Twist It, Touch It, Push It, Swipe It: Evaluating
Secondary Input Devices for Use with an Automotive
Touchscreen HMI
David R. Large, Gary Burnett, Elizabeth Crundall, Glyn Lawson
The University of Nottingham,
Nottingham, UK
{david.r.large, gary.burnett}@nottingham.ac.uk,
lizzie.crundall@gmail.com, glyn.lawson@nottingham.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
Touchscreen Human-Machine Interfaces (HMIs) inherently
demand some visual attention. By employing a secondary
device, to work in unison with a touchscreen, some of this
demand may be alleviated. In a medium-fidelity driving
simulator, twenty-four drivers completed four typical invehicle tasks, utilising each of four devices – touchscreen,
rotary controller, steering wheel controls and touchpad
(counterbalanced). Participants were then able to combine
devices during a final ‘free-choice’ drive. Visual behaviour,
driving/task performance and subjective ratings (workload,
emotional response, preferences), indicated that in isolation
the touchscreen was the most preferred/least demanding to
use. In contrast, the touchpad was least preferred/most
demanding, whereas the rotary controller and steering
wheel controls were largely comparable across most
measures. When provided with ‘free-choice’, the rotary
controller and steering wheel controls presented as the most
popular candidates, although this was task-dependent.
Further work is required to explore these devices in greater
depth and during extended periods of testing.
Author Keywords
Touchscreen; rotary controller; steering wheel controls;
touchpad;
visual
demand;
preferences;
driving
performance; workload; character recognition.
ACM Classification Keywords
H.5.m. Information interfaces and presentation (e.g., HCI):
Miscellaneous.
INTRODUCTION
Touchscreens are increasingly becoming the primary
display and control interface in cars. Research has shown
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Automotive'UI 16, October 24-26, 2016, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
© 2016 ACM. ISBN 978-1-4503-4533-0/16/10…$15.00
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3003715.3005459
Lee Skrypchuk
Jaguar Land Rover Research
Coventry, UK
lskrypch@jaguarlandrover.com
that, in an automotive context, such devices can be more
effective for common tasks (e.g. simple menu selection)
and typically attract more positive responses from drivers,
compared to other in-vehicle devices [4]. Nevertheless,
touchscreens inherently demand some visual attention, due
in part to designers’ slavish adherence to skeuomorphic
interface elements, even in the automotive domain, to
reflect previously physical buttons – the absence of genuine
tactile cues means that drivers are forced to visually sample
the interface to ‘find’ controls and view task progress.
Consequently, common in-car tasks, such as adjusting
music volume, could demand too much attention if
conducted on a touchscreen-centric infotainment system.
This can result in deleterious effects on driving
performance and vehicle control, thereby elevating the risk
to drivers and other road users [12].
Nevertheless, touchscreen interfaces have captured the
attention of automotive designers and appear to be the
current, favoured in-vehicle HMI solution, with enticing
interactive interfaces often embedded within the centreconsole of vehicles. As a consequence, there has been
significant research interest in exploring how to mitigate the
visual (and manual) demand elicited by such devices. This
has taken a number of guises, including designing
interactive on-screen elements to minimise visual demand
(e.g. button colour, contrast, size, number [7]), comparing
different list-scrolling techniques [11], and identifying
simple, intuitive ‘short-cut’ gestures [3,6]. Other novel
techniques, such as expanding touchscreen targets based on
drivers’ mid-air finger proximity have also been explored
[1]. Theoretical modelling has also been used to highlight
concerns in proposed designs much earlier in the design
cycle [10]. In most case, recommendations are typically
made in line with visual/manual distraction guidelines [e.g.
12]. However, such investigations are yet to reveal a viable
solution, often serving only to highlight ‘bad’ designs rather
than offering ‘good’ solutions.
