Ecological Indicators 5 (2005) 213–230
This article is also available online at:
www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolind
Descriptors of Posidonia oceanica meadows: Use and application
C. Pergent-Martini a, V. Leoni a,*, V. Pasqualini a, G.D. Ardizzone b, E. Balestri c,
R. Bedini d, A. Belluscio b, T. Belsher e, J. Borg f, C.F. Boudouresque g, S. Boumaza h,
J.M. Bouquegneau i, M.C. Buia j, S. Calvo k, J. Cebrian l, E. Charbonnel g, F. Cinelli c,
A. Cossu m, G. Di Maida k, B. Dural n, P. Francour o, S. Gobert i, G. Lepoint i,
A. Meinesz o, H. Molenaar o, H.M. Mansour p, P. Panayotidis q, A. Peirano r,
G. Pergent a, L. Piazzi c, M. Pirrotta k, G. Relini s, J. Romero t, J.L. Sanchez-Lizaso u,
R. Semroud h, P. Shembri f, A. Shili v, A. Tomasello k, B. Velimirov w
a
Equipe Ecosystèmes Littoraux, Faculty of Sciences, University of Corsica, BP 52, 20250 Corte, France
Department of Animal and Human Biology, University of Rome ‘‘La sapienza’’, 32, 00185, Rome, Italy
c
Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Uomo e dell’Ambiente, Università di Pisa, Via A. Volta 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy
d
Istituto di Biologia ed Ecologia Marina di Piombino, piazza Bovio 3-4, 57025 Piombino, Italy
e
Ifremer, Station de Sète, Av. Jean Monnet, BP 171, 34203 Sete Cedex, France
f
Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
g
GIS Posidonie-Université de la Méditerranée, Luminy, Case 901, 13288 Marseille cedex9, France
h
Institut des Sciences de la Mer et de l’Aménagement du Littoral, B.P. 54, Sidi Fredj 42321, Alger, Algeria
i
Laboratoire d’ Océanologie, Université de Liège, Sart-Tilman, B6, 4000 Liège, Belgique
j
Stazione Zoologica ’Anton Dohrn’ di Napoli; Benthic Ecology Laboratory, P.ta S. Pietro, I-80077 Ischia, Italy
k
Dipartimento di ingegneria idraulica ed applicazioni ambientali, University of Palerme, 90128 Palermo, Italy
l
Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium, Dauphin Island Sea Lab., PO Box 369-370, AL 36528 USA
m
Dipartimento di botanica ed Ecologia vegetale, Università di Sassari, Via Muroni 25, 07100 Sassari, Italy
n
Ege University, Faculty of Science, Department Biology, Izmir, Turkey
o
Laboratoire d’Environnement Marin Littoral, Université de Nice, 06108 Nice, Cedex 02, France
p
Faculty of science, Université d’Alexandrie, Alexandrie, Egypte
q
National Center of Marine research, 16 604 Athens, Greece
r
ENEA-Marine Environment Research Center, PO Box 224, 19100 La Spezia, Italy
s
Istituto di Zoologia, Università di Genova, Via Balbi 5, 16126 Genova, Italy
t
Departamenot d’Ecologia, Universitad de Barcelona, diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
u
Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales, Universidad de Alicante, Ap. 99, 03080, Alicante, Spain
v
Universié de Tunis, 103 Av 20 Mars, Le Bardo, 2000 Tunis, Tunisie
w
Institute of Medical Biology, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
b
Accepted 23 February 2005
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 4 95 45 00 75; fax: +33 4 95 46 24 41.
E-mail address: leoni@univ-corse.fr (V. Leoni).
1470-160X/$ – see front matter # 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2005.02.004
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C. Pergent-Martini et al. / Ecological Indicators 5 (2005) 213–230
Abstract
The conservation of the coastal marine environment requires the possession of information that enables the global quality of
the environment to be evaluated reliably and relatively quickly. The use of biological indicators is often an appropriate method.
Seagrasses in general, and Posidonia oceanica meadows in particular, are considered to be appropriate for biomonitoring
because of their wide distribution, reasonable size, sedentary habit, easy collection and abundance and sensitivity to
modifications of littoral zone. Reasoned management, on the scale of the whole Mediterranean basin, requires standardized
methods of study, to be applied by both researchers and administrators, enabling comparable results to be obtained. This paper
synthesises the existing methods applied to monitor P. oceanica meadows, identifies the most suitable techniques and suggests
future research directions. From the results of a questionnaire, distributed to all the identified laboratories working on this topic,
a list of the most commonly used descriptors was drawn up, together with the related research techniques (e.g. standardization,
interest and limits, valuation of the results). It seems that the techniques used to study meadows are rather similar, but rarely
identical, even though the various teams often refer to previously published works. This paper shows the interest of a practical
guide that describes, in a standardized way, the most useful techniques enabling P. oceanica meadows to be used as an
environmental descriptor. Indeed, it constitutes the first stage in the process.
