Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2021) 13: 58 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01291-7 ORIGINAL PAPER “Come, O pilgrim”—but buy local: an isotopic investigation of animal provisioning at Iron Age II Tel Dan Elizabeth R. Arnold 1 & Jonathan S. Greer 2 & David Ilan 3 & Yifat Thareani 3 & Gideon Hartman 4 Received: 17 July 2020 / Accepted: 25 January 2021 / Published online: 4 March 2021 # The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE part of Springer Nature 2021 Abstract This pilot study examines the provisioning of domestic sheep and goats as it pertains to pilgrimage at the archeological site of Tel Dan (Tell el-Qadi), Israel, an Iron Age IIA–B (ca. 10th/9th–7th c. BCE) religious center in the southern Levant traditionally associated with Israelite Yahwistic worship. The question of how far animals were transported for sacrifice is addressed through isotopic analyses (carbon, oxygen, and strontium) on tooth enamel of domestic sheep and goats (predominately sheep) from Iron Age IIA–B contexts at Tel Dan through sequential intra-tooth sampling. While the results show some diversity of origins among the animals, none was brought from a distance greater than 10–20 km from Tel Dan. As such, the data suggest that however far pilgrims traveled to the site, the animals sold for sacrifice and consumption were raised locally. Keywords Sacrificial practices . Sequential isotope analyses . δ13C; δ18O . 87Sr/86Sr . Israelite . Southern Levant . Sheep and goat . Ancient Israelite religion . Ancient Near Eastern sacrifice Introduction The site of Tel Dan (Tell el-Qadi) in northern Israel has a long archeological history from the Neolithic through early modern periods (Biran 1994). Its location at the source of the perennial * Elizabeth R. Arnold arnoleli@gvsu.edu Jonathan S. Greer jonathan.greer@cornerstone.edu David Ilan dilan@huc.edu Yifat Thareani tyifat1@gmail.com Gideon Hartman gideon.hartman@uconn.edu 1 Grand Valley State University, 225 Lake Michigan Hall, Allendale, MI 49401, USA 2 Grand Rapids Theological Seminary, Cornerstone University, 1001 E. Beltline Ave NE, Grand Rapids, MI 49525, USA 3 Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology, Hebrew Union College, 13 King David St., 94101 Jeruslaem, Israel 4 Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Unit 1176, 354 Mansfield Road, Storrs, CT 06269, USA Dan spring—one of the headwaters of the Jordan River and the largest spring in the Levant (Gil’ad and Bonne 1990)—has long attracted inhabitants who benefited from the site’s strategic location. With an area of ca. 20 ha, Tel Dan is situated at the crossroads of ancient routes determined by natural features of the land (Fig. 1): a branch of the southwest-northeast international trunk route, an east-west route from the Phoenician coast to the Syrian interior, and a north-south route running along the Jordan and Beqa’a Valleys (Rainey and Notley 2014; Ilan 2019: 11). Imported items from the Iron Age I (Ilan 2019: 625–627) and Iron Age II (Thareani 2015: 217– 218, 225) testify to its function as a trade node. Archeological evidence of religious activity at the site was indicated, even before Avraham Biran’s expedition was launched in 1966, with the discovery of an Egyptian-style second millennium BCE figure of a goddess in a smiting pose, and later, with fragments of Egyptian statuary discovered in excavation, in the vicinity of the spring (Biran 1994: 159–61). Ensuing excavations of a major installation built next to the spring in Area T (Fig. 2) suggest a possible in antis (“migdal”) temple structure as early as the Middle Bronze Age (Ilan 2018), and clear evidence of a massive temple complex established at the start of the Iron Age II, if not before, that endured into the Hellenistic and Roman periods (Biran 1994: 159–233). The greatest concentrations of archeological materials associated with the temple complex in Area T date to the 9th and 58 Page 2 of 14 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2021) 13: 58 Fig. 1 The location of Tel Dan and a reconstruction of the ancient roadways associated with the site. Image courtesy of the Tel Dan Excavations project, Hebrew Union College, Jerusalem 8th centuries BCE. These include the remains of a monumental altar and several small altars (Biran 1994: 159–214), cultic paraphernalia including a sacrificial “altar kit” (Greer 2010), and more than three cubic meters of animal bone remains that attest to the slaughter and consumption of sheep, goats, and cattle in the temple area (Greer 2013). Integrated analyses of textual and archeological data have associated this phase of the precinct with Israelite Yahwistic worship (cf. Biran 1994; Davis 2013; Greer 2013; Ackerman 2013), though others have suggested an “Aramaean” association for the ninth century phase (Noll 1998; Arie 2008; but see Thareani 2016, 2019a, b; Greer 2013, 2017a). Archeological evidence from the entire site suggests a staged pilgrimage itinerary from the entrance to the city up to the temple itself. This itinerary visited three different expansive public spaces in Areas A, M, and T (Fig. 2 and Biran 1994); at least four groups of standing stones located along the paved processional way, in the gateways, and in the appended plazas (Biran 1998); at least three raised platforms that displayed focusing devices (Biran 1994: 238–241, Biran 1996, 2002; Thareani 2015); and large assemblages of redundant artifacts—juglets in particular (Biran 1994: 255, Fig. 214).1 Religious traditions in the Hebrew Bible associate the site with Israelite Yahwistic worship (Judges 17–18; 1 Kgs 12:28–33; Amos 