfully offered since 2005 by the Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (HU)
and the University of Namibia (UNAM) under the leadership of one of the authors (U. Zeller).
Since biodiversity research, management and protection are directly linked with appropriate
land use strategies, including also the social and economic conditions, the intention was to
support additional university partnerships by creating a network of institutions to address these
complex interrelations (Zeller et al., 2010). Therefore, different researchers and working
groups of HU, who already established cooperation (including Master programs) with universities in Sub-Sahara Africa, were incorporated (Figure 1). The participating African universities within this network are: 1) UNAM (Namibia), 2) Stellenbosch University (South Africa),
3) Moi University Eldoret (Kenya), and 4) Universidade Eduardo Mondlane (Mozambique).
An important aspect of the ’Quality Network Biodiversity’ (funding period: Jan 2010 - Dec
2013; project leader: U. Zeller, project coordinator: T. Göttert) is the conduction of an annual
event, a workshop or a summer school, taking place once in every of the four African partner
countries. One goal is to significantly enlarging the scope of topics regarding the MSc program
‘Biodiversity Management and Research’ by including aspects that are not part of the program’s curriculum – but that have a direct relationship with its general topic. Students and lecturers from the participating universities present their work and discuss findings within an international and interdisciplinary team. Integrative elements of these annual events are field excursions and short lectures in the field to focus on the country-specific situation, specific research questions and the respective methodological tools and approaches. The events shall
provide a framework in which inter-disciplinary transfer of knowledge is used to develop strategies supporting sustainable land use and the protection of biodiversity.
Figure 1: Biodiversity Management and Research*
*The ’Quality Network Biodiversity in Sub-Sahara Africa’ was established on the basis of different Master programs as part of cooperation between HU and different partner universities in Sub-Sahara Africa and beyond. This
Figure was adopted from the original application to the DAAD (DAAD, 2012):
Already three months after the start of the project, the kick-off workshop took place in Stellenbosch (South Africa) between 23rd and 26th of March 2010. It provided a platform to introduce the different participants and projects of the network. As a positive side-effect, this workshop was partly held in parallel with the ‘Humboldt-Symposium’, a bilateral event between HU
and Stellenbosch University, which additionally increased the visibility of our network and
enlarged the range of participants. The 1st summer school, entitled: ‘Agro-ecological Management Systems of Rangeland Resources’, was then conducted in Windhoek between 24th and
28th of October 2011. Overall key-topics were: trans-boundary protected areas, bioindicators,
ecological restoration, buffer zones / wildlife corridors, holistic management and the reintroduction of megaherbivores to former livestock farmland in Namibia (Zeller and Göttert,
2012). Besides students and lecturers from the partner universities, representatives of additional academic and non-academic institutions participated. These include: Gobabeb Training and
Research Centre, Namibia Animal Rehabilitation Research and Education Center, Ministry of
Agriculture, Water and Forestry (all Namibia) and the Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology
and Inland Fisheries (Germany).
The 2nd International Workshop within the ‘Quality Network Biodiversity in Sub-Sahara Africa’, entitled ‘Innovative Approaches for Balancing Land Use and Nature Conservation on a
Trans-National Scale’, took place at the recently established Karatina University College of
the Moi University in Kenya between Oct 22nd and Oct 25th 2012.
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Innovative Approaches for Balancing Land Use and Nature Conservation on a TransNational Scale
By contrast to the historical understanding of a dichotomy of ‘natural land’ and ‘agricultural
production land’, today agricultural land is increasingly regarded as important habitat of biodiversity. Questions related to biodiversity research and management are often complex and
should be addressed in their regional, national or even in a global context, including various
elements of the case-specific environmental, social and economic conditions (Starik et al.,
2012). Owing to this complexity of interrelations between biodiversity and ecosystems on the
one hand, and land use and agriculture on the other, our workshop was held to address key issues of land use and nature conservation in a broader framework, including various interdisciplinary and holistic approaches.
One of these different foci includes agricultural production systems, which are not only
covering most of the total land of various countries worldwide, but are also increasingly regarded as important habitats for myriads of different species, by studies which are breaking up
the historical dichotomy of “natural habitats” and “agricultural land”. Regarding the land use
of these areas, we included studies of a broad variety of topics on economic, social and environmental sustainability, including issues on competitive farming, gender, food security, climate change etc. that have direct and indirect effects on biodiversity research and management
in Sub-Sahara Africa and beyond.
Here, the Mt. Kenya region, where our workshop was located, gives an excellent inside
view on various types of agricultural land use including subsistence production (using i.e.
maize and bananas) as well as commercial production for international value chains, especially
fresh fruit and vegetables, tea and coffee. While commercial farming for international markets
like Europe and the United States is often based on large scale capital intensive production, the
Kenyan fresh fruit and vegetable production is a special case. Here also large numbers of
small scale family farmers managed – supported by exporters through quality management
schemes, in organized groups or through other channels (see Fig. 2) – to produce for international markets like the EU (Dannenberg and Nduru, 2010; Dannenberg et al., 2011).
These and other farmers were included in large parts of our excursion program (see conference program), as we visited different farms and agricultural processing businesses developed
or adapted to local and international forms of innovative approaches for balancing land use and
nature conservation, starting from traditional best practices of mixed cropping and ending at
international private environmental management standards like GlobalGAP.
Figure 2: Different marketing channels and support systems for fresh fruit and vegetable farmers in the Mt. Kenya region
Dannenberg and Nduru, 2012
Another focus is on questions related to the development of protected areas, including the
case-specific land use strategies and agricultural and social aspects. Interdisciplinary approaches to contribute to this complex research field are presented, for example in view of the Etosha
National Park in Namibia. Non-invasive techniques for the systematic observation of animalenvironment-relationships, such as radio telemetry and camera traps, contribute to a better understanding of biological processes with focus on edge (fence) effects and land use contrasts at
the border of protected areas. Simultaneously, socio-cultural research methods (e. g. stakeholder interviews) are used to evaluate these edge effects and land use contrasts from the social scientists’ perspective. Only the combination of the results from the different approaches will lead
to management recommendations that consider the need for integration of nature conservation
and land use on a transnational scale (Göttert and Zeller, 2008).
An important subject of many discussions was the so-called ‘knowing-doing gap’: academics have ideas, develop research projects, generate scientific results and get these results published – but the findings are often not or weakly implemented in politics. Communication and
transfer of knowledge between academics and local communities, politicians or other stakeholders can be a way to close this gap. Thus, innovative approaches also need to consider effective ways of implementing applicable strategies that will work ‘on the ground’.
These workshop proceedings give an overview on the presented research projects including
the contact details and affiliations of all 23 participants, who gave a presentation during this 4
days event. The proceedings contain one full article by J. Mugo and others about tree diversity in farmlands in Kenya, 8 extended abstracts and 14 abstracts. The contributions are
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listed according to their order at the workshop. In case of several authors, the corresponding /
representing author is marked with *.
We’d like to thank all students and colleagues, who contributed to the workshop and who
helped to make it such an inspiring and enjoyable event. Our special thanks go to the representatives of Karatrina University College of Moi University, especially to Principal Prof.
Mucai Muchiri and Deputy Principal for Academic Affairs Prof. P. Aloo-Obudho, among
many others.
Literature
DAAD (2012): DAAD-Project: Biodiversity Management and Research. Available at
http://www.daad.de/imperia/md/content/entwicklung/biodiversitaet/tabelle___bersicht_f
__rderprojekte_biodiversit__t_april2012_neu.pdf
Dannenberg, P., Kunze, M. and Nduru, G. (2011): Isochronal Map of Fresh Fruits and
Vegetable Transportation from the Mt. Kenya Region to Nairobi. Journal of Maps,
v2011: 273-279.
Dannenberg, P. and Nduru, G. (2010): Auf den Spuren von Wertschöpfungsketten im Obstund Gemüsehandel. Geographische Rundschau, 62(4): 58-63.
Dannenberg, P. and Nduru, G. (2012): Practices in International Value Chains: The Case of the
Kenyan Fruit and Vegetable Chain beyond the Exclusion Debate. Tijdschrift voor
Economische en Sociale Geografie accepted february 2012.
Göttert, T. and Zeller, U. (2008): Das Etosha Pufferzonenprojekt – ein Konzept zur Unterstützung der Bemühungen zur Anbindung des Etosha Nationalparks an das transnationale
Netzwerk von Schutzgebieten im südlichen Afrika. Beiträge zur Jagd & Wildforschung,
33: 283-292.
Starik, N., Bengsch, S., Mannetti, L., Dannenberg, P., Göttert, T. and Zeller, U. (2012):
Climate change affects the economic and ecological value of savannah ecosystems a challenge for the sustainable management of protected areas. In: Korn, H., Kraus,
K. and Stadler, J. (eds.): Proceedings of the European Conference on Biodiversity
and Climate Change - Science, Practice & Policy. BfN-Skripten, 310: 85-86.
Zeller, U. and Göttert, T. (2012) Naturschutz als Staatsziel – Qualitätsnetz Biodiversität
veranstaltet Sommerschule in Namibia. HUMBOLDT Die Zeitung der Alma Mater
Berolinensis, 55/3: 5.
Zeller, U., Starik, N., Göttert, T., Dannenberg, P., Fiege, K. and Hoffmann, H. (2010): Innovative strategies to overcome land use-conflicts using the example of protected areas in Sub-Sahara Africa. 37. Biodiversity and the UN Millennium Development
Goals: Challenges for Research and Action, 1.-3.Dez.2010. Frankfurt/Main.
Zeller, U. and Göttert, T. (2009): MSc Programme „Biodiversity Management and Research“. In: Proceedings of the 2nd European Congress of Conservation Biology
(ECCB) “Conservation biology and beyond: from science to practice”. Prag, 1.-5.
Sep. 2009. pp. 204-205.
Program
12.4012.55
12.5513.10
13.1013.30
13.3014.15
14.1515.00
15.0015.30
Plenary
MC: Registrar Mr. D.N.
Njoroge
SCR
Senior Common
Room (SCR)
SCR Veranda
Senior Common Room (SCR)
Gilbert M. Nduru, KarUC/Moi:‘Food Security and
Value Chains in Kenya: Opportunities and Challenges’
Dr. Flora N. Namu KarUC/Moi:’Community
Awareness of Indigenous, Drought Resistant Crops
& Trees on the Eastern Side of Mt. Kenya Forest:
An Adaptation Strategy to Climate Change’
H. Kamiri., KarUC/Moi: C. Handa , University of
Nairobi & M. Becker, University of Bonn’ Spatial
heterogeneity in wetland soils and vegetation resources of East Africa as affected by land management practices’
Mugo Mware, KarUC/Moi:‘Influences of Land
Use Type and the Conservation of Tree Species
Diversity in Farming Landscapes’
A short recreational break
Secretariat
Wangare Gathuthi , KarUC/Moi:’Value Addition
Systems in Food Production, Marketing and Poverty Alleviation’
Noah Mutiso, KarUC/Moi: ‘Mapping of Fresh and
Vegetable value-chains and transportation networks around Mt. Kenya'
J.B Mugo, KarUC/Moi:‘ Use of Best Management
Practices as an innovative approach to Balance
Land/Water Use and Conservation in Aquaculture“
Maria Velte, KarUC/Moi:‘Changing gender roles
in Sub-Saharan horticultural family farming’
All KarUC/Moi University discussants
LUNCH BREAK
A guided
Tour of
Karatina
University
College and
Environs
12.2512.40
Presentations by KarUC/Moi University Partners
11.3011.45
12.0012.10
12.1012.25
•
•
HEALTH BREAK
11.1511. 30
11.4512.00
•
Workshop Coordinator – KarUC, Prof. G. M.
Nduru
Workshop Coordinator- HU: Dr. Thomas
Göttert and PD Dr. habil Peter Dannenberg
Deputy Principal Academic Research & Student Affairs –KarUC, Prof. P.Aloo-Obudho
Principal -KarUC: Prof. Mucai Muchiri
Venue
CHAIR:
, Prof. Gitonga
Raporture
Dr. Wangari
Gathuthi
•
Chairing/ Rapporteur
Raporture
Dr. Namu F.N
10.00 –
10.30
10.30 –
11.15
Facilitator(s)
DAY ONE: MONDAY 22ND OCTOBER 2012
Arrival and
Secretariat
Registration
Entertainment
Traditional/cultural dancers
Welcoming
8.008.30
8.309.00
9.0010.00
Activity
CHAIR:
Prof Dr. Ulrich Zeller
Time
•
•
•
•
College facilities and works
College crop and daily farm
College tea farm
College fish ponds and nature trail
Prof. L. Gitonga
Prof. Mathenge
Dr. Namu F.N
Within
Karatina University College
Premises
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Visit to Ragati tea Factory
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Mr. D.N. Njoroge
Ragati Tea Factory
Manager
-
Ragati Tea
Factory
Premises
DAY 2: TUESDAY 23RD OCTOBER 2012
11.4512.00
12.0012.15
12.1512.30
TEA BREAK
12.3012.45
12.4513.00
13.0013.30
Plenary
Prof. Dr. Karen Esler, SU: 'The impact of reestablishing indigenious plants and restoring the
natural landscape on sustainable rural employment and land productivity through payment for
environmental service'
PhD Cand. Lelani Mannetti, SU: ' Evaluating social-ecological aspects of edge effects and land use
conflicts at the borders of the Etosha National
Park, Namibia'
MSc Cand. Ancois de Villiers, SU: 'Holistic
mangament: Considering wholes in wholes'
Dr. Clemens von Doderer, SU: ‘Determining
sustainable lignocellulosic bioenergysystems in
the Cape Winelands, South Africa’
MSc Colin Tucker, SU: ‘Monitoring and Evaluation Studies within UNESCO Biosphere Reserves:
A Review’
MSc Cand. Rory Sandberg, SU: ‘Response of
biotic communities to habitat fragmentation as a
natural process and as an anthropogenic impact: which fragments will survive?’
All Stellenbosch University Discussants
Senior Common Room (SCR)
Plenary
Presentations by partners from the
University of Stellenbosch (SU)
10.1511.00
11.0011.30
11.3011.45
Kitchen
Senior Common Room (SCR)
10.0010.15
Raporture:
Dr. Hellen Kamili
9.4510.00
Raporture:
Mr. James Mugo
9.309.45
PD Dr. Habil Heide Hoffmann, HU: 'The ecological and economical potential of agro-forestry systems - examples and experiences from Africa and
Europe'
PhD Cand. Nicole Starik, HU: 'Bats as
bioindicators - the influence of forestry and agriculture on insectivorous microchiroptera '
MSc Cand. Fabian Schwabe, HU: 'Investigations
on the spatial and temporal behaviour of a black
rhino founder group using VHF radio telemetry
and camera traps'
MSc Cand. Jenny Noack, HU: 'Investigations on
the occurrence, behavior and relative abundance
of carnivores and ungulates using camera trapping
and line-transect-sampling'
PhD Cand. Seth Eiseb, HU & National Museum of
Namibia: 'Taxonomic revision and biogeography
of the genus Mastomysin Namibia and adjacent
countries'
All Humboldt University Discussants
CHAIR:
Dr. Thomas Göttert
Rapporteur:
Dr. Namu F.N.
CHAIR:
Prof. Gilbert. M. Nduru
9.159.30
Outcomes of day one activities in summary
CHAIR:
Dr. Peter Dannenberg
9.009.15
Recap of Day
one
Presention by Humboldt-Universität zu
Berlin (HU) partners
8.459.00
13.3014.30
14.3017.30
LUNCH BREAK
Ecological tour
Kitchen
A guided tour of Ragati Forest Ecosystem
Dr. Mugo Mware
Dr. Namu & Ragati Forest Forester
Ragati Forest
-Prof. Nduru,
-Dr. Dannenberg,
-Mwea Farmer’s chairman and
-Mwea HCDA deport
manager
-Kenya Horticultural
exporters (KHE) processing and Demonstration Farm Manager
-Wanguru Fish farm
Manager
Kutus/Mwea &
Tana Environs
Dr. Wangari Gathuthi
Mr. Wanjau
White Rhino
Hotel (Nyeri
town)
Dr. Peter Dannenberg
Dr. Hellen Kamili
SCR
DAY 3: WEDNESDAY 24TH OCTOBER, 2012
•
8.00-6.00
Excursion on Value chains
•
•
7.00-9.00
Barbeque
9.00
Departure
•
•
Visit a group of small scale fresh vegetable
growers at Kangai Kuttus/Kirinyaga District
Have Lunch in Wanguru/Mwea
Visit the Mwea HCDA field station for talk on
policy and tour storage facility
Visit an exporting company (KHE) yard at
Mwea for a talk and demonstration
Visit a fish farm in the tail lower Mwea region
•
•
Entertainment/
Networking as people share dinner and share
future thoughts
Travel to Karatina for the night
9.4510.00
10.0010.15
10:1510:45
Plenary
Senior Common Room (SCR)
9.30-9.45
Review of Day 2 and 3 activities and outcomes in
Summery
Dr. Elsabé Julies, UNAM: 'Organic Carbon degradation in anoxic organic-rich shelf sediments:
biogeochemical rates and microbial abundance'
MSc Clara Mukaru, UNAM:'Understanding the
dynamics of arid savanna ecosystems experiencing
various disturbance regimes in highland biomes of
central Namibia: Implications for local management for economic and conservation objectives'
MSc Cand. Mandene Morkel, UNAM: 'Diversity,
structure and dynamics of. A.erioloba woodland in
the Windhoek area: insights for the managment of
urban habitats'
MSc Cand. Saskia Wied, UNAM: 'Biodiversity
management and research in German National
Parks'
All University of Namibia Discussants
Raporture:
Dr.Mugo Mware
9.15- 9.30
Recap
Presentations by
Partners from The University of
Namibia (UNAM)
9.00-9.15
CHAIR.
Prof. Dr. Ulrich Zeller
DAY 4: THURSDAY 25TH OCTOBER 2012
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TEA BREAK
Kitchen
Program
review
•
Final Discussions and observations
11.4512.15
Planning of
the 2nd
Summer
School 2014
•
•
•
Where will it be?
What to expect?