# 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Posidonia oceanica; Mediterranean sea; Bioindicator; Standardized methods; Advantages; Limits
1. Introduction
Human activities can disturb the stability and the
conservation of coastal marine environment. The use
of biological indicators seems to be the most suitable
investigation method for research into applied
ecology, because it enables the quality of an
environment to be characterized in an integrated
way. Indeed, the presence of an organism in a specific
environment tends to prove that its ecological needs
are globally satisfied, whereas its disappearance
testifies to a change in the environment; that is the
principle of ‘‘sentinel species’’ (Blandin, 1986).
Concerning the marine environment, the first
indicators to be used, filter feeders, are still the most
commonly used for biomonitoring, in many countries
(e.g. Mussel Watch; Thomann et al., 1995; Adami
et al., 2002; CIESM, 2002; Lionetto et al., 2003). For
some years, species of aquatic vegetation have also
been closely studied, according to their ability to
accumulate pollutants and specially trace-metals
(Nienhuis, 1986; Guilizzoni, 1991; Castilla, 1996;
Pergent-Martini and Pergent, 2000; Storelli et al.,
2001). Seagrasses are increasingly used as a biological
indicator of the quality of the environment (Fourqurean and Cai, 2001, Bhattacharya et al., 2003);
because of their ecological roles (Costanza et al.,
1997) added to their wide distribution, sedentary habit,
and sensitivity to modifications of littoral zone (Short
and Wyllie-Echeverria, 1996; Pergent-Martini and
Pergent, 2000; Linton and Warner, 2003; Yamamuro
et al., 2003). In the Mediterranean sea, a great deal of
research has been dedicated to Posidonia oceanica
(L.) Delile, an endemic marine magnoliophyta that
constitutes a key species (Bianchi et al., 1989). P.
oceanica meadows play a major ecological, sedimentary and economic role (Bell and Harmelin-Vivien,
1983; Jeudy de Grissac and Boudouresque, 1985;
Gambi et al., 1989; Romero et al., 1992; Duarte, 1999;
Duarte, 2002). Moreover, Posidonia oceanica seems
to be a reliable bioindicator (Augier, 1985; Pergent,
1991; Pergent-Martini and Pergent, 2000), according
to: (i) their sensitivity to disturbances, as demonstrated
by a number of reports of meadow regression due to
various causes (Delgado et al., 1999; Ruiz et al., 2001;
Ruiz and Romero, 2003); (ii) its wide distribution
along the Mediterranean coast (Pasqualini et al., 1998;
Procaccini et al., 2003) and (iii) the good knowledge
about specific response of the plant and of its
associated ecosystem to specific impact (Romero
et al., 2005). Furthermore, this species is able to
inform about present and past level of trace-metals in
the environment (Pergent-Martini, 1998).
The aim of this study is to identify the descriptors
and the most commonly used methods of investigation, then to make a synthesis including the measurement techniques in order better to define the limits
of use and the respective advantages of each one.
C. Pergent-Martini et al. / Ecological Indicators 5 (2005) 213–230
215
This approach constitutes the first step to allow the use
of P. oceanica, at the scale of the Mediterranean basin,
to assess good ecological status of coastal zones.
the percentages are expressed in function of the
laboratories, which answered the question. All the
descriptors of the meadows identified in the questionnaire received at least six responses.
2. Materials and methods
3.1. Lower depth limit
To investigate the descriptors used to assess the good
ecological status of Posidonia ecosystem, systematic
data collection are chosen, using the same set of
questions to each people (Weller and Romney, 1988). A
detailed questionnaire was produced and sent to 84
people, representing 41 laboratories. These laboratories
were listed according to their actual or previous studies
on P. oceanica meadows. The questionnaire covers all
the levels of organization of the P. oceanica ecosystem
because modifications of environmental conditions can
impact the population or the plant itself. Descriptors
take into account the structure of the meadow (e.g.
bathymetric extension, spatial distribution), the ecosystem (associated fauna and flora) and the status of the
plant (e.g. leaf shoot structure, production).
To facilitate the answers, the descriptors commonly
referenced in the literature were listed, with a
distinction between field or laboratory measurements
(Table 1). For each descriptor, several questions were
proposed (see an example on Fig. 1; Strauss and
Corbin, 1998). ‘‘Practical and structural’’ questions
allow initially to identify how the method corresponding to one descriptor is implemented, its advantages or
disadvantages, then ‘‘sensitizing’’ questions concern
information supplied by the use of one descriptor, its
interest and significance (Strauss and Corbin, 1998).
In addition, ‘‘guiding’’ questions are helpful to
highlight specific and complementary point (Strauss
and Corbin, 1998). The answers of the questionnaire
can be done using dichotomous (yes/no) or multiple
choices, but so with free answers, laboratories could
propose additional remarks and/or descriptors (Fig. 1;
Weller and Romney, 1988). Results were analysed
using simple matrix (Strauss and Corbin, 1998).