8:14), and specifically as a pilgrimage destination following the installation of one of two golden calves there by Jeroboam I (1 Kgs 12:28–33; see Na'aman 1999 with references). An essential characteristic of the religious experience of “pilgrimage” is that the pilgrim must endure hardship on his or her journey, and that this hardship is part of the sanctifying nature of the experience (e.g., Coleman and Elsner 1995; Turner and Turner 1978; Winkelman and Dubisch 2005: xxiv, xxx). As pilgrimages often involve animal sacrifice at the final destination, we ask whether the live animals themselves were subject to the arduous journey, alongside their owners, or if the animals were purchased or provided on site prior to being offered up and consumed in festive meals. Is there evidence of pilgrims bringing their animals with them from long distances for slaughter? And, if so, 1 The archeological manifestation of the pilgrimage itinerary is to be the subject of a forthcoming publication. Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2021) 13: 58 Page 3 of 14 58 Fig. 2 A site plan of Tel Dan with its excavated areas. Courtesy of the Tel Dan Excavations project, Hebrew Union College, Jerusalem. Material analyzed from Area M (communal area) and Area T (temple area) from how far away do these pilgrims travel with their animals? To begin to answer these questions, one must examine patterns of animal mobility, where the animals are coming from, how the landscape is utilized, and how animals are distributed within an urban setting. This question is addressed through a pilot isotopic study of targeted samples of domestic ovicaprinae from Area M, supplemented by exploratory sampling of Area T, from Iron Age IIA–B contexts (ca. 1000/900–700 BCE)2 associated with Israelite (and perhaps “Aramaean”)3 worship at the site. Stable (carbon, oxygen) and radiogenic (strontium) isotope analyses are utilized to examine the nature of the associated temple/domestic provisioning patterns, particularly as they pertain to the scope and the extent of mobility of domestic animals. We hypothesize that sheep and goats raised and culled in the immediate vicinity of the site would show local 2 The beginning of the Iron Age IIA in the southern Levant is a matter of debate; see the discussion in Finkelstein and Mazar (ed. Schmidt) 2007, for an introduction to the issues. 3 By “Aramaean,” we refer to various groups with Syro-Mesopotamian ethnic orientation. On problems associated with the term and definitions, see Younger 2016. isotopic signatures while animals imported for sacrifice, or those accompanying pilgrims over long distances (i.e., those at a greater distance than 1 day’s walk), would show more diverse and non-local signatures (Sheridan and Gregoricka 2015). Since the religious traditions in the Hebrew Bible associate this site with Israelite Yahwistic worship and pilgrimage, and other biblical texts allow for the provision of locally raised animals for sacrifice, we hypothesize that the samples will exhibit isotopic signatures from nearby grazing regions rather than from great distances. The application of isotope analysis to archaeology Stable isotope analysis has been applied to an ever-increasing range of archeological questions. In early research, isotopic values for animal remains were calculated only as an intermediate step in the analysis of human dietary patterns (Katzenberg 1989; van der Merwe et al. 2000). Today, the research focus is directed at the animal isotopic values 58 Page 4 of 14 themselves (e.g., Mashkour et al. 2004; Balasse et al. 2001, 2003). Stable isotope analyses are well established as a method for determining animal diet (DeNiro and Epstein 1978, 1981), reconstructing environments (Schoeninger et al. 2000), and inferring methods of herd management (Balasse et al. 2003; Makarewicz and Tuross 2006, 2012). Moreover, the mobility, trade, and exchange of animals within economic systems can be discussed (Arnold et al. 2016, 2018; Ezzo et al. 1997; Grupe et al. 1997; Hodell et al. 2004; Price et al. 1994, 2000). Stable isotope analyses can provide data on the animals’ diet and the environmental conditions in which they were raised, without the need for direct or continual observation and documentation throughout the animals’ lives (Balasse et al. 2003; Bentley et al. 2004; Bocherens et al. 2001; Gadbury et al. 2000; Makarewicz et al. 2016; Price et al. 2000; Sealy et al. 1995; Sharp and Cerling 1998). Isotopic ratios are incorporated into animal tissues and are stored for variable periods of time, depending on the turnover rate of the different tissues. As tooth enamel does not turn over once formed (Hillson 2005), isotopic analysis provides a picture of the animal’s diet, and/or mobility at the time of formation. For domestic animals, these are factors that are controlled by the herders and/or producers. Methods and materials Eleven lower molar teeth from different individuals were analyzed in this pilot study. The individuals were isolated from the larger collection based on find spots associated with homogeneous Iron Age II ceramic assemblages and clearly defined archeological contexts, specifically from floors and their associated debris (Table 1). All specimens were clearly identified as domestic animals. All samples are sheep (Ovis aries) with the exception of OC#10 which is identified as a goat (Capra hircus). Teeth were identified by species according to morphological criteria (Payne 1985; Halstead et al. 2002; Balasse and Ambrose 2005; Zeder and Pilaar 2010). The samples were selected from fully erupted M1, M2, and M3 molars based on their structural