Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 32 (2007) 1237–1245
www.elsevier.com/locate/pce
IWRM in developing countries: Lessons from the Mhlatuze
Catchment in South Africa
N. Funke *, S.H.H. Oelofse 1, J. Hattingh, P.J. Ashton, A.R. Turton
CSIR-Natural Resources and the Environment, P.O. Box 395, Pretoria 0001, South Africa
Available online 3 August 2007
Abstract
The paper analyses and discusses the concept of integrated water resources management (IWRM) and its application in South Africa.
The central characteristics of IWRM are discussed and another feature, good governance, is highlighted as being crucial for effective
IWRM. The paper focuses on those features that distinguish water management challenges in developing countries from those experienced in developed countries (where most of the current definitions of IWRM originated).
The case study discussed in this paper, the Mhlatuze Catchment in South Africa, was selected as being representative of a catchment
situated in one of the country’s 19 water management areas (WMAs) where attempts are being made to implement IWRM. The available
evidence indicates that three sets of reasons are responsible for the failure to achieve full implementation of IWRM in the Mhlatuze
Catchment. First, the national custodian of water resources – DWAF – continues to experience severe internal (technical capacity) problems that hinder its efforts to successfully manage the Usutu to Mhlatuze WMA (of which the Mhlatuze Catchment forms a part) as a
unit. Secondly, while IWRM is, on paper, a key part of national policy, the concept has not been fully accepted and practiced by local
water managers. Thirdly, a range of institutional challenges persist because there is insufficient alignment and cooperation between the
policies of different government departments and the practices of different water use sectors that impact on water.
Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Developing countries; Governance; Integrated water resources management (IWRM); Mhlatuze Catchment; South Africa
1. Introduction
Today the world’s freshwater resources are under
increasing pressure due to population growth, increased
economic activity and associated increases in pollution
caused by waste discharges. However, at the same time, a
combination of social inequity, economic marginalisation
and lack of poverty alleviation programmes forces millions
of impoverished people to eke out an ever more precarious
existence from the sparse and diminishing soil and forestry
resources, using a variety of practices that have increasingly negative impacts on water resources. A lack of effective pollution control measures has resulted in a
progressive deterioration in water quality that has adverse
*
1
Corresponding author. Tel.: +27 (0)12 841 2024.
E-mail address: nfunke@csir.co.za (N. Funke).
Formerly Assistant Director (Industries) DWAF.
1474-7065/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.pce.2007.07.018
influences on water usability, has a detrimental effect on
human health and hampers the functioning of aquatic ecosystems. In addition, one-third of the world’s population
live in countries that are under medium to high water
stress; this figure is expected to grow to two-thirds by the
year 2025 (Global Water Partnership, 2000).
At the Second World Water Forum in 2000 at The
Hague, the current water crisis facing the world was attributed primarily to ‘‘poor’’ or ineffective governance and
water resources management practices (Turton et al.,
2007). In the past, social and economic development and
resource management plans have tended to be fragmented
and uncoordinated, and have been implemented in a top–
down manner by sectoral institutions whose legitimacy
and effectiveness are now increasingly being questioned
by society. In addition, earlier, purely technocratic
approaches to problems in the water sector that did not
take proper account of the intricate social, economic and
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N. Funke et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 32 (2007) 1237–1245
political nature of water resources management continue to
prevail in many countries, with increasingly unfortunate
consequences for the societies concerned (Global Water
Partnership, 2000).
What then might be a more effective approach to deal
with the global crisis in water governance? Despite differing
opinions about the most appropriate way to manage water
resources at local and international scales, the philosophy
and principles of integrated water resources management
(IWRM) have been widely accepted and adopted as offering the most sustainable solution to this problem. Not only
can the successful implementation of IWRM prevent
human health, economic and environmental losses that
might impede development and frustrate poverty reduction
efforts, but the participative processes comprising ‘‘good’’
IWRM can also help developing countries to achieve the
millennium development goals (MDGs). Key features of
the MDGs are the need to address poverty, gender equality
and health issues, while also striving to attain environmental sustainability (Jonch-Clausen, 2004).