Reviewing the future of the program and partnership
12.1512.45
Closing the
workshop
12.4512.50
12.5013.14
14.0018.30
•
•
•
•
Program Director: UH, Prof. Dr. Ulrich Zeller
DPARSA: KarUC, Prof. P. Aloo-Obudho
The Principal: KarUC, Prof. Mucai Muchiri
Dr. Wangari Gathuthi
Vote of
Thanks
LUNCH BREAK AND NETWORKING
Departure
-
Prof. Dr. Ulrich Zeller,
Dr. Thomas Göttert
Prof. Gilbert M. Nduru
Senior Common Room (SCR)
10.4511.15
11.1511.45
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Prof. G.M. Nduru
Guest Leave for Nairobi through Nyeri-Nyahururu-Gilgil Naivasha flower
growing complex
SCR
Kitchen
The participants of the Workshop
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Abstracts and extended Contributions
DAY 1: MONDAY 22ND OCTOBER 2012
Food Security and Value Chains in Kenya: Opportunities and Challenges
Gilbert M. Nduru
School of Environment and Natural Resources Management, Karatina University College P.O. 1957-10101
Karatina Kenya
Email: gilnduru@gmail.com
This paper discusses the effect of Fresh Fruits and Vegetable (FFV) production for the export
market on food security and nutritional status in Kenya. It is a summary of materials from a
study conducted around the Mt. Kenya region and literature review of practices and
experiences from other parts of Kenya. The dynamics of the growing trade in fresh
horticultural produce between Kenya and the European Union (EU) consumers is discussed
using the concept of marketing chain. Hence, it seeks to examine the linkages between FFV
growing, food security and nutritional status of respective faming groups and highlight the
challenges they face as well as the arising opportunities within FFV growing areas of Kenya.
The salient findings of the study included: one, there is competition between FFV growing for
export and food crop cultivation; second, there are monetary benefits that have variously
improved the living standards of FFV farmers, and thirdly there declining motivation grow
subsistence crops, which has posed a food insecurity challenge on the Kenyan scene. The paper hence recommends that FFV growing and export should ensure a balance between food
production for subsistence and export to ascertain holistic and sustainable development.
Community Awareness of Indeginous and Drought Resistant Crops &Trees
on the Eastern Side of Mt. Kenya Forest: an Adaption Strategy to Climate
Change
Namu F.N and Kirika M.J.1
1
School of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, Karatina University College, P. O. Box 1957-10101
Karatina, Kenya
fnnamu@yahoo.com, fnamu@karatinauniversity.ac.ke
Abstract
We collected data on local knowledge and production of indigenous crops and trees among the
local communities on the eastern side of Mt. Kenya forest. Homesteads were selected randomly within the project area and thirty five male and female farmers interviewed from each homestead. The farmers varied in age from 30 years to 85 years. Most of the famers had basic education and unemployed. At least twenty food and vegetable crops were planted by the farmers.
They considered the crops to be more tolerant to high temperatures and low rainfall, hence
served as fall back during harsh environmental conditions. Unfortunately, the crops were
grown at a small scale, with little to no management. Problems associated with indigenous
crops cited by farmers were: negative perception, low market prices and increased attacks by
pests and diseases. We observed that indigenous crops had been replaced by modern crops.
Some farmers planted trees that they considered indigenous, hardwood or resistant to harsh
conditions. The trees served as sources of timber, poles, fuel wood, fodder for cattle, fruits and
vegetables. Farmers were unanimous that the trees added to soil fertility. During adverse
weather conditions, food crops did well under the shade of these trees. The major challenge
cited, was that the trees were slow growing. Despite the challenges, some farmers were still
growing the indigenous drought resistant crops and trees, hence diversifying habitats for different organisms, contributing to their conservation. Increased advocacy and awareness on indigenous crops, will contribute to food security, better livelihoods restoration of the environment in the region reducing pressure and associated conflict for resources on Mt. Kenya forest.
Key words: Indigenous crops, challenges, food security, awareness
Sponsors: Rufford Small Grant for Nature Conservation
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Introduction
The agro-ecosystems on the Eastern side of Mt. Kenya forest have lost their natural vegetation
due to monocultures of cash and food crops. Additionally overreliance on fast growing tree
species such as Griveria robusta and Eucalyptus species has led to reduced replanting of indigenous trees, which were cleared for their wood and other products. Tree clearing combined
with climate change have resulted in drying up and reduced water volume in some streams,
soil erosion, massive landslides, and a cascade of other negative effects. Consequently, food
insecurity and aggravated environmental degradation have been on the increase. Degradation
of the environment put biodiversity at risk as agro-ecosystems plays a crucial role in biodiversity conservation as they offer food, shelter and are key stepping stones for migrating species,
thus linking fragmented landscapes. Ecosystem survives such as pollination and seed dispersal
are also affected.
We therefore initiated sampling of indigenous drought resistant crops and trees on the Eastern side of Mt. Kenya Forest with a view to encourage farmers to grow them and a strategy to
cope with climate change, as conservation in agro-ecosystems is improved.
Objectives
The main objective of this project was to promote conservation in agro-ecosystem while improving livelihoods through eco-friendly farming.
Specific objectives:
i. To determine social economic factors affecting growing of indigenous crops/trees
ii. To collect data on indigenous crops/trees farmed in the region
iii. To document challenges faced by farmers in growing indigenous crops/trees
The Study was conducted on farmlands on the Eastern Side of Mt. Kenya Forest
Methods
Sampling of indigenous drought resistant crops and trees:
Homesteads were selected randomly within the project area. Interviews were carried out with
the aid of a questionnaire on indigenous crops/trees farming (Appendix 1). Both male and female farmers were interviewed. The farmers included those who have not been to school and
those who have attained various levels of education.
Results
Age and level of education of farmers interviewed
Thirty five homesteads were visited, and in each, one person, mostly the one involved directly
in farming was interviewed. Farmers interviewed ranged in age from youthful farmers, 30
years old to elderly farmers with up to 85 years old (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Age in years of farmers interviewed
100
Age in years
80
60
40
20
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Number of farmers interviewed
The level of education of the farmers interviewed ranged from no formal education to A
Level (A Level = Secondary education up to Form 5 and 6, Figure 2).
Figure 2: Level of education of the farmers interviewed
14
Number of farmers
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
A Level
O Level
Tertiary
Primary
No Education
Level of education of farmers who were interviewed
* A Level- Secondary education up to form 5 and 6; O Level- Secondary education up to form 4; Primary-education from class 1 to 8;
Tertiary - Courses normally undertaken after secondary education
Indigenous drought resistant crops and trees
We collected data on local knowledge and production of indigenous drought resistant crops
and trees among the local communities. At least 20 food and vegetable crops were planted by
the farmers interviewed (Appendix 2). Farmers also planted trees they considered indigenous,
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hardwoods or resistant to harsh environmental conditions (Appendix 3). The trees served as
sources of timber, poles, fuel wood, and fodder for cattle and fruits for both humans and animals.
Farmers cited several challenges encountered during indigenous crops and trees growing as
listed in table 1. Pests and diseases attacking the crops were reported to be on the increase.
Table 1: Challenges faced by farmers in growing indigenous crops and trees
Serial
Challenges
Reasons
Number
1
Attack by pests
Habitat simplification
2
Diseases
Habitat simplification
3
Negative perception
Food for poor, babies and elderly
4
Low local market prices
Negative perception
5
Competition for land
Farmers opting for cash crops e.g.
tea, coffee
6
Slow growth and maturity (for trees) Takes time to reach maturity
7
Replacement by modern varieties
Maize, some variety of beans and
potatoes being preferred as they are
being grown as cash crops
Discussion and Conclusion
Farming as an agricultural activity in the Eastern side of Mt. Kenya forest was carried out by
farmers of varying ages. Both young and old participated in farming activities (Figure 1).
However, the largest group of farmers composed of persons who had only basic education
(primary education), followed by farmers with O level education (Secondary education up to
Form 4). There were no farmers with University education interviewed and very few had A
Level education (Secondary education up to Form 5 and 6) and tertiary education.
This is an indication that farming in this area is still being considered as an activity for the
uneducated and the unemployed in the society. This is exemplified by more O level farmers
and fewer tertiary level farmers. During tertiary level training, learners are equipped with skills
to self employ themselves such that after training they do not remain idle waiting to be employed but they quickly start small businesses. On the other hand, O level learners are not
equipped with specific skills as they are expected to continue to universities or to colleges for
specialization. If a learner does not continue, they are left in a situation where they have no
specific job skills and a number of them go into farming as a source of income.
Leaving farming to the unemployed or to persons with very basic education may pose a
challenge to conservation in agro-ecosystems and food security, especially when the importance of indigenous crops/trees is not understood. The relationship between habitat simplification, species diversity and ecosystem services such as pollination and seed dispersal may
not be understood by the uneducated if no effort is done to create awareness and incentives on
conservation in agro-ecosystems.
Nonetheless, farmers interviewed considered indigenous crops and trees to be more tolerant
to high temperatures and low rainfall. As the crops are less affected by weather, they serve as a
fall back during harsh environmental conditions while other crops like maize and modern varieties of beans, potatoes and cabbages fail. Unfortunately indigenous crops were grown at a
small scale level with little to no management.
Challenges faced by farmers during indigenous crops growing such as attack by pests and
diseases were reported to be on the increase due to habitats simplification. Monocultures of tea,
coffee, maize and beans lead to habitat simplification which reduces feeding, breeding, and
nesting grounds for several species, leaving them concentrated in areas that have a high diversity of crops and trees.
Low market prices of the indigenous crops were attributed to negative community perception on the crops. The crops were seen as food for the poor, babies and the elderly. Our observations in the field indicated that many indigenous crops had been replaced by modern crops.
The major problem with trees was that they took too long to grow and mature. Yet increased
human population demanded for more trees for timber and charcoal as a means of income generation. However farmers were unanimous that indigenous trees and crops did add soil fertility
in the areas they were planted. During adverse weather conditions food crops did well under
the shade of the trees.
Despite the challenges, farmers were still growing the indigenous drought resistant crops
and trees, hence diversifying habitats for different organisms, contributing to their conservation. We found out that the community was willing to engage in conservation of their environment once they understood the benefits of a good environment and the consequences of not
conserving the environment. Incentives such as beekeeping for honey and other bee products
encourage members of the local community to plant more indigenous crops/trees. They now
understand the relationship between indigenous crops/trees, the weather and their livelihoods.
Increased advocacy and awareness on indigenous crops, will contribute to food security, better
livelihoods restoration of the environment in the region reducing pressure and associated conflict for resources on Mt. Kenya forest.
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Appendix 1: Questionnaire on indigenous crops and trees awareness among the local communities, and factors that affect their growing and consumption that may influence conservation
of biodiversity in agro- ecosystems on the eastern side of Mount Kenya forest.
Farmer data
1.
Location………………………………………………………………………………
2.
Name of Interviewer…………………………………Date:………………………….
3.
Name of farmer (owner of the farm)……....……………………………………….…
4.
Gender: Male [ ] Female [ ]…………………………………………………………...
5.
Age (years): ..…………………………..………………………………………………
6.
Marital status: Married [ ] Single [ ]…………….…………………………….……….
7.
Level of education (Please tick which applicable)
i.
Class 1-8 [ primary education]
ii.
Form 1-4 -level [ Secondary education]
iii.
Form 5-6 [A-level]
iv.
Tertiary [ Technical training]
v.
Other
vi.
Not gone to school
Indigenous crops farming (growing)
1.
Do you grow indigenous crops and trees? Yes [ ] No [ ]. WHY?
2.
Which indigenous crops and trees do you grow in your farm? List them
3.
Why do you grow them?
i. Food crop[ ]
ii. Cash crop [ ]
iii. Fodder crop[ ]
iv. Medicine
v. Improving your land- soil conservation/ erosion and fertility
vi. Aesthetic
vii. For posterity-passing knowledge to younger generation
viii. All [ ]
4.
How much of your land is used to grow indigenous crops and trees?
5.
How much of each type of indigenous crops do you produce (quantity?) compared to other crops
6.
How much do you earn from indigenous crops and trees or save by consuming them
7.
Do you spray or add organic and inorganic manure to these crops
8.
What are the common pests and diseases?
9.
How many years have you been growing indigenous crops and trees?
10. Do they add or destroy soil fertility?
11. Are they affected by weather very much?
12. Do you know of other indigenous crops and trees in your area?
13. Why don’t you plant them?
14. Do you know indigenous crops and trees even if you do not plant them?
Appendix 2: A list of indigenous and drought resistant crops and vegetables grown by the local
communities. Names are written in the local language followed by an English or Scientific
name.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Igwa- Sugarcane Saccharum
Ikwa-Yams
Managu-Black Night Shade
Mangoes- indigenous varieties -Mangifera
Marenge- Pumpkin- Cucurbita
Mpupu- a kind of legume
Mukombi-Finger millet-Eleusine coracana
Muvia-Sorgum
Mwanga- Cassavas-Manihot esculenta
Mwele-Millet
Ndengu -Green grams
Ndigo (Ndigo ya mwana, Kivunda, Kivovi, Muraru, Gatumia)-locally grown banana varieties
Nduma- arrow roots-Colocasia esculenta
Ndumu (Mboco)- Locally grown beans varieties
Ngwaci-Sweet potatoes
Njavi -a type of legume
Njugu- Pigeon peas
Nthoroko- Cow peas
Nyanya-Wild tomatoes
Rwoga- Amarantha sp.
Appendix 3: A table of Indigenous, hard woods and drought resistant trees and shrubs planted
by the local communities and their uses. Names are written in the local language followed by
an English or Scientific name.
Indigenous, hard woods and drought resistant trees
planted by farmers (Local names followed by English or Scientific names)
1.
Keho- Markhamia lutea
2.
3.
Macodovia-Avocado (Butter pear)- Persea americana
Mbera-Guava- Psidium guajava
4.
Mtanda- Ficus lutea
5.
Muburu-Meru Oak- Vitex kinesis
6.
Macuca-Luquats
7.
8.
Mugereki- a type of hard wood
Mugumo- Ficus thoningii
Uses (According to the local people)
Poles, fuel wood, hiding, nesting, feeding
places for birds and insects
Fruits for human, fuel wood, fodder
Fruits for people and birds, poles, fuel wood
and live fencing
Fuel wood, leaves add to soil fertility, shade,
shelter for birds and insects, hanging of log
hives,
Timber, fuel wood, fruits eaten by people and
birds
Fuel wood, poles, fruits, live fencing, fodder
for cattle, fruit eaten by people and birds
Timber, poles, fuel wood
Poles, fuel wood, deed rooted brings water to
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9.
Mukorwe- Albizia albicinica
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Mukuu- Ficus exsasperata
Mukuura- a type of hard wood
Mukwego- Bridelia micrantha
Murama- a type of hard wood
Muria- Prunus africana
15.
Muringa- Cordia Africana
16.
Mutare- a type of strawberries
17.
Mutoo- a type of hard wood
18.
19.
20.
21.
Mutoto- a shrub
Mutundu- Croton macrostachys
Muvindavidi- a type of hard wood
Muvuti- Erythrina abyssinica
22.
23.
24.
25.
Mwage- a type of hard wood
Mwanjati-Camphor
Mwenu- a shrub
Ngomora- a type of hard wood
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the surface, leaves and fruits add to soil fertility and eaten by birds, fodder for cattle
Timber, Poles, fuel wood, fodder for cattle,
leaves used to cover bananas to ripen
Poles, fuel wood , fodder, fruits eaten by birds
Timber, Poles, fuel wood, soil fertility
Timber, Poles, fuel wood, soil fertility
Timber, poles, fuel wood,
Timber, poles, fuel wood, medicinal, fruits
eaten by birds
Timber, poles, fuel wood, soil fertility, fruits
food for birds
Fruits for people, poles, fuel wood, live fencing
Poles, fuel wood, making handles for farming
tools.
Used to make bows and arrows, live fencing
Poles, fuel wood, medicinal
Timber, poles, fuel wood
Fuel wood, aesthetic (brightly colored flowers
around homes), nectar for bees, butterflies
and birds
Poles, fuel wood, fruits eaten by people
Timber
Medicinal, fuel wood
Fruits eaten by people, fuel wood
Spatial heterogeneity in wetland soils and vegetation resources of East
Africa as affected by land management practices
Hellen Kamiri1*, Collins Handa2 and Mathias Becker3
1
School of Agriculture and Biotechnology. Karatina University College P.O. 1957-10101 Karatina Kenya.
2
National Museums of Kenya, Centre for Biodiversity. P.O. Box Nairobi.
3
Department of Plant Nutrition, Institute of Crop Science and Resources Conservation (INRES), University
of Bonn, Karlrobert- Kreiten-Str. 13, 53115 Bonn, Germany
*Email: wangechikamiri@yahoo.com
Land use changes or agricultural management practices lead to changes in vegetation types,
soil organic matter content and overall soil fertility. However, these changes often occur
gradually and therefore against the larger background subtle changes are difficult to detect in
the short or medium-term. Forest and wetland soils in highlands of East Africa are being seriously degraded and destructed due to extensive agricultural activities. This study investigated
the effects of changes in land management on some soil properties and vegetation types in two
flood plain wetlands in East Africa (Kenya and Tanzania). The wetlands were located in different climatic zones – the floodplains in the lowlands (<500 masl) in Tanzania and floodplain
in the highlands (>1700 masl) in Kenya. Four adjacent land-use types included the uncultivated/un-disturbed fields dominated by wetland vegetation, cultivated lands which have been
converted from natural wetland vegetation for over ten years, fragmented grazing lands and
abandoned fields. Soil samples from 0-20 cm depth and vegetation samples were collected
from four sites at each of the four different land-use from the two floodplain wetlands. The
primary wetland (uncultivated fields) were considered as a reference to assess the extent of
changes in land uses resulting from clearing and cultivation, grazing and abandonment to the
vegetation type and soil properties. When the wetland vegetation was converted into
cultivation, soil properties of nitrogen and organic matter pool of cultivated lands were
significantly reduced relative to N and SOM content of the grazed fields. The results also
showed that the clearing of the primary wetland led to a dramatic change in the vegetation
composition. The natural uncultivated fields were dominated by Cyperus and Typha species
while in the grazed and fallow fields the major species were Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon
dactylon, Themeda triandra, and Paspalum vaginatum. The cultivated fields were dominated
by Leersia hexandra and Fimbristylis buchananii while abandoned fields were mainly
colonized by Chenopodium spp, Bidens pilosa and Commelina benghalensis. This suggests
that land disturbances of the wetland systems including changes to cultivation or grazing
should be strictly avoided in the natural wetlands.
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Influences of Land Use Types and Agroecological Zones on Tree Density
and Species Diversity in farming Landscapes
J. M. Mugo 1*, J. T. Njunge2, B. N. Kigomo3, B. N. Mwasi4 and V. O Odenyo4
1
Corresponding author: Karatina University College, P.O. Box 1957, Karatina Kenya;
2
University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia;
3
Kenya Forestry Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya;
4
Chepkoilell University College, Eldoret, Kenya.