3.1.1. Measurements
Eighty-eight percent of the laboratories take into
account the bathymetric position of the lower depth
limit (depthmeter, bathymetric sounder; Fig. 2) and/or
the geographical position (GPS, points taken from the
sea to the coast). The precision of the geographical
localization of the limit varies according to the method
used (from 1 to about 10 m). It is noticeable that 73% of
the laboratories take into account the type of lower
depth limit found, as defined by Meinesz and Laurent
(1978) and Boudouresque and Meinesz (1982). Fiftyfive percent of the laboratories complement their
observations by taking measurements of the meadow,
and 86% by measurements of the sediment ahead of this
limit. These observations mainly concern the density of
the meadows (75%), and the presence of dead matte
(100%), ripple-marks (95%) and litter (84%). Seventyseven percent of the laboratories monitor the position of
this limit over time, the methods most commonly used
being the setting up of fixed marks, the taking of in situ
photographs and/or the use of a side scan sonar (Fig. 3).
More rarely, laboratories (5%) use a remote operated
vehicle (ROV; Ardizzone and Belluscio, 1992). These
measures are generally standardized (71% for the fixed
marks, 55% for the photographs in situ), and sometimes
laboratories specify that they refer to the protocol set up
by the Posidonia Monitoring Network, as defined by
Boudouresque et al. (2000). The interval between return
visits to the site ranges from about 6 months to 5 years,
but in most cases it is annual (47%).
3. Results
3.1.2. Interpretation
Thirty-two percent of the laboratories use a
standardised scale of evaluation to analyse their
results (density, typology). The scales used are those
defined by Pergent et al. (1995) (57%) and Meinesz
and Laurent (1978) (29%).
More than 60% of the laboratories contacted
returned the questionnaire. Below, we present an
analysis of the responses for each descriptor (Fig. 2);
3.1.3. Advantages and limits
Whatever the method used, it gives reliable results.
The method based on fixed marks is attractive because
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Table 1
List of the descriptors, and the specific parameters associated, considered in the questionnaire
Measures in situ
Upper depth limit of the meadow
Position
State
Position
State
Lower depth limit of the meadow
Observations
Presence of ripple-marks
Granulometry of the sediment
Presence of died mattes
Presence of litter
Presence of algae
Density (number of shoots per surface unit)
Bottom cover (surface occupied by the meadow, %)
Resistance to erosion
Compactness
Homogeneity
Physicochemical composition
Presence of channels intermatte
Presence of ‘‘cliff of dead matte’’
Percentage of plagiotropic rhizomes
Erosion of rhizomes
Burial of rhizomes
Evaluation of biodiversity
Structure of the matte
Measures and observations
Measure in the laboratory
Leaf biometry
Measures and observations
Shoot composition
Origin of broken leave
Measures
Lepidochronology
Plastochrone interval
Datation measurements
Observations
Biochemical and chemical composition
Measures
Contamination
Measures
Species associated to the meadows
Measures and observations
Speed of rhizomes growth
Number of leaves per year
Primary production
Dating of paleoflowering
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrate
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Enzymes of stress
PHA
PBC
Heavy metals
Borer organisms
Associated fauna
Epiphytic coverage
Bacterial populating
C. Pergent-Martini et al. / Ecological Indicators 5 (2005) 213–230
217
Fig. 1. General information required for each descriptors: example for the lower depth limit of the Posidonia oceanica meadow.
it is technically simple and easy to implement. The use
of side scan sonar seems to be limited according to its
technical complexity and the high cost of application,
even if it is able to cover large surface areas in a quite
short time (Fig. 3).
3.1.4. Synthesis
Eighty-two percent of the laboratories consider that
the lower limit provides pertinent information about
the quality of the meadow and the environment in
general, especially about water transparency and
hydrodynamics. The type of limit found can provide
information about the dynamics of the meadow
(regression, progression) in relation to the evolution
of environmental conditions (stability, improvement,
damage).
3.2. Upper depth limit
3.2.1. Measurements
The bathymetric position of the upper limit is also
a much used descriptor (Fig. 2); laboratories take
into account its depth and its geographic position.
Seventy percent of the laboratories add to this
information, observations of the density (57%), the
bottom cover (21%), the presence of other species
(21%) or the characteristics of the substrate (7%).
The precision concerning the geographic localization
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Fig. 2. Rate of study of various descriptors of Posidonia oceanica (% and number of expressed answers given according to the total number of
laboratories having answered).
of this limit fluctuates, according to the method used,
but seems similar to that observed for the lower limit.
Seventy-five percent of the laboratories monitor this
limit. The interval between two observations varies
considerably (from 6 months to 10 years), but is,
more often, annual (60%). The methods most
commonly used are the setting up of fixed marks
and the use of aerial diachronic photographs. There
are generally standardized methods (67% for the
fixed marks and 27% for the aerial photographs)
in direct relation with the protocol implemented
in the Posidonia Monitoring Network, defined by
Boudouresque et al. (2000).