It is evident from several published accounts (Turton
et al., 2007; Biswas, 2004) that, despite its promising potential, it is difficult to implement IWRM effectively. Also, different implementation efforts have yielded limited successes
to date. This paper explores the reasons behind this by
examining precisely what the IWRM concept entails, identifying the practical limits to its implementation (especially
in a developing country context), and reviewing critiques
that have been raised against IWRM. Against this background, the paper then discusses the Mhlatuze Catchment
in South Africa, an area where IWRM is being implemented
but is still facing serious challenges and constraints. The
demands for water in this catchment exceed the available
supplies and an increasing number of activities – including
agriculture, mining and industrial development – are competing for the available water. The paper concludes with a
brief discussion of the lessons that have been learned from
attempts to implement IWRM in the Mhlatuze Catchment.
2. A critical discussion of IWRM
2.1. Contents and criticism
In 2000, the Global Water Partnership published a
widely cited and critiqued manual on IWRM, which
emphasised the need for a common understanding of
IWRM and called on water resource managers to ensure
that IWRM is implemented effectively (Global Water Partnership, 2000, p. 22). This manual also presented the following definition of IWRM:
‘‘IWRM is a process which promotes the coordinated
development and management of water, land and
related resources, in order to maximise the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without
compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems’’
(Global Water Partnership, 2000, p. 22).
Arguably the most prominent feature of this definition is
the call for coordination; in other words, the integration of
both natural and human systems amongst themselves and
with each other, in a way that allows a balance to be
attained between resource use and resource protection.
Attaining a balance between resource use and resource protection also features prominently in South Africa’s new
water legislation, which aims to redress the current legacy
of unequal access to water resources and sanitation that
still faces the country (RSA, 1998). While the definition
appears to be sufficiently comprehensive and takes account
of the different dimensions that need to be involved in
efficient water resources management, it has also been criticised as being impractical. Two examples of these critiques
are discussed below.
Biswas (2004) states that, on the surface, the Global
Water Partnership’s definition of IWRM appears to be
broad, all-encompassing and impressive. However, he then
points out that ‘‘lofty phrases’’ have little practical importance for either present or future water management practices, as these do not help water planners or managers to
solve problems in the water sector. Ultimately, Biswas considers the IWRM concept to be ‘‘unimplementable’’
because of the difficulty in integrating the actions of different sectors such as water and energy.
While integration is certainly not easy to achieve, noticeably due to a lack of institutional capacity (Van der Zaag,
2005), it seems unfair to label the process as ‘‘unrealisable’’,
since this implicitly advocates a return to the situation
where the different water-related sectors work independently of each other. Previous water resource management
practices were unsuccessful because they lacked effective
integration; this failure led to the near-universal adoption
of the IWRM philosophy as an attractive alternative. Does
it not make sense to at least strive towards an ideal with
obvious merits, even if this will be difficult to attain? Van
der Zaag (2005) underlines this point by stating that the
adoption of IWRM ‘‘is not only an option, but a must’’,
even though succeeding in doing so seems to be a very
ambitious task. The reason why the adoption of IWRM
is so important is because systematically pursuing IWRM
constitutes a path of short-term risk that leads to longterm security, which supports the current and future
environmental and developmental needs to manage water
resources in a holistic manner.
The European Union’s internal review of EU-funded
water research projects between 1994 and 2006 agrees with
Biswas (2004), stating that it is not advisable to uncritically
embrace the current definition of IWRM as it is ‘‘narrow,
incomplete and unchallenging’’ (Gyawali et al., 2006).
According to the EU report, the danger of an imperfect
definition lies in the fact that it tempts water resource
managers to carry on as before and simply label existing
practices as IWRM, assuming that this is what they have
always engaged in. However, no alternative definition is
offered. Instead, the EU report proposes an alternative name for IWRM, namely ‘‘Constructively Engaged
N. Funke et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 32 (2007) 1237–1245
Integrated Water Resources Allocation and Management’’
(CE-IWRAM). The term ‘‘constructive engagement’’
implies that the process must involve inputs from government, the private sector and civil society, and must also
be gender sensitive. The strong focus on water allocation
is also the logical result of the water reform process in an
increasingly water-scarce world, this is particularly relevant
for the Southern African region and South Africa, and
highlights the need to acknowledge the political nature of
all water allocation processes. This suggestion emphasises
that it is important for IWRM to start working in practice,
with a strong focus on the constructive engagement of relevant actors, as well as a realisation that water allocation is
an integral part of this politicised process. With reference
to the case study in this article, it is also important to
ensure that different government and non-government
actors cooperate in order to implement South Africa’s
water reform, which, by virtue of the fact that it is to a
large degree focused on redress, is highly political in nature.