*Email: mjmware@gmail.com
Abstract
Can farmlands supplement tree species diversity conservation in the protected areas? To
answer this question, we need information on stocks of trees on farms, which is scanty and
in many cases lacking. This study identified tree configurations and assessed if variation in
species richness, tree species diversity and density is influenced by variation in land-use
type or Agroecological zones (AEZs). The study used data collected from unequal sized
sample plots (farms) in Machakos County, using stratified random sampling based on identified land units. The land-use type, tree species and diameter at breast height (DBH) were
recorded; species richness, tree species diversity and density (B/ha) derived, and their
variation across land use types evaluated. A total of 136,159 trees, belonging to 193 species were measured in three land use types (Farming, Grazing and Woodland). Out of the
193 species, 175 were in farming, 63 in grazing and 83 in woodland land uses. The mean
tree density were 2.244, 0.483 and 4.564 m2/ha while Shannon’s diversity index and species richness in the farming, grazing and woodland land uses were 1.78, 0.926 and 1.56
and 4.27, 1.74 and 2.35 respectively. The ten most dominant species, comprising 49.4% of
the total basal area and 55.2% of the total number of stems, utilized the majority of tree
growing space. Tree density (B/ha), species diversity index (H’) and species richness (S)
differed significantly across land use types. However, the study revealed no significant differences in tree density, species richness and species diversity index between AEZs. Therefore, land use types but not AEZs, influences species richness, tree species diversity and
density in the farming landscapes, with farms having a higher diversity and richness than
other land use types. Subsequently, farmlands act as tree species diversity reservoirs and
can be configured into recognisable land use types and managed so as to supplement biodiversity conservation efforts in protected areas.
Key words: Land use, tree density, species diversity and species richness
Introduction
Globally over 13 million ha of forests are destroyed each year, almost 90% of it in the tropics (Kirchgatter, 2011). Furthermore, up to 70% of logging and timber trade activities in
these forests are carried out via illegal channels (Spore, 2011). In Kenya, the area under
forests and wood related land use is declining (MENR, 1994), implying a reduction in biodiversity reservoirs. Worse still, the land available for forestry expansion is sta-tic.
Therefore, increase in tree density, in particular tree biomass and species diversity conservation, will largely depend on increased tree cover in farmlands. Luckily, there is growing evidence that trees on farms (ToF) have been increasing (Bradley, 1988; Pukkhala and
Niemi, 1993; Höyhtyä et al, 1998; GoK, 2010). Again, nationally, farmlands and settlements are estimated to cover 9.54 million ha, almost seven times that of gazetted forests,
which is estimated to be 1.405 million ha (Wass, 1995)
With a standing wood volume in excess of 40 million m3 (Holmgren et al., 1994), farmlands can become a major source of raw materials for the wood industry. These stocks provide an alternative source of timber products thereby reducing demand exerted on the remaining meagre forests. Ecologically, conservation of ToF is likely to play a buffer function for biodiversity conservation. Furthermore woody biomass stocks are good indicators
of the volume of total carbon stored in the ecosystems (De Jong, 2003) and are associated
with important components of climatic change (Lu et al, 2002). They play a key role in
carbon sequestration, and enhanced adaptation and mitigation to climate change.
Looking at the emerging trends, ToF are destined to play an essential role in meeting
challenges of biodiversity conservation. Therefore, partitioning ToF into recognisable land
use types can enhance conservation of tree species diversity and promote of high stocking
densities. However, it is not clear how the density and diversity of ToF vary across land
use types and Agroecological zones. Moreover, the existing tree configurations in farms is
undefined and these parameters are required to estimate tree cover in farmlands and in particular to track the progress being made in achieving the 10% tree cover expected to be met
by Kenya vision 2030. The focus of this paper therefore, is to identify tree configurations
in farmlands and to assess if variation in tree density, species richness and diversity is influenced by variation in land-use type and ecological zones (AEZ).
Tree Density, Species Richness and Diversity
The concept of diversity relates to both the number of species (richness) and to their evenness or equitability (Frosini, 2006). There is greater diversity when the number of species
grows, and when all the species are fairly represented. Tree diversity can therefore be assessed using the species richness, describing their abundance or by using a measure that
combines the two components (Magurran, 1988).
Species richness is a count of the number of tree species (Kent and Coker, 1992). An
example of a richness index is the Margalef’s diversity index (Clifford and Stephenson,
1975). Species abundance indices usually examine diversity in relation to the distribution
(Borda-de-Agua et al., 2002) such as lognormal, geometric, logarithmic, and the MacAr-
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thurs broken model, among others. Heterogeneity indices (Peet, 1974) combine both the
species richness and evenness in the index. Examples include Shannon’s index (1948),
Simpson’s (1949) and Brilloun’s (1962), among others.
Most ecologists using measures of diversity prefer the Shannon index (1948), sometimes incorrectly referred to as the Shannon-Wiener Index or the Shannon-Weaver Index
(Krebs, 1989). This is because it takes into account the number of species and the evenness
of the species and for its computational simplicity. The index is increased either by having
additional unique species, or by having greater species richness. The Shannon index assumes that individuals are randomly sampled from an indefinitely large population (Pielou,
1975) and that all species are represented in the sample.
The value of Shannon’s index is usually between 1.5 and 3.5 and only rarely surpasses
4.5 (Magurran, 1988). The maximum diversity (Hmax), which could possibly occur, would
be found in a situation where all species were equally abundant i.e. H’ = Hmax = lnS. In
Burkina Faso, (Nikiema, 2005) Shannon diversity index (H’) was respectively 2.39 in the
protected forest, 1.49 in the fallow land and 1.05 in the cultivated areas. Tripathi et al.
(2010) recorded a maximum diversity index of H’ = 3.57, in a subtropical forest in Northern India.
Information on stocks of trees on farm is scanty and in many cases lacking. To quantitatively evaluate and implement environmental conservation strategies in respect to trees in
the farming landscapes, there is need to determine the few essential measurable properties,
such as tree density (basal area), species richness (number of different species) and diversity, that best describe the ToF vegetation and its environment, and to document quantitative relationships among them.
Influences of Land Use Type and Agro-Ecological Zones on Trees on Farms (ToF)
Usually there is a strong positive relationship between net basal area growth and treespecies diversity (Liang et al., 2007). That's why a variation in diversity is expected to result in a variation in tree density. Sagar and Singh (2006) noted that, in different land use
practices by communities, the diversity components and tree density were positively correlated with the total tree basal area. Since basal area is a surrogate of biomass and net production, then diversity is positively associated with productivity. It is therefore important
to understand the interplay between land use, tree density and diversity so as to manage
farmlands as biodiversity reservoirs and sources of wood biomass.
Description of the Study Site
The study was undertaken in Machakos County between September and October, 2000.
The county is located between Latitudes 0045’S and 1031’S, and between Longitude
36045’E and 37045’E (Fig. 1). The landscape is largely a plateau, interrupted by an escarpment and a series of hill masses, and ranges from 700 to 2144m above sea level. The
County cuts across three main agroecological zones (Jeatzold and Schmidt, 1983; FAO,
1996): The Lower Highlands Zone, UHZ (2%), Upper midlands, UMZ (39%) and Lower
midlands Zone, LMZ, (59%). The County is generally warm and dry, with two rain seasons: the long rains (October to December) and the short rains (March to May). The mean
annual rainfall ranges from 550 to 1300mm, while the mean annual temperatures vary between 180C and 250C.
Figure 1: Map showing location of sample plots in study site
Planosols are the dominant soils covering about 42.9% of the area. Other common soils
are Ferrasols, 36.2% and vertisols, 14.1% (Jeatzold and Schmidt, 1983). Minor soils in-
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clude cambisols, andasols and arenosols. Generally the soils have moderate to low fertility
except vertisol areas, which have moderate to high fertility. Vegetation is heterogeneous
comprising of woody vegetation (forests on hills) and savannah type of vegetation in the
lowlands.
Methods of data analyses and collection
The design of tree density surveys, vary with the type and resources available (Brown,
2002). Generally either, random (Wachiori et al., 2001; Carsan and Holding, 2006), or systematic sampling (Holmgren et al., 1994), or a combination of the two are commonly used.
In many cases, diameters of all trees in a specific area are measured and transformed to
tree density using allometric equations (Alves et al., 1997; Brown, 1997; Schroeder et al.,
1997; Chambers et al., 2001; Keller et al., 2001). Usually, the main parameter measured is
diameter at breast height (DBH), which explains more than 95% of the variation of tree
density even in highly species rich tropical forests (Brown, 2002).
Sampling Design and Data Collection
The data used in this study was collected between September and October 2000. Stratified
random sampling was used. In order to account for variation in vegetation, sample plots
were proportionately allocated to nineteen (19) identified land units (Adeele et al., 2005).
Within each Land Unit, unequal sized sample plots (farms with known boundaries) were
selected using randomly generated coordinates based on the areas topographical map
sheets. The selected sample plots were then located on the ground using a hand held GPS
that had an estimated accuracy of five meters.
The selected sample plots were located on Agroecological maps (FAO, 1996) and the
sample plot’s Agroecological Zone identified. The sample plot’s land use was categorised
either as Farming, Woodland or Grazing. Farming constituted plots that were under cultivation and had established homesteads. Woodlands were natural wooded plots or woodlots
that were uncultivated and had dense tree cover (≥ 30%). Grazing land use was uncultivated, with sparse tree cover (≤ 30%). On the farming land use, all trees were measured
while 10-50% of woodlands and grazing lands were sampled depending on their sizes.
The DBH of large/big trees were measured using a diameter tape while callipers were
used to measure DBH of small trees. In each sample plot, the GPS coordinates of all corners of the plot and the land-use were recorded. For all trees with DBH > 1cm, the species,
Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) over-bark and the configuration (or growing place) were
recorded. Configurations were categorized into Homestead, Border (Both external and internal), Grazing area (areas primarily designated for gazing within a farm or uncultivated
areas with sparse woody vegetation cover), Cropped (areas under cultivation), Home garden, Woodlot (Area planted with trees for fuelwood, poles, etc) and Wooded (dense natural
wooded areas).
Assessment of tree density, Species Richness and Diversity
The basal area density (B/ha) was derived from DBH. Tree species diversity was computed
using Shannon’s diversity index, H’, (Shannon, 1948) as shown in Equation 1.
Equation 1
Where: H’ is Shannon (species) diversity index; pi is the relative abundance of each species, calculated as the ni/N proportion of individuals of a given species to the total number
of individuals in the community; N is the total number of all individuals; ni is the number
of individuals in species i: the abundance of species i; S is the number of species.
Species richness is a count of the number of tree species (Kent and Coker, 1992). Since
the sample plots were of different sizes, Margalef’s species richness index, Mg, (Magurran,
1988) was used to account for the unequal sized sample plots. Likewise, Mg is computed as
in Equation 2 were S and N are as defined in equation 1.
Mg = (S-1)/lnN
Equation 2
For each plot, the number of tree species (S), Margalef’s species richness index (Mg)
and Shannon’s species diversity index (H’) were computed. Species dominance (Importance value, IV) rated by summing up the percentages of Relative density, Relative dominance and Relative frequency (Curtis and McIntosh, 1950; Kigomo et al. 1991) was also
determined for each species.
Relative density
= Number of individuals of the species x 100
Number of individuals of all species
Relative Dominance
= Total basal area of single species x 100
Total basal area of all species
Relative frequency
= Number of sample units in which the species occurred x 100
Total sample units
Influences of Land Use on Tree Density, Richness and Diversity
The computed tree density (per tree, per tree species, per plot) species richness and species
diversity index were further examined for variation as a result of changes in land use types
and agro-ecological zones, at a 5% level of significance. The configuration’s basal area
density (B/ha) in each land use type were computed and compared across land use types
using graphical representation and the F statistic. Statistically, if Shannon’s diversity index
is calculated for a number of samples, the indices are normally distributed (Magurran,
1988). For this reason, the use of parametric test such as the t and F statistics, to compare
tree diversity in different land uses, is appropriate.
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Results and Discussion
Status of Tree Density, species Richness and Diversity of Trees on Farms (ToF)
A total of 136,159 individual trees and shrubs were measured. The resulting plot area,
mean DBH, basal area density (B/ha), stem density (N/ha), number of species (S), Margalef’s species richness index (Mg) and Shannon’s diversity index (H’) for each plot is
shown in Table 1. Two Agroecological Zones (AEZs): Upper Midland Zone (UMZ) and
Lower Midland Zone (LMZ) were identified.
Table 1: A summary of land uses tree data for Machakos County
AEZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
LMZ
UMZ
UMZ
UMZ
UMZ
UMZ
UMZ
UMZ
UMZ
UMZ
UMZ
UMZ
UMZ
UMZ
UMZ
Mean
Plot No.
L11(1)
N11(1)
N12(1)
N21(1)
N22A(1)
N22A(2)
N22A(3)
N22A(4)
N22B(1)
N22C(2)
N23(2)
N42(1)
O11(1)
O12A (1)
O12B(1)
O13(2)
P12(2)
R11(2)
S11(1)
T11(1)
T12(1)
U12(1)
U12(2)
U12(3)
U12(6)
W11(1)
W21(2)
W22A(1)
W22B(2)
W32(1)
X11(1)
X12(2)
Land use
Woodland
Farming
Woodland
Farming
Farming
Woodland
Farming
Woodland
Farming
Grazing
Woodland
Grazing
Farming
Woodland
Farming
Farming
Grazing
Farming
Grazing
Farming
Grazing
Grazing
Grazing
Woodland
Grazing
Farming
Farming
Farming
Woodland
Farming
Farming
Farming
Plot area (ha)
0.55
10.17
1
1.96
3.05
0.5
4.01
0.5
4.41
1
0.52
0.84
20.85
0.5
15.66
16.36
1
1.08
0.99
1.07
1.07
1.03
0.956
0.5
0.98
3.1
0.76
9.48
0.5
4.11
2.56
1.43
Mean
DBH
2.28
2.49
2.41
3.11
4.47
2.19
6.20
3.42
4.97
2.52
2.43
2.34
2.99
2.59
2.52
3.35
1.95
1.75
2.20
6.42
4.00
5.92
2.27
1.83
4.83
2.57
2.69
2.43
3.76
3.78
3.41
4.82
N ha-1
13998.2
1537.1
891.0
1383.7
465.9
2908.0
155.9
1156.0
2131.7
592.0
5453.8
1550.0
1160.0
2726.0
1198.6
1119.2
1473.0
300.9
10.1
534.6
2.8
76.7
115.1
8024.0
194.9
1754.2
2443.4
663.4
2410.0
559.1
1605.9
288.8
3.5155
3.28
1840.1
B ha-1
10.6151
1.3700
0.7884
2.5623
1.8439
1.5831
1.8211
2.2877
7.4600
0.6341
9.4920
1.6595
2.0438
3.7792
1.5975
3.1404
0.6172
0.0994
0.0041
3.6738
0.0035
0.3169
0.0549
3.4853
0.5713
2.4799
2.0328
0.4839
4.4839
1.5821
2.5386
1.1778
2.3839
S
28
69
21
27
34
12
35
13
22
27
29
35
40
13
44
47
24
4
1
34
1
4
5
13
3
75
22
36
21
25
39
26
25.9
Mg
3.02
7.04
2.94
3.29
4.55
1.51
5.28
1.89
2.30
4.07
3.52
4.74
3.86
1.66
4.37
4.69
3.15
0.52
0.00
5.20
0.00
0.69
0.85
1.45
0.38
8.60
2.79
4.00
2.82
3.10
4.57
4.15
3.16
H’
1.60
2.41
1.56
1.41
2.12
1.27
1.89
1.52
1.41
2.16
1.90
1.85
1.74
0.36
2.26
2.09
1.29
0.25
0.00
1.61
0.00
0.88
0.49
2.05
0.74
2.35
0.91
2.26
2.23
2.20
1.62
1.92
1.51
Land units are defined in Adeele et al., 2005
Out of thirty two (32) sample plots assessed in Machakos County, 16 were under Farming, 8 under Grazing and 8 on Woodland. The mean tree density in the farming, grazing
and woodland land uses were: 2.244, 0.483 and 4.564 m2/ha respectively. Overall, the land
uses weighted average tree density was 2.215 m2/ha.
The relative tree density is better understood when compared with others. Nikiema
(2005) obtained a tree density of 1.102 m2/ha in cultivated areas and 4.26 m2/ha in woodlands while the author computed a tree density of 24.35 m2/ha (Kedowa forest block) and
39.71 m2/ha (Kapchorua forest block) in Mau forest complex. Elsewhere, Guillermo et al.
(2005) recorded 15.62 m2/ha in a deciduous forest type and 23.13 m2/ha in a gallery forest
type while Kumar et al. (2006) summary of tree density in tropical forests ranged from 7107 m2/ha. In Tanzania, Luoga et al. (2009) estimated average stocking densities of 13 and
6 m2/ha in a forest under pastoral and farming systems respectively. This comparison suggests that the tree density in the farms is slightly over 10% of what is reported in the tropical forests.
All the sample farms were freehold except two plots N23(2) and P12(2) that were on
leasehold (6.25%). Freehold tenure gives perceived security of tenure and hence promotes
tree growing practices thereby enhancing environmental conservation. Farms were mainly
owned by men. Out of the 32 sampled plots only two (6.25%) were owned by females
while one (3.13%) were communally owned. Perhaps farm based environmental management programmes integrating tree density enhancement in these areas, need to factor in
men as land owners.
Out of the 136,159 individual trees and shrubs measured, a total of 193 woody species
belonging to117 genera were recorded. Out of the 193 species, 175 were in farming, 63 in
grazing and 83 in woodland land uses. Comparatively, a total of 70 woody species were
recorded in Ethiopia (Tolera et al., 2008) while Nikiema recorded 86 woody species distributed across woodlands (69), fallow lands (48) and cultivated lands (41). Our results illustrate that many useful woody species exist within the farmlands and are therefore important tree biomass and biodiversity reservoirs.
The Plot’s computed mean Basal area density (B/ha); Shannon diversity index (H’);
Margarliff’s species richness index (Mg) and species count (S) are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Computed Plot’s mean tree density, species diversity and richness.