integrity and suitability for sampling required for isotope analysis. The sampled animals were drawn primarily from secure and clean Iron Age II contexts in Area M, which overlay a broad, paved, open square that we interpret as a space for communal ritual and commercial gatherings associated with the temple (Stratum II). The square was subsequently superseded by domestic structures (Stratum I). Two tooth samples (OC#10 and OC#11) were taken from contexts associated with the temple complex in Area T, though the stratigraphy and chronology of the area are not yet finalized. Sheep and goat from Area T were included to give an initial indication of any potential differences between the two areas, with the combined results establishing a Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2021) 13: 58 framework for testing future samples once contexts are clarified in further excavation and analysis. The teeth analyzed in this pilot study were thoroughly cleaned and a series of horizontal 1 mm wide bands were drilled from bottom to top and parallel to the growth and mineralization axes of the tooth at 1.0 mm intervals, following the methods outlined by Bocherens et al. (2001). The number of samples was dependent on the size of each tooth and varies from three samples (on a worn M1) to 24 samples. The timing of enamel mineralization and isotope signature integration is a key consideration for accurate time resolution for micro sampling along animal teeth (Wiedemann et al. 1999; Balasse 2002; Passey and Cerling 2002). For sheep and goat, the first permanent molar is half formed at birth and is complete by 9 months of age and will have a minimal maternal suckling signal (Balasse 2002). The formation of the third permanent molar begins at 1 year of age (Hillson 2005). A 5-to 6-month delay between tooth mineralization and the tooth’s isotopic record has been documented (Balasse et al. 2012). As such, the signal provided starts in the second year of life. Several researchers (e.g., Meiggs 2007; Montgomery et al. 2010) have highlighted similar issues in strontium isotopes. Strontium is incorporated into the tooth over a 12month period such that the timing of isotopic changes in the light isotopes (C and O) might not be synchronous with the radiogenic strontium. Two first molars were sampled (OC#4 and OC#7) and represent the isotopic signal of these individuals during uterine life. However, these teeth were well worn (Stage G—4– 6 years, Payne 1973) and represent adult animals while their isotopic signatures provide a glimpse of the diet of their mother and their early life. While these teeth provide only a partial isotopic sequence (represented by only 3–5 sequential samples along the tooth), the known maternal influence on the first molar allows a tentative glimpse of more than one generation of the herd management pattern. The majority of the teeth sampled were third molars providing isotopic signals from the individuals’ first year of age onwards. Pretreatment of the samples followed the methods of Balasse (2002). Tooth enamel was treated with a 2.5% NaOCl (sodium hypochlorite) solution overnight to remove organics and then rinsed five times with distilled water and treated with 0.1 M CH3COOH (acetic acid, pH 3) for 4 h to remove diagenetic carbonates. The samples were then rinsed five times with distilled water and freeze dried. Even numbered samples were analyzed for strontium isotope composition and odd numbered samples were analyzed for carbon and oxygen isotope compositions. Carbon and oxygen isotopic analyses were performed at the Anthropology Department Stable Isotope Laboratory and Mass Spectrometry Laboratory of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign where ~700 μg of the prepared sample was weighed into individual vessels and reacted with 100% phosphoric acid Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2021) 13: 58 Table 1 Page 5 of 14 58 Archeological association of samples (*Area T stratigraphy is not final) Sample Tooth sampled Locus Basket Context Summary Phase Stratum Date OC#1 Ovis Right M3 8307 M2 Ib End of eighth–seventh century BCE OC#2 Ovis Right M3 8326 M3 IIa OC#3 Ovis Left M3 8324 21,234 Tamped earth surface with pottery, bones, and tabun material (levels: 198.9–198.24). M3 IIa First half of the eighth century BCE, destroyed in 732 BCE First half of the eighth century BCE, destroyed in 732 BCE OC#4 Ovis Right M1 8161 M3-M2 IIa-Ib First half of the eighth–seventh century BCE OC#5 Ovis Left M3 8325 M3 IIa First half of the eighth century BCE, destroyed in 732 BCE OC#6 Ovis Left M3 8080 M2 Ib End of eighth–seventh century BCE OC#7 Ovis Left M1 8139 M3 IIa First half of the eighth century BCE, destroyed in 732 BCE OC#8 Ovis OC#9 Ovis Left M3 8326 M3 IIa Left M3 8134 M1 Ia First half of the eighth century BCE, destroyed in 732 BCE Late seventh–early sixth century BCE OC#10 Left M3 Capra OC#11 Left M3 Ovis 2383 20,534 Pavement in the northeast sloping towards the east, perhaps as a topographical adjustment, with a small limestone floor below (level: 198.75 m) superimposed by a tamped brown fill mixed with plaster remains. Pottery and many bones associated with the floor (level: 198.75 m), as well as worked bones, iron pieces, and the remains of a furnace. The floor is higher in the west and abuts W4653. 31,217 Fallen debris over and in a bin at the corner of W4107 and W4111, including yellow decomposed brick material (levels: 198.77–198.27 m). 20,193 Brown soil with gravel at the center at the head of W4510 (level: 198.85 m), containing a bead (level: 198.63 m). 