Valid as these criticisms may be, it should be noted that
there is no unambiguous and universally accepted definition of IWRM. In addition, it is important to realise that
a clear definition on its own cannot and does not provide
sufficient guidance to enable a concept to be implemented
successfully. Concepts and definitions must first be
unpacked and debated; this should lead to the development
and production of guidelines and implementation manuals.
Practical implementation can only take place after this process has been concluded.
Given the lack of a single definition of IWRM, it is helpful to examine the Dublin Principles, which form the core
of IWRM, in order to better understand the key issues that
define IWRM. The wide acceptance of the Dublin Principles prompted a relatively gradual shift away from more
traditional ‘‘hard’’ engineering approaches that focused
predominantly on supplying sufficient water to meet
demands, to a more integrated planning approach that
incorporates both conventional and non-conventional
options for reconciling water supply and demand, including water conservation and demand management measures
(Turton et al., 2007).
The four Dublin Principles state that:
1. Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential
to sustain life, development and the environment.
2. Water development and management should be based
on a participatory approach, involving users, planners
and policy-makers at all levels.
3. Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water.
4. Water has an economic value in all its competing uses
and should be recognised as an economic good.
The first principle acknowledges that the world’s freshwater resources are both finite and vulnerable, and calls
for the establishment of an inclusive institutional frame-
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work that takes account of all characteristics of the hydrological cycle (as well as its interaction with other natural
resources and ecosystems). This would enable the coordination of human economic, social and political systems,
which create demands for water, determine land uses and
generate water-borne waste products. However, while definite benefits can be gained from integrating the management of natural and human systems, and taking account
of the effects that different human activities have on the
environment, the task of operationalising and implementing this approach in practice represents an enormous challenge (Global Water Partnership, 2000). In most countries,
this would require a comprehensive reform of all water legislation as well as a greater alignment of policies and
improved cooperation between different government
departments and affected stakeholders. This is particularly
difficult in developing countries which often lack sufficient
institutional and technical capacity to achieve the desired
objectives. Similar problems were identified as presenting
obstacles to the successful implementation of IWRM in
the Mhlatuze Catchment, as discussed in more detail
below.
The second principle requires the effective engagement
of all stakeholders in the decision-making process because
water is a subject that affects the lives and livelihoods of
everyone. Governments therefore have the responsibility
to create suitable mechanisms for stakeholder consultation
at all spatial scales – at national, river basin and community levels – and need to enhance the capacity of marginalised groups to participate (Global Water Partnership,
2000). Clearly, it is necessary to achieve effective stakeholder participation in the water management process,
especially when highly political and controversial actions,
such as water re-allocation, have to be taken. This currently is and will become an increasingly prominent issue
in the South African context as the National Water Act
calls for the redress of past inequities in terms of access
to water resources and the benefits derived from such
access (Republic of South Africa, 1998). However, ensuring that all stakeholders are actively involved in decisionmaking processes is a huge challenge at best and, at worst,
may be impossible to realise. In practice, ensuring that
‘‘everyone’’ gets to have their say in decision-making processes is the central challenge facing government (Hall,
2007).
The third principle relates to the importance of involving women in decision-making with the realisation that
women play a key role in collecting and safeguarding water
for domestic and, in many cases, agricultural use. At the
same time, the principle recognises that in many societies,
women have a much less influential role than men do when
it comes to decision-making relating to water resources.
Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore different
mechanisms for increasing the participation of women in
decision-making and other activities related to IWRM
(Global Water Partnership, 2000). While it is important
to change practices based on gender discrimination so as
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N. Funke et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 32 (2007) 1237–1245
to enable women to be included in decision-making processes, this will require a radical shift in many traditional
perceptions of the roles of women. Therefore, this complicated challenge may take a long time to be met successfully.
The fourth principle refers to the value of water as an
economic good. Here it is important to point out that
whilst the ‘‘value’’ of water should be recognised to enable
the rational allocation of water as a scarce resource, charging for water means applying an economic instrument in
order to influence people’s behaviour towards conservation
(Global Water Partnership, 2000). While it is logical and
important to attach value to a scarce resource in order to
prevent it from being used unwisely or wastefully, water
resources, and the ecosystems that surround them, have
always had value attached to them because they are recognised as providing important goods and services to society.