Mean B/ha Mean H’ Mean Mg Mean S
Farming
2.244
1.778
4.269
36
Grazing
0.483
0.926
1.736
13
Woodland
4.564
1.561
2.351
19
Weighted mean for
Combined land uses
2.215
1.710
4.014
34
The plots mean Shannon diversity indices are higher than Nikiema’s (2005), 1.05 in the
cultivated land, 1.49 in the fallow land and are close to the 2.39 in protected forest (Woodlands). Thus they compare well with those from other farmlands. In Tanzania, for example,
forest under pastoral system had an index of 3.13 while that under a farming system had
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2.05 (Luoga et al., 2009). This implies that apart from having many useful woody species,
farmlands are also important biodiversity reservoirs.
McGarigal and Marks (1995) argue that the absolute magnitude of Shannon's diversity
index is not particularly meaningful. For example a community may have high species diversity yet be comprised largely of common or undesirable species. Conversely, a community may have low species diversity yet be comprised of especially unique, rare, or highly
desired species. Consequently, the use of diversity measures in community ecology has
been heavily criticized because diversity conveys no information on the actual species
composition of a community and does not account for the uniqueness of the ecosystem.
However, coupled with other information such as species richness, species diversity is very
useful as a relative measure for comparing different landscapes. In this case, it’s an important indicator of the measure of species richness and evenness across land use types.
Generally, Species richness and diversity are indicators of the ecosystems stability. Environmental stability increases with increase in species richness and diversity. Ecosystem
stability is therefore enhanced by increasing the quantity and composition of appropriate
trees in the farm landscape.
Influences of Land Use Types and Agroecological Zones (AEZs) on Density, Species
Richness and Diversity of ToF
Table 3 and Figure 2 show the basal area density of trees growing in different configurations across the land uses. The results reveal that 87.8% of trees growing in wooded areas
were in land use designated as Woodland while the other 12.2% were in land use designated as Farming. Thus, the wooded configuration comprised of trees growing mainly in
the woodlands land use type. Likewise, trees in the grazing configuration were mainly
growing in grazing land use type (40.3%) with some little stocks growing in borders
(2.1%).
All the trees (100%) growing in cropped, home-gardens and homesteads were exclusively in the farming land use type. Of the border trees, 97.9% were in the farming and
only 2.1% was in the grazing land use type. Contrary to expectations, only 40.3% of trees
growing in gazing areas were in plots whose land use was designated as Grazing while
59.7% were in plots whose land use was Farming. This implies that the grazing configuration was part of the farming land use type as it was part of the grazing land use. Thus the
major configurations or growing patterns/places of trees on farms is in borders, cropped
areas, homesteads, home gardens, and wooded areas, meaning that farming is an integrated
activity. These configurations (growing/planting patterns) are associated with particular
land use types. Border planting is associated with farming and grazing land uses; cropped,
homestead and home-gardens with farming; grazing with farming and grazing and wooded
with farming and woodlands.
Table 3: Comparing tree density in different configurations across land uses
Configuration Tree density B/ha m2 for each Con- No. of plots with tree stocks in
figuration and land use
each Configuration and land use
Farming
Grazing
WoodFarmGrazing Woodland
ing
land
Border
0.48814
0.01070
14
1
0
Cropped
0.26483
13
0
0
Grazing
0.65966
0.44595
10
8
0
Home garden 0.00303
1
0
0
Homestead
0.15770
14
0
0
Wooded
0.58865
4.23898
8
0
8
Total number of plots per land use
16
8
8
Figure 2: Basal area density for each configuration in each land use
120.0
100.0
97.9
100.0
Farming
Grazing
Woodland
100.0
100.0
87.8
% Basal area density
80.0
59.7
60.0
40.3
40.0
20.0
12.2
2.1
0.0
Border
Grazing
Cropped
Configurations
Home garden
Homestead
Wooded
When tree density (B/ha) grouped per configuration, per tree species, and per plot were
compared across land use types, the p-value (0.0001, 0.00007 and 0.0028 respectively) revealed significant differences in tree densities between land use types. This therefore implies that variation in land use type influences the density of trees on farm with woodlands
and farming lands having higher stockings (densities) than grazing lands. In related studies
elsewhere, Pleninger et al. (2003) observed significant variation in diameters (basal area
densities) between land use groups. In grazing land uses, the tree density was lower than in
the farming and woodland land uses (Sagar and Singh, 2006) while that in cultivated area
(farming land uses) was lower than in woodlands and forests (Nikiema, 2005; Kessler et
al., 2005).
The F statistic revealed no significant differences in tree density between the AEZs (Fst =
2.233; F0.05 = 4.171). This means that AEZs did not affect the basal area densities of trees on
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farms. Likewise Holmgren, et al. (1994) found no significant relationships between stocking and agro-climatic zones.
The computed species diversity index (H’) differed significantly between land use types
(p: 0.0159). Likewise, number of species (S) and species richness index (Mg) varied significantly between land use types (p: 0.00146 0.0028). There were no significant differences in species richness (p: 0.997) and diversity (p: 0.895) between AEZs. Similarly in
Northern India, Sagar and Singh (2006) observed poorer species richness in the grazing
land use than in the farming and woodland land uses. And, in Ethiopia, Tolera et al.,
(2008) showed that Woodland (Natural forest) had higher species richness and diversity
(H’) than farmlands (crop fields and home gardens).
It has emerged that land uses exact significant influences on both species richness and
diversity with farming landscapes generally having a higher diversity and richness than
other land uses. The higher index may be due to evenness in species distribution in farmlands (Tolera et al., 2008) and natural woodlands. Unlike land uses, AEZs did not have
significant influences on species richness and diversity, maybe because the AEZs were
course in their classification. This could also imply that other factors like social-economic
factors for planting trees or retaining trees on the farm may be as influential as or more influential than ecological factors in determining diversity and density of trees on farm
Conclusions
It was concluded that indigenous tree species are the most dominant in Machakos County
and they grow along borders, in homesteads, home-gardens, croplands, grazing and
wooded areas. The species richness, species diversity, and stem density (N/ha) influences
variation in tree density (B/ha) of trees in farmlands but not plot size or average DBH.
The study further established that variation in Land use type influences tree basal area
density, species richness and diversity with woodlands and farming land uses having a
higher tree density than grazing lands. However, the identified ecological zones
(Agroecological Zones (AEZs): Lower Highland Zone (LHZ), Upper Midland Zone
(UMZ) and Lower Midland Zone (LMZ)) do not influence variation in species richness,
species diversity and tree density. This suggests that other factors like social-economic factors for planting trees or retaining trees may be as influential as or more influential than
ecological factors in determining diversity and density of trees on farm. With this understanding, trees on farms can be zoned and categorized into recognisable land use types and
managed as tree stocks and biodiversity reservoirs, to supplement tree species diversity
conservation in the protected areas.
Recommendations
Land use type and the planting patterns (configurations) should be integrated in the management strategies for trees on farms. In addition, Farmlands should be configured into
recognisable land use types and ToF managed as tree biomass and biodiversity reservoirs.
Lastly, further research is required to develop tree biomass and species diversity conservation strategies, using refined agro-ecological zones.
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Value Addition Systems in Food Production, Marketing and Poverty Alleviation: A Case of BUSSFAM-Budalangi Cooperative Society in Western
Kenya
Wangari Gathtuhi1, Nganga Stephen1, Omullo Francis2 and Henry Bennett2
1.
2.
Karatina University College, P.O. 1957-10101 Karatina, Kenya and
BUSSAFAM- Budalang’i, P.O. Box 105-50410, Port Victoria, Bunyala District, Busia County- Kenya
Email: wangarigathuthi@gmail.com
Abstract
Baba Foundation has evolved to become Badalang’i Small Scale Farmers Marketing Cooperative Society (BUSSAFAM) an agro-processing cooperative providing market and fortification
of local food stuffs for farmers and the community. The cooperative aims to provide working
markets for farmers produce and at the same time address nutrition and food security in the
community. The organization currently produces five varieties of flour with Ugali (Maize
Meal) and Uji (Porridge) mixes as well as a drinking powder mix that can be taken as beverage. All flours are packed either as sifted or unsifted. BUSSFAM was registered in March
2012 and has a membership of 175 persons. It owns one (1) chipping machine, one drier, one
hauler, one weighing machine and a milling machine plant with a capacity of grinding 100kg
per hour. To date BUSSFAM has been able to produce and sell only 7849kg of the composite
flours which unfortunately implies that the facility has been underutilized. At most, the organisation has produced 581kg and lowest 0(zero) kg in a day. In order to increase volume of production and sales of the products, the organisation has set targets of producing at least 300kg
per day and sale at least 7500kg per month. This paper seeks to explore how to solve the low
production and sales challenges of BUSSFAM by studying the various market elements that
the organization may need to address to overcome their challenges.
Problem Statement
Agribusiness is the single most important section of the economy and sources of income for
Less Developed Countries (FAOSTA, 2006). 70% of the world’s poor live in rural areas. Agribusiness has a great potential for broad development impact, strong role in poverty reduction
and utilization of natural resources. The economy of Kenya is very dependent on agriculture
which employs more than 75% of the available workforce both in the formal and informal sector (Stewart, 2002). The major challenge facing Kenya is the increase in poverty levels as unemployment continues to be high and incomes low. This affects mostly smallholders who contribute 60% of export production (World Bank, 2003). The small holder group is the most vulnerable because of limited access to improved seeds, technical assistance and finance. Market
influencers also drive up costs of production which impact on consumer prices which the
smallholder has no control over (Mwendo et al, 2004). As a result, many smallholders produce
just enough for their household use and have little or nothing left over to send to the market.
This seems to be the problem facing BUSSFAM. Therefore, how do they increase their pro-
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duction beyond household requirements and increase their sales to compete with similar products in the market?
Fi
Figure 1: Fish selling point and land not used for agricultural activities around homesteads
before BUSSAM initiation
Methodology
A case study methodology is adopted for this study. A case study is an empirical enquiry that
investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context especially if the boundaries between the phenomenon and the context are not clearly evident (Yin, 2003). It is an indepth study of a single unit, such as one individual, one group, one organization or one program and so on (Ary et al. 2002). In his classic book on case study research, Yin (1994) argues
that case research and survey methods are better suited than other techniques for analysing
contemporary events. In this case a phenomena/situation has been observed and interventions
put in place that will in the long-run change the phenomena/situation in the conservation, management and exploitation of natural resources by the rural poor, leading to better standards of
living and national development.
The study was carried out in the area covering the entire Bunyala community representing
ten different locations including: Marenga, Budalangi market, Bulemia, Sinyenye, Spanda,
Rudacho, Port town, Magoye, Mulukoba and Mundere. The target population included individual farmers within study locality, flour enterprises such as supermarkets, wholesalers, retail
shops and posho mills. The sampled population randomly selected 75% registered farmers of
BUSSFAM and 10% of farmers from each of the locality and at least one of the four flour enterprises within a locality. Interview schedules and questionnaires were the main data collection. For purposes of this paper the data is descriptively analysed.
Project Organization Brief
Baba Foundation is a local Community Based Organization registered under the ministry of
culture and social services in 2002. The organization was founded by community members
from Budalangi Division in Western Kenya to address their challenges and suffering as a result
of the spread of HIV/AIDS in the community. The desire to start Baba Foundation was born
out of the realization that the community had many orphans and vulnerable children (OVC)
who worked in the fishing industry which was solely their source of livelihood. The OVCs
faced risky work situations such as deep sea fishing, fish cleaning, hooking, hawking and
beach seining. In addition, challenges of low school attendance, inadequate health care and
protection and lack of family support were persistent.
The organization’s mission was “to empower fisher communities of Bunyala to alleviate
suffering through initiation of activities that address poverty, ignorance, disease and injustice in
collaboration with relevant stakeholders”.
Figure 2: Fishermen prepare for a fishing expedition and children involved in fishing
Project Goal
The goal of this project is to increase community social and economic assets to sustainably
meet the needs of Orphans and Vulnerable Children and People Living with HIV in Bunyala
by 2013 with naturally available resources.
Project Specific Objectives
Objective 1: By 2013, increase the number of OVCs accessing education and psycho social
support from the current (2010) 36 to 600 through an OVC rights campaign targeting 20
schools and 2,500 community members and 50 key stakeholders.
Objective 2: By 2013 support 200 households to be food secure through enhanced access to
inputs and agricultural advisory services to produce 400 tonnes of cassava, 200 tonnes of sweet
potatoes, and 36 tonnes of sorghum per harvest season among other food crops.
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Objective 3: By 2013, develop the capacity of Baba Foundation to run a strong organization
that effectively manages community programs to generate income to at least cover 10% of
their operations expenses and to cover 50% of community support system needs through the
naturally available resources.
Figure 3: Agribusiness activities embraced in Port Victoria, Budalangi include Cassava, sweet
potatoes, Maize, sorghum and dairy goat farming
Background Information
Baba Foundation has evolved to become Budalang’i Small Scale Farmers Marketing Cooperative Society (BUSSFAM) an agro-processing cooperative providing market and fortification of
local food stuffs for farmers and the community. The cooperative aims to provide working
markets for farmers produce and at the same time address nutrition and food security in the
community. The organization currently produces five varieties of flour with both ugali (maize
Meal) and uji (porridge) mixes as well as a drinking powder mix that can be taken as beverage.
All flours are packed either as sifted or unsifted.
BUSSFAM was registered in March 2012 and has a membership of 175 persons. It owns
one (1) chipping machine, one drier, one hauler, one weighing machine and a milling machine
plant with a capacity of grinding 100kg per hour. To date BUSSFAM has been able to produce
and sell only 7849kg of the composite flours which unfortunately implies that the facility has
been underutilized. At most, the organisation has produced 581kg and lowest 0(zero) kg in a
day. In order to increase volume of production and sales of the products, the organisation has
set targets of producing at least 300kg per day and sale at least 7500kg per month. This paper
seeks to explore how to solve the low production and sales challenges of BUSSFAM by studying the various market elements that the organization may need to address to overcome their
challenges.
Conceptual framework
The study adopts Michael Porter’s approaches to industry analysis. Michael Porter, an authority on competitive strategy, contends that a corporation is most concerned with the intensity of
competition within its industry (Joan Magretta, 2011). Basic competitive forces determine the
intensity level. The stronger each of these forces is, the more companies are limited in their
ability to raise prices and earn greater profits. The various forces are addressed in relation to
BUSSFAM as follows:
Threat of new entrants
New entrants are newcomers to an existing industry, which is the case with BUSSFAM having
been recently registered (March 2012). They typically bring new capacity as seen with
BUSSFAM is a new cooperation with a strong membership and machinery. They have a desire
to gain market share and substantial resources (Philip Kotler and Gary Armstrong, 2010).
Therefore they are threats to an established market. Some of the possible barriers to entry are
the following.
1. Economies of scale
A study of the organization locality indicates production of various food crops in different
scales as shown in Table 1 (Food Crop Production). Millet is farmed by 15 (15.5%) respondents, Ground Nuts are farmed by 15 (15.5%) respondents, Ginger is farmed by 1 (1%) respondent, Maize is farmed the most by 91 (93.8%) respondents, Sorghum is farmed by 45
(46.4%) respondents, Citric Acid is farmed by 6 (6.2%) respondents, Soya Beans is farmed by
9 (9.3%) respondents, Amaranths is farmed by 4 (4.1%) respondents, Bulrush is farmed by 2
(2.1%) respondents, Cassava is farmed by 43 (44.3%) respondents, Maringa is farmed by 3
(3.1%) respondents and Sweet Potato 50 (51.5%) respondents. The acreage of crops planted by
the farmers ranges dependent on the crop. Millet is most commonly farmed on 0.5-1 acre,
Maize is mostly farmed on 0.25-1.5 acres, sorghum is mostly farmed on 0.5 acre, Cassava is
mostly farmed on 0.25-1 acre and sweet potato is mostly farmed on 0.25-0.5 acres. The acreage of each crop also indicates that there is a shortage of good supply coming from the area.
This means that the volumes within the area are inadequate and increase the volumes call for
other sources outside the locality. The organization should also continue its capacity building
efforts and supporting the farmers to increase production acreage in the area.
A calculation of harvest per season crop available in the area, calculated by a weighted average per respondent indicated that the average amount of Millet in the area is 47.1 kgs per
farmer, Ground nuts is 3.7 kgs per farmer, Maize is 450 kgs per farmer, Sorghum is 130.8 kgs
per farmer, Soya Bean is 4.3 kgs per farmer, Amaranths is 0.5 kgs per farmer, Cassava is 688
kgs per farmer, Maringa is 16 kgs per farmer, Bulrush is 21 kgs per farmer and Sweet Potato is
453.6 kgs per farmer.
In order to reach full capacity of 600 kgs of flour produced per day, the organization would
need about 220,000 kgs in a year. Using Maize as an example, one farmer is able to produce
450 kgs in a season; therefore they are able to produce about 900 kgs in a year. We are targeting 200 farmers for the cooperative; therefore the co-op farmers would only be able to supply
the organization with 180,000 kgs in a year. There is a lack of around 40,000 kgs that the organization would need to source elsewhere. This also assumes that all of the farmers only farm
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Maize. Therefore, the organization should look to gain more membership in the co-operative in
order to ensure a constant supply of raw materials OR the organization will be forced to source
from outside of the community.
Table 1: Food Crop Production
Crop Type
Number (%) of Farmers Cultivating
Millet
15 (15.5%)
Ground Nuts
15 (15.5%)
Ginger
1 (1%)
Maize
91 (93.8%
Sorghum
45 (46.4%)
Citric Acid
6 (6.2%)
Soya Beans
9 (9.3%)
Amaranths
4 (4.1%)
Bulrush
2 (2.1%)
Cassava
43 (44.3%)
Maringa
3 (3.1%)
Sweet Potato
50 (51.5%)
Cultivation
Acreage
0.5 to 1
Less than 0.25
Less than 0.25
0.25 to 1.5 acres,
0.5 acre,
Less than 0.25
Less than 0.25
Less than 0.25
Less than 0.25
0.25 to 1 acre
Less than 0.25
0.25 to 0.5 acres
Weighted Average
per Season
47.1 kgs
3.7 kgs
450 kgs
130.8 kgs
4.3 kgs
0.5 kgs
21 kgs
688 kgs
16 kgs
453.6 kgs
When the farmers asked to give suggestions on how to improve and increase farm production, suggestions given include training on modern farming technologies as suggested by 36
responses, improved varieties of crops received 28 responses, providing fertilizers received 24
responses, and Access to credit and Education and training each received 23 responses.
2. Product differentiation
Majority of the survey respondents (76, 78.4%) affirmatively responded to be aware of ‘Mugingo’ which is the brand name of the organization products. Only 19 (19.6%) indicated lack of
conversancy with the products. The product Mixtures are as follows:
i. Extra Uji Meal: Composition: orange fruit, sweat potato, amaranths, sweet potato,
ii.
iii.
iv.
soya beans, groundnuts, millet, maize. Nutrients: Composed of all nutrients. Advantages: important for dehydration, cheap and nutritious.
