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Human bones from Chalcolithic walled enclosures of Portuguese Estremadura: the examples of Zambujal and Leceia

Human bones from Chalcolithic walled enclosures of Portuguese Estremadura: the examples of Zambujal and Leceia

Profile image of João Luís CardosoJoão Luís Cardoso

2014, BAR International Series 2676: 83-98

ln this paper, human skeletal remains from two prominent settlement sites in the Estremadura region of Portugal (Leceia and Zambujal) were examined in order to investigate how settlement burials may relate to individual identity, and/or temporal and spatial aspects of community life. Our findings have been that, at both Zambujal and Leceia, the contexts in which the human remains are recovered are diverse and cannot be explained by one process or type of event.

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M. Kunst - J. L. Cardoso - A. Waterman: Human Bones from Chalcolithic Walled Enclosures of Portuguese Estremadura: The Examples of Zambujal an Leceia

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Mind the gap: Neolithic and Chalcolithic enclosures of South Portugal

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Recent Prehistoric Enclosures and Funerary Practices in Europe Proceedings of the International Meeting held at the Gulbenkian Foundation (Lisbon, Portugal, November 2012) Edited by António Carlos de Valera BAR International Series 2676 2014 Published by Archaeopress Publishers of British Archaeological Reports Gordon House 276 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7ED England bar@archaeopress.com www.archaeopress.com BAR S2676 Recent Prehistoric Enclosures and Funerary Practices in Europe: Proceedings of the International Meeting held at the Gulbenkian Foundation (Lisbon, Portugal, November 2012) Cover image: Magnetogram from Perdigões enclosure, by Helmut Becker (p. 52, this volume) © Archaeopress and the individual authors 2014 ISBN 978 1 4073 1318 4 Printed in England by Information Press, Oxford All BAR titles are available from: Hadrian Books Ltd 122 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7BP England www.hadrianbooks.co.uk The current BAR catalogue with details of all titles in print, prices and means of payment is available free from Hadrian Books or may be downloaded from www.archaeopress.com TABLE OF CONTENTS The times and timings of enclosures Alasdair Whittle___________________________________________________________ p. 1 Enclosures &burial in Middle &Late Neolithic Britain Alex Gibson______________________________________________________________ p. 13 The place of human remains anf Funerary practices in Recent Neolithic ditched and walled enclosures in the West of France (IV-III Mill. BC) Audrey Blanchard, Jean-Noël Guyodo, Ludovic Soler ___________________________ p. 19 Funerary practices and body manipulation at Neolithic and Chalcolithic Perdigões ditched enclosures (South Portugal) António Carlos Valera, Ana Maria Silva, Claudia Cunha, Lucy Shaw Evangelista ______ p. 37 Skeletons in the ditch: funerary activity in ditched enclosures of Porto Torrão (Ferreira do Alentejo, Beja) Filipa Rodrigues_____________________________________________________ p. 59 Enclosures and funerary practices: about an archaeology in search for the symbolic dimension of social relations. Susana Oliveira Jorge____ _________________________________________________ p. 71 Human Bones from Chalcolithic Walled Enclosures of Portuguese Estremadura: The Examples of Zambujal and Leceia Michael Kunst, João Luís Cardoso, Anna Waterman ______________________________ p. 83 Human sacrifices with cannibalistic practices in a pit enclosure? The extraordinary early Neolithic site of Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany) Andrea Zeeb-Lanz ________________________________________________________ p. 99 Gendered burials at an henge-like enclosure near Magdeburg, central Germany: a tale of revenge and ritual killing? André Spatzier Marcus Stecher, Kurt W. Alt. François Bertemes____________________ p. 111 ii The Copper age ditched settlement at Conelle de Arcevia (Central Italy) Alberto Cazzella, Giulia Recchia ____________________________________________ p. 129 Funerary practices in the ditched enclosures of Camino de las Yeseras: Ritual, Temporal and Spatial Diversity Patrícia Rios, Corina Liesau, Concepción Blasco _______________________________ p. 139 Recent Prehistory enclosures & funerary practices José Enrique Márquez Romero, Vítor Jímenez Jaímez ___________________________ p. 149 