However, the question of charging money for water is still
a thorny issue in many parts of South Africa. South Africa’s citizens have a constitutional right to sufficient water
to provide for their basic human needs (25 l per day), after
which they are expected to pay for any additional water
they may use. Over the years, many poorer urban communities have either adopted a culture of non-payment (which
arose as a form of protest against the former apartheid government) or simply do not have the money to pay the fees
that are charged. People in rural areas who previously had
no reliable supply of potable water or formal sanitation
systems also do not take kindly to the idea of paying for
these services.
While the four Dublin Principles raise important arguments about the shortcomings of how water resource management used to be (or still is) conducted, their
implementation in the form of IWRM will be a complicated process that will likely only be realised in the longterm. Turton et al. (2007) support this point by stating that
nearly a decade after IWRM approaches were first adopted
by water resource managers, there is little evidence to suggest that all or even most of the potential benefits of
IWRM have been realised. The situation in developing
countries is of particular concern here. Those countries
with mature or long-standing democracies tend to be more
conducive to IWRM as they tend to have a strong and
well-established base of multidisciplinary specialists who
engage in management and other actions. In contrast, the
same high levels of capacity and development are seldom
found in developing countries that have had independent,
democratic systems of government for less than 25 years
(Turton et al., 2007).
2.2. The importance of good governance in IWRM
Governance is defined by Turton et al. (2007) as ‘‘the
process of informed decision-making that enables tradeoffs to be made between competing users of a given
resource so as to mitigate conflict, enhance equity, ensure
sustainability and hold officials accountable’’. In this view,
governance is seen both as a process, that involves a num-
ber of distinct elements, including decision-making about
contentious issues, and as a product, where effective
IWRM is the product of good governance. Governance
structures also play an important part in the form of the
institutional framework that underpins IWRM.
The Global Water Partnership (2000, p. 33) places particular emphasis on the three pillars of IWRM. The first is
the enabling environment (linked by Turton et al. (2007) to
governance as a process), comprising the national, provincial or local policies and legislation that enable all stakeholders to play their respective roles in the development
and management of water resources. In addition, this
includes the environment and mechanisms, including information and capacity building, that are created to enable
and facilitate stakeholder participation. Also of importance
are the institutional frameworks through which policies,
strategies and legislation can be implemented, as well as
the management instruments that enable these institutions
to do their job (Jonch-Clausen, 2004).
Whilst an appropriate legal framework must be in place
to achieve IWRM, the real challenges lie in the successful
implementation of IWRM. Are governments in developing
countries capable of performing all the crucial functions
that the IWRM framework requires of them? Unfortunately, this is often not the case due to shortages of economic, technical and human resources.
Tropp (in press) lists three sets of issues that define the
new, less technocratic and more decentralised form of governance in the water sector. First, Tropp (in press) recognises that politics form part of the problem as well as the
solution. Politics and trade-offs can therefore not be
avoided when making hard decisions that deal with water
resources allocation among various sectors and user
groups. This is particularly relevant when it is necessary
to re-allocate water after a country’s water law has been
modified to make it more amenable to IWRM, or, as in
the case of South Africa, to address past inequities. Secondly, Tropp (in press) identifies the critical need to
develop additional capacity at all levels. This is linked to
the overall philosophy of IWRM, which calls for the adoption of more socially orientated approaches. In the water
management sector, greater attention needs to be paid to
the development of diversified and multidisciplinary
knowledge and related capacities linked to managing people and processes, with particular emphasis on the need
to develop mediation skills. Thirdly, Tropp (in press)
focuses on the need to look beyond the water sector when
governance reforms are instituted. Only when an effective
country-wide governance system is in place, will the necessary participation, transparency and other positive features
be present and work efficiently. Once again, this relates to
the array of problems that insufficient capacity and inefficient governance processes and structures may pose for
countries with relatively young democracies, such as South
Africa. Because such problems also hamper the ability of
these countries to implement IWRM, it is logical that
IWRM processes will only be able to function successfully
N. Funke et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 32 (2007) 1237–1245
in the water sector if governance processes are working
well. Tropp (in press) also emphasises the need to include
water issues in the broader national and international processes of trade, stability and democratisation so as to
increase the chances of achieving the international water
targets by developing inclusive water development
networks.