20,436 A 30–40 cm fill below the layer of L8136 containing vessels and atop the pavement of L8135. The pavement continues below the northern balk and is damaged at its eastern and northwestern parts (levels: 199.59–199.22 m). 21,337 Fill superimposing a surface with large storage jar fragments (level: 198.66 m) 20,417 Large pavement surface with vessels and sherds (levels: 200.05–199.93 m) that was disturbed at the south. The pavement abuts W4610 at the west. 12,626 Occupational debris and mudbrick collapse above tamped earth floor (level: 198.10 m). 12,097 Occupational debris and mudbrick collapse above pavement (level: 197.16 m). T* II T* III 2305 21,192 Cobble-paved alley between structures, with evidence of two re-pavings and scattered tabun material. The area slopes from east to west (levels: 199.85–199.33 m). 21,217 Fill superimposing a surface with large storage jar fragments (levels: 198.8–198.36 m). (H3PO4) at 70 °C in an automated Kiel III carbonate device in which CO2 is liberated from enamel, cryogenically distilled, and subsequently flowed to a Finnigan MAT 252 isotopic ratio mass spectrometer. Two laboratory standards (NBS18 5.00‰ δ13C and -23.00‰ δ18O and NBS 19 +1.95‰ δ13C and -2.20‰ δ18O) were interspersed and replicates are applied to ensure accuracy. Analytical precision is typically ±0.07‰ for δ13C and ± 0.14‰ for δ18O. Strontium isotope measurements were performed on a Nu Plasma HR multi-collector inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS) at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Geology Department. Tooth enamel First half of the eighth century BCE, destroyed in 732 BCE First half of the eighth century BCE, destroyed in 732 BCE samples (pretreated following the methods of Balasse 2002 discussed above) were dissolved in 0.5 ml of 3N nitric acid (HNO3) under clean lab conditions. Cation exchange columns loaded with Eichrom® Sr spec resin and pre-conditioned with 3N HNO3 were prepared and the 0.5 ml samples were then loaded. Column blanks consisted of 0.5 ml of 3N HNO3. Columns were washed four times with 0.3 ml of 3N HNO3 and then strontium was eluted into 4 ml Teflon® vials with 1 ml of 0.05 N HNO3 and 3 ml of ultrapure deionized water (Milli-Q, Millipore) following Horwitz et al. (1992). Sample concentrations are measured and corrected to optimal range. Linear normalization of sample results was applied based on 58 Page 6 of 14 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2021) 13: 58 within-run trends in SRM 987 (standards are run every eight interval) relative to its accepted value (0.710255). Analytical precision on repeated standard measurements was ±0.00003. Results Isotope results are presented in Supplementary Tables 1 and 2. Isotope results are presented in Figs. 3 and 4. Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 2. Two first molars were sampled (OC#4 and OC#7), sampling the oldest part of the tooth closest to the root/enamel junction (REJ); they represent the isotopic signal of these individuals during the first months of life. The majority of the teeth sampled were third molars providing isotopic signals from individuals’ first year of age onwards. There are no notable distinctions between these early and later life phases in the isotope data. Oxygen isotope values range from −4.1 to 5.0‰ suggesting a wide range of oxygen isotope values across the sample. However, intra-tooth variation is much lower, ranging from 0.6 (OC#4) to 5.6‰ (OC#8). Two individuals show the same range of variation of 4.4‰ across the tooth (OC#2 and OC#11). The range of variation of strontium values is low overall in all individuals. OC#9 has the lowest range of 0.00004 and OC#6 has the highest: 0.00099. Few individuals show intratooth variability in the strontium isotope values, except for specimens OC#6 and OC#11. Carbon isotope values range from −13.0 to −6.9‰ for all caprines sampled. Again, the range of variation for each animal is lower, with a maximum of 3.3‰ in OC#2 and a minimum of 0.1‰ in OC#4 (although limited by only two Table 2 samples along this short M1). Three individuals show the same range of variation of 1.1‰ across the tooth (OC#5, 7, and 8). The carbon isotope results indicate that the caprine diet contained predominantly C3 vegetation that dominates the Mediterranean climate with a variable inclusion of C4 vegetation in the diet. Discussion Reconstruction of herding and animal trade at the Iron Age site of Tel Dan requires an understanding of the environmental factors contributing to the isotopic composition of the local biome. The site of Tel Dan is located at the northern boundary of the upper Jordan Valley (UJV, aka the Hula Basin), part of the Great Rift Valley. The UJV is bordered on the west by the Upper Galilee Mountains that rise up to over 1000 m asl. These mountains are composed of Cretaceous and Neogene marine sedimentary rocks. To the northeast lies Mt. Hermon (Fig. 1), a Jurassic marine sedimentary massif that rises to elevations of more than 2700 m asl. The eastern zone of the UJV is the Golan Heights, composed of successive layers of volcanic bedrock dating from the Pliocene to the late Pleistocene, reaching an altitude of over 1000 m asl (Sneh and Weinberger 2014). Mean annual temperatures in the UJV are higher than the surrounding mountains (maximum annual average in UJV = 26.6 °C; in Zefat, Upper Galilee = 20.7 °C). Monthly precipitation is limited to the cool season (November–April), typical of the Mediterranean climate, and increases with altitude. Summers are uniformly hot and dry. Mean annual precipitation in the UJV is approximately 500 mm/year while in the surrounding mountains it varies Descriptive statistics 87 Sr/86Sr