\ POLICY BRIEF
3 \ 2016
The Final Round:
Combating Armed Actors, Organized Crime
and Wildlife Trafficking
Nikhil Acharya \ BICC
Dr Arthur Mühlen-Schulte
RECOMMENDATIONS
\ Link the problems of wildlife
trafficking and small arms and light
weapons proliferation
Wildlife and wildlife products constitute a high-value
‘conflict resource: When trafficked together with
small arms and light weapons (SALW), this resource
\ Enhance cross-border collaboration
between wildlife authorities and SALW
actors, including law enforcement
authorities, Joint Border Forces and
SALW experts
The illicit trade in wildlife and weapons takes place
proliferation reinforces a cycle of armed violence
across sovereign borders and cannot be dealt with by
impeding development, eroding state institutions and
states in isolation. Sharing intelligence, strengthening
threatening community security.
legislation and conducting joint operations at the
regional level is crucial.
\ Bridge knowledge and skill gaps by
enhancing technical collaboration with
wildlife authorities
\ Align regional and national Action
Plans to counter HVWT
Deploy technical advisors and systematically share
Assist member states to co-ordinate action, tailor
intelligence between wildlife conservation and SALW
standards and design and implement coherent
control programmes to map, identify, trace and track
strategies that explicitly recognize the relationship
networks and flows of arms, ammunition and high
between eradicating HVWT, countering SALW
value wildlife trafficking (HVWT).
proliferation and achieving wider development goals.
\ Support joint training efforts to
counter the proliferation of SALW
and HVWT
\ Target common drivers of HVWT and
weapons proliferation
Prioritize trainings on customs and border
are key drivers of both HVWT and SALW proliferation.
management, physical security and stockpile
Participatory solutions, including education, advocacy
management (PSSM) of weapons and ammunition,
and livelihood creation, are key to eradicating demand
record-keeping and targeted capacity-building of
and nurturing development in order to eliminate the
wildlife authorities and rangers.
trade.
\ POLICY BRIEF 3 \ 2016
Poverty, conflict, weak governance and high demand
COMBATING ARMED ACTORS, ORGANIZED CRIME AND WILDLIFE TRAFFICKING \ N. ACHARYA, A. MÜHLEN-SCHULTE
The Final Round: Combating Armed Actors,
Organized Crime and Wildlife Trafficking
High value wildlife trafficking (HVWT) refers to the ille-
gal killing (poaching) and trade in wildlife and related
products in contravention of national or international
law. As the pressure on African wildlife rises, the conflict between increased mobilization of paramilitary
forces seeking to gain from the trade as well as militarized responses by those trying to protect and conserve
the environment is escalating, resulting in an increasing human death toll on both sides. HVWT is no longer
a by-product of conflict but is actively sustaining and
fuelling regional destabilization. Transnational criminal syndicates and several non-state armed groups are
seeking to profit from this and expand their operations
by trading wildlife for weapons, fuelling a cycle of violence that has an impact on local communities, erodes
the rule of law and threatens national security. Framing
the endangered keystone species within the ‘conflict
resources’ framework/ paradigm thus recognizing the
need for protecting them as high value natural resources
(HVNR), recognizes the protection of biodiversity as integral to state stability.
Until recently, HVWT has mainly been considered an
ecological problem for conservationists to resolve.This
policy brief seeks to counter this misconception by drawing attention to existing overlaps in skill sets, training
and objectives of communities of practice, targetingwildlife trafficking and/or controlling SALW, currently
working independently towards the same goal: A reduction in armed violence. While poachers use a variety
of means to kill animals, the majority is killed by illicit
firearms and ammunition. In light of the proven role of
armed actors in HVWT, linking both communities of
practice is critical for containing this militarized threat.
This policy brief aims to equip SALW policymakers and
practitioners with an understanding of how increased
wide-scale wildlife trafficking is directly linked to the
involvement of organized crime, heavily armed state
and non-state actors and the proliferation of small
arms, light weapons and ammunition, creating a volatile
mix that threatens cross-border destabilization and
causes insecurity. The brief argues that the SALW control community of practice, including donors, policymakers, practitioners and national authorities, should
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\ POLICY BRIEF 3 \ 2016
closely collaborate with the conservation community,
underlining potential areas of co-operation. Further, it
offers recommendations on how regional and sub-regional organizations can play an instrumental role in
facilitating the prevention of wildlife trafficking.