2.3. IWRM in developing countries
According to the Global Water Partnership (2000), there
is no universal blueprint for IWRM and while certain basic
principles can achieve universal buy-in, their realisation
and effective implementation depends on the nature, character and intensity of water problems, human resources,
institutional capacities, relative strengths and characteristics of the public and private sectors, cultural setting, and
natural conditions present in individual countries.
Ashton (2007) raises an interesting point that can be
linked to the arguments around the differences in IWRM
in developed as opposed to developing countries. He states
that the European Union (EU) has presented a set of five
principles of good governance, which, according to EU
countries, is all that is necessary to maintain good governance systems in Europe. These are openness, participation, accountability, effectiveness and coherence, all of
which can be closely linked to the overall philosophy of
IWRM and its close and necessary link to governance.
However, in an African context (and possibly also in the
context of developing countries elsewhere) the situation
becomes more complicated as there are additional factors
that hamper the achievement of good governance. These
are low levels of literacy and lack of familiarity with technical terminology, widespread poverty as a result of
inequalities in terms of access to resources and finance
and a lack of familiarity with democratic processes, often
accompanied by mistrust of unfamiliar representatives
and self-appointed ‘‘leaders’’. With regard to water reform
in particular there also appears to be a gap between overhauling water resources management and applying new
legislation, strategies and institutions in practice as the latter is a task the exceeds the budgets and human resource
capacities of most SADC states (Swatuk, 2005). Also, it
is important to note that many of Africa’s problems (and
those of other developing countries) have unique local
characteristics which may make it difficult for a ‘‘transplanted’’ solution to work. Particular care must therefore
be taken to ensure that both the IWRM principles and
the specific practices that are implemented in an African
country (or any other developing country) take sufficient
account of local conditions if they are to be sustainable
and effective in the long-term (Ashton, 2007).
In addition, findings of social-science oriented scholarship on water management in the Southern African region,
in particular published in three special issues of Physics and
Chemistry of the Earth (Swatuk, 2005) have shown a predominant similarity in experience with regard to attempts
1241
at the implementation of IWRM and water demand management (WDM) in practice. It appears that difficulties
with regard to water reform reflect the largely political
nature of the reform process, such as proposing a profound re-alignment of decision-making power in already
fragile, underdeveloped states. Thus, in order to achieve
sustainable, equitable and efficient water use in the Southern African region, it is important to reflect on the political
nature of these activities and, if necessary, to reconsider the
basic assumptions and ideologies driving the reform
process.
2.4. Obstacles to implementing IWRM in South Africa
Against this background on the general nature of
IWRM, as well as its merits, flaws and limits to its successful functioning and implementation, it is important to
consider IWRM in South Africa as a whole before examining a particular case study. There are several reasons why
IWRM is very necessary in South Africa. Water is not
equitably distributed in South Africa, its availability is
highly variable over time and, due to the relatively low
average rainfall, large parts of the country are water-scarce.
Furthermore, historical patterns of industrial and agricultural development as well as politically motivated social
engineering have resulted in a mismatch between locations of concentrated demand for water and the available
water resources. These physical and historical conditions
provide an enormous challenge to realising sustainable
social and economic development while redressing the
inequalities caused by past political policies (Görgens
et al., 1998).
In addition to reasons why it is necessary that IWRM
should be implemented in South Africa from a climatic,
political and historical perspective, people in South
Africa have participated in a national democratisation
process and now feel a growing need to participate in
and contribute to decision-making processes. Whilst this
may be partly as a result of their lack of trust in, and the
lack of legitimacy of, previous delivery systems and
social services, it is also important for people to be
drawn into the planning and management aspects to
ensure that their concerns and requirements are met
and that they receive appropriate delivery of resources
(Görgens et al., 1998). Local community participation
can also provide an important source of information,
experience and ideas that could lead to practical, relevant, achievable and acceptable solutions to waterrelated problems. Another benefit to involving local
communities in water resource management is that they
often possess a particular knowledge of a resource –
known as indigenous knowledge – which can help to
generate new options when it comes to environmental
protection, including proper water resource use and
management (Dungumaro and Madulu, 2003).