An alternative approach, explored here, is to employ a
secondary input device to work in unison with the
touchscreen. The aim is to enable drivers to execute the
most demanding tasks (or parts of tasks) using a less-
visually demanding secondary device, thereby easing the
visual/manual burden of the interaction as a whole, while
maintaining the overall appeal and flexibility of the
touchscreen. By utilising a secondary device, drivers can be
reintroduced with physical anchors, akin to using traditional
buttons/switches, thereby allowing the device to be located
and operated without visual attention. Moreover, additional
haptic cues can be provided during operation, such as
‘clicking’ through options in a list, thereby further reducing
the need for ‘eyes-off-road’. Although it is recognised that
some touchscreens can also provide haptic cues, e.g. to
simulate a button press [13], such ‘soft’ buttons still require
vision to locate them and button activation cues often fail to
fully deliver the complex cutaneous sensations associated
with traditional, physical buttons [15].
Using a secondary input device with a touchscreen may
also provide usability and physical ergonomics benefits –
such devices need not be placed in or near to drivers’
normal line of sight, as would be expected and
recommended for visually demanding in-car displays [9].
Consequently, such devices can be positioned in more
ergonomically
and
anthropometrically-appropriate
locations, thereby reducing fatigue effects during operation,
and potentially alleviating handedness problems. The
additional provision of a between-seat arm-rest (common in
many modern vehicles) is also likely to lead to better
operational accuracy compared to situations where devices
are located in the upper centre-console, as drivers’ arms are
supported during operation [14].
Overview of Study
Although there has been significant research effort
investigating different input devices/HMIs in cars, and a
corpus of literature exists, there has been very little
consideration of the combined effects or benefits or using
devices together. The study therefore aimed to first
understand the impacts of using alternative input devices on
driver distraction, and then elicit drivers’ preferences for a
secondary input device/s that could be used in combination
with a touchscreen. This was explored by allowing drivers
to use their chosen secondary device/s in combination with
a touchscreen during a ‘free-choice’ drive conducted
towards the end of testing.
METHOD
Participants
Twenty-four people took part in the study: 11 male, 13
female. Mean age, was 32 years, with ages ranging from 21
to 51 years. Twenty of the UK participants were righthanded and four were left-handed. Participants were
experienced and active drivers (mean time with UK licence,
12.5 years; range 4-31 years; mean current annual mileage,
7495 miles). All participants were self-selecting volunteers
who responded to advertisements placed on-line and around
the University of Nottingham campus, and were reimbursed
with £10 (GBP) of vouchers as compensation for their time.
Apparatus, Design and Procedure
The study took place in a medium-fidelity, fixed-based
driving simulator at the University of Nottingham (Figure
1). The simulator comprised the front half of a right-hand
drive Honda Civic car positioned within a curved screen
affording a 270° viewing angle. A bespoke driving scenario
was created using STISIM (v2) software, to resemble a
standard 3-lane UK motorway, and projected onto the
screen using three overhead projectors. Participants were
required to follow a lead vehicle (“as if going to a shared
destination”), which travelled at a constant speed of 65mph,
and wore SensoMotoric Instruments (SMI) eye-tracking
glasses to record their visual behaviour.
Participants were asked to complete secondary tasks using
each of four input devices that have commonly been
considered in a driving context:
1. Rotary Controller (RC). Located between driver and
passenger seats, the rotary controller provided rotary
input in addition to 4-way joystick and button presses.
2. Steering Wheel Controls (SWC). A Sony Vaio Bluetooth
laser mouse (model VGP-BMS80) was installed within
the left spindle of the steering wheel. The device
allowed 4-way directional control in addition to optical
swipe and button press input.
3. Touchpad (TP). The touchpad was located between the
driver and passenger seats, and provided 4-way swipe,
button press and character/gesture recognition, using
fingertip input.
4. Touchscreen (TS). An HP EliteBook 2740p tablet
computer was located within the centre console.
Devices were positioned in typical locations within the car
(Figure 2) and were all designed to be used in conjunction
with the touchscreen, which acted as a display when the
touchpad, rotary controller and steering wheel controller
were being used, and also as a control interface during a
'touchscreen-only condition. An arm rest was provided to
support participants’ arm movements when using the
touchpad and rotary controller.
Prior to testing, participants received full training and
guidance for each device, and for all tasks, until they were
deemed to be competent. During testing, participants
completed all four tasks using each device while driving,
providing subjective feedback between devices/drives.
Device and task order were counterbalanced to avoid
learning effects. After testing all four devices, participants
undertook a fifth, ‘free-choice’ drive, in which they were
able to choose any device (or combination of devices) to
complete each of the four tasks.