The weapons, wildlife and warlords nexus:
Saving the elephant in the room
The rise in the death toll of endangered animals is
unprecedented: In Africa, over 30,000 elephants are
being killed every year, and 1,215 rhinos were killed in
2015 alone, threatening wild populations of both animals with extinction within a decade. Losing keystone species that balance our common ecosystem
will have drastic economic and ecological consequences for both human and animal populations.
The value of this trade is estimated at US $15 to 23 billion annually (UNEP, 2014), the fourth largest global
illicit market after human trafficking, arms trafficking and illicit drugs. Poaching of wildlife, particularly
elephant ivory and rhino horn, has transformed from
a localized criminal enterprise into a transnational
security issue with ties to organized crime. Wildlife
trafficking has risen exponentially because of a steep
increase in scale caused by non-state armed groups
sustained by profits from illegal flows of arms and
ammunition. While further investigation is required
(RUSI, 2015), undeniable evidence exists that ivory
and rhino horn increasingly serve as the primary purchasing currency for weapons, ammunition and supplies by both regular and irregular forces.1
This interdependent trade relationship means that
the illegal trade in SALW and illicit wildlife products
often uses the same/ similar routes facilitated by a
similar network of actors that operate across porous
sovereign borders. Wildlife reserves are also increasingly becoming a nexus for organized crime
1 \ Regular forces proven to be involved in HVWT include FARDC (DR Congo), SAF (Sudan), SPLA (South Sudan) and UPDF (Uganda). Non-state
armed groups including the Lord’s Resistance Army and Seleka in the
Central African Republic; Mai Mai, M23, FDLR-FOCA in the DR Congo
and pro-government militia such as Sudanese janjaweed and several
smaller armed gangs operating in Chad.
COMBATING ARMED ACTORS, ORGANIZED CRIME AND WILDLIFE TRAFFICKING \ N. ACHARYA, A. MÜHLEN-SCHULTE
operations, weapons trafficking and shelter for nonstate armed groups. It is no longer possible to separate
arms proliferation from poaching and to investigate
each issue in isolation. Given the interlinkages between
illegal arms proliferation, the role of armed groups
and wildlife trafficking, most attempts to control or
investigate each issue in isolation are insufficient.
Instead, conservation and SALW communities need to
adopt an integrated approach combining efforts to combat weapons and wildlife trafficking by organized criminal syndicates and armed state and non-state actors.
Aggressive militarization of poaching and conservation
In the last decade, poachers have become increasingly
organized, mechanized and militarized, representing
a significantly different threat. They are extremely
well trained with formidable bush skills and use military-style assault rifles, silenced high-calibre hunting
rifles, shotguns, craft weapons as well as traditional
methods such as snares, clubs and even poison-tipped
spears and arrows. Poaching gangs increasingly have
access to sophisticated technologies including surveillance gear, night vision goggles, high-frequency
radios, satellite phones, GPS technology and even to
drones.
Rangers responding to this threat are often sorely under-equipped with obsolete weapons and are inexperienced when confronting heavily armed and tactically
skilled poachers. Poaching is often backed by organized criminal networks or increasingly conducted by
members of state and non-state armed groups,
equipped with resources, training and firepower that
enables them to bribe or force their way into protected
locations. The involvement of senior government and
military officials has often also provided gangs with
impunity from persecution. The ineffective legal systems and the low risk of sentencing even if they were
convicted fuel this sense of impunity.
Tailored military responses are necessary but must be
carefully regulated to counter the unprecedented
threat now posed by armed state and non-state actors
as well as organized criminal networks. The
militarization and organization of poaching has resulted in the fact that several conservation sites and
park authorities have adopted similar strategies to respond to this intensified threat. Privately funded
paramilitary rangers are now being trained by special
operations forces in South Africa and several other
African range states in response to the escalation of
poaching, and state forces have also been deployed in
conservation areas . Some rangers are now better
armed, equipped and trained and have access to better
technology but the majority are still under-funded
and under-resourced. Aggressive poaching and counterpoaching approaches and the increased proliferation
of weapons and armed actors has resulted in pitched
battles, escalating human casualties, both armed and
civilian, further eroding security levels.