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N. Funke et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 32 (2007) 1237–1245
Continued fragmentation in the national approach to
water resource management represents a particular problem for the effective implementation of IWRM in South
Africa. While water and land both fall under the broader
concept of natural resources and are inextricably linked
to one another in terms of the way in which use of the
one impacts on the other, South African environmental,
water and land-use legislation and administration are
administered by separate line function government ministries. Despite the comprehensive reforms of South Africa’s
water and environmental law, this fragmentation is likely
to persist into the foreseeable future. While the Constitution of 1996 classes water management and certain landuse-related activities such as mining, energy and land
affairs as central government competencies, other landuse-related activities, such as agriculture, nature conservation and the environment are considered to be provincial
competencies. In fact, South Africa’s Department of
Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) has little effective
control over land-use activities beyond forestry and certain
aspects of mining and solid waste disposal (Görgens et al.,
1998).
Against this background, it is instructive to review the
situation in the Mhlatuze Catchment to determine the
extent to which IWRM is functioning successfully, despite
the national obstacles to implementation that were identified above.
3. The Mhlatuze Catchment
This section, detailing the challenges, constraints and
successes of the implementation of IWRM in the Mhlatuze
Catchment, is based on verbal evidence that was collected
from interviews with selected Department of Water Affairs
and Forestry (DWAF) officials working in the Mhlatuze
Catchment, as well as written evidence in the form of
reports that discuss the state of water resource management in the area. The location of the Mhlatuze Catchment
within South Africa is shown in Fig. 1.
3.1. Background information
The Mhlatuze Catchment is one of five catchments
forming the greater Usutu to Mhlatuze water management
area (WMA); most of the WMA lies within KwaZuluNatal, with the northern part located in Mpumalanga
Province. Parts of this catchment are relatively water-rich,
with annual rainfall as high as 1500 mm per year – these
are located mainly to the east of the Drakensberg escarpment. Elsewhere in the catchment, rainfall declines rapidly
to about 600 mm per year. This is the case in the north-central area near the Lebombo Mountains, which are waterscarce. Potential evaporation varies between 1300 and
1500 mm per year. Several conservation areas of high
importance are located in the WMA, such as Lake St Lucia
which is a World Heritage Site, as well as the HluhluweUmfolozi and Mkuzi game reserves (DWAF, 2003).
Economic activities in the WMA are very diverse and
include commercial forestry, irrigation (mainly sugar
cane), and rain-fed cultivation, as well as urban and industrial development that is concentrated at the towns of
Richards Bay and Empangeni. Export-orientated industries are also located close to the deep-water harbour facilities at Richards Bay. Coal mining used to be a prominent
activity in the upper part of the WMA, but most coal
mines are now inactive. In its place, extensive mineralsands mining operations now occur in the coastal dunes
where Richards Bay Minerals is a leading producer of titania slag, high purity pig iron, rutile and zircon (DWAF,
2003).
The Mhlatuze Catchment (a sub-area of the WMA) is
the economic hub of the entire WMA and contains a large
number of industries and the world’s largest coal-export
terminal. The water requirements for the catchment are
considerable as the different water use sectors (mining,
agriculture, industry and domestic) all require substantial
amounts of water. Although the catchment has sufficient
water to meet all requirements at present,2 the available
resources have been over-allocated; this means that compulsory licensing and stricter control of all water uses will
be needed to rectify the situation. This licensing process
has already been initiated and the process will also help
to redress inequities as well as finalise the Reserve3 in the
catchment (DWAF, 2004).
It is uncertain how much water will be used in the
Mhlatuze Catchment in future as demand is currently driven by industrial development which is difficult to predict
in the long-term. This delicate situation requires flexible
management plans so that water managers will be able
to cope with sudden increases in the demands for water
without retarding development. This is especially important because the current water allocations make no allowance for any industrial, urban or other expansion. Also,
no water is available for further allocations to the rural
areas or equity schemes unless major new infrastructure
development takes place. Despite the major developments
in the Mhlatuze Catchment, water quality is generally
good, most probably due to the fact that most urban
and industrial effluent is discharged via pipelines to the
sea. Impacts on the marine environment could thus
become a problem in future. The mining of coastal dunes
for heavy minerals north of Richards Bay also presents a
pollution threat, particularly to local groundwater systems
(DWAF, 2004).
2
The water supply in the catchment is augmented by transfer schemes
from the Umfolozi and Thukela rivers. Without these additional water
‘‘imports’’, the available supplies would be well below the volumes needed.