Tasks
The four tasks under investigation were representative of
in-vehicle driving-related activities and were enabled using
a bespoke, test interface (Figures 3-6):
and steering wheel controls – but were required to ‘write’
each number individually on the touchpad using their left
index finger.
Figure 1. Driving simulator showing motorway scenario.
Figure 3. Task 1 – Menu Navigation.
Figure 4. Task 2 – List Selection.
Figure 2. Driving simulator interior showing touchscreen,
touchpad, rotary controller and steering wheel controls.
1. Menu Navigation. Participants moved through four
different menu configurations (counterbalanced) by
selecting the option highlighted by an ‘X’.
2. List Selection. Participants used the media player to
search and select a specified music track from a
multiple-screen, ‘long’ list.
3. Text Entry. Using the telephone interface, participants
entered a specified phone number and selected ‘Call’.
4. Map Manipulation. Participants used the ‘pan’ and
‘zoom’ controls to view and traverse a route highlighted
on the map.
Input/interaction techniques naturally differed between
devices and participants were required to complete tasks
using the native input techniques for each device. This
ensured that participants were able to experience the full
functionality of all devices, thereby allowing more robust
conclusions to be drawn, especially regarding preferences
and relative performance. For example, to move through a
list, participants were required to swipe the touchscreen and
touchpad, rotate the rotary controller, and press the steering
wheel controller. To enter text, participants used an onscreen alphanumeric keyboard to select characters – either
by touching or stepping through the menu using the rotary
Figure 5. Task 3 – Text Entry.
Figure 6. Task 4 – Map Manipulation.
Measures
The following measures were captured and reported:
• Secondary Task Time – recorded from the touchscreen.
• Visual Behaviour – total glance time (TGT), mean
glance duration (MGD) and number of glances (NG).
Glances were classified as ‘on’ or ‘off-road’. Off-road
glances reflect visual attention directed at both the
device for control and the touchscreen for feedback.
• Driving Performance – speed, lane keeping, headway,
captured from the STISIM simulation computer.
• Workload – NASA-TLX mean workload rating [8].
• Emotional Response – ratings of ‘dominance’, ‘arousal’
and ‘control’, obtained from the Self-Assessment
Manikin (SAM) questionnaire [2].
• Subjective Ratings and Preferences – ease of use,
interferes with driving, device preferences/liking.
• Actual and Perceived Use of devices during free-choice.
Figure 7. Mean secondary task time.
RESULTS
Unless otherwise stated, 2-way ANOVAs were conducted
to examine the effects of device and task on each measure,
with post hoc Tukey corrections for multiple comparisons.
All figures show standard errors bars, where appropriate.
Secondary Task Time
There were main effects of device (F (3,357) = 40.99 p <
0.0005) and task (F (3,357) = 4.52 p < 0.0005) on
secondary task time. Planned comparisons show that
participants took significantly longer completing tasks
using the touchpad and were quickest when utilising the
touchscreen (Figure 7).
Figure 8. Mean number of glances.
Visual Behaviour
Number of Glances
There were main effects of device (F (3,240) = 33.98 p <
0.0005) and task (F (3,240) = 3.51 p = 0.02) on number of
glances. Participants took significantly more glances when
undertaking tasks using the touchpad. The fewest glances
were observed with the touchscreen (p < .0005) (Figure 8).
There were also main effects of device (F (3,240) = 5.21 p
= 0.002) and task (F (3,240) = 2.91 p = 0.04) on number of
‘long’ glances (over 2.0 seconds), with significantly more
long glances associated with the touchpad compared to all
other devices (pmax = 0.047) (Figure 9).
Figure 9. Mean number of glances longer than 2.0 seconds.
Total Glance Time
There were main effects of device (F (3,240) = 22.95 p <
0.0005) and task (F (3,240) = 4.01 p = 0.01) on total glance
time. Total glance time was significantly longer when
undertaking tasks using the touchpad. Shortest glance time
was associated with the touchscreen (p = .009) (Figure 10).