Nene Uji Meal: Composition: soya beans, millet, and groundnuts. Nutrients: vitamins, fats, carbohydrates, oils and proteins. Advantages: a complete meal for growing
babies for growth and energy, boosts child’s immune system. This blend is good for
weaning babies.
Afya Uji Meal: Composition: Millet, Soya, Ground Nut and Citric Acid. The
blend is good for adults.
Maize Meal: P ure maize flour, which is hauled maize and then milled. Nutrients:
Carbohydrates, traces of vitamin and fats. Advantages: provides whole maize meal
(Ugali).
v.
Nguvu Meal: Composition: cassava and sorghum. Nutrients: carbohydrates, fats and
vi.
traces of vitamins. Advantages: preferred for diabetic people, and those with high blood
pressure; Luhya customs requirement especially during bride price payment.
Drinking Powder: Composition: soya beans, mariga leaves and ginger. Nutrients:
proteins, vitamins, fats. Advantages: flavours tea, acts as a stimulant, an appetizer and
of medicinal value to the sick (diabetics and ulcers)
There is need for BUSSFAM to exploit their products associated advantages to gain higher
market share. Majority (62.9%) of respondents cited an improvement in their health after using
Mugingo products.
Figure 4: Some of the composite flour products and their packaging
3. Capital requirements
BUSSFAM currently owns one (1) chipping machine, one drier, one hauler, one weighing machine and a milling machine plant with a capacity of grinding 100kg per hour. This is an advantage to the organization since they have a big capacity gap and is a newly established firm.
4. Switching costs
The majority of respondents asked what flour brand they used apart from ‘Mugingo’ indicated
that Exe, Ndovu, Jogoo, Hodari, Dola and Famila are the most popular flour brands in the area
as reported by 13 (13.4%) along with locally milled Maize flour (11, 11.3%) as shown in Table
2.
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Table 2: If not ‘Mugingo’, which flour do you use: please list
Brands
N/A
Maize flour-local milled
Exe, Ndovu, Jogoo, Hodari, Famila, Dola
Soko Sawa, Bebina
Ujimix
No response
Total
Frequency
6
11
13
1
3
63
97
Percent
6.2
11.3
13.4
1.0
3.1
64.9
100.0
The data shows there is competition in the Maize Meal products that comes from already
established brand names and locally milled maize flour. This means the organization should
not expect to stiff completion on the market share with its Maize meal and should give more
focus on the Nutrition flours that it offers and seemed to have been readily accepted. It will
also be important to identify what it is that makes those brands names more popular and potentially create a distinction between them and other flour products that will allow the organization to compete in that Market.
Since majority (62.9%) of the respondents agreed that there are improved health benefits after using ‘Mugingo’ flour, the organization should exploit that opportunity as a marketing effort. Customer testimonies should be used to market the products to potential buyers that there
is improved health benefits after using ‘Mugingo’ products which is an advantages to the firm.
Therefore important to encourage customer to spread word about the effects of the flour, and
emphasize the health improvements in all marketing efforts and materials for the products.
5. Access to distribution channels
The study identified the types of enterprises in the Busia area that sell flour products. The respondents indicated that the majority 34 (35.1%) buy their flour from the factory directly, 29
(29.9%) buy it from retail shops, 12 (12.4%) buy from the supermarkets and 8 (8.2%) buy
from wholesales. The data indicate that customers buy their flour primarily from intermediaries
and through normal distribution channels. This implies the organization can utilize distribution
networks that are already in place and established rather than creating a whole new distribution
method on its own.
6. Cost disadvantages independent of size
According to the data, Maize meal prices within the study area range between 50 and 55 KSHS
per kg. Because the range of prices is very restricted and almost the same throughout the market, the data indicates that customers are very price sensitive in regards to purchasing maize
flour and therefore the organization prices should not fall outside the average market prices.
Table 3: Flour Prices
Brands
N/A
Maize flour-local milled
Exe, Ndovu, Jogoo, Hodari, Famila, Dola
Soko Sawa, Bebina
Ujimix
No response
Total
Price per kg Frequency
6
50
11
60
13
45
1
65
3
63
97
Percent
6.2
11.3
13.4
1.0
3.1
64.9
100.0
7. Government policy
It is important that the organization is Legal in its operation to avoid the risk of being shut
down and allow market its products (Mwendo et al., 2004). From the onset the organization
started as Baba Foundation a local Community Based Organization registered under the ministry of culture and social services in 2002. Recently (March 2012) registered as Budalang’i
Small Scale Farmers Marketing Cooperative Society (BUSSFAM) an agro-processing cooperative providing a market and fortification of local food stuffs for farmers and the community
with a goal of poverty eradication. It also adheres to rules and regulations governing product
safety, hygiene, and other food laws. Therefore members are encouraged to take Loans, increase share subscription, make proposal to donors for funding, enter into contract with the
farmers and empower farmers and shareholders to grow a variety of crops.
Rivalry among existing firms
Rivalry is the amount of direct competition in an industry. In most industries corporations are
mutually dependent. A competitive move by one firm can be expected to have a noticeable
effect on its competitors and thus make retaliation or counter efforts (Schneider Farese et al.,
2001). According to Porter, intense rivalry is related to the presence of the following factors:
Number of competitors, Rate of industry growth, Product or service characteristics, Amount of
fixed costs, Capacity, Height of existing barriers, and Diversity of rivals (Joan Magretta, 2011).
In reference BUSSFAM, it existence is of mutually dependent relationship considering its vision, mission and objectives. BUSSFAM vision is become a leading Marketing Cooperative in
nutrient food with a mission to add value and provide working market to Small Scale Farmers
particularly in Budalang’i of Busia County. BUSSFAM objectives include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Improve food security and income among small scale farmers in Budalang’i
To mobilize small scale farmers into mass production and marketing of farm produce
To process and fortify farmers produce into nutritive food for market
To strengthen the capacity of Cooperative so as to improve the living standards of its
members and the community in general.
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Treat of substitute product or services
Substitute products are those products that appear to be different but can satisfy the same need
as another product. According to Porter, “Substitute limit the potential returns of an industry by
placing a ceiling on the prices firms in the industry can profitably charge.” To the extent that
switching costs are low, substitutes may have a strong effect on the industry.
Bargaining power of buyers
Buyers affect the industry through their ability to force down prices, bargain for higher
quality or more services, and play competitors against each other (Kotler and Armstrong,
2010). When BUSSFAM is analyzed along its strengths it stands the following advantages
as tabulated below:
STRENGTH
IMPLICATION
RESPONSE
The only processing plant Enjoy monopoly
Popularise the products
within Port Victoria
Local community proud of hav- and the processing mill
ing industry within the locality
Farmers are also members Farmers enjoy ownership of the Mobilize more farmers
of the coop
plant
to buy shares of the firm
Goodwill from sponsors
A fraction of the budget is deBe transparent in making
rived from donor funding
use of donor funds add
value for money
In order to solve the low production and sales challenges of BUSSFAM the following suggestions were made:
Need to increase market coverage from current 45% of Budalangi division to 100% coverage of Busia county, 10% coverage of all counties in Kenya and two other countries of the East
African community by the year 2017. The strategies to be adopted include:
i. Distribute BUSSFAM products to wholesalers and retailers and supermarkets
ii. Explore establishing and supplying of BUSSFAM products to food kiosks and Hotels
iii. Establish sale outlets on market days
iv. Be the main supply over cultural events like weddings, initiation ceremonies, funerals
among others.
v. Target to supply BUSSFAM products to institutions like schools and hospitals
vi. Do door to door marketing and sales campaigns
vii. Target churches for marketing
viii. Establish Internet marketing
ix. Approach relief organisations to buy BUSSFAM products.
x. Advertisement BUSSFAM products through local media like Balala FM, West FM, and
chief barazas
xi. Change packaging to accommodate even the lowest income earners e.g. ksh.5
xii. Introduction of cereal banking right from the village level to ensure all grain produce by
farmers are bought.
Conclusion
The fishing industry is slowly dying hence the gradual growth of the agribusiness industry, an
industry that has the capability to improve the farmer’s livelihood inclusive of their income.
Therefore need for the industry to engage farmers in training and support services to improve
production in their farms, increase membership of the Sacco and product market coverage.
Reference
FAOSTAT (Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nations Statistics) (2006): Vegetable Production Statistics. Available at http://www.faostat.org
Magretta, J. (2011): Understanding Michael Porter: The Essential Guide to Competition and
Strategy, Harvard Business Review Press, USA.
Schneider Farese, L., Kimbrell, G. and Woloszyk, C. A. (2001): Marketing Essentials. Third
Edition. Glencoe/McGraw-Hill.
Mwendo, K., Tschirley, D. and Weber, M. (2004): Improving Kenya’s Domestic Horticultural
Production and Marketing Systems. Tegemeo Institute of Agricultural Policy and Development, Egerton, Kenya.
Kotler, P. and Armstrong, G. (2010): Marketing: An Introduction. Global Edition. Pearson
Publisher.
Stewart, F. (2002): Horizontal Inequalities: A Neglected Dimension of Development. UNU
World Institute for Development Economics Research, 14: 161-201.
World Bank (2003): World Development Indicators. Washington, DC: Development Data
Center, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
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Mapping of Fresh and Vegetable value-chains and transportation networks
around Mt. Kenya
Noah Mutiso Kivala (Prospective Masters Student)
Geography Department Moi University, P.O. Box 3900-30100 Eldoret
Email: noahmutiso@gmail.com
Fresh food markets accounts for a significant share of total Kenya agricultural sales. Consumer
demand for fresh produce, both locally and internationally, has been growing significantly over
years. Marketing of fresh produce is of paramount importance as most of the produces are perishable. Market locations, as well as consumers are vital for the business. Other supporting infrastructures also help in the growth of the sector as they help in timely delivery of the produce. This research will help to determine fundamental forces affecting fresh produce marketing.
Use of Best Management Practices as an innovative approach to Balance
Land/Water Use and Conservation in Aquaculture
James Mugo* and Mucai Muchiri
School of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies; Karatina University College, P.O. 1957-10101
Karatina, Kenya.
*Email: jbmugo@yahoo.com
Aquaculture has been facing some challenges in relation to the effluents release from the ponds
directly into the natural aquatic environments. To reduce problems associated with nutrients
release, on-farm trials have been carried out to test several approaches. The document provides
the description of two approaches as a case study in an on-farm trial setup. These includes, use
of old and new water for filling the pond and use of locally prepared feeds and high quality
feeds to maximize conversion of feeds to fish. The findings indicated that the use of old water
and high quality feeds resulted to better growth than the use of new and locally home prepared
feeds.
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Changing Gender Roles in Export-Oriented Small-Scale Horticultural
Farming in Mt. Kenya Region.
Maria Caterina Velte* and Peter Dannenberg
Geography Department, Humboldt-University of Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin
*maria@velte-design.de
Introduction: Professionalization in the Horticultural Sector
Kenya has successfully developed professional production and marketing structures in largescale and in small-scale horticultural family farming in the last decades (Dannenberg and
Nduru, 2012). (The horticultural sector is defined here as fruit and vegetable production and
marketing, without flowers). A growing number of small-scale farmers successfully became
export-oriented and hence integrated into international value chains that usually end at European customer markets (Dannenberg, 2008; Dolan and Humphfrey, 2004; Ouma, 2010). This
process of internationalization in the horticultural sector may lead to different threats (see for
example the discussion about excluded farmers because of high certification fees; Ouma, 2010;
Dannenberg and Nduru, 2012). However, due to export-orientation rural poverty in Kenya has
been reduced and many farmers could improve living conditions, because of increased rural
incomes (ibid).
Women in the Horticultural Sector
There is gender related research in an African context since the 1980s (Adomako Ampofo et
al., 2009) and it states that gender differences are central to agriculture and farming systems in
Sub-Saharan Africa (Meitzen-Dick et al., 2012) in terms of ownership, management of farms
and natural resources, access to resources defined by cultural specific gender roles (ibid) etc.
Women remain concentrated in the microenterprise and therefore mostly informal sector, at the
bottom of the economic pyramid of income (Chen et al., 2006, Gössling et al., 2012).
The horticultural sector of Sub-Sahara-African Countries is characterised by differentiated
business structures to which women traditionally contribute about 50-75% of the work force
(Barrientos et al., 2003). According to that women do not only play a crucial role in the horticultural sector, moreover they are also especially issued by the changes due to exportorientation.
Research Interest
Different studies have analysed gender roles in large-scale export orientated professional farming (see e.g. Barrientos et al., 2003) in African rural areas, but so far studies on the dynamics in
gender roles in small-scale and mostly family businesses are very few. Therefore the question
that needs to be answered is: To what degree does turning to professional international value
chains impact the gender roles in small-scale horticultural farming in Kenya?
Figure 1: Possible impacts of globalization and professionalization in international value
chains on gender roles and family farming
Edited from Dannenberg (2012)
Current state of research
The current state of research shows heterogeneous effects of integration in international value
chains on women in the horticultural sector. Among the positive effects for rural women are
increased access to employment and income in non-traditional, export oriented businesses,
such as flowers and fruits, for example in Uganda and Kenya (Adomako Ampofo et al., 2009).
Generally an increase of resources in female hands leads to better education and nutrition for
children, which has been proved by many different studies (e.g. Barrett et al., 1996). On the
other hand Dolan (2001: 39) has stated that horticulture, the historical domain of women in
Kenya’s agriculture, has been rapidly intensified, commodified and appropriated by men. This
again raises the question if traditional “female jobs” are now more and more taken over by
men.
Integration in international value chains may leverage the proliferation of international labour standards (e.g. by ILO, ETI or GlobalGAP) for formal employment. However, not only in
Kenya there is a gender-specific division of labour. That means that men are traditionally
stronger involved in formal employment or full time work (e.g. as farmers), whereas women
usually work in the “twilight zone” between informal employment (e.g. seasonal work on large
farming business, helping on the family farm, or selling the produce) and unpaid reproductive
work (Barrientos et al., 2003: 1515). Also first own research in Mt. Kenya Region has shown
that the horticultural small-scale sector works almost completely informally. Furthermore integration in the world market means also being dependent on highly volatile market conditions,
due to a flexible demand of the large retail companies. Barrientos et al. (2003) state that this
leads to uprising insecurity for export-oriented horticulture producers and is compensated by
seasonal and informal work.
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National legislation and special private codes of conduct are meant to improve poor working conditions, however the latter “form part of a governance system within GVCs that itself
encourages the use of informal workers to meet ‘just-in-time’ production requirements.” (ibid:
1522f.)
Potential Working Hypotheses
Horticultural family farming is increasingly marked by integration in professional and international value chains. In relation to the degree of professionalization through integration in international value chains, changes in gender roles in horticultural family farming take place. These
changes might influence the following aspects:
• Income and acquirement of property (direct and indirect)
• Division of labour (productive and reproductive work) and gender roles in general:
o Empowerment: Revaluation of women´s traditional jobs through professionalization; alteration of traditional working patterns
o Marginalization: Rising incomes through professionalised export farming
may lead men to take over sales functions which were formally organised
by women; according to that it needs to be tested if there is a new labour division with women selling on local markets (smaller quantities) and men
taking over sales functions for export markets (larger quantities)
• Regulatory effects according to increasing international standards (e.g. by retailers,
sectoral associations or NGOs):
o Improved working conditions and gender equality
o Regulatory effects for production but not necessarily direct social effects for
producers
o Proliferation of standards may mainly affect (male dominated) formal employment and not (female dominated) informal employment
o Integration in international value chains could lead to an expansion of informal work
Conceptual Framework and Methods
Of importance is a gender sensitive approach in concepts and methodology. Therefore the thesis will be based on a combination of the Global Value Chain Approach (Gereffi et al., 2005)
and a Gendered Economy Approach (Bauhardt et al., 2010; Barrientos et al., 2003). It still
needs to be resumed how far a Sustainable Livelihood-Approach and findings from the research area of the Informal Sector can be useful for the methodological setting.
Next to an analysis of the specific regulatory framework in the Kenyan horticultural sector,
especially for exporting products to Europe (e.g. GlobalGAP, ETI, national legislation, ILO
convention etc.), there will be a phase of data collection in Mt. Kenya Region in February
2013. This research unit will contain a mix of methods (semi-standardized qualitative interviews) and approaches with focus on everyday experiences (Staeheli et al., 1994). It will be
important to be highly reflexive about the gendered background of the researcher. The interviews will be roughly divided in three units:
1. Degree of Professionalization: Definition of Categories of Professionalization – Indicators?
2. Changes and influence of regulatory framework?
3. Traditional labour division and changes? (Here the focus will be on gender roles and
power asymmetries, including access to resources, education and decision-making competences and organized practices in different social settings like the village community)
The data collection will be located in rural communities (for e.g. farming households, farmers at collecting points, market sellers, farmer associations, rural community authority, etc.). In
addition to that interviews with external players like exporter associations (for e.g. FPEAK)
about gender issues in their quality management systems will be held. Furthermore interviews
with NGOs and other institutions which try to improve gender equality and labour legislation
in the horticultural sector will be of great interest.
References:
Adomako Ampofo, A., Beoku-Betts, J., Njambi, N.W. and Johnson Osirim, M. (2009):
Women’s and Gender Studies in English-speaking sub-Saharan Africa: A review of research in the social sciences. In: Bose, C.E. and Kim M. (eds.): Global Gender Research.
Transnational Perspectives. New York: Routledge. pp. 16-40.
Barrett, H. and Browne, A. (1996): Export horticultural production in Sub-Saharan Africa. The
incorporation of the Gambia. Geography, 81(1): 47-56.
Barrientos, S., Dolan, C. and Tallontire, A. (2003): A Gendered Value Chain Approach to
Codes of Conduct in African Horticulture. World Development, 31(9): 1511-1526.
Bauhardt, C. and Caglar, G. (eds.) (2010): Gender and Economics. Feministische Kritik der
politischen Ökonomie. Springer VS.
Chen, M., Vanek, J. and Heintz, J. (2006): Informality, gender and poverty. Economic and Political Weekly, 41(21): 2131-2139.
Dannenberg, P. and Nduru, G. (2012): New Challenges and Realities in International Value
Chains – Analysing the Proliferation of Standards beyond the Exclusion Debate. Tijdschrift
voor Economische en Sociale Geographie (online first).