3
The ecological component of the Reserve refers to that portion of
streamflow quantity and quality that must remain in rivers to meet basic
human needs and to ensure the sustainable healthy functioning of aquatic
ecosystems. Only a part of the remaining water can practically and
economically be harnessed as usable yield for off-channel use (DWAF,
2003).
N. Funke et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 32 (2007) 1237–1245
1243
Fig. 1. Map showing the location of the Mhlatuze Catchment within the Usutu to Mhlatuze water management area in South Africa (map adapted from
DWAF, 2003).
3.2. Institutional background
The South African government, and more specifically
DWAF, has adopted an IWRM approach that currently
consists of a gradual devolution of certain management
functions to established catchment management agencies
(CMAs) at WMA level. At present, CMAs have been proclaimed for seven of South Africa’s 19 WMAs; the remaining 12 CMAs will be promulgated over approximately the
next decade. Each CMA is expected to progressively
develop a catchment management strategy (CMS) for the
protection, use, development, conservation, management
and control of water resources in its particular WMA, in
alignment with the national water resource strategy. Until
such time as a CMA has been formally established in a
WMA, however, the regional offices of DWAF will continue to manage the water resources of their respective
areas. Internal strategic perspectives (ISPs) have been
developed to provide a framework for DWAF’s water
management actions until such time as the CMAs become
fully operational. This will help to ensure consistency when
dealing with requests for new water licences, and informing
water users about how the department intends to manage
water in particular areas of concern (DWAF, 2004).
The internal strategic perspective for the Usutu–Mhlatuze WMA (DWAF, 2004) contains a section devoted to
the importance of IWRM for South Africa. This underlines
DWAF’s commitment to manage water with the full
understanding of its importance for social and economic
development. Quite ambitiously, DWAF also identifies
the need for integration between water-related programmes
and policies of DWAF as well as the plans and programmes of all other role players in the management areas.
There is a particularly important need for the CMAs to
develop sound relationships with a range of stakeholders
from different sectors. The overall aim of implementing
IWRM is, through good governance and stakeholder participation, to enable water managers to ‘‘use our precious
water resources to assist us in poverty eradication and
removal of inequity’’ (DWAF, 2004).
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N. Funke et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 32 (2007) 1237–1245
3.3. Reality check
While national policies and statements of intent sound
promising on paper, there is little evidence to indicate that
IWRM is being implemented effectively in practice, particularly in the Mhlatuze Catchment. In particular, it appears
that DWAF is not coping sufficiently well with the water
quality problems in the catchment and while these currently are not severe, they have the potential to worsen
with future development. Part of the problem may be due
to the fact that water quality data for the WMA are scattered across several DWAF sub-directorates and regional
offices (CPH Water, 2002). In addition, a representative
of DWAF’s KwaZulu-Natal Regional Office (DixonPaver, 2006) has indicated that DWAF staff responsible
for water quality management face serious challenges in
the area because of staff shortages; staff members are overworked and do not have sufficient time to focus on the
effective implementation of IWRM principles. In addition,
problems of communication exist within DWAF as an
organisation, and between DWAF and external actors,
have hampered integration. While attempts are made to
incorporate all stakeholders when conducting environmental impact assessments (EIAs) for new developments, the
sheer volume of work that DWAF staff members have to
deal with in the catchment makes it extremely difficult for
DWAF to deal with all developments in an integrated way.
The management structures within DWAF therefore
have a direct impact on the department’s ability to identify
and manage water quality issues, while the few available
DWAF officials are only able to respond to various crises
rather than planning, quantifying and monitoring the
water quality situation of the WMA. This is the direct
result of inadequate staffing and the fact that many DWAF
staff members apply for employment elsewhere because
they perceive that there is little opportunity to grow their
careers within the department. The problem is accentuated
by the fact that few new staff members are recruited to
replace those who leave (CPH Water, 2002). With so many
people leaving DWAF, the knowledge and experience that
has been acquired over many years by more experienced
staff members is lost to the organisation, and there is a lack
of effective succession planning in key technical positions.
This is particularly problematic because effective implementation of IWRM relies on the expertise of people with
knowledge of the key problem areas in the WMA.