3.2.2. Interpretation
No laboratories mentioned the use of a standardized evaluation scale.
3.2.3. Advantages and limits
Both fixed marks and aerial photographs enable
reliable results to be obtained and are easy to set up in
situ (Fig. 4). The use of fixed marks requires a
monitoring of these structures but are less expensive,
while the use of aerial photographs is less constraining, but more expensive.
3.2.4. Synthesis
The upper limit, due to its localization at the edge of
the coastline, gives very relevant data concerning
natural environmental changes (e.g. hydrodynamics,
sedimentary balance) but also changes linked to human
action (e.g. coastal developments, anchorages).
3.3. Density
3.3.1. Measurements
The density descriptor is used by 88% of the
laboratories (Fig. 2). 0.2 and 0.4 m size quadrat are
generally used to measure the number of shoots
(Table 2). Ninty-one percent of the laboratories always
use the same quadrat, whatever the depth or the
season. Although some laboratories replace the 0.4 m
quadrat by 0.2 m quadrat along the lower depth limits.
For both types of quadrat, the most common number
of replicates is 10 (Table 2). Only 41% of the
laboratories count divided shoots as distinct shoots but
45% of the laboratories did not express an opinion.
3.3.2. Interpretation
Concerning the interpretation of the results, 77% of
the laboratories express the results in metre square.
Sixty four percent use a standardized scale of
evaluation; two scales are used in an equivalent
way, the scale of Giraud (1977) and that of Pergent
et al. (1995). Other laboratories interpret their results
by simple comparison between meadows, situated at
the same depth.
3.3.3. Advantages and limits
Most of the laboratories consider that this
descriptor has numerous advantages: it gives reliable
results (59%), it is easy to implement in situ (59%), its
technical application is simple (73%) and its cost is
low (59%). The main drawback is connected to the in
situ execution time (64%).
C. Pergent-Martini et al. / Ecological Indicators 5 (2005) 213–230
219
Fig. 3. Advantages and difficulties of the methods used for the monitoring of the position of the lower depth limit position (% and number of
expressed answers according to the number of laboratories using this descriptor).
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C. Pergent-Martini et al. / Ecological Indicators 5 (2005) 213–230
Fig. 4. Advantages and difficulties of the methods used for the monitoring of the position of the upper depth limit (% and number of expressed
answers according to the number of laboratories using this descriptor).
3.3.4. Synthesis
The majority of laboratories (86%) consider that
the use of density provides important information,
conveying the vitality and dynamics of the P. oceanica
meadows, and is able to reveal the human impact on
the environment.
vertical photography and (iii) evaluation of the shoots
repartition into a quadrat. The surface area taken into
account and the number of replicas vary according to the
author: (i) a square area from 0.16 to 625 m2 with 1–60
replicas (59%); (ii) a circle from 10 to 15 m (from 78 to
176 m2) with two replicas (6%) or (iii) a transect of 25 m
long (25 m2) with four replicas (6%; Table 3).
3.4. Bottom cover
3.4.1. Measurements
Bottom cover is also a very commonly used
descriptor (Fig. 2). Measurement of the bottom cover
is generally carried out by direct visual observations,
some metres above the bottom, using: (i) a grid designed
on a transparent support (Francour et al., 1999); (ii)
3.4.2. Interpretation
Only two laboratories apply a correction factor
according to the season and the depth. The results are
expressed in percentage of cover but few laboratories
(18%) use a standardized scale of evaluation; furthermore, no scale seems to predominate (Braun-Blanquet,
1964; Pergent et al., 1995; Francour et al., 1999).
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Table 2
Type of quadrat and number of replicates used in order to evaluate the density of the meadows (percentage of answers expressed according to the
number of laboratories using the density descriptor then according to the type of quadrat)
Shape and size of the surface of
measure (m)
Application of the format
Number of replicates a
Application of the
number of replicates
Square: 0.2 0.2
23% (5/22)
5
5–10
10
18
20%
20%
40%
20%
Square: 0.4 0.4
23% (5/22)
3–5
10
10–30
20% (1/5)
60% (3/5)
20% (1/5)
Square: 0.25 0.25
18% (4/22)
3
20
50% (2/4)
25% (1/4)
Square: 0.5 0.5
14% (3/22)
3
5
33% (1/3)
33% (1/3)
Circle: diameter de 0.3
Square: 0.3 0.3
Square: 0.35 0.35
Square: 1 1
No answer
5% (1/22)
5% (1/22)
5% (1/22)
5% (1/22)
23% (5/22)
30–50
5
3–5
5
100%
100%
100%
100%
3.4.3. Advantages and limits
This method is fast (88%), easy to implement in
situ (59%), technically simple to apply (88%) and low
cost (53%). However, its reliability is not very high,
due to the significant influence of the people who
carries out the measurements (53%) and the season
(53%). Furthermore, two laboratories highlighted the
problem of turbidity, which can affect the visual
estimation.