iii Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium two prominent settlement sites es in the Estremadura region of Portugal (Leceia and Zambu bujal) are examined (Fig. 1) in order to investigate how sett ettlement burials may relate to individual identity, and/or temporal tem and spatial aspects of community life. LITHIC HUMAN BONES FROM CHALCOL WALLED ENCLOSURES OF PORT TUGUESE ESTREMADURA: THE EXAMPLES OF ZAMBUJAL AND A LECEIA. Michael Kunst1 João Luís Cardoso2 Anna J. Waterman 3 1 Deutsches Archäologisches Institut,, Abteilung A Madrid, Spain. michael.kunst@dainst.de 2 Aberta University and Centre for Archaeological Studies, Oeiras Municipalit lity, Portugal. cardoso18@netvisao.pt 3 Department of Natural and Applied ed Sciences, Mount Mercy University, Cedar Rapids, ds, Iowa, USA. awaterman@mtmercy.edu 1. INTRODUCTION The traditional view of burial prac ractices during the Chalcolithic period of the Iberian Pe Peninsula was that settlements and burial locations wer ere geographically distinct with burials taking place in nat natural and artificial caves, tholoi, and rock cut tombs some som distance from hilltop and valley settlements (for exa xample Almagro & Arribas, 1963: 19,fig. 3; Arteaga & Cr Cruz Auñón, 1995: 590, fig. 2; Lillios et al. 2010; 2014;; M Morán & Parreira, 2004:31, Map; Soares, 2003: 180-181;; Spindler S , 1981: 4, fig. 2;). However, excavations duringg the last 20 years show that large amounts of human ske skeletal remains are recovered from settlement sites suggesti sting some diversity in burial practices. While in Sangme meister & Schubart (1981:116) finds of human bones from rom excavations at Zambujal are mentioned, at the time of o publication this did not lead to an open discussion off tthe topic. In fact, only when a burial tholoi was found und in the ditched settlement of Perdigões (Reguengos gos de Monsaraz, Portugal) (Lago et al. 1998: 60-70. 0. 75-79), and S. Oliveira Jorge published the finds of human bones at Castelo Velho de Freixo do Numão (V (Vila Nova de Foz Côa, Portugal) and used them as the starting st point for a ritual interpretation of the site (Jorge 1999) 1 were human bones and burials inside of Chalcol colithic settlements observed with more interest. How owever, the real breakthrough came some years late ater when salvage excavations completed in the region ion around Madrid found evidence of a diverse array of hum uman burials within Chalcolithic settlements. Particula ularly interesting examples of this are found at the ditch ched settlement site of Camino de las Yeseras where arch rchaeologists found evidence of several complex buria rial-structures with collective and single graves (Blasco et al. 2009). These new findings of diverse settlement buria rial practices in late prehistoric Spain have led to thee reassessment of settlement burials at Chalcolithic sites in Portugal as well. To this aim, in this paper human skel eletal remains from Fig. 1 – Location of Leceia,, Zambujal Z and Vila Nova de São Pedro in the Iberian Peninsula. Pe 2. ZAMBUJAL 2.1Introduction. M. Kunst – A. Watermann The earliest evidence of huma man bones at Zambujal was published by E. Sangmeiste ister and H. Schubart in 1981(Sangmeister & Schubart art, 1981:116). Sangmeister and Schubart discuss their find nding of 82 human bones in the entrance of small corridor. r. This corridor corresponds with the structures built during ng period 5 and lie on top of the destruction horizon of phase ase 4d and the older entrance of tower L. In 1987 Franz Parsche Par of the University of Munich (Germany), with the help of his assistant, Veronika Zaya, began a prelimi minary examination of all of the human remains recovered ed from Zambujal between 1964 and 1973 and found that th there were even more recovered human bones from scattered s areas around the site. Unfortunately, this study dy was never completed or published because of Parsche che’s untimely death some 83 Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium years later. Additionally, in subsequ equent excavations between 1994 and 2007 small deposits ts oof human remains continued to be recovered. walls were at that time still till covered by earth, and therefore at first glance appea peared to be a huge burial mound. On top of this mound nd L. Trindade dug a small test pit and showed the recov overed artifacts to Eugénio Jalhay, a Jesuit priest who was as at the time excavating at the Chalcolithic fortified settlem tlement of Vila Nova de São Pedro. Jalhay later published d L. L Trindade early finds at Zambujal (Jalhay 1946). Recently, a reexamination of the human