δ13C Caprine n x 2σ OC#1 OC#2 OC#3 OC#4 OC#5 OC#6 OC#7 OC#8 OC#9 OC#10 OC#11 0.0001 0.7081 0.7081 0.0001 0.0000 0.7082 0.7084 0.0002 0.0003 0.7059 0.7063 0.0004 6 6 6 1 5 4 3 5 2 5 4 0.7081 0.7083 0.7060 0.7051 0.7078 0.7071 0.7082 0.7078 0.7083 0.7084 0.7079 0.0001 0.0009 0.0001 0.0001 min 0.7077 0.7057 0.7082 0.7078 max 0.7078 0.7067 0.7083 0.7079 ∆minmax 0.0001 0.0010 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002 0.7082 0.7084 0.0002 0.0004 0.7076 0.7080 0.0004 δ18O n x σ 6 6 5 2 5 4 2 5 3 4 5 1.1 −9.8 −7.2 2.6 1.3 −10.2 −6.9 3.3 0.8 −13.0 −11.1 1.9 −8.5 −8.6 −11.9 −10.7 −8.8 −11.3 −10.7 −8.6 −10.5 −11.5 −10.3 min max ∆minmax 0.5 −9.6 −8.5 1.2 1.2 −12.8 −10.0 2.9 0.5 1.4 1.1 0.7 −9.0 −11.8 −12.7 −11.3 −7.9 −9.0 −10.5 −9.6 1.1 2.8 2.2 1.7 min max x σ 2.8 2.9 −1.8 −2.8 −2.2 −1.2 1.7 1.2 0.8 1.2 −1.6 0.9 2.0 4.5 2.5 1.6 0.7 5.1 4.3 1.7 −3.8 −0.2 3.6 ∆minmax 1.7 −4.1 −0.2 3.9 1.6 −2.6 1.1 3.7 2.1 1.6 2.1 1.7 −2.2 −1.0 −1.4 −3.1 3.4 2.2 3.6 1.3 5.5 3.2 5.0 4.4 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2021) 13: 58 Page 7 of 14 58 Fig. 3 Isotopic results from sheep and goat from Area M. Individual sample numbers are noted in the top left corner of each graph. Oxygen in orange, carbon in blue, and strontium in red between 700 and >1000 mm/year (http://www.ims.gov.il/ IMSEng/CLIMATE). Regional variability in the bioavailable strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) ratio results in a clear separation between potential Fig. 4 Isotopic results from sheep and goats from Area T. Individual sample numbers are noted in the top left corner of each graph. Oxygen in orange, carbon in blue, and strontium in red pastures that could have provisioned Tel Dan (Fig. 5; for comprehensive background see Hartman and Richards 2014). The region can be divided into eastern and western zones of the UJV. In the west, high altitude rocks are hard 58 Page 8 of 14 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2021) 13: 58 Western Zone Eastern Zone Golan Galilee 1000 750 500 UJV 250 0 0.7073±0.0006 1 6 0.7086±0.0003 0.7080 0.7086±0.0003 0.7058±0.0005 ABM 0.7076 Tel Dan 0.7076 3 5 0.7073±0.0006 4 0.7047±0.0002 - 0.7058±0.0005 2 0.7079 - 0.7083 N 5 Km Fig. 5 Geological map of the northern region of the UJV (Upper Jordan Valley) and its surrounding lithic units (Sneh and Weinberger 2014). The lithic units are partitioned by dotted black lines; each polygon is assigned distinct plant-based bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr ratio/s (data from Hartman and Richards 2014). For basalt ages see Mor 1993. The blue-framed 87Sr/86Sr ratios are taken from Spiro et al. (2011) and represent measurements of local spring water. Color codes: Jurassic (blue); Cretaceous (green); Neogene (orange/yellow); basalts (red). The section at top, above the geological map, represents the altitude profile (Google Earth Pro). The region is divided into western (87Sr/86Sr ≥ 0.7079) and eastern zones above the UJV (87Sr/86Sr ≤ 0.7079); the western zone includes the Cretaceous and Neogene lithic formations; and the rest is assigned to the eastern zone. Cretaceous limestones and dolomites upon which “terra rossa” (USDA: Rhodoxeralfs) soil develops (Fig. 5 #1), (Singer 2007). The lower Galilee slopes are dominated by soft Cretaceous and Neogene rocks upon which “rendzina” soils develop (Fig. 5 #2), (Dan et al. 1972). Bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr ratios measured in plants are mostly radiogenic in terra-rossa soils (0.7086) but are typically equal or higher than 0.7079 in rendzina soils (Hartman and Richards 2014). The eastern zone is dominated by successive volcanic layers of basalt and pyroclasts, the oldest and westernmost are dated to the upper Pliocene (Dalwe flow, 0.7077) and Pleistocene (Hasbani flow, 0.7063, Fig. 5 #3). The lithic units higher up and further to the east date to the mid-Pleistocene (Muweisse flow, 0.7063, Fig. 5 #4), and the youngest, uppermost units date to the latePleistocene (Sa’ar flow, 0.7040, Fig. 5 #5; Mor 1993; Hartman and Richards 2014). Finally, in the northeast, the Mt. Hermon massif is composed of Jurassic limestone upon which terra-rossa soil develops. It is expected to have a typical 87 Sr/86Sr ratio of ~0.7086 (Fig. 5 #6) resulting from atmospheric deposition rather than from local bedrock weathering (Hartman and Richards 2014). Analysis of spring waters indicates direct weathering and dissolution of host bedrock (Starinsky et al. 1980) and the UJV spring water is no exception. The dissolved strontium in the Banias spring water, which derives from the Mt. Hermon Jurassic unit, has an 87 Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.7072 (Spiro et al. 2011). The concentrations of strontium in water are orders of magnitude lower than those in vegetation, such that plants are better proxies for measured herbivore 87Sr/86Sr ratios (Bentley 2006; Hartman and Richards 2014). Nonetheless, given the absence of indigenous plant samples from the heavily cultivated UJV region, water samples are used to provide a rough proxy for local 87 Sr/86Sr ratios. Environmental oxygen isotope (δ18O) values are determined by the composition of precipitation, mostly in the form of rainfall. The amount of precipitation is a primary factor that controls water oxygen isotope values in the southern Levant (Ayalon et al. 2004). Altitude is another factor that has been shown to provide a reliable proxy for carbonate oxygen in gazelle tooth enamel (Hartman et al. 2015); the isotopic values of meteoric and ground water are both correlated linearly with altitude (Gat and Dansgaard 1972; Ayalon et al. 2004; Dafny et al. 