Dolan, C.S. (2001): The ‘Good Wife’: Struggles over Resources in the Kenyan horticultural
sector. The Journal of Development Studies, 37(3): 39-70.
Dolan, C.S. and Humphrey, J. (2004): Changing governance patterns in the trade in fresh vegetables between Africa and the United Kingdom. EnvironmEnt and Planning, 36: 491-509.
Gereffi, G., Humphrey, J. and Sturgeon, T. (2005): The Governance of Global Value Chains.
Review of International Political Economy, 12(1): 78-104.
Gössling, S. and Schumacher, K. (2012): Conceptualizing the Survival Sector in Madagascar.
Antipode 44(2): 321-341.
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Meizen-Dick, R., Koppen, B.V., Behrman, J., Karelina, Z., Akamandisa, V., Hope, L. and
Wielgosz, B. (2012): Putting gender on the map. Methods for mapping gendered farm management systems in sub-Saharan Africa. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01153.
Staeheli, L.A. and Lawson, V.A. (1994): A Discussion of “Women in the field”: The politics
of feminist fieldwork. Professional Geographer, 46(1): 96-102.
Ouma, S. (2010): Global Standards, Local Realities: Private Agrifood Governance and the Restructuring of the Kenyan Horticulture Industry. Economic Geography, 86(2): 197-222.
DAY 2: TUESDAY 23RD OCTOBER 2012
The ecological and economical potential of agroforestry-systems – examples
and experiences from Africa and Europe
Heide Hoffmann
Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin
Email: heide.hoffmann@agrar.hu-berlin.de
The need to count with economic, profitable and sustainable alternatives for agricultural production make local actors and governments put in movement and think of implementation processes for systems adequate to climatic, environmental and social local conditions. In this way,
Agroforestry Systems turned up into an alternative to improve the agricultural production
especially in large scale deforested and erodible territories of dry and tropical lands, as well as
of temperate zone. Even if these systems have been practiced for centuries on the part of
indigenous communities, it is only in the last 15 years that they became worldwide studied and
systematized, beginning the era of the Agroforestry Systems.
Agroforestry Systems have been valued because of the principle of cooperation over the
competition between species into agricultural systems. Foliage and shadow supply, windstopper mechanisms, nutrient exchanges, ancestral knowledge about earth protection, development
of local products, community cooperation, innovation, chances for market building and web
participation; all these aspects are included through an interdisciplinary approach (biological,
economical, agricultural, and social sciences) as well as AFS Systems provide several advantages for agricultural productivity, especially compared to monocultural systems. Including
trees and/or livestock into a cropping system in arid areas, where nutrient water supply abilities
from outside is limited, advantages range from enhancing foliage and shadow supply over
promoting nutrients recycling and soil fertility to reducing erosion and supporting biodiversity.
Further both systems give farmers the opportunity to diversify their productions; hence farmers become less depended on the market prices of one specific product and become more
resilient to negative changes in economic developments.
This contribution will evaluate the ecological and economical potential of several Agroforestry/silvopastoral systems using in tropical and temperate arid areas (e.g. Egypt, Kenya, and
Germany).
The result of the analysis will be demonstrated in the form of a SWOT matrix.
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Bats as bioindicators – The influence of forestry and agriculture on insectivorous microchiroptera
Nicole Starik*, Ulrich Zeller
Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture, Humboldt-Universitätzu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin
*Email: nicole.starik@agrar.hu-berlin.de
The development of effective approaches and guidelines for sustainable land use requires reliable data about the influences of different land use systems on biodiversity and natural resources. Due to the complexity of ecosystems, e.g. on the syn-ecological level, it is not easy to
directly assess possible influences of different land use systems.
Therefore, there is a growing demand for reliable indicators to measure, evaluate and communicate anthropogenic influence on biodiversity and to use particular taxa that show measurable responses to changes as indicators of the state and quality of the environment (McGeoch,
1998). It is important to note that the term “bioindicator” is widely used; the definitions range
from the description of local site conditions to the explicit ecotoxicological application of organisms as indicators of pollution levels (Arndt et al., 1996). Environmental change can cause
different kinds of effects in an indicator species, including physiological processes or changes
in ecological parameters, such as species richness, abundance and diversity (Rainio and
Niemelä, 2003, Hoffmann and Zeller, 2005, Hoffmann et al., 2007). Within this framework, it
is necessary to distinguish between biodiversity bioindicators, ecological bioindicators and environmental bioindicators (Jones et al., 2009). In this work, we are focusing on the ecological
bioindicator, whose responses to environmental stress factors reflect the responses of at least a
subset of other taxa present in the habitat (Jones et al., 2009). To be selected as bioindicators
and meet the concepts’ requirements, species must exhibit a certain degree of organismic sensitivity to environmental changes (e.g. bottlenecks in populations of organisms).
Bats take an exceptional role within the Mammalia, both systematically and ecologically
(Kunz and Fenton, 2003, Simmons and Conway, 2003, Patterson et al., 2003). The ecological
success of bats is based on various morphological, physiological and behavioral adaptations for
a nocturnal life, most important echolocation and active flight (Schnitzler et al., 2003). The
strong association between their relatively long life span and a relatively low reproductive rate
(few offspring) results in a unique life history, which clearly differs from other small mammals. As highly mobile species, using the three dimensions of their habitat (active flight), bats
require complex, species-specific habitat structures, e. g. hunting grounds and roosting sites
(hibernation). Due to their outstanding position in the ecosystem, bats could be useful indicators to assess the effects of land use on the ecosystems’ interrelations (Jones et al., 2009, Kunz
et al., 2007). Particularly insectivorous bats are known to be sensitive to environmental changes, as they represent a high trophic level, while environmental disturbance has been proven to
affect their prey species (Burfordet al., 1999, Summerville and Crist, 2002, Dodd et al., 2011).
The aim of the present study is to apply the concept of bioindication to different species of
bats, more precisely to test for their suitability as ecological indicators in different forest- and
agricultural systems in and around a protected area, the ‘Naturpark Westhavelland’ in Brandenburg (Germany). The study will assess differences in bat abundance, species richness, species composition and activity patterns, as well as the availability of key resources (food and
roosts) across a range of forests and agricultural systems, which differ in management intensity
and habitat features. The choice of habitats in which the different bat species may most effectively forage, is often determined by species-specific differences in wing morphology and echolocation call structure. We aim to investigate, if and in how far structural parameters of forests
and agro-ecosystems (e. g. horizontal diversity and vertical complexity, cultivation forms,
Fig.1) influence the occurrence, foraging activity and habitat choice of the respective bat species. Therefore, a combination of different methodological approaches is used, including 1)
bioacoustic methods (stationary voice boxes, handheld bat detectors and real-time recordings
with Batcorder), 2) live captures with mist nets, 3) radiotelemetry, 4) roost mapping, and 5)
captures of nocturnal insects with light traps.
Thereby we aim to detect if there is a measurable response (an ecologically meaningful
‘signal’) of a species or species group (foraging guild, roosting guild) to human induced
changes in habitat. Once species have been appropriately sampled and identified, their ‘responses’ (e.g. changes in abundance, richness or composition in relation to land-use) must be
able to be reliably interpreted and clearly to be distinguished from natural variability. Only
then, the application of the bioindicator concept can be proved and regarded as an applicable
tool for assessing the sustainability of land use in the future.
Figure1: Hypothetical framework of the study
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References
Arndt, U., Fomin, A. and Lorenz, S. (1996): Bio-Indikation. Neue Entwicklungen, Nomenklatur, synökologische Aspekte. Verlag G. Heimbach.
Burford, L.S., Lacki, M.J. and Covell, C.V. (1999): Occurrence of moths among habitats in a
mixed-mesophytic forest: implications for management of forest bats. Forest.Science, 45.:
323-332.
Dodd, L.E., Lacki, M.J., Britzke, E.R., Buehler, D.A., Keyser, P.D., Larkin, J.L.,
Rodewald, A.D., Bently, T., Wigley, T.B., Wood, P.B. and Rieske, L.K. (2011): Forest
structure affects trophic linkages: How silvicultural disturbance impacts bats and their
insect prey. Forest Ecology and Management, 267: 262-270.
Hoffmann, A. and Zeller, U. (2005): Influence of variations in land use intensity on species
diversity and abundance of small mammals in the Nama Karoo, Namibia. Belgian J.
Zool., 135: 91-96.
Hoffmann, A., Bengsch, S., Starik, N. and Zeller, U. (2007): Klima und Artenvielfalt:
Mäuse als Bioindikator – (Warn-)Signale der Natur bereits sichtbar? Afrikapost, 2: 3435
Jones, G., Jacobs, D.S, Kunz, T.H., Willig, M.R. and Racey, P.A. (2009): Carpe noctem:
The importance of bats as bioindicators. Endangered Species Research, 8: 93-115.
Kunz, T.H. and Fenton, M.B. (2003): Bat Ecology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Kunz, T.H., Arnett, E.P., Erickson, W.P., Hoar, A.R., Johnson, G.D., Larkin, R.P., Strickland,
M.D., Thresher, R.W. and Tuttle, M.D. (2007): Ecological impacts of wind energy development on bats: questions, research needs, and hypotheses. Frontiers in Ecology and the
Environment, 5: 315-324.
McGeoch, M.A. (1998): The selection, testing and application of terrestrial insects as
bioindicators. Biol. Rev., 73: 181-201.
Patterson, B.D., Willig, M.R. and Stevens, R.D. (2003): Trophic strategies, niche partitioning,
and patterns of ecological organization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 536-579.
Rainio, J. and Niemelä, J. (2003): Ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) as bioindicators.
Biodivers.Conserv., 12: 487-506.
Schnitzler, H.U., Moss, C.F. and Denzinger, A. (2003): From spatial orientation to food acquisition in echolocating bats. Trends EcolEvol, 18: 386-394.
Simmons, N.B. and Conway, T. (2003). Evolution of ecological diversity in bats. In: Kunz,
T.H. and Fenton, M.B. (eds.): Bat Ecology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 493535.
Summerville, K.S. and Crist, T.O. (2002): Effects of timber harvest on forest lepidoptera:
community, guild, and species responses. Ecological Applications, 12: 820-835.
Investigations on the occurrence and relative abundance of large carnivores
and their potential prey using camera traps and line transect sampling
Jenny Noack*, Fabian Schwabe, Thomas Göttert, Nicole Starik and Ulrich Zeller
Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture, Humboldt-Universitätzu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin
*Email: jenny.no@hotmail.de
The Etosha National Park (ENP) in Namibia is a good example for pronounced edge (fence)
effects and land use contrasts at the borders of a protected area. Land use contrasts result in
serious human-wildlife conflicts, especially when livestock farmland is directly bordering the
park. Large carnivores, exploring vast areas regardless of the respective land use form, are
causing damage on livestock populations and have little or no value for traditional farmers next
to the ENP. In order to smoothen the existing land use contrasts and human-wildlife conflicts,
it is of great importance to better understand the behavior, e. g. spatial and habitat requirements
of the endangered large carnivores, as well as the relationship with their prey species.
In this study, the occurrence and relative abundance of large carnivores and ungulate species (as their potential prey) was investigated by using two different methods of wildlife monitoring: (1) Camera traps and (2) Line transect sampling. By simultaneously implementing both
methods, we aim to directly compare them to find out, which approach seems more suitable in
this case. The study was carried out in a 90km2 privately owned, fenced-in game farm in direct
adjacency to the ENP. The study period was four months (Mar-Jun 2012).
The preliminary results are based on six defined transects, representing the occurring habitat
types, and seven camera traps that covered the existent water holes of the study area. The occurrence of ten carnivore and 13 (potential prey) ungulate species was proven on the basis of
camera traps, while line transect sampling only revealed the occurrence of nine ungulate and
no carnivore species. Camera trap photos enabled to determine the relative abundance of large
carnivore species, such as leopard (Panthera pardus) and cheetah (Acinonxy jubatus) by the
identification of individual animals. In order to successfully identify individuals, external characteristics (e.g. spot patterns and physical traits) were analyzed. Camera trap photos not only
allowed to develop an initial inventory of resident and temporary carnivore species but also to
investigate aspects of their spatial and temporal behavior. We were further able to analyze circadian rhythms of different ungulate species and to show that the seasonal change during the
study period (wet season → dry season) led to an increased animal capture frequency at the
water holes over the course of the study.
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Figure 1: A female cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) and her three cubs coming to drink at a water
hole during the day hours
Figure 2: A large herd of eland antelopes (Tragelaphus oryx) at a water hole
Investigating the spatial and temporal behavior of a translocated black rhino (Diceros bicornis) starter group on a private game farm in Namibia using
camera traps and VHF radio telemetry
Fabian Schwabe*, Jenny Noack, Thomas Göttert, Nicole Starik and Ulrich Zeller
Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin
*Email: fabian-schwabe@gmx.net
The black rhino (Diceros bicornis) is the more endangered African rhino species and acts as a
distinguished example of a flagship species. As a result of extensive poaching, the numbers of
black rhinos declined drastically. In order to protect and stabilize the remaining populations,
animals from areas with redundant numbers of black rhinos (e. g. Etosha National Park in Namibia) are transferred into other fenced-in and protected areas with small or no rhino populations. Due to the fact that translocations are very important and cost-intensive procedures, careful post-release monitoring and management is of the utmost importance. Monitoring programs are, for example, essential tools for evaluating the suitability and sustainability of the
chosen habitat concerning the area’s size and the availability of resources and shelter. Furthermore, ongoing monitoring and systematic post-release studies are needed to generate information about social structures, including possible intra-specific aggression, and the reproductive performance of starter populations. A promising and appealing possibility to observe and
monitor rhinos after their translocation is the use of camera traps and VHF telemetry. Each of
these non-invasive approaches has proven to be a reliable method of observation in the field.
Aim of this study is to combine and compare VHF radio telemetry and camera traps in order to document the behavior and physiology of a re-introduced black rhino founder group in a
fenced-in area in Namibia. One important aspect was the question, whether the camera traps
are continuously and sufficiently providing data, once the radio transmitters fail due to the limited battery lifespan.
During the study period of four months we collected approximately 5,500 pictures of black
rhinos at the seven waterholes distributed across the farm. Camera trap pictures enable us to
successfully identify all of the four translocated rhinos and to evaluate social structures, aspects
of temporal and spatial behavior, health status and ultimately the time-being success of this
specific translocation procedure. The combination of the two methods allows data collection
throughout the day and night hours and is providing reciprocally supporting data. By means of
this investigation, we can help to make predictions about management strategies and prospective translocations of other black rhino populations and hope to give suggestions for physical
planning in the future.
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Figure 1: Signs of malnutrition: This rhino seems to be in a poor health condition. After this
picture was taken, we used radio telemetry to achieve direct observations for a further evaluating of this animal’s condition.
Figure 2: A rare social interaction: All four rhinos re-introduced to the area were gathering
at the same waterhole during one night.
Taxonomic revision and biogeography of the genus Mastomys in Namibia
and adjacent countries
Seth J. Eiseb*¹, U. Zeller², P. J. Taylor³, V. Nicolas4 and C. Denys4
1
National Museum of Namibia, P O Box 1203, Windhoek, Namibia
Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099,
Berlin, Germany
3
Durban Natural Science Museum, P. O. Box 4085, Durban, 4000, South Africa, and Dept of Ecology &
Resource Management, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou, 0950, South Africa
4
Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Department Systematics & Evolution, UMR CNRS 7205, 55 rue
Buffon, 75005, Paris cedex 05, France
*Email: seth_eiseb@yahoo.co.uk
2
The taxonomic status of the genus Mastomys in southern Africa is subject of discussions and
has been changed several times over the years. Small mammals of the genus Mastomys are important reservoir hosts of many diseases affecting humans and they are significant agricultural
pests. However, it is not clear if the different species affect humans in a similar way. Therefore, knowledge about the taxonomic status and the distribution range of the members of the
genus Mastomys in southern Africa is of great importance.
This study aims to determine the number of Mastomys species and their geographical distribution in Namibia and parts of Botswana and Angola. A total of 352 specimens were
trapped in these countries. The methodological approach included skull morphometrics (396
specimens), karyotypes (64 specimens) and cytochrome-b gene sequences (141 specimens).
Results indicate that M. coucha and M. natalensis have a distinct geographical distribution in
Namibia. This distinct geographical distribution pattern seems to be influenced by precipitation, since M. coucha mainly occurs in the low rainfall areas of central Namibia, while M.
natalensis can be found in higher rainfall areas of north-central and north-eastern Namibia, extending into Angola and northern Botswana. Karyologic data suggest the existence of a third
karyomorph (probably M. shortridgei), which shares the same diploid number (2n = 36) with
M. coucha but differs in fundamental number: M. shortridgei (aFN = 51/52) and M. coucha
(aFN = 60). Both molecular and karyologic data indicate that M. coucha is the closest extant
relative of M. shortridgei. The results of this study will improve the current understanding of
systematics and biogeography of Mastomys in southern Africa as the prerequisite for effective
pest control.
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The impact of re-establishing indigenious plants and restoring the natural landscape on sustainable rural employment and land productivity
through payment for environmental services
Karen J. Esler1*, James Blignaut, Martin de Wit, Sue Milton, David le Maitre, Steve
Mitchell and Doug Crookes
1
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Stellenbosch, JS Marais Building, Room 3011, Victoria Street, Stellenbosch
*Email: kje@sun.ac.za
I will report on a large scale, collaborative study that focused on developing an evidence base
for the use of economic tools/instruments in the decision-making process with respect to restoration. Our team conducted ecological, hydrological, and socio-economic assessments to determine the impact of restoration at eight existing ecologically and socio-economically different restoration sites; these were compared to nearby degraded or un-restored areas. Following
this, an integrated systems dynamic model on the likely impact of restoration on the ecology,
hydrology and economy of notably agriculture, was developed. This was used to conceptualize
a conventional return/risk economic decision-making nexus, developed for application as a
decision-making framework for restoration prioritization over a range of environmental conditions. By making both the cost and the benefits of restoration explicit, we aimed to provide an
environment conducive for the development of markets for ecosystem goods and services (offered by restoration). This study was FUNDED though ASSET research by the Water Research Commission (Project K5/1803) with support from the Working for Water programme.