Mean Glance Duration
There were main effects of device (F (3,240) = 2.78 p =
0.04) and task (F (3,240) = 4.88 p = 0.003) on mean glance
duration. Planned comparisons show that the mean glance
duration was longer for the touchscreen compared to the
rotary controller (p = 0.045) (Figure 11).
Figure 10. Mean total glance time.
Subjective Measures
Workload: NASA-TLX
There was a main effect of device on mean workload (F
(3,92) = 7.95 p < 0.0005). Mean workload associated with
the touchpad was significantly higher compared to all other
devices (pmax = .007) (Figure 15).
Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM)
Figure 4. Mean glance duration.
There was a main effect of device for SAM ratings of
‘pleasure’ (F (3,92) = 20.59 p < 0.0005) and ‘dominance’
(F (3,92) = 10.33 p < 0.0005). The touchscreen was deemed
to be most pleasurable to use (pmax = .016), and the
touchpad, least pleasurable (pmax < .0005), compared to
other devices. Additionally, participants felt more in control
when using the touchscreen compared to the touchpad (p <
.0005), but least in control when using the touchpad (pmax =
.001). Ratings of ‘arousal’ were comparable between all
devices (Figure 16).
Ease of Use While Driving
Figure 5. Mean standard deviation of speed.
There was a main effect of device on participants’ rating of
ease of use (F (3,91) = 19.55 p < 0.0005), with participants
rating the rotary controller, steering wheel controls and
touchscreen as significantly easier to use while driving than
the touchpad (Figure 17).
Interferes with Driving Task
All devices were deemed to interfere equally with the
driving task (F (3,91) = 2.20 p = 0.09).
Figure 6. Mean standard deviation of lane position.
Driving Performance
Speed
There was a main effect of device on standard deviation of
speed (F (3,357) = 19.72 p < 0.0005), with greater
variability in speed evident when participants were using
the TP, compared to the SWC. The standard deviation of
speed associated with the TS was lower than all other
devices (Figure 12).
Figure 7. Mean standard deviation of headway.
Lane Position
There was a main effect of device on standard deviation of
lane position (F (3,357) = 7.97 p < 0.0005), with more
variability evident when using the TP, compared to SWC
and TS (Figure 13).
Headway
There was a main effect of device on standard deviation of
headway (F (3,357) = 10.68 p < 0.0005). Using the TP
resulted in the greatest variability in headway, compared to
all other devices. Headway variability associated with the
TS was also significantly lower than RC (Figure 14).
Figure 8. Mean ratings of workload (NASA-TLX).
devices, for the menu navigation task, text entry and map
manipulation tasks (pmax = .007). For the list selection task,
there were also high preferences for the rotary controller:
ratings for both rotary controller and touchscreen were
significantly higher for these tasks than those for steering
wheel controls and touchpad (pmax = 0.01). The touchpad
was least preferred and received the lowest ratings
compared to other devices for the menu navigation and list
selection tasks (pmax < .0005). For text entry and map
manipulation, the touchpad received similar ratings to the
rotary controller and steering wheel controls.
Figure 9. Mean Self-Assessment Manikin ratings.
Participants were also asked to indicate the device (rotary
controller, touchpad or steering controls), that they would
most, and least, prefer to use in conjunction with the
touchscreen for all tasks. The rotary controller was selected
by more than 54% of participants as their ‘most preferred’
device. In contrast, the touchpad was deemed to be ‘least
preferred’ by over 58% of participants.
Figure 10. Mean ratings of ‘ease of use while driving’.
Figure 11. Mean preference ratings for each task.
Figure 18. Mean ratings of ‘overall liking’.
Overall Liking
There was a main effect of device on participants ‘liking’ of
devices (F (3,91) = 23.02 p < 0.0005), with participants
indicating that they liked the touchpad least (all p < 0.0005).
The touchscreen was liked more than the steering wheel
controls (p = 0.035) (Figure 18).
Figure 20. Perceived device usage during ‘free-choice’.