2006; Hartman et al. 2015). Secondary 18O enrichment in herbivore tooth enamel at low altitudes results from plant and surface water evapotranspiration during the dry season (Gat and Dansgaard 1972). The large altitudinal gradient between the UJV and its Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2021) 13: 58 Page 9 of 14 surrounding mountains provides a clear indication of herding elevation. The lowest δ18O value measured in the teeth that represent wet season enamel formation should reflect the composition of environmental water least affected by evapotranspiration. It therefore serves as trustable proxy of altitude (Hartman et al. 2015). The highest δ18O values reflect increases in evapotranspiration during the dry season and are not, therefore, considered an altitude proxy. Carbon isotope (δ13C) values provide a complementary proxy for the type of vegetation available for herded animals. While the local Mediterranean flora is dominated by C3 vegetation (Winter and Troughton 1978; Hartman and Danin 2010), C4 vegetation of the Cyperaceae (sedge) family prevails in the abundant springs and ponds of the UJV (Danin 2004). Otherwise, incorporation of C4 vegetation into the diet can take place in south facing slopes where edaphic conditions select for plant species that can tolerate high solar radiation and growth under conditions of limited water availability (Pavlíček et al. 2003). With regard to the dominant local C3 vegetation, water availability—resulting from the amount of precipitation and soil conditions—affects the degree of isotopic discrimination (Δ13C, Hartman and Danin 2010). Thus, two contrasting situations exist where elevated δ13C values can be measured in the teeth: consumption of water-dipped sedges in UJV, or of water-stressed vegetation on the surrounding hills. These can be easily differentiated: the former will be associated with negative δ18O values, reflecting the unlimited water conditions available to the vegetation and, thus, the animals; the latter will be associated with arid conditions and positive δ18O values. The amplitude of seasonal variability and the number of samples per tooth are not correlated. This big seasonal variability is reflected in the small number of samples (3) as much as it is reflected in the large number of samples per tooth (>5), (see Supplementary Fig. 1). Carbon isotope values indicate that the animal diet contained predominantly C3 vegetation which dominates the Mediterranean climate. The teeth can be divided roughly into two groups based on their 87Sr/86Sr ratios (Fig. 6): the western zone (WZ) animals (#1,2,7,9,10), and the eastern zone (EZ) animals (#3,4,5,6,8,11) (87Sr/86Sr WZ x = 0.70825 ± 0.00009; EZ x = 0.70682 ± 0.00012; t-test assuming equal variance P < 0.05). A summary of the results is provided in Table 2. None of the 87Sr/86Sr ratios measured in the Tel Dan sheep and goat teeth shows consumption of vegetation that comes from terra rossa soils (0.7086), and therefore there is no evidence for animals pastured in the WZ Upper Galilee or Mt. Hermon (Fig. 5, regions #1 or #6). While OC#10 has a mean isotope ratio of 0.7084 (+ 0.0002) that may fall within the range for terra rossa soils, when δ18O values of OC#10 are also considered, this high altitude area of the Western Zone can be disregarded. A combined bivariate plotting of δ18O values and 87Sr/86Sr ratios shows good agreement between the two variables (Fig. 6). WZ individuals—defined as such based on their 87Sr/86Sr ratio which positions them in rendzina soils—are associated with positive δ18O values. These pastures are found at the low altitudes of the Galilee foothills. Comparison of the δ18O values of WZ and EZ animals shows striking differences (Fig. 7; WZx = 1.88 ± 0.95; EZx = −1.39 ± 1.39; t-test assuming equal variance P < 0.005). While negative, EZ δ18O values are more variable; the teeth of animals originating in the Golan Heights have the lowest δ18O values and the least radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr ratios. These 87Sr/86Sr ratios are measured in mid-altitude vegetation growing on soils formed above Mid- and Late-Pleistocene basalts (Fig. 6 #3,4,6). The wide range of EZ animals δ18O values also provides evidence for low altitude herding of sheep and goat in locations that coincide with more radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr ratios (#5,8,11). These can be found in closer proximity to Tel Dan. When mean δ18O and δ13C values of each tooth are regressed, they show a positive correlation when EZ and WZ sheep and goat are considered separately (Fig. 7). When both regions are combined, there is a significant difference in δ13C values between animals showing minor consumption of a C4 diet compared to those who subsist exclusively on C3 vegetation (exclusive C3 diet x = −10.99 ± 0.60‰; incorporated C 4 diet x = −8.56 ± 0.01‰; t-test 86 Sr/ Sr Altitude 87 Fig. 6 Bivariate plot of Tel Dan mean87Sr/86Sr ratios and δ18O values measured in individual molar teeth. Black-filled circles represent animals assigned to western zone origins; white-filled circles represent animals assigned to eastern zone origins. Colors and numbers reflect lithic units and locations showing on Fig. 5 58 0.7090 0.7085 0.7080 0.7075 0.7070 0.7065 0.7060 0.7055 0.7050 0.7045 High Low 1 2 5 3 9 10 7 8 2 1 Western Zone 6 3 Eastern Zone 3 4 4 y = -0.0001x2 + 0.0004x + 0.708 R² = 0.649 5 -6.0 -4.0 -2.0 0.0 2.0 18 δ O (‰, VPDB) 4.0 6.0 58 Page 10 of 14 -7 C4 P <0.05 13 δ C (‰, VPDB) -8 8 5 -9 y = 0.64x - 9.78 R² = 0.55, P=0.15 -10 11 9 4 -11 1 2 7 C3 -12 P<0.0005 Fig. 7 Regressions of mean δ18O and δ13C values, east zone (white circles, excluding #5 in gray) vs. west zone (black circles) showing the positive correlation between C4 plant consumption and δ18O values Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2021) 13: 58 6 10 y = 1.24x - 12.28 R² = 0.78, P=0.05 3 -13 -5.0 -4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 δ18O (‰, VPDB) assuming equal variance P < 0.0005). The same test on differences in δ18O values between individuals feeding exclusively on C3 vegetation compared to those who incorporated C4 vegetation into their diet shows that C4 incorporation into diet is associated with low topographies, and more evaporative conditions (exclusive C3 diet x = −0.53 ± 1.73‰; incorporated C4 diet x = 2.31 ± 0.95‰; P < 0.05). It is expected that in hot and arid locations arid-adapted, open habitat C4 species will increase their presence in the landscape, contributing to domestic animal diet. One EZ sheep (#5) showing the incorporation of C4 vegetation into its diet has exceptionally low δ18O values (−2.2 ± 1.7‰). In this exceptional case, it is hypothesized that the sheep foraged along permanent water bodies that are common in the UJV and supplemented its diet with wet habitat sedges. Permanent water bodies enjoy annual replenishment by groundwater with negative δ18O values. The strontium, carbon, and oxygen data together suggest that the animals grazed within the local region; all approximately within a day’s walk of the site. Though the number of animals utilized for this pilot study is modest (n = 11), this initial analysis supports the hypothesis that animals consumed during the eating events in the large open space of public display (Area M) were locally sourced. In addition, there is minimal evidence for seasonal mobility patterns. However, the diversity of the samples from the public area was greater than expected. While EZ sheep (n = 6) were herded in the immediate vicinity of the tel, two further distinctions can be made within this group. Three individuals (#3, 4, 6) with comparatively lower δ18O values and lower 87Sr/86Sr ratios were pastured in the Golan Heights. Others (#5, 8, and 11) were herded in closer proximity to the site, demonstrated by a more radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr ratio. As the majority of the sample is sheep, the variation is not due to the different feeding behaviors of sheep vs. goats. WZ individuals (n = 5) were imported from the Galilee foothills, perhaps within the political boundaries of other cities (Tel Abel Beth Ma‘acah and Tel Hazor). While the predominance of sheep is unusual in the region, recent zooarchaeological analyses at Tel Hazor have identified a sheep-dominated industry, atypical for the region (Marom et al. 2014). Ongoing isotope research at Tel Dan is expanding the sample size and focusing specifically on additional goat samples. Regarding the animals from the temple area (Area T), one (#11) was herded in close proximity to the site. But this is not a unique signature since other animals with these same origins were recovered from the paved public space in Area M. The other animal from Area T (#10, the single goat) comes from further away (WZ Galilee foothills). While the strontium isotope values measured in the teeth of specimens OC#6 and OC#11 may be considered to vary enough to suggest seasonal mobility of herds, the site is situated within a pronounced wet and dry seasonal Mediterranean climate regime. The Tel Dan region (Upper Jordan Valley, Golan, Upper Galilee) does not suffer from a seasonal shortage of green vegetation (Danin 2004) or a lack of water supply (Sade et al. 2016) that would necessitate pronounced seasonal mobility of herds. The individual seasonal movement of each caprine, as reflected in intra-tooth 87Sr/86Sr variability is limited, further suggesting localized herding (Figs. 3-4). The separation of Tel Dan caprines into either WZ or EZ origins reveals that the former were slaughtered at older ages than caprines raised in the EZ of the UJV (molar crown height WZ = 23.28 ± 8.28 mm, EZ = 26.48 ± 11.03 mm, excluding #4 EZ = 30.95 ± 1.51 mm, one tail t-test P < 0.05) (Fig. 8). This observation is based on the height of tooth crowns, which has implications for the type of animal product exploitation (dairy/wool vs. meat). This observation, supported by the zooarchaeological analysis of the larger assemblage (Greer 2013), may suggest different management strategies and exploitation strategies of these spatially separated herds, though Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2021) 13: 58 Page 11 of 14 58 Fig. 8 Plot of serially sampled individual caprine teeth: a. western zone; b. eastern zone of the UJV tooth enamel carbonate δ18O and δ13C values. Black dashed lines are group mean polynomial regression lines formed between isotope values and location relative to tooth cervix. Red dashed lines mark maximum crown height (age) of western zone caprines relative to the eastern zone caprines our sample size prohibits any definitive conclusion. With larger samples, production strategies—whether the domestic animals were utilized for meat or for secondary products, such as milk, traction, wool or hair—will be reflected in the animals’ age at death (Payne 1973; Hesse 1982; Greenfield 1988, 2010; Greenfield and Arnold 2015; Vila and Helmer 2014). As such, interpretations on secondary product use from this analysis are only tentative. we interpret as a place for communal rituals and commercial gatherings associated with the temple that later shows evidence of domestic structures at Iron Age II A–B (ca. 10th/9th–7th c. BCE) Tel Dan—were locally sourced. The