Evaluating social-ecological aspects of edge effects and land use conflicts at
the borders of Etosha National Park, Namibia
Lelani M. Mannetti1*, Karen J. Esler1 and Ulrich Zeller2
1
Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland
7602, South Africa
2
Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin
*Email: lmannetti@sun.ac.za
The study aims to investigate the premise that the implementation of a buffer zone around a
national park provides opportunities for local communities to become active in the management of such areas. The study focuses on the Etosha National Park in Namibia, where the implementation of a buffer zone has been proposed, since the park fence is a potential barrier for
ecosystem and social-ecological integrity. The research explores the extent to which the park
fence influences the livelihoods of land owners and resource users in selected areas, by assessing local perspectives on the artificial boundary between them and their natural environment. The protected area landscape comprises disjointed national parks, communal conservancies and private reserves, that if incorporated, offer unequivocal conservation opportunities.
Current efforts include devising a system of integrating land and natural resource management,
including strategic partnerships between communities, private landowners and state institutions. Effectively implementing a buffer zone will require innovative solutions, dependent on
consensus building and the formation of partnerships between the park and its neighbours. The
study aims to assess the social-ecological edge effects and resulting land use conflicts at the
borders of the park, as this will aid in identifying suitable implementation strategies. Current
and potential institutional arrangements and linkages are to be investigated to further adaptive
co-governance of land and natural resources.
Introduction
Situated on the south western coast of Africa, Namibia is best described as the continent’s driest country south of the Sahara, one of its most recently independent states, with one of the
world’s highest income disparities and an unrivalled concentration of endemic dryland biodiversity. Rainfall is highly variable over space and time, while the combination of poor soils
and low rainfall means that primary production is low with arable land accounting for less than
1% of the country (FAO, 2011). This leaves Namibians to cope with considerable uncertainty
regarding food security and environmental outcomes, with drought being a common phenomenon. The means of coping is largely by developing diversification strategies at different levels, including a combination of livestock farming, use and sale of wild fruit, timber, fish as
well as crop farming (Jones, 2003). Many are turning to ‘natural resource production’, which is
the use and management of indigenous plant and animal resources for commercial purposes
(Mendelsohn et al., 2006). Fairly little, however, is known about the country’s biodiversity and
how to best protect its natural resources and social ecological systems (Jones, 2003).
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Presently, approximately 17% of the country is classified as formally protected and is encompassed within 22 national parks, game reserves and recreational areas (Mendelsohn et al.,
2006). This protected area system serves as an important core to the greater system of areas
dedicated to conservation, which are ecologically and economically linked (Turpie et al.,
2010). Formal, state owned protected areas are supplemented by a cluster of adjoining conservancies and similar privately protected areas on private and communal land, which further
contributes to the conservation estate. To summarize, almost 40% of Namibia is under conservation management through communal conservancies, freehold conservancies, tourism concessions and community forests and protected areas on state land (Jones et al., 2009). This
conservation landscape presents unequivocal and unique conservation opportunities. The potential for rationalising management exists to facilitate the delivery of greater ecological and
social benefits (Brown et al., 2005). In order to effectively expand, manage and develop protected area networks that will adequately protect natural diversity and landscapes, a need lies in
devi-sing a system of integrated land and natural resource management.
In terms of conservation, the most important areas in the north-west zone, where the present
study is being conducted, include Etosha National Park (ENP), Skeleton Coast Park (SKP) and
the conservancies in western Kunene. Due to its climate, elevation and substrates, the northwestern escarpment and desert is inhabited by many of the country’s endemic species. Here the
occurrence of free ranging herds of wildlife, together with the world’s only expanding population of black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) outside of a park, adds to the attraction value of the
area (Brown et al., 2005). A key challenge in this zone is enabling the continued growth of
wildlife numbers, while simultaneously reducing conflicts between humans and wildlife. The
Etosha National Park fence itself has been identified as interference for ecosystem integrity as
well as for social-ecological integrity, due primarily to the contrasting land use strategies between the ENP and its surrounding areas (Göttert and Zeller, 2008). It has been recommended
that ENP management and park neighbours would benefit from entering into strategic conservation agreements so as to ease pressure on Etosha’s boundaries (Brown et al., 2005). Addressing the issue requires innovative solutions, dependent on consensus building and the formation
of partnerships between the park and its neighbours. In the context of adjacent land use and
low population densities, ENP is ideally situated compared to many other African parks and as
such, an excellent opportunity presents itself for implementing a park-and-neighbours strategy
focused on developing surrounding areas towards effective buffer zones for the ENP.
The objectives of a specific buffer zone, however, are highly context specific (UNESCO,
1995) and variable objectives have been shown to hinder the success of buffer zones (Martino,
2001). How then do we establish the objectives of the ENP buffer zone when dealing with a
mosaic of land uses, each with its own social-ecological conflicts? A need lies in first understanding those social-ecological issues, from the perspective of resident communities themselves. This will then facilitate the comparison between other examples and the opportunity to
learn from these experiences so as to ultimately lead to the involvement of the various stakeholders to promote institutional interplay. Imperative to the development of strategies to over-
come the artificial boundaries of the ENP is the incorporation of different forms of land use,
where various conflicts occur/potentially can occur and where contextual solutions and approaches are called for. In order to successfully implement a buffer zone and to overcome the
artificial boundaries encapsulating the ENP, a need lies in a) incorporating the different forms
of land use and their ensuing conflicts; and b) including the opinions of different stakeholders
and considering their different interests and needs so as to create ecologically and socially sustainable solutions.
This integration of different ecological and social aspects, stakeholders and functions is central to the study. In particular, it aims to assess the social-ecological edge effects and resulting
land use conflicts at the borders of ENP, investigating to what extent the fence influences the
livelihoods of landowners and local communities in different areas (private farms, communal
farms and communal conservancies). Insight gained will potentially inform the integrated joint
governance of land and resources surrounding the ENP.
The intended study aims to give a more holistic perspective on the complex and interdependent conflicts and developments surrounding the buffer zone concept. More specifically,
the study objectives are:
1. to identify and map the different groups and stakeholders around the ENP so as to assess the social-ecological nature and consequences of the park fence;
2. to analyze how the existing scenario (based on 1) compares to other case studies to
provide an informed indication of how the implementation of a buffer zone would affect social-ecological dynamics and adaptive co-governance of land and resources;
3. to identify significant collaborations and linkages between relevant stakeholders to
foster improved institutional arrangements; and
4. to identify best practice solutions for policy makers, planners, conservationists, businesses and communities around the ENP and in general.
Research questions
• What is the nature and consequences of social-ecological edge effects and land-use
conflicts at the borders of ENP (private land, communal land and communal conservancies)?
o (i.e. what is the significance of the fence in the social-ecological context?)
• How does the ENP and its proposed buffer zone compare to other case studies in Africa?
• What are the significant existing collaborations and institutional interplay in and between communities, different forms of land users, national park management and
NGO’s?
• What are the potential/alternative institutional arrangements and linkages?
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Conclusion
A great deal of research has been dedicated to comprehending the complexity of social and
ecological systems and the need to understand the linkages between these systems in adaptive
management aimed at conserving resilience (Berkes and Folke, 1998; Berkes et al., 2003). The
proposed study aims to identify means for achieving biodiversity conservation through effective links between national parks management and natural resource use by resident communities, as alternatives to fence-and-fines approaches that typify much of present-day national
parks management. Conservation literature is replete with concerns about the increasingly island nature or isolation of protected areas, corresponding threats to ecological integrity and
biodiversity protection within parks, and growing threats to biodiversity on the landscape level
surrounding designated protected areas. Many have argued that the way forward is to integrate
conservation with community development. The research aims to apply the theory of complex
social-ecological systems, managing for both ecological and social resilience (Holling and
Meffe, 1996, Berkes et al., 2003). A specific research objective of the study is to identify and
understand institutional linkages and interplay, both horizontal and vertical (Berkes, 2004;
Young, 2002), involved in the implementation of a buffer zone on the ENP border. The identification of possible institutional arrangements and network structures to re-couple local people
and protected areas is also central to the research. Biodiversity conservation in protected areas
and its adjacent land use conflicts and edge effects, demand partnerships in collective action
among multiple stakeholders. In terms of practical outcomes, the case study will also contribute to Namibia’s Ministry of Environment and Tourism current attempt at strengthening the
country’s protected area network. The findings could assist various agents in creating cooperative or partnership management approaches. The research is topical in terms of emerging new
fields of interdisciplinary inquiry concerning the future of community-based conservation and
evolving community management models for national parks and protected areas, particularly
concerning adaptive co-governance of natural resources.
References
Berkes, F. (2004): Rethinking community-based conservation. Conservation Biology, 18: 621630.
Berkes, F. and Folke, C. (1998): Living social and ecological systems: management practices
and social mechanisms for building resilience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Berkes, F., Colding, J. and Folke, C. (eds.) (2003): Navigating social-ecological systems:
building resilience for complexity and change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, C. J., Canney, S., Martin, R. and Tarr, P. (2005): Conservation needs assessment. Subcontract No. 3 of the Strengthening the System of National Protected Areas Project, Namibia. Namibia Nature Foundation, Windhoek.
FAO (2011): Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. FAOSTAT. Rome,
Italy. Available at http://www.fao.org/countries/55528/en/nam/
Göttert, T. and Zeller, U. (2009): Etosha buffer zone – A concept to support efforts to link
Etosha National Park to the transnational network of protected areas in southern Africa. In:
Czech University of Life Sciences: Conservation biology and beyond: from science to practice. 2nd European Congress of Conservation Biology (ECCB), Prague.
Holling, C. S. and Meffe, G. K. (1996): Command and control and the pathology of natural
resource management. Conservation Biology, 10: 328-337.
Jones, B. T. (2003): Selected natural resource management and limited rural development assessment. Report for USAID, Windhoek.
Jones J., von Oertzen, D., Zeidler, J., Davidson, A., Ramakhutla, H., Toto, A., du Plessis, P.,
Thalwitzer, S., Kiratu, S., Ndhlukula, K. and Kandjinga, L. (2009): Rapid Trade and Environment Assessment (RTEA). National Report for Namibia. International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), Winnipeg.
Martino, D. (2001): Buffer zones around protected areas: a brief literature review. Electronic
Green Journal, 1: 5.
Mendelsohn, J., el Obeid, S., de Klerk, N. and Vigne, P. (2006): Farming systems in Namibia.
Namibia National Farmers Union (NNFU), Windhoek.
Turpie, J., Barnes, J., Lange, G. and Martin, R. (2010): The economic value of Namibia's protected area system: a case for increased investment. Report compiled for The Ministry of
Environment and Tourism, Directorate of Parks and Wildlife Management, Windhoek.
UNESCO (1995): The Seville strategy for biosphere reserves. Available at
http://www.unesco.org/mab/docs/document.htm
Young, O. (2002): Institutional interplay: the environmental consequences of cross-scale interactions. In Ostrom, E., Dietz, T., Dolšak, N., Stern, P.C., Stonich, S. and Weber, E.U.
(Eds.): The drama of the commons. Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global
Change, National Research Council. Washington: National Academy Press.
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Holistic Management: Considering “wholes within wholes” in rangelands
Ancois C. de Villiers1*, A. Knight, K.J. Esler
1
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Stellenbosch, JS Marais Building, Victoria Street, Stellenbosch
*ancoisdevil@gmail.com
Introduction
Reductionism, the concept that “the system is equal to the sum of its parts”, is the linear
and rigid approach of traditional management and research that allows us to understand
complicated systems (Plummer and Armitage, 2007; Vance et al., 2007). Yet its application to complex systems has resulted in the degradation of social-ecological systems
(Berkes et al., 2003; Blann et al., 2003; Walker and Salt, 2006).
In recognition of this, there is currently a shift to holism: the concept that “a system is
greater than the sum of its parts”, that “parts” should be viewed within context of their interconnected relationships (Smuts, 1926; Walker and Salt, 2006). The inclusion of the natural complexity within socio-ecological systems is thought to promote resilience – the ability of a system to absorb shock and thus promote viable sustainability (Perrings and Stern,
2000; Walker and Salt, 2006). However, these concepts are still theoretical (Schwarz et al.,
2011) and few examples exist which demonstrate ways of transferring these concepts to
pragmatic land management action (Folke, 2006; Jones et al., 2010; Swanson et al., 2009).
Holistic Management (HM) could potentially be such a working example. HM provides
a holistic context for the adaptive management of natural resources (Savory and
Butterfield, 1999). As a decision-making framework, it guides land managers to simultaneously consider ecological, social and economic implications on different temporal and
spatial scales when making decisions. However, limited peer reviewed research has been
applied to this potential.
Thus the current study aimed to address this apparent gap by determining if HM practitioners were a distinct group from non-HM (NHM) practitioners in regards to their management traits and if HM practitioners had a greater adaptive capacity (the management of
resilience) than non-HM practitioners.
Methods
The study was conducted in a community of livestock farmers in the arid rangelands of the
Karoo, South Africa. Data was mainly gathered through face-to-face interviews with land
managers – including 20 self-defined HM practitioners and 20 self-defined NHM practitioners. To compare the reported management approaches of land managers, two scoring
systems were developed. The HM Adoption Score indicated to what extent participants
were aligned with key principles of HM as concluded from the HM textbook (Savory and
Butterfield, 1999). The Adaptive Capacity Score indicated to what extent participants
demonstrated key traits of adaptive capacity as concluded from available literature (Eakin
and Lemos, 2006; Fabricius et al., 2007; Resilience Alliance, 2007; Norris et al., 2008;
Brown et al., 2010).
In addition, participants were also asked to describe the strategies they apply to deal
with local livestock farming challenges including parasite control, predation management
and drought management.
Results
A significant difference was found with both the HM Adoption Score and Adaptive Capacity Score between HM and NHM practitioners (p<0.01). The majority of HM practitioners
were “true holistic” and “adaptive” (80%) while NHM practitioners were mostly “semi holistic” and “coping” (65%). Notable differences were also found when comparing descriptions of dealing with farming challenges with innovative and environmentally aware methods more frequently mentioned within the HM responses.
Discussion and Conclusion
It was encouraging to find that both NHM and HM practitioners were aligned to holistic management principles and demonstrated adaptive management. However these traits were specifically amplified with HM practitioners. Other recent studies have confirmed this potential
with results including HM promoting self-reliance, proactiveness and adaptability (McLachlan
and Yestraue, 2009; Sherren et al., 2012).
We concluded that HM provides a framework that introduces holistic principles to land
management, making the “whole” and resilience accessible to individual managers for daily
practical decisions.
References
Berkes, F., Colding, J. And Folke, C. (2003): Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building
Resilience for Complexity and Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Blann, K., Light, S. and Musumeci, J.A. (2003): Facing the adaptive challenge: practitioners’
insights from negotiating resource crisis in Minnesota. In: Berkes, F., Colding, J. and Folke,
C. (eds.): Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and
Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp: 210-240.
Brown, P.R., Nelson, R., Jacobs, B., Kokic, P., Tracey, J., Ahmed, M. and DeVoil, P. (2010):
Enabling natural resource managers to self-assess their adaptive capacity. Agricultural Systems, 103: 562-568.
Eakin, H. and Lemos, M.C. (2006): Adaptation and the state: Latin America and the challenge
of capacity-building under globalization. Global Environmental Change, 16:7-18.
Fabricius, C., Folke, C., Cundill, G. and Schultz, L. (2007): Powerless Spectators, Coping Actors, and Adaptive Co-managers: a Synthesis of the Role of Communities in Ecosystem
Management.
Ecology
And
Society,
12:29.
Available
at
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art29/
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McLachlan, S.M. and Yestraue, M. (2009): From the ground up: holistic management and
grassroots rural adaptation to bovine spongiform encephalopathy across western Canada.
Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 14: 299-316.
Norris, F.H., Stevens, S.P., Pfefferbaum, B., Wyche, K.F. and Pfefferbaum, R.L. (2008):
Community resilience as a metaphor, theory, set of capacities, and strategy for disaster readiness. American journal of community psychology, 41: 127-150.
Perrings, C. and Stern, D.I. (2000): Modelling Loss of Resilience in Agroecosystems: Rangelands in Botswana. Environmental and Resource Economics, 16: 185-210.
Plummer, R. and Armitage, D. (2007): A resilience-based framework for evaluating adaptive
co-management: Linking ecology, economics and society in a complex world. Ecological
Economics, 61: 62-74.
Resilience Alliance (2007): Assessing Resilience in social-ecological systems: a workbook for
scientists. Version 1.1 Draft for Testing and Evaluation. Available at
http://www.resalliance.org/
Savory, A. and Butterfield, J. (1999): Holistic Management: A new framework for decision
making. Second Edition. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Schwarz, A.-M., Be´ne´, C., Bennett, G., Boso, D., Hilly, Z., Paul, C., Posala, R., Sibiti, S. and
Andrew, N. (2011): Vulnerability and resilience of remote rural communities to shocks and
global changes: Empirical analysis from Solomon Islands. Global Environmental Change,
21: 1128-1140.
Sherren, K., Fischer, J. and Fazey, I. (2012): Managing the grazing landscape: Insights for agricultural adaptation from a mid-drought photo-elicitation study in the Australian sheepwheat belt. Agricultural Systems, 106: 72-83.
Smuts, J.C. (1926): Holism and Evolution. New York: The MacMillan Company.
Vance, C.M., Groves, K.S., Paik, Y. and Kindler, H. (2007): Understanding and Measuring
Linear – NonLinear Thinking Style for Enhanced Management Education and Professional
Practice. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 6: 167-185.
Walker, B.H. and Salt, D. (2006): Resilience Thinking: Sustaining Ecosystems and People in a
Changing World. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Determining sustainable lignocellulosic bioenergysystems in the Cape
Winelands, South Africa
Clemens von Doderer*
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Stellenbosch, JS Marais Building, Room 3011, Victoria Street, Stellenbosch
*Email: cvd@sun.ac.za
The energy paradigm shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources is driven, among others, by a growing sustainability awareness, necessitating more sophisticated measurements in
terms of a wider range of criteria. Technical efficiency, financial profitability, environmental
friendliness and social acceptance are some of the factors determining the sustainability of renewable energy systems. The resulting complexity and conflicting decision criteria, however,
constitute major barriers to processing the information and decision-making based on the information. Seeking to implement local bioenergy systems, policymakers of the Cape Winelands District Municipality (CWDM), South Africa, are confronted with such a problem.
Following a case study approach, this study illustrates how life-cycle assessment (LCA),
multi-period budgeting (MPB) and geographic information systems (GIS) can aid the decisionmaking process by providing financial-economic, socio-economic and environmental friendliness performance data in a structured and transparent manner, allowing for a comparison of the
magnitude of each considered criterion along the life-cycle. However, as the environmental
impacts cannot readily be expressed in monetary terms on a cardinal scale, these considerations are given less attention or are omitted completely in a market economy. By measuring the
various considerations on an ordinal scale and by attaching weights to them using the multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) approach, this study, illustrates how to internalise externalities as typical market failures, aiding policymakers of the CWDM to choose the most sustainable bioenergy system.