In Botswana, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania and
Uganda, rangers have been authorized with a zerotolerance ‘shoot to kill’ policy for poachers, and
poachers have adopted a ‘shoot first’ policy towards
rangers when threatened. Local civilian community
members are increasingly affected by this spiralling
cycle of violence and are sometimes caught in the
crossfire where they are mistaken as poachers. Allegations also exist of oppression, theft, torture and
even rape of local community members by rangers
and security forces such as in Operation Tokomeza
(Destroy) in Tanzania (SAS 2015, p. 26, Duffy, ND). Incidents such as these indicate the need for careful regulation of military involvement and the adoption of
security sector reform (SSR) approaches to build better
relations between rangers and community members.
Some advocates consider the adoption of militarystyle counter-poaching tactics as the only viable solution, especially in contexts where legal enforcement
is weak and where increasingly well-organized,
armed and trained poachers present an extreme
threat to the very survival of several protected species.
Critics point out that militarized responses could increase violence in the long run and further alienate
surrounding communities.
\ POLICY BRIEF 3 \ 2016
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COMBATING ARMED ACTORS, ORGANIZED CRIME AND WILDLIFE TRAFFICKING \ N. ACHARYA, A. MÜHLEN-SCHULTE
Beyond advocating either militarized or non-militarized approaches, tailoring responses to very different
poaching environments2 with carefully regulated
military responses on a case by case basis, driven by
inclusive, community-based approaches is the only
effective, sustainable option.
How can the SALW community help
counter wildlife trafficking?
In order to counter increasingly dense links between
militarization of poaching and illicit weapons,
regional and sub-regional organizations such as the
African Union, ECOWAS and RECSA provide useful
platforms for engaging HVWT under the umbrella of
their current mandates to counter SALW trafficking
and proliferation. They are uniquely placed to create
opportunities for knowledge-sharing and co-operation
between communities of practice addressing HVWT
and those seeking to regulate the proliferation of illicit
weapons at the regional level. In co-operation with
national authorities, regional organizations can
co-ordinate action, tailor standards and ensure that
countering HVWT is prioritized on regional and national strategic agendas.
Regional organizations working with the SALW community of practice will help counter wildlife trafficking in the following, mutually beneficial, ways:
Through technical collaboration; joint training efforts; cross-border inter-agency co-operation; and by
aligning regional and national action strategies.
Bridging the knowledge gap: Enhancing technical
co-operation
In SALW and HVWT investigations, essential ‘need
to know’ information is often missing, undermining
the ability to design and implement effective programming to reduce insecurity at the regional, national and community levels. There is a critical need
2 \ Poaching operations in different areas employ different tactics and
require a high degree of organization. Variations in geography, human
density, transportation infrastructure as well as the strength of governance and the capacities of wildlife authorities and rangers help
determine the nature of poaching (C4ADS, 2014).
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\ POLICY BRIEF 3 \ 2016
to bridge this knowledge gap, generate better quality
information to enable sound decision-making and
progressively move towards an evidence-based approach. Working collaboratively to share data, gather
intelligence and pool information sources is critical.
There remains a dearth of crucial information, despite
recent studies that compared open source data with
available information from poaching kill sites and
analysed the HVWT supply chain from source to
market (C4ADS, 2014). This gap should be addressed
by conducting baseline studies, security needs assessments and impact assessments on a regular
basis and through innovative, knowledge-sharing
partnerships. Existing data from projects such as
UNEP’s Monitoring the Illicit Killing of Elephants
(MIKE), Proportional Illicit Killing of Elephants
(PIKE) database and TRAFFIC/CITES’ Elephant Trade
Information System (ETIS) database or the Rhino
DNA Indexing System (RhODIS) will be much more
useful if combined with inputs from specialists
such as law enforcement personnel, criminologists,
anthropologists, conflict data mapping data specialists or technical experts on small arms and light
weapons and then analysed through data management platforms.
Deployed technical advisors should systematically
share intelligence between wildlife conservation
and SALW control programmes to map, identify,
trace and track networks and flows of arms, ammunition and wildlife trafficking. SALW experts should
co-operate with wildlife authorities and criminologists to examine poaching kill sites and collect valuable forensic and ballistic data such as DNA samples
and shell casings, which is not currently being done
systematically (SAS, 2015). This should provide valuable assistance in mapping trends and flows, identifying networks, tracing and tracking illicit arms,
ammunition and illicit wildlife products from
source to market. This exercise will also serve to
cross-check and verify alternate sources of data regarding the presence, origin and proliferation of
these weapons and ammunition.