3.4.4. Synthesis
Laboratories consider that bottom cover provides
information about the health of the meadows with
respect to the quality of the environment (41%) and
the distribution of the meadow over the substrate
(macrostructure; 24%).
(1/5)
(1/5)
(2/5)
(1/5)
(1/1)
(1/1)
(1/1)
(1/1)
(56%); (iv) the homogeneity, resistance and the
compactness of the matte (44%); (v) the percentage
of plagiotropic rhizomes (39%); (vi) the thickness of
the matte (22%) and (vii) its physicochemical
composition (6%). These parameters are observed
visually (presence, absence, distance or percentage
estimation) or by sampling (core samples).
3.5.2. Interpretation
Few laboratories (6%) use a standardized evaluation scale. However, the scale of Boudouresque et al.
Table 3
Size, type of surface and number of replicates used to estimate the
bottom cover of the meadows (percentage of answers expressed
according to the number of laboratories using the bottom cover
descriptor)
3.5. Matte structure
Size (m2)
Shape
Number of replicates
Applications
3.5.1. Measurements
Seventy-two percent of the laboratories take into
account the structure of the matte (Fig. 2). It is
assessed through: (i) the presence of channels of
intermatte (78%) and ‘‘cliffs’’ of dead matte’’ (72%);
(ii) the burial or erosion of the rhizomes (56%); (iii)
the evaluation of the biodiversity of the endofauna
625
78–176
40
25
10
1–5
1
0.16
25
Square
Circle
Square
Square
Square
Square
Square
Square
Transect
1
2
2
3
10–50
3
2–10
30–60
4
6% (1/17)
6% (1/17)
6% (1/17)
12% (2/17)
12% (2/17)
6% (1/17)
12% (2/17)
6% (1/17)
6% (1/17)
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(1980) should be mentioned, which is intended to
evaluate the erosion of the rhizomes.
3.5.3. Advantages and limits
With the exception of the physicochemical
composition, the methods used provide relatively
reliable results, and are easy to implement and
technically easy to use. They are inexpensive and
interesting according to their short execution time
(50%). However, some laboratories indicate a
significant impact of the season (22%).
3.5.4. Synthesis
The structure of the matte supplies relevant
information concerning the health of the meadows
(33%) and more globally the environment, sedimentary dynamics and currents of the studied area
(17%).
3.6. Epiphytic coverage
The descriptor of epiphytic coverage is the most
commonly used laboratory measurement (Fig. 2).
Sixty-three percent of the laboratories carry out a
quantitative analysis (biomass) and 53% a qualitative analysis (identification of the species). Generally, the use of a standardized evaluation scale for
analysing the results is not mentioned by the
laboratories, except from that of Morri (1991),
which is used in some cases. The advantages of this
descriptor are its simplicity of application and its low
cost, but it is a time-consuming method, especially
for the qualitative study, and seasonal variation
complicates its use. The epiphytic coverage provides
information on water quality, especially data on
nutrients inputs, and specific diversity of this
compartment.
distinguish the type of leaves (adult with distinction
between limb and petiole; intermediates or juveniles), in particular referring to the protocol of Giraud
(1977) (61%). The main measurements concern: (i)
the number of leaves (94%); (ii) their length (94%);
(iii) their width (89%) with differences concerning
the location of the measurement (usually the central
part); (iv) the leaf surface (72%); (v) the biomass
(67%) and (vi) the presence of dead brown tissue/
necrosis (17%).
The percentage of broken leaves (without apex) is
often noted (78%) and the origin of this loss (water
movement, grazing) is identified by 44% of the
laboratories, which base themselves mainly on the
protocol of Boudouresque and Meinesz (1982).
Several parameters are calculated with these data,
notably the leaf surface area per shoot (72%), the
‘‘Leaf Area Index’’ per m2 (67%) and the coefficient A
(28%). Other observations are also mentioned: the
presence of flowers (83%) and/or fruits (11%), the
aboveground biomass (33%) and the belowground
biomass (17%), the presence of borers (6%).
3.7.2. Interpretation
Measurements are essentially interpreted by comparison of different areas and sampling periods. A few
laboratories (11%) use a standardized evaluation
scale, notably that of Pergent et al. (1995).
3.7.3. Advantages and limits
Most of the laboratories consider that these
measurements provide reliable results, according to
the low impact due to the people carrying out the
measurement (53%). They are easy to implement on
laboratory (58%), simple to apply on the technical
level (58%) and low cost (58%). The main drawbacks
are linked to the execution time (58%) and the
significant variations due to the season (47%).
3.7. Leaf biometry
3.7.1. Measurements
Seventy-two percent of the laboratories use the
leaf biometry (Fig. 2). With the exception of one
laboratory, which estimates it from photographs, this
descriptor is applied to shoots collected on field. The
number of measured shoots is rather variable: at least
20 shoots (37%), 10–19 shoots (32%) or less than 10
shoots (11%). Usually the laboratories (89%)
3.7.4. Synthesis
Fifty-six percent of the laboratories consider that
the leaf biometry is indicative of the good health
status of P. oceanica, and therefore of the environmental conditions (e.g. anthropisation of the environment, water movement, action of grazers); in
addition, it is an important source of information
concerning the dynamics and vegetative growth of
the meadows.