Following the LCA approach, 37 lignocellulosic bioenergy systems, encompassing different combinations of type of harvesting and primary transport, type of pretreatment (comminution, drying, and fast pyrolysis) and location thereof (roadside or landing of the central conversion plant), type of secondary transport from the roadside to the central conversion plant, and
type of biomass upgrading and conversion into electricity, were assessed against five financialeconomic criteria, three socio-economic potential criteria and five environmental impact criteria. The quantitative performance data were then, as part of the MCDA process, translated into
a standardised ‘common language’ of relative performance. An expert group attached weights
to the considered criteria using the analytical hierarchy process (AHP). The ‘financialeconomic viability’ main criterion received a weight of almost 60%, ‘socio-economic potential’, nearly 25% and ‘lowest environmental impact’, the remainder of around 16%. Taking the
prerequisite of financial-economic viability into consideration, the preferred option across all
areas of the CWDM (despite various levels of productivity) comprises a feller-buncher for
harvesting, a forwarder for primary transportation, mobile comminution at the roadside, secon-
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dary transport in truck-container-trailer combinations and an integrated gasification system for
the conversion into electricity.
Sustainability Indicator Development for UNESCO Biosphere Reserves
Colin M. Tucker1*, Karen J. Esler2, Nicky Allsopp3, Andrew T. Knight1,2
1
Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University, Private bag X1, Matieland
7602, South Africa.
2
Centre of Excellence in Environmental Decisions, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
3
South African Environmental Observation Network (SAEON) Fynbos Node, Private Bag X07, Claremont
7735, South Africa.
*Email: ctuckersa@hotmail.com
Biosphere reserves are established by the UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) programme to promote and demonstrate a balanced relationship between humans and the biosphere, and aim to achieve a sustainable living environment (UNESCO, 1996). These reserves
are internationally recognised, together forming the so-called World Network of Biosphere
Reserves (UNESCO, 2012). One of the main goals of Biosphere Reserves is to act as both theatres and laboratories of sustainable development, thus encompassing environmental, social
and economic values (UNESCO, 2007). Sustainability indicators assess the progress of economic and social development as well as the preservation of ecological systems (Environment
Australia, 2002), making them ideal for implementation within a monitoring and evaluation
framework for BRs (Margoluis and Salafsky, 1998; Bell and Morse, 2008; Ntshotsho et al.,
2010).
Through a literature review of sustainability indicators and their development, as well as a
series of participatory, multi-stakeholder workshops, surveys, interviews and focus groups, this
project developed sustainability indicators for the Kogelberg and Cape West Coast BRs in the
Western Cape, South Africa. The final results of this study will be integrated into a draft
framework plan which will be used by the reserves as a tool for monitoring and evaluation.
Ultimately, a national standard for monitoring across South Africa’s six BRs will be established.
Preliminary results show that only a few BRs have developed sustainability indicators, but
even fewer are actively measuring these indicators as a result of challenges such as lack of capacity (mainly in terms of funding), difficulties in getting the diverse stakeholders of BRs to
cooperate, and deciding what the most crucial aspects to measure are. It was found that the
most ideal way to implement and conduct monitoring and evaluation is to collaborate with other institutions in and around the BR. For example, many organisations conduct monitoring
within the BR, thus this monitoring data can be used by the BR management in order to track
the progress of the BR. In order for BRs to successfully use this monitoring data, they would
need an effective archiving, quality control and evaluation system.
References
Bell, S. and Morse, S. (2008): Sustainability Indicators: Measuring the Immeasurable? Second
Edition. London: Earthscan.
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Margoluis, R. and Salafsky, N. (1998): Measures of success: Designing, managing, and monitoring conservation and development projects. Washington DC: Island Press.
Ntshotsho, P., Reyers, B. and Esler, K. J. (2010): Assessing the evidence base for restoration in
South Africa. Restoration Ecology, 19: 578-586.
UNESCO (2007): Biosphere reserve integrated monitoring (BRIM): Observing global biodiversity changes. Available at http://www.unesco.org/mab/BRs/BRIM.shtml Data accessed:
23 August 2007.
UNESCO (2012): World Network of Biosphere Reserves. Available at http://www.unesco.org/
new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/worldnetwork-wnbr. Date accessed: 10 October 2012.
Response of biotic communities to habitat fragmentation as a natural process and as an anthropogenic impact: which fragments will survive?
Rory Nimmo Sandberg1*, N. Allsopp2, W.J. Bond3 and K.J. Esler1
1
Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University, South Africa, Private Bag
x1, Matieland, 7602.
2
South African Environmental Observation Network, (SAEON) Fynbos Node, Newlands, South Africa
3
Department of Botany, University of Cape Town, South Africa
*Email: sandberg@sun.ac.za
Attempting to conserve ecosystems by managing local drivers of change has, in many cases,
become insufficient. This is because global drivers of change have overriding effects and impact across ecological boundaries (Rouget et al., 2003). In order to develop effective conservation strategies, management must take these global drivers and the timescales over which they
operate into account. Within the Fynbos Biome, habitat fragmentation is one such driver of
change (Rouget et al., 2003). Specific management protocols are required if biodiversity is to
be conserved in small and isolated fynbos fragments. These protocols must consider way in
which fragmentation affects biotic communities inhabiting fragment patches. Being aware of
these dynamics will help management teams to act effectively and strategically.
Both natural fynbos “islands”, surrounded by southern Afrotemperate Forest, and artificially created fragments that are cut off from the more extensive tracts of fynbos by anthropogenic
land uses are found within the Garden Route National Park in the southern Cape of South Africa. These land uses include silviculture, agriculture, invasive alien vegetation infestation and
urban development (Kraaij and Vermeulen, SANParks internal report). A key question is
whether the response of artificial fragments to isolation resembles that of natural islands, and
whether they will ultimately reach a similar stable state, as suggested by the theory of Island
Biogeography (MacArthur and Wilson, 1963 and 1967). On the basis of this knowledge, management protocols and conservation value could then be derived for natural and artificial fragment types.
This study assesses the response of South Outeniqua Sandstone Fynbos communities –
vegetation and avifaunal – to various aspects of fragmentation including patch size, isolation
distance and the nature of the surrounding matrix. The study uses historical data collected by
Bond et al. in 1988 to investigate community change. The collection of further data on these
plots can inform us of the trajectory of change of natural fragments over the intervening years.
This has provided a unique opportunity to investigate the long-term phenomenon of ecological
relaxation in fragmented communities (Tilman et al., 1994).
Data on avian and vegetation community composition was collected from 26 fynbos patches – 16 from artificial fragments and twelve from natural islands – and from three mainland
sites. Each mainland site was sampled as a series of twelve nested plots of increasing area to
yield a species-area relationship which, for the vegetation, is similar to that observed by Bond
et al. (1988). The species area-relationship for the vegetation on the natural islands has also
proven stable for over two decades.
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Vegetation on the artificial fragments has responded to the pressures associated with over
100 years of fragmentation through a slight drop in species richness in comparison to the mainland communities. These fragments may well be going through a phase of ecological relaxation; the extinction debt associated with their fragmentation not yet paid out in full through the
loss of species (Diamond, 1972; Tilman et al., 1994).
The avian community displayed similar trends to the vegetation community on the natural
islands and the mainland, but not on the artificial fragments, where the number of species appeared unrelated to patch area. It is hypothesised that these communities have responded to the
varying degree of landscape heterogeneity present in the matrix surrounding them (Ricketts,
2001).
Some general observations are that habitat fragmentation impacts taxa in different ways,
and that communities respond to the impacts on different time-scales. In all instances a trend is
for communities to shift from an orderly state to a more chaotic state under artificial fragmentation, although this may be a temporary phenomenon of habitat patches undergoing ecological
relaxation.
References
Bond, W.J., Midgley, J. and Vlok, J. (1988): When is an island not an island? Insular effects
and their causes in fynbos shrublands. Oecologia, 77: 515-521.
Diamond, J.M. (1972): Biogeographic kinetics: estimation of relaxation times for avifaunas of
Southwest Pacific Islands. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA, 69:
3199-3203.
Kraaij, T. and Vermeulen, W.J. (2010): Unpublished Internal Report. Fire Management System for the Fragmented Fynbos Patches of the Garden Route National Park. South African
National Parks.
MacArthur, R.H. and Wilson, E.O. (1963): An equilibrium theory of insular zoogeography.
Evolution, 17: 373-387.
MacArthur, R.H. and Wilson. E.O. (1963): The theory of island biogeography. Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
Rouget, M., Richardson, D.M., Cowling, R.M., Lloyd, J.W. and Lombard, A.T. (2003): Current patterns of habitat transformation and future threats to biodiversity in terrestrial ecosystems of the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Biological Conservation, 112: 63-85.
Tilman, D., May, R.M., Lehman, C.L. and Nowak, M.A. (1994): Habitat destruction and the
extinction debt. Nature, 371: 65-66.
DAY 4: THURSDAY 25TH OCTOBER 2012
Organic Carbon Degradation in Anoxic Organic-Rich Shelf Sediments:
Biogeochemical Rates and Microbial Abundance
Elsabé M. Julies*1, Bernhard M. Fuchs, Carol Arnosti, and Volker Brüchert
1
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Namibia, P/Bag 13301, Windhoek, Namibia
*Email: ejulies@unam.na
Identifying and explaining bottlenecks in organic carbon mineralization and the persistence of
organic matter in marine sediments remain challenging. This study aims to illuminate the process of carbon flow between microorganisms involved in the sedimentary microbial food chain
in anoxic, organic-rich sediments of the central Namibian upwelling system, using
biogeochemical rate measurements and abundances of Bacteroidetes, Gammaproteobacteria,
and sulfate-reducing bacteria at two sampling stations. Sulfate reduction rates decreased by
three orders of magnitude in the top 20cm at one sampling station (280 nmol cm−3 d−1 – 0.1
nmol cm−3d−1) and by a factor of 7 at the second station (65 nmol cm−3 d−1 – 9.6 nmol
cm−3 d−1). However, rates of enzymatic hydrolysis decreased by less than a factor of three at
both sampling stations for the polysaccharides laminarin (23 nmol cm−3 d−1– 8 nmol cm−3
d−1and 22 nmol cm−3 d−1– 10 nmol cm−3 d−1) and pullulan (11 nmol cm−3 d−1– 4 nmol
cm−3 d−1and 8 nmol cm−3 d−1– 6 nmol cm−3 d−1). Increasing imbalance between carbon
turnover by hydrolysis and terminal oxidation with depth, the steep decrease in cell specific
activity of sulfate reducing bacteria with depth, low concentrations of volatile fatty acids (less
than 15 M), and persistence of dissolved organic carbon, suggest decreasing bioavailability
and substrate limitation with depth.
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Understanding the dynamics of arid savanna ecosystems experiencing various disturbance regimes in highland biomes of central Namibia: Implications for local management for economic and conservation objectives
Clara Mukaru
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Namibia, P/Bag 13301, Windhoek, Namibia
Email: cmukaru@unam.na
Arid savanna ecosystems are influenced by various determinants such as fire, herbivory, landuse practices, etc. These factors have implications on the integrity of the ecosystems and the
diversity of organisms that is very important for their normal functionality. Fires, in particular,
have been used as a management tool on many farms and protected areas over millennia. Their
impacts on vegetation have been studied in various savanna ecosystems. Different land-use
practices influence biodiversity in a variety of ways. Some land-use practices are not consistent
with the maintenance of biodiversity. A balance has to be met between achieving economic
and conservation goals through sustainable practices. Population dynamics of specific
keystone plant species need to be investigated in order to determine their roles in the
ecosystem and how their population dynamics are influenced by various factors.
This study therefore aims to investigate issues such as: seasonal changes in range condition
in relation to soil moisture and nutrient dynamics in selected camps at Neudamm farm; dynamics and survival strategies of Acacia mellifera seedlings – implications for management of bush
encroachment and seasonal patterns of feeding behaviour of selected game animals and livestock at Neudamm Farm, including their role in seed dispersal.
Diversity, Structure and Dynamics of A. erioloba woodlands in the Windhoek Area: Insights for the management of urban habitats
M.A. Morkel*, I. Mapaure
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Namibia, P/Bag 13301, Windhoek, Namibia
*Email: mamorkel@gmail.com
Acacia erioloba as a tree species of great ecological and economic importance is threatened by
urban expansion and a lack of sustainable management in the Windhoek area. The overall objective of this study was to determine the diversity and structure of an Acacia erioloba woodland and the influence of herbivory, wood harvesting, fire and physical soil properties on vegetation structure. Forty quadrats 625m² in size were demarcated in pairs on alternative sides of a
transect line to sample trees at 50m intervals. Shrubs were surveyed in 100m² quadrats nested
in the tree quadrats whilst herbaceous plant cover was estimated in 1m² quadrats within the
shrub quadrats. The mean Shannon-Wiener diversity (H’) index of 1.929 could be interpreted
as reflecting low species diversity, indicative of a more disturbed community. Height and density comparisons between the woodland community and A. erioloba population differed significantly. Height patterns in the A. erioloba population showed an ageing population with
most plants in the largest height class. Density patterns supported this trend with higher shrub
densities in the community than in the A. erioloba population. HCA and DCA analysis of plant
species composition did not represent a clear seperation of quadrats according to their position
along the transect. Only 46% of the variation in species composition could be explained by
DCA axis 1 suggesting more complex biotic and abiotic interactions than simply the
determinants suggested by this study. CCA analysis showed environmental variables explained
19% of the observed variation in species composition. Though this may seem low the overall
test of all canonical axes was significant (F = 1.82p < 0.05) with the explanatory variables fire
(F = 1.82p < 0.05), pH (F = 1.54p < 0.05) and woodharvesting (F =1.46p < 0.05) significantly
influencing species composition. This illustrates that these factors are important in determining
woodland structure and should get special management consideration.
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Biodiversity Management and Research in German National Parks
Saskia Wied*, Ulrich Zeller
Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin
*Email: Saskia.Wied@gmx.de
The management of biodiversity should be well organized as part of a cooperative conservation network, not only on a trans-national scale. Among the different classifications of protected areas, the category of a national park (NP) is characterized by a high conservation status,
when compared to the category of a protected landscape, for example. There are 14 NPs in
Germany, which are organized through the Federal States in which they are situated; an equivalent state organization authority does not exist. Therefore, the different federal politics may
complicate a common organization of biodiversity research and management. The aim of this
study is to investigate and compare the extent of biodiversity-related research activities and
management procedures in all German NPs in order to identify common interests and develop
appropriate research cooperation and management strategies. Data analysis is based on interviews with the representatives of higher management and staff members of the research departments of the 14 German NPs. Preliminary analysis of data obtained leads to the assumption
that the extent and quality of biodiversity-related research projects in German NPs may depend
on the specific conservation objectives and a reflection about the necessity of biodiversity research, as well as the financial resources made available at the respective Federal States. There
are some NPs with more financial and human resources that are able to conduct several research projects, including advanced scientific approaches, whereas the NPs with a lower budget rarely conduct research projects at all. Only when there is a common state of acceptance
about the need for specific biodiversity research projects and only when the required financial
resources are made available, biodiversity research can lead to effective management strategies
considering the protection of biodiversity, ecosystems and natural resources on a larger scale
than a NP on its own. This study aims to give suggestions to contribute to such larger-scale
conservation strategies regarding the German NPs.
To summarize, it seems like German NP are on a good basis for maintenance of
biodiversity. Though, there are some lacks that could be eliminated through a higher budget for
the conservation sector in the federal budget.
ARBEITSBERICHTE
Geographisches Institut, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
ISSN 0947-0360
Heft 161
Ludwig Ellenberg, Susi Reich Hauptexkursion Goms/Wallis 2009. Berlin 2010
& Erich Wunderlich (Hrsg.):
Heft 162
Heft 163
Hans-Dietrich Schultz (Hrsg.): Beiträge zur Didaktik des Geographieunterrichts:
1. Hannes Klasen: Chancen und Grenzen des Einsatzes von Karikaturen im Erdkundeunterricht der Grundschule
2. Christiane Seeber: „Die Verschiedenheit der Köpfe“–
Innere Differenzierung als Antwort auf Heterogenität? Ein
didaktisches Konzept aus der Sicht Berliner ErdkundelehrerInnen an Gymnasien. Berlin 2011
Quartiere neu denken – Seminarberichte. Berlin 2011
Olaf Schnur (Hrsg.):
Heft 164
Karsten Lehmann (Hrsg.)
Heft 165
Dagmar
Nuissl,
(Hrsg.)
Heft 166
Lech Suwala, Elmar Kulke Thailand/Laos: Bericht zur Hauptexkursion 2011. Berlin 2011
(Hrsg.)
Heft 167
Maria
Cierpinski,
Schröder (Hrsg.)
Heft 168
Heft
Haase,
Henning Stadtentwicklung und Landschaftsmanagement in MitSebastian
Dijks teldeutschland: Hauptexkursion im Sommersemester
2010. Berlin 2011
Hilmar Syrien - Bericht zur Hauptexkursion 2011. Berlin 2011
Ludwig Ellenberg
169 Karsten Lehmann
Heft 170
Karsten Lehmann (Hrsg.)
Heft 171
Elmar
Kulke,
Kitzmann (Hrsg.)
Heft 172
Heft 173
Heft 174
Einführung in die Statistik Berlin 2011
Berlin – Zürich. Exkursion 2011 mit dem Fahrrad durch
Mitteleuropa. Berlin 2012
Einführung in die Statistik mit SPSS. Berlin 2012
Urban Development – the Case of Berlin. Results of an
international course. Berlin 2012
Robert Der Standort Adlershof aus Sicht der beschäftigten. Ergebnisse einer repräsentativen erhebung unter Studierenden und Beschäftigten in Berlin Adlershof, Stadt für
Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft und Medien. Berlin 2012
Henning
Nuissl,
Dagmar Stadtquartierstypen und demographischer Wandel in
Haase, Eric Dormann, Markus Leipzig – zur Anpassungsfähigkeit der Städte an eine
Kather (Hrsg.)
älter werdende Bevölkerung. Berlin 2012
Lech Suwala, Elmar Kulke, Kolumbien - Bericht zur Hauptexkursion 2010. Berlin
2012
Josef Strasser (Hrsg.)
Milenka Hampel, Matthias Island 2009. Geographischer Exkursionsführer und ReiKowlaski, Mohsen Makki, sebegleiter. Berlin 2012
Henry Munack (Hrsg.)
Peter Dannenberg