COMBATING ARMED ACTORS, ORGANIZED CRIME AND WILDLIFE TRAFFICKING \ N. ACHARYA, A. MÜHLEN-SCHULTE
Containing weapons proliferation and wildlife
trafficking through joint training initiatives
Together, INTERPOL and UNODC have trained rangers
in Tanzania on gathering evidence and wildlife crime
scene management that increased the conviction
rate of poachers. Trainings on customs and border
management are to be prioritized as are physical security and stockpile management (PSSM) of weapons
and ammunition; weapons marking, registration and
record-keeping, and targeted capacity-building of
wildlife authorities and rangers, as part of the broader
security sector reform (SSR) framework. Where these
SALW control initiatives are more effective, less illicit
weapons are available to poachers inhibiting actions,
such as police forces loaning weapons to different
groups of poachers (as evidenced in Kenya and other
countries). SALW control initiatives to prevent the diversion of illicit weapons or leakage from government
stockpiles would positively benefit HVWT countering
initiatives.
Trainings should also be used to strengthen legislation on both SALW control and wildlife crime. Existing
SALW legislation on illicit weapons possession
should be more vigorously implemented to support
prosecutors in the conviction of arrested poachers,
enabling authorities to impose more severe fines and
jail terms.
Inter-agency co-operation by SALW actors
to tackle HVWT
The illicit trade in wildlife and weapons takes place
across sovereign borders and cannot be dealt with by
states in isolation. Sharing intelligence, strengthening
legislation and conducting joint operations at the regional level is crucial. Border areas serve as key points
of intersection between markets and other trading
posts. It is therefore logical that countering HVWT
should be part of the mandate of Joint Border Forces,
such as the Sudan–Chad Joint Border Forces who are
already working together to control illicit SALW.
Organizations with a SALW control mandate, such as
RECSA, have begun to strengthen inter-agency cooperation3 by signing an agreement in 2015 with the
Lusaka Task Force (LATF), Interpol’s agency dedicated
to countering HVWT in all its aspects through capacity-building, law enforcement and developing innovative partnerships. The LATF maintains a Nairobi office at the Kenya Wildlife Services headquarters as
well as national bureaus in the Congo, Lesotho, Liberia,
Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia.
Regional initiatives such as these facilitate co-operation
between law enforcement agencies including customs,
migration, airport and port authorities across borders.
Joint task forces bringing together representatives
from different agencies have also proven to be more
resistant to corruption. INTERPOL’s Project Wisdom
follows such an approach. Since 2008, it has co-ordinated
seven operations4 targeting ivory and rhino horn
poachers, which collectively led to the arrest of 1,180
persons5, the shutting down of two ivory factories, five
tons of raw ivory and assorted wildlife products as
well as illegal military firearms including Kalashnikovs, Heckler and Koch G3 and Colt M16 pattern
assault rifles.
Align SALW regional strategies and national action
plans to counter HVWT
Member states need assistance in co-ordinating action,
tailoring standards to limited resource environments
and in designing and implementing coherent strategies that explicitly recognize the relationship between
regulating HVWT, countering SALW proliferation
and achieving wider development goals. Ensuring
monitoring and evaluation provisions would increase
3 \ In 2016 RECSA co-ordinated a study on the nexus between poaching,
arms flows, state fragility in eight different African range states. The
study also investigated how HVWT is sustaining non-state armed
groups..
4 \ Operations Baba, Costa, Mogatle, Ahmed, Worthy, Wendi and Wildcat.
OperationWildcat involved wildlife enforcement officers, forest authorities, park rangers, police and customs officers from five countries
working together to seize 240 kilogrammes of ivory and making 660
arrests (UNEP, 2014).
5 \ In the 2014 arrest of the ivory ringleader Faizal Mohamed, INTERPOL
co-ordinated his arrest in Dar e Salaam, his extradition to Kenya and
his sentencing and trial in a Mombasa court.
\ POLICY BRIEF 3 \ 2016
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COMBATING ARMED ACTORS, ORGANIZED CRIME AND WILDLIFE TRAFFICKING \ N. ACHARYA, A. MÜHLEN-SCHULTE
chances of achieving their mutual goal: Increased
security and a reduction of armed violence. Poverty,
conflict, weak governance and high demand are the
main drivers of both HVWT and weapons proliferation.