C. Pergent-Martini et al. / Ecological Indicators 5 (2005) 213–230
3.8. Datation measurements
3.8.1. Measurements
Sixty percent of the laboratories use this descriptor
(Fig. 2). The number of shoots taken into account is
variable: at least 20 shoots (33%), 10–19 shoots (26%)
or less than 10 shoots (20%). More specifically, two
methods are used: the lepidochronology (86%;
Pergent, 1990) and the plastochrone interval (33%;
Cebrian et al., 1994). They enable estimation of the
number of leaves produced annually (87%), the rate of
rhizome growth (80%), the existence of paleoflowering (53%) and the past primary production
(53%).
3.8.2. Interpretation
Measurements can be interpreted by comparison
with other stations (e.g. geographic localization,
depth, anthropisation) or using a standardized
evaluation scale (20%; Pergent et al., 1995).
3.8.3. Advantages and limits
Sixty percent of the laboratories consider that these
methods provide reliable measurements and are easy
to implement in situ (40%). Simple to apply from a
technical point of view (67%) and low cost (67%),
they also show negligible seasonal variation (40%).
The main limitation is linked to the execution time
(67%).
3.8.4. Synthesis
Numerous laboratories consider that these datation
measurements provide information about: (i) the
temporal evolution of above and belowground
production; (ii) the rate of sedimentation; (iii) the
importance of sexual reproduction; (iv) the dynamics
of the meadow and (vi) the reaction to environmental
factors.
223
estimated visually, by identification and assessment
directly on field (visual censuses) or after sampling
(trawling, nets, suction sampling).
3.9.2. Interpretation
Measurements are interpreted by comparison with
other stations (e.g. geographic localization, depth,
level of anthropisation); no standardized evaluation
scale is mentioned.
3.9.3. Advantages and limits
Measuring the species associated to a meadow
supplies relatively reliable results (53%), is easy to
implement (53%), technically easy to apply (40%),
low cost (40%) and quick to perform (50%). However,
there is a marked seasonal influence, which must be
taken into account (47%).
3.9.4. Synthesis
The species associated to the meadow supply
relevant information concerning the biodiversity of the
study zone (33%) and the interactions between the
meadow and the species evaluated (7%).
3.10. Chemical and biochemical composition
3.10.1. Measurements
The chemical and biochemical composition of
P. oceanica are a few used descriptors (Fig. 2).
The main elementary analyses concern nitrogen
(71%), carbon (71%), phosphorus (29%) and
hydrogen (14%). Other analyses concern phenolic
compounds (29%) and/or proteins and stress enzymes
(29%).
3.9. Species associated to the meadow
3.10.2. Interpretation
Measurements are interpreted by comparison with
other stations (e.g. geographic localization, depth,
level of anthropisation); no standardized evaluation
scale is mentioned.
3.9.1. Measurements
Sixty percent of the laboratories take into account
the species associated to the meadow (Fig. 2). These
are assessed by the means of the ichthyic population
(47%), the echinoderms population (40%) and the
cnidaria population (13%), and/or the presence of
other macrophytes (7%). These parameters are
3.10.3. Advantages and limits
While these measurements seem reliable (low
impact of the people making the measurements; 57%)
and easy to implement (57%), their development is
generally limited due to their slowness of execution
(71%), their technical constraints and their high cost
(57%).
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C. Pergent-Martini et al. / Ecological Indicators 5 (2005) 213–230
3.10.4. Synthesis
These descriptors should be developed in the future
because they can provide information about the level
of plant stress, and seem in adequacy with the level
and impact of human activities.
3.11. Contamination
3.11.1. Measurements
The study of the contamination of P. oceanica is
also a few used descriptor (Fig. 2). The main
measurements concern trace metals, in particular
mercury (67%), copper (50%), cadmium (33%), lead
(33%), zinc (33%), iron (17%), chromium (17%) and/
or titanium (17%).
3.11.2. Interpretation
The results are often interpreted by comparison with
other stations (e.g. geographic localization, depth, level
of anthropisation); no standardized evaluation scale is
mentioned, although a standardized scale could be used
(Pergent-Martini et al., 1999; 17%).
3.11.3. Advantages and limits
These measurements seem to have some advantages. According to the protocol used, they highlighted
the reliability of the measurements (low impact of the
people making the measurements; 67%) but so the
high cost (83%), the time-consuming aspect (33%)
and the significant technical difficulties (33%).
Furthermore, one laboratory notices that interference
can occur between certain metals.
3.11.4. Synthesis
The contamination of P. oceanica by trace metals
provides information about the level of pollutants
accumulated by the plant, and thus, about the overall
contamination of the environment.