Device Preferences
Participants were asked to rate/rank their preferred device
for each of the four tasks, by placing a marker for each
device on continuous linear scales. Positions were measured
and interpreted as a 0-100 interval scale, where a rating of
‘100’ indicated ‘best/most preferred’. There was a main
effect associated with participants’ most and least preferred
device for all tasks: menu navigation (F (3,92) = 35.29 p <
0.0005); list selection (F (3,92) = 10.33 p < 0.0005); text
entry (F (3,92) = 12.03 p < 0.0005) and map manipulation
(F (3,88) = 21.03 p < 0.0005) (Figure 19). Participants
overwhelming preferred the touchscreen, to all other
Figure 121. Actual device usage during ‘free-choice’ drive.
Free-Choice Drive
During the final drive, participants repeated all four tasks
but were given the opportunity to use whichever device or
combination of devices they desired. Participants were then
asked to record the amount of time they believed they spent
using each device for each task. Results can be seen in
Figure 20. These were then compared with actual use,
obtained from analysis of the video recordings (Figure 21).
DISCUSSION
The study compared four different input devices and
considered which device (rotary controller, touchpad or
steering wheel controls) was most appropriate to use in
conjunction with an in-car touchscreen HMI. Objective
measures (secondary task time, visual behaviour, driving
performance) consistently revealed shortcomings associated
with the touchpad – secondary tasks took the longest time
to complete, it invited the most glances (many of which
were longer than 2.0 seconds – a common predictor of
heightened risk [12]), and TGT was significantly longer
than when using other devices. Using the touchpad also had
the greatest impact on driving performance measures
(indicated by variability in speed, lateral lane position and
headway).
Overall, participants did not like the touchpad – it was
associated with higher perceived workload and was
identified as least pleasurable to use (“frustrating”, “slow
to use”), although some positive comments were received
(“liked the ‘concept’”; “character recognition generally
very good”). Participants also felt least in control when
using the device, found it more difficult to use while
driving, and believed that it interfered more with the driving
task than other devices. The touchpad was also highlighted
as least preferred for menu navigation and list selection
tasks, although it was more favourably considered (equally
as popular as the rotary controller and steering wheel
controls) for text entry and map manipulation. It was the
least preferred device to use in conjunction with the
touchscreen, overall.
As a whole, these results appear to comprehensively
preclude the touchpad as a viable candidate to support
drivers during the accomplishment of secondary tasks while
driving, although it is noted that there were some technical
problems in the implementation of the device during the
study that may have influenced results – this was
particularly noticeable for tasks requiring ‘dragging’
(moving through lists, manipulating the map). In general,
character recognition (used for text entry and the initial
stages of the list selection tasks) was very good on the
touchpad. However, some right-hand dominant drivers
struggled to form certain more complex characters (e.g. the
number ‘8’), as they were required to use their nondominant left hand. This is likely to have influenced both
objective performance and subjective opinions.
In terms of secondary task performance, visual behaviour
and the effect on driving, the rotary controller and steering
wheel controls were largely comparable. Subjectively, these
devices were also equally popular, although the rotary
controller was identified as the preferred device overall to
use in conjunction with the touchscreen (taking all devices
and tasks into consideration). However, it was evident that
using the touchscreen on its own to complete tasks was
quicker and required fewer glances than the other devices,
in most situations. Nevertheless, MGD was notably the
longest when using the touchscreen, though still
significantly shorter than the 2.0-second recommended
‘safety’ threshold [12] at 1.3 seconds. This suggests that
participants were more comfortable extending glances to
the touchscreen, possibly due to the location of the device,
close to their normal line of sight. It may also be a
reflection of the fact that during the touchscreen-only
condition, the device provided both control and feedback
functionalities. Even so, the lowest variability in headway
and lane position were associated with the touchscreen,
suggesting that drivers were able to maintain primary task
performance.
The touchscreen was also identified as the most pleasurable
device to use, and was identified as “familiar, accurate and
fast”. Participants felt more ‘in control’ using the
touchscreen, and generally liked the device more,
specifically identifying it as their preferred device for menu
navigation, text entry and map manipulation tasks; it was
also equally as popular as the rotary controller for list
selection. The popularity of such devices in everyday
society means that touchscreens are increasingly familiar
and ‘intuitive’ to use. Nevertheless, the rotary controller
and steering wheel controls were also popular (“very good
for moving through list” (RC); “comfortable to use” (RC);
“expectations high” (SWC)).