Co-ordinated regional and national planning would
help leverage common funding opportunities providing much-needed resources, maximizing the impact
of donor funds in areas affected by both SALW proliferation and militarized HVWT. Principles adopted in
the Declaration of the 2014 London Conference on the
Illegal Wildlife Trade, the 2014 Arusha Declaration on
Regional Conservation and Combating Wildlife /
Environmental Crime and the Cotonou Declaration
can help guide regional and national strategies to
counter wildlife trafficking.
Tackling the drivers of wildlife
trafficking and weapons proliferation:
Key information for policymakers and
practitioners
Diagnosing and designing responses to SALW and
wildlife trafficking requires an understanding of root
causes of the problem and how they determine the
economics of this high-value, illicit trade. Community
driven, deeply local responses need to remain central
to effective response strategies.
When the buying stops, the killing will too:
Understanding economics of demand
The economics of supply and demand underpinning
poaching are determined by markets mainly in Asia.
Without a substantial reduction in the demand for
ivory and rhino horn, anti-poaching efforts may disrupt the illicit trade, but not stop it (SAS 2015, p. 1).
Eradicating demand is therefore crucial. New initiatives including high-profile media campaigns, embargoes on transporting ivory and the public destruction
of illicit ivory are achieving limited success in making
the ivory trade socially unacceptable.
Century-old traditions remain, and middle classes in
China, the Philippines, Vietnam and Thailand continue
to gain more spending power—facts that present a
great challenge to these efforts. In China, prices start
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\ POLICY BRIEF 3 \ 2016
at US $2,500 for one kilogramme of ivory and range
up to US $65,000 per kilogramme for rhino horn,
making users pay more, per gram, than for gold, platinum or high-grade cocaine. Criminal organizations
recruit poor community members and finance their
attempts to enter wildlife reserves and seek elephant
ivory or rhino horn in return for payment (US $24 to
120 in the bush, US $325 to 400 in central African urban centres for an ivory tusk) (C4ADS,2014). The
amount of money paid for obtaining the ivory, while
substantial for the poachers, is a mere fraction of the
profit made by the organized criminal networks.
Poverty as a central driver of poaching:
Understanding the supply side
While it is a highly lucrative business internationally,
HVWT is driven by pervasive poverty locally. Many
communities surrounding wildlife largely lack alternative economic opportunities to make a livelihood.
Given the high prices that ivory, rhino horn and other
valuable wildlife products can fetch, the temptation
to engage in poaching is high. Despite the inherent
hazards involved, the potential monetary benefits
and an immediate way out of poverty are perceived as
far outweighing the risk. As long as the demand for
these products remains high, criminal networks will
have no trouble recruiting new poachers. For every
poacher killed or arrested, another is ready to step
in—and another family loses a breadwinner, driving
the family and the wider community even further
into poverty.
For an effective solution to this conflict, communities
need to benefit from sustainable, well-managed use
of wildlife resources. Communities need to be sensitized to the importance of wildlife as an ecological
and economic resource, ensuring inclusive, sustainable
tourism models that do not alienate local populations.
Successful initiatives have taken place only where
this relationship is actively recognized, building upon
a community-based natural resource management
approach. Organizations like Big Life Foundation, the
Northern Rangelands Trust and its Tusk initiative
operating in Kenya, The Communal Areas
Management Programme for Indigenous Resources
COMBATING ARMED ACTORS, ORGANIZED CRIME AND WILDLIFE TRAFFICKING \ N. ACHARYA, A. MÜHLEN-SCHULTE
(Campfire) initiative in Zimbabwe in the 1980s and a
number of other community-based conservancies are
pioneering such efforts through reducing human–
animal conflict, building ownership across ethnic
fault lines by providing education and viable livelihoods
as well as sharing profits in a more equitable manner
with dependent communities. Greater efforts along
similar lines are required to better diagnose, understand and prioritize the needs of surrounding communities to avoid blueprint approaches.
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\ POLICY BRIEF 3 \ 2016
7\
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Director for Research
Professor Dr Conrad Schetter
Director for Administration
Michael Dedek
AUTHORS
Nikhil Acharya
Technical Advisor at BICC
Dr Arthur Mühlen-Schulte
EDITOR
Susanne Heinke
COPYEDITOR / LAYOUT
Heike Webb
Member of the
PUBLICATION DATE
1 June 2016
EDITORIAL DESIGN
Diesseits – Kommunikationsdesign, Düsseldorf
Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under:
cf. creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/