4. Discussion and conclusions
The number of answers is sufficient to obtain
representative results, according to the minimum
number of informants needed by the domain of the
questionnaire (Weller and Romney, 1988).
A recapitulative plan can be proposed (Fig. 5),
which clarify the main descriptors of Posidonia
oceanica, with, for each descriptor, the different
parameters used and their methods.
Concerning the acquisition of data, an in situ
approach of the meadow seems to be the strategy first
and foremost developed by the people, because it
allows direct and visual estimations of the status of
the meadow. The descriptors most commonly used
(density, upper and lower depth limits) give
information at the population level (Table 4).
Generally they are studied by satisfactory methods
that can be applied directly on field. Even if they
sometimes require diving techniques, one of their
advantages is that they are not destructive. Furthermore these descriptors (density and bathymetric
positions of the meadow) benefit from a protocol that
is applied, quite homogeneously, by all the laboratories. However, with density, the type of quadrat
and/or the number of replications vary from one
laboratory to another. The reason of the choice
(specific size) is not mentioned, but the time of
investigations increases in relation with the surface
to be studied (Panayotidis et al., 1981), and a smaller
quadrat is easier to use (e.g bulk). Nevertheless, a
minimal surface of 1600 cm2 is required to obtain a
reduced size of the standard error (Panayotidis et al.,
1981), which can be realized with a quadrat of at
least 0.4 m, and by only 42% of the laboratories
(Table 2). The number of replicas must also be taken
into account. An error of less than 20% (Boudouresque et al., 1990) is needed to the estimation of the
mean density. Concerning the quadrat of 0.4 m, a
number of 10 replicas (i.e. a 16,000 cm2 surface
area) fulfils this condition (Pergent et al., 1995), and
allows to take into account the aggregative structure
of the meadow (Panayotidis et al., 1981). The use of
a circle (0.3 m diameter) seems to be sufficient, or
even excessive, if at least 30–50 replicas are carried
out (Table 2). Similar approach is carried out on
herbaceous plants through the size and the shape of
the quadrat as well as for the number of replicates
(Elzinga et al., 2001).
The acquisition of a descriptor is only the first step
in its use: an interpretation scale is required to make
the descriptor effective. Three of the most commonly
used descriptors (density, lower depth limit and
epiphytic coverage) were investigated according to
this aim. With respect to density, the scale of Giraud
(1977) remains in common use because it is simple to
C. Pergent-Martini et al. / Ecological Indicators 5 (2005) 213–230
225
Fig. 5. Recapitulative plan of the main descriptors of Posidonia oceanica, with the measured parameters the methods of investigation: (1)
Meinesz et al. (1988); (2) Lefevre et al. (1984); (3) Pasqualini et al. (1997); (4) Mc Kenzie et al. (2003); (5) Augier et al. (1984); (6)
Boudouresque et al. (2000); (7) Balduzzi et al. (1981); (8) Dauby and Poulicek (1995); (9) Cinelli et al. (1984); (10) Morri (1991); (11) Buia et al.
(2003); (12) Giraud (1977); (13) Giraud (1979); (14) Drew and Jupp (1976); (15) Blanc (1956); (16) Clairefond and Jeudy De Grissac (1979);
(17) Willsie (1987); (18) Pergent et al. (1995); (19) Pergent (1990); (20) Duarte (1991b); (21) Cebrian et al. (1994); (22) Mateo et al. (1997); (23)
Pergent et al. (1989); (24) Panayotidis et al. (1981); (25) Romero (1986); (26) Meinesz and Laurent (1978); (27) Duarte and Kirkman (2003);
(28) Francour et al. (1999); (29) Ramos-Martos and Ramos-Espla (1989); (30) Pasqualini et al. (2000); (31) Blanc-Vernet (1984); (32) Russo and
Vinci (1991); (33) Harmelin-Vivien and Francour (1992); (34) Hamoutene et al. (1995); (35) Ferrat et al. (2002); (36) Mateo and Sabate (1993);
(37) Gobert et al. (1995) and (38) Romeo et al. (1995).
implement (six classes with precisely defined markers). Nevertheless, it should be noticed that this scale
does not take into consideration the normal decrease in
meadow density in function of depth or the type of
substrate. The attempt at classification proposed by
Romero-Martinengo (1985), which introduced the
effect of depth, was difficult to use because of the lack
of some of the parameters needed to calculate it (e.g.