There is also insufficient coordination between DWAF
and other government departments when it comes to developing new initiatives such as the industrial development
zone (IDZ) that has been planned for the Richards Bay
area, and which forms part of the national macro-economic policy to develop South Africa’s manufacturing sector by encouraging investment in export-orientated
industries, centred on beneficiation of the country’s mineral
resources (Department of Economic Development KZN,
2006). While the IDZ is an important and promising
endeavour for economic development and investment in
the area, the increased industrial activity will impact
adversely on water resources and the environment and this
presents a fundamental problem to the successful functioning of IWRM. If IWRM is not implemented successfully at
the planning stage, there is little hope of achieving integrated management in practice. In fact, the lack of integration at the planning stage coupled with the high turnover of
technical staff in municipalities, as well as provincial and
national government departments, a shortage of institutional memory and very little if any skills transfer and succession or retention plans, presents serious problems to the
realisation of IWRM.
Nevertheless, despite these obvious constraints to
IWRM, there are positive indications that some elements
of IWRM are working successfully in the WMA. According to a DWAF representative dealing with catchment
management in the area (Reddy, 2006), various stakeholders and water users have become closely involved in establishing a CMA and good progress has been made in
widening the participation base to include all relevant sectors of society. Despite this progress, however, there is still
a backlog because traditional leaders and civil society have
not provided full support, while local government structures are still under-represented. Therefore, while IWRM
is starting to emerge in the Usutu to Mhlatuze WMA,
DWAF should provide stronger leadership in the adoption
of a united view on IWRM (Reddy, 2006). The absence of
strong leadership from DWAF has resulted in various projects being conducted in an ad hoc and uneven manner,
with inadequate cooperation between the different sections
of DWAF and few inputs are received from other regions
or government departments. Reddy (2006) has suggested
that greater attention needs to capacity-building and
empowerment could solve many of these problems, though
he admits that mechanisms to realise this still need to be
developed.
4. Conclusion
This study has shown that IWRM practices in the Mhlatuze Catchment have begun to take shape but there is still a
long way to go before effective IWRM is fully realised. This
is due to a combination of factors. First, DWAF – the
national custodian of water resources – is experiencing
severe internal problems that hinder its role of successfully
managing the WMA as a unit. Secondly, while IWRM is a
key part of national policy on paper, it has yet to be ‘‘officially’’ accepted by water managers in practice. Water managers are either unaware of IWRM or are too preoccupied
with daily crises to give it the attention that it deserves.
Thirdly, a range of institutional challenges persist because
there is insufficient cooperation between the different sectors and different policies that impact on water. It is not
appropriate simply to expect that the creation of a CMA
in the area will solve this problem. Instead, concerted efforts
have to be made by DWAF to increase collaboration with
other departments and stakeholders until such time as a
N. Funke et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 32 (2007) 1237–1245
CMA can take over this function effectively. Fourthly, the
involvement all stakeholders in decision-making processes
is difficult in this predominantly rural area due to a lack
of capacity to participate in consultative processes.
From this case study of the Mhlatuze Catchment, it is
clear that local attempts to implement IWRM in South
Africa have to resolve several specific problems before
IWRM will be able to work successfully in the long-term.
This finding reinforces the view that the effective implementation of IWRM, specifically, has not so far been fully successful. South Africa has made remarkable progress in
reforming its national water law – now regarded as one
of the most progressive in the world – thereby providing
the enabling environment to facilitate IWRM. The remaining challenge is to ensure that the two other pillars of
IWRM – management and institutional capacity, both supported by good governance practices – are able to follow
suit and become equally effective. While it is unlikely that
IWRM will be fully realised in South Africa in the shortor even the medium-term, it is still an ideal that is worth
aspiring to and attaining progressively through a series of
gradual improvements to integrated water management
structures and processes.
Based on the findings reported in this paper, it is clear
that DWAF must overcome its institutional problems.
While this will require concerted long-term effort, it will
have a dramatic positive impact on its ability to deal with
the challenge of implementing effective IWRM across the
different WMAs in South Africa. Also, it will be important
to ensure that there is strong political support at all levels
for the National Water Resources Strategy, which is South
Africa’s national IWRM plan. This will help to strengthen
the links between the relevant national and provincial government departments and agencies, as well as local authorities and, importantly, also put in place practical
mechanisms to facilitate coordination between them. The
successful implementation of such a strategy would also
make it easier to deal with catchment-specific problems,
such as those in the Mhlatuze Catchment that hinder the
effective participation of some rural stakeholders in decision-making processes.
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