Given the results, one may conclude that using a
touchscreen alone is perfectly acceptable. Indeed,
discounting the touchpad, the visual demand associated
with both the rotary controller and steering controls appears
to be no better than the touchscreen. Nevertheless, using a
touchscreen is always likely to demand some visual
attention, and their typical location invites anthropometrical
issues (e.g. arm instability), leading to potential errors and
fatigue. In contrast, physical devices, such as rotary
controllers and steering wheel controls, permit eyes-free
use, and their expected locations may afford arm support.
Furthermore, during the study, people relied on the
touchscreen for progress/feedback, and this also demanded
visual attention. However, one would expect this demand to
reduce over time, as drivers become familiar with the
interface, tasks and the operation/impact of the secondary
device control actions. Additionally, for part of the study,
single device operation was enforced, to allow direct
comparisons to be made. In reality, there are aspects of each
task that may be better suited to specific devices. This is
likely to reduce the overall visual burden and improve the
efficiency of all tasks. For example, during the final ‘free-
choice’ drive, it was evident that for ‘list selection’, all
devices were used. However, further video analysis
revealed that the rotary controller was most commonly
employed for locating the list, whereas the touchscreen was
most popular for moving through options.
It is also noteworthy that participants’ perceptions of the
devices they used during the ‘free-choice’ drive were very
different to their actual selections. For example, nobody
stated that they used the steering wheel controls for list
selection and yet this was actually employed for 26.4% of
the time, on average. Similarly, participants indicated that
the touchpad was selected for map manipulation and menu
navigation (14.4% and 5.4% of the time, respectively), and
yet neither device was actually used for these tasks during
the ‘free-choice’ drive. It is worth noting that there were a
few situations (4 noted) where participants switched to a
different device shortly after starting a task – it is unclear
whether this was because they were unable to complete the
task as initially anticipated (e.g. due to technical or usability
problems) or simply because they changed their mind.
Nevertheless, this may have influenced their perceptions of
use.
3.
Burnett, G., Crundall, E., Large, D., Lawson, G.,
Skrypchuk, L., 2013. A study of unidirectional swipe
gestures on in-vehicle touch screens. AutoUI2013
Conference, pp. 22-29. ACM
4.
Burnett, G., Lawson, G., Millen, L., Pickering, C.
2011. Designing touchpad user-interfaces for vehicles:
which tasks are most suitable? Behaviour &
Information Technology, 30(3), 403-414.
5.
Burnett, G.E., Lomas, S.M., Mason, B., Porter, J.M.
Summerskill, S.J., 2005. Writing and driving: An
assessment of handwriting recognition as a means of
alphanumeric data entry in a driving context. Advances
in Transportation Studies.
6.
Eren, A.L., Burnett, G., Thompson, S., Harvey, C.,
Skrypchuk, L. 2015a. Identifying a set of gestures for
in-car touch screens. IEHF Conference
7.
Eren, A.L., Burnett, G., Large, D.R., 2015b,
November. Can in-vehicle touchscreens be operated
with zero visual demand? An exploratory driving
simulator study. In DDI2015 Conference (No. 15345).
8.
Hart, S.G., Staveland, L.E., 1988. Development of
NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of empirical
and theoretical research. Advances in psychology, 52,
pp.139-183
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Lamble, D., Laakso, M., Summala, H., 1999. Detection
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vision: implications for positioning of visually
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CONCLUSION
Overall, there was general consensus that the touchscreen
on its own was most preferred and least demanding to use
for all tasks. In contrast, the touchpad was least preferred
and most demanding; the rotary controller and steering
wheel controls were largely comparable across most
measures. There is also good evidence that a combination
of devices was employed by participants when provided
with ‘free choice’ – this is likely to reduce the visual
burden, compared to touchscreen-only operation, although
further work should explore the candidate devices in greater
depth and over extended periods of testing. Based on these
results, both the steering wheel controls and rotary
controller appear to be good candidates to for future
investigations. Future work should continue to consider
secondary devices to be used in conjunction with an invehicle touchscreen to reduce demand and improve
performance, but should also consider practicalities during
real-world use (e.g. the effect of vibration on performance
and accuracy).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research was conducted in collaboration with Jaguar
Land Rover Research and the authors would like to
gratefully acknowledge their support.
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