coefficient of light attenuation). The scale proposed by
Pergent et al. (1995) includes the depth parameter, by
means of a logarithmic factor, on the basis of
bibliographical data concerning stations submitted to
varying degrees of human pressure. Its aim is both to
compare stations situated at different depths (this
cannot be done with the scale of Giraud, 1977) and to
evaluate the ‘‘normal’’ level of density and the
quality of the environment in general. However, it
needs to be improved by incorporating a greater
quantity of data and also by a more precise
determination of the human characteristics of the
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C. Pergent-Martini et al. / Ecological Indicators 5 (2005) 213–230
Table 4
Directs and secondary impacts on Posidonia oceanica descriptors and their time of answers
Level of
Direct impact
information
Secondary impact
Density
Population
Water transparency
Lower depth limit
Population
Upper depth limit
Time of answer
In case of
improvement
In case of
deterioration
Anchoring
Nutrients concentration
Annual
Annual
Water transparency
Trawling
Water movement
Sedimentary dynamics
Nutrients concentration
Decades
Annual
Population
Coastal development
Sedimentary dynamics
Water movement
Decades
Monthly to annual
Epiphytic coverage
Individual
Nutrients concentration Herbivory pressure
Water transparency
Water movement
Monthly
Monthly
Matte structure
Population
Sedimentary dynamics
Water movement
Decades
Monthly to annual
Leaf biometry
Individual
Nutrients concentration Water movement
Water transparency
Herbivory pressure
Monthly to annual
Monthly to annual
Bottom cover
Population
Sedimentary dynamics
Water transparency
Trawling
Water movement
Anchoring
Annual to decades
Monthly to annual
Species associated to
the meadow
Population
Herbivory pressure
Competition
Invasive species
Water movement
Annual
Chemical inputs
Organic matter concentration
Nutrients concentration
Monthly to annual
Datation measurement
Individual
Sedimentary dynamics
Water transparency
Herbivory pressure
Annual
Anchoring
Trawling
Annual
Biochemical and chemical Tissue
composition
Nutrients concentration Sedimentary dynamics
Weekly to monthly Daily to weekly
Water transparency
Organic matter concentration
Chemical inputs
Invasive species
Competition
Contamination
Chemical inputs
Tissue
site and the type of bottom (e.g. soft or hard). The
limits of use of both scales must be taken into account
when using them. Concerning the position of the
lower depth limit, only the scale of Pergent et al.
(1995) correlates the mean depth to the clarity of
water. The other scales used concern the type of
limits (Meinesz and Laurent, 1978; Boudouresque
and Meinesz, 1982). These two types of scales should
be used in tandem because they provide information
about different environmental conditions.
Most of the descriptors appear to provide pertinent
information about the vitality of the meadow and more
generally about the quality of the environment. Some
Monthly
Weekly to monthly
of them provide data about the disturbances in a more
specific way, and it is even possible to identify direct
and indirect causes of temporal and spatial changes
(Table 4). For instance, that is the case of the
bathymetric position of the lower depth limit, which is
directly linked to changes in water transparency
(Duarte, 1991a; Dennison et al., 1993). Also, several
authors make a direct connection between the
epithytic coverage (at quantitative and/or qualitative
level) and the rate of nutrient enrichment of the
environment (Coleman and Burkholder, 1994;
Harlin, 1993; Lin et al., 1996; Pergent-Martini
et al., 1996). Similarly contamination can be studied
C. Pergent-Martini et al. / Ecological Indicators 5 (2005) 213–230
specifically through the plant’s high ability to
concentrate trace metals (see synthesis in PergentMartini and Pergent, 2000). On the other hand
descriptors, such as the leaf biometry or the species
associated to the meadow, seem to supply information less specific and globally express the vitality of
the meadow and its high sensitivity to environmental
change (Table 4). According to the great variability
of the disturbances (e.g. nutrient inputs, decrease of
water transparency, water movements) and the time
of answer of the various descriptors of the meadow
(weekly to decades), a combination of different
descriptors is therefore often used (Table 4). This
global approach, which allows a better understanding of the interactions and complexity of the
disturbances, must be recommended.
Beyond the explanatory aspect, it must bear in
mind that a ‘‘good descriptor’’ on the Mediterranean
scale must: (i) provide reliable information about the
quality of the environment; (ii) be used by most people
and (iii) allowed to answer to the actual preoccupations of the stakeholders and the managers. The
objectives of this paper is not to provide a ‘‘Posidonia
method book’’, that all Mediterranean scientist must
applied, but to present the state of the art of
descriptors, mainly used to evaluate environmental
quality through P. oceanica characterization, and to
offer the opportunity to choice between different
descriptors able to facilitate the monitoring of this
species. This need of monitoring is linked to the
actual status of P. oceanica, as a protective species that
must be conserved (Mediterranean Action Plan of
Marine Vegetation; UNEP) but so the need of adequate
tools for European countries to classify the status of
coastal water, as required by the Water Framework
Directive, in which Posidonia meadows are considered as biological quality elements. This preoccupation exceed the only Posidonia meadows or/and the
Mediterranean sea: similar approaches are in process,
threw the world, with experiences, like the Seagrass
Monitoring Network, initiated since 2000 (see http://
www.worldseagrass.org; Short and Coles, 2001).
Acknowledgements
This work benefited partly from the financial
support of the European program INTERREG IIIA
227
Corsica, Sardinia. Tuscany. Authors thank the
reviewers for their suggestions, which allowed
improving this document.
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