exploratory sampling from the temple complex in Area T also suggests locally sourced animals within these parameters and exhibits no significant difference from Area M. This pattern is supported by biblical texts concerning the provisioning of animals for pilgrims (though dating biblical texts and traditions that pertain to Israelite sacrifice is a complicated matter; see Greer forthcoming). For example, Deuteronomy 14:24–26 allows the use of local animals for sacrifice by pilgrims traveling long distances, and in Leviticus 22:17–25, we find a prohibition of foreign animals with suspected abnormalities for sacrifice relayed among a list of circumstances that render an offering “blemished” (cf. Greer 2017b). While such a proposal may not conform to the idea of an arduous pilgrimage with regard to sacrificial provisioning, it does fit in terms of practicality: animals were readily available for purchase by incoming pilgrims. Their availability would have created a flourishing branch of the local economy, which resonates with biblical provisions for purchasing local animals (Deut 14:24–26). Furthermore, a local provisioning system for pilgrims would have allowed for quality control of the animals, especially important for the local cultic officials given the multi-ethnic nature of the region’s population and a desire to maintain the purity of the sacrificial victim (cf. Lev 22:17–25). Local provisioning would also facilitate access to younger animals. EZ animals are both younger and closer to the site than WZ animals. This is Conclusions The capacity to pinpoint the origins of sheep and goat and to determine the consumption of arid-adapted vs. humid/wet C4 plants has been demonstrated, allowing for the application of our results to an analysis of the broader economy of the site. The isotopic results suggest that irrigated agriculture (orchard crops, vegetables) benefited the residents of Tel Dan and outcompeted herding. Domestic herds were pushed to less desirable locations or imported to the city from neighboring settlements. Marom et al. (2009) argue that the animal component of the economic system was managed separately from the agricultural component throughout western Asia in antiquity. Sheep and goats were ranged extensively and at a distance from settlements to reduce the impact on agricultural production during the growing season (Hesse 1986; KöhlerRollefson 1992; Redding 1981). We have demonstrated that the animals represented in the samples we analyzed from Area M—a paved, open space that 58 Page 12 of 14 preferable in general, in that immature animals could not travel without their mothers prior to weaning, and they were required for specific offerings in the biblical text. In fact, a preference for younger animals has already been observed in previous analyses of faunal remains from the temple complex (Wapnish and Hesse 1991; Greer 2013). Together, these elements of the proposed pilgrimage model dovetail with the highly localized nature of the entire foodway chaîne opératoire—slaughtering, butchering, eating, and disposing—reconstructed from archeological remains of the temple feasts (Greer 2013: 92–93). The different mortality patterns observed here plotted against the backdrop of studies with larger sample sizes may suggest that animals imported from the Galilee foothills (WZ) were exploited heavily for secondary products. This may be another reason for the import of animals from the surrounding area to Tel Dan, aside from any cultic connotations. Milk is unlikely to be the key product for this exchange as dairy herds would need to be maintained in close proximity to the site (cf. Wapnish and Hesse 1988). This specialized pastoral economy may have served as a means of regional integration (Zeder 1991; Wapnish and Hesse 1988). A similar strategy is reflected in the Hula Valley during the late nineteenth–early twentieth centuries CE when the area was subjected to the dominance of local pastoral groups (Thareani 2019b). In general, the export or import of domestic stock is considered evidence of increasing economic specialization since a network of exchange would be necessary to integrate communities that specialize in production (Wapnish and Hesse 1988). This “hyper-locality” of the animal provisioning at Tel Dan would therefore seem to be directly related to its status as a pilgrimage city. Requirements for locally sourced animals fed the local economy of the Danites while ensuring access to quality-assured sacrificial animals for incoming pilgrims. Cult was commercialized and commerce was ritualized. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01291-7. Acknowledgements We wish to express our appreciation to the Grand Valley State University and Cornerstone University, Grand Rapids Theological Seminary, Arlyn and Marcia Lanting, and Stephen Disselkoen for their generous support of the Tel Dan excavations and the Hesse Memorial Archeological Laboratory. We are grateful to Stanley H. Ambrose and Shari Fanta, Tom Johnson, Craig Lundstrom, and Gideon Bartov for lab access and assistance with technical issues at the University of Illinois (Urbana-Champaign). Thank you to Dov Porotzky for producing the general plan of site (Fig. 2) and the plans of Area M. References Ackerman S (2013) E-Dan. J Anc Near East Relig 13:153–187 Arie E (2008) Reconsidering the Iron Age II Strata at Tel Dan: archaeological and historical implications. Tel Aviv 35:6–64 Arnold ER, Hartman G, Greenfield HJ, Shai I, Babcock LE, Maeir AM (2016) Isotopic evidence for early trade in animals between Old Kingdom Egypt and Canaan. 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