an skeletal remains from Zambujal was undertaken for seve veral reasons. First, to date, a significant amount of human an bones have been recovered at Zambujal. Secondly, two recent research projects analyzing human remains fr from Chalcolithic archaeological sites in Portugal havee reported findings that may help to answer questions abou out the context and importance of the human remainss recovered from Zambujal. At the suggestion of M. K Kunst, Dr. Katina Lillios of the University of Iowa begann eexcavations at the rock shelter of Bolores, located 2 km from Zambujal. Artifacts found during agricultural w work at the site suggested that Bolores was a Chalcolit lithic burial (Kunst & Trindade, 1990:38-41. Taf. 4-5),, and a in 1986, the museum of Torres Vedras made a first st test excavation at the site. Lillios subsequently carried out ou four excavation campaigns at Bolores between 2007 and an 2012, in which the remains of at least 37 individuals als were recovered (Lillios et al. 2010, 2014). In conju njunction with the Bolores project, A. Waterman conduct ucted a preliminary comparative bioanthropological study oon a portion of the Zambujal human remains (Waterma man et al. 2014, Waterman 2012), as there may be a rela relationship between the settlement site of Zambujal andd tthe burial site of Bolores. The other project which pique qued our interest in undertaking a new examination of the he Zambujal human remains was an article published by Susana Oliveira Jorge (translated by M. Kunst intoo German) on her excavations at the settlement of Castelo elo Velho de Freixo de Numão, where she found some in intriguing contexts related to the human bones recovered ed (Jorge, 1999:8894). Since Waterman’s initial review iew of the human remains from Zambujal in 2012 more ore human remains have been identified from faunal assem semblages. Thus, in this paper we will review the total numb mber of bones found to date. Fig. 2 – Location of Zambuja jal on a promontory above the small valley of the Ribeira de Pedrulhos; areophotograph (august 2007 007), view from northeast (Photo: D-DAI-M MAD-MK-DG-25-07-777, photographer M. Kunst). Years later in 1959-1961 L. Trindade, and Aurélio Ricardo Belo who was at the time the director of the Torres Vedras museum, und ndertook three excavation seasons focusing on the walls lls around the mound. Belo died in 1961 and the excavation tions ceased for a short time. In 1963 Vera Leisner acqua quainted L. Trindade with Hermanfrid Schubart of the he German Archaeological Institute. L. Trindade invitedd H. Schubart to continue with the excavations of Zambu bujal. Thus, in 1964 a new series of six excavation campai paigns were started, directed by H. Schubart of the Germann A Archaeological Institute in collaboration with Edward San angmeister, then director of the Institute of Prehistory off the th University of Freiburg (Germany) and L. Trindade.. They T excavated until 1973 and the results are published in numerous articles and a series of monographs (Sangm meister & Schubart, 1981; Kunst 1987; Sangmeister & Jiménez Jim 1995; Uerpmann & Uerpmann 2003). Almost twen enty years later, the town of Torres Vedras decided to install i an archaeological museum in Zambujal and to fac facilitate this work two new excavation campaigns, underr the t direction of M. Kunst and H.-P. Uerpmann, were und ndertaken in 1994 and 1995 (Kunst & Uerpmann, 2002). 20 Additionally, in collaboration with M. Höckk from the University of Covilhã, topographic campaig aigns were started (Höck, 2007) and campaigns continued ed under the direction of M. Kunst in 2001, 2002, 2004,, 2007 2 and 2012. The 2002 campaign was done in collabo boration with E. Morán and R. Parreira (Kunst, Morán & Pa Parreira, 2013). und. 2.2 Archaeological backgroun The Chalcolithic settlement of Zambuj bujal belongs to the township of Torres Vedras (in the distri strict of Lisbon) and is situated south of the Torres Vedras on a promontory of the Cabeço da Calvina, a hill with its hig highest point at 164 m above the sea level (Fig 2). Currently ntly the Chalcolithic fortifications at Zambujal lie between een 75 and 104 m above the sea level and from this heig eight the settlement must have dominated the valley of the Ribeira de Pedrulhos, a smaller tributary of the river ri Sizandro. On clear days from Zambujal it is also possible pos to overlook parts of the Sizandro valley, and at thee hhorizon to see the Atlantic Ocean which lies approximate ately 10 km to the west. Zambujal was discovered by Leonel Tr Trindade Sr during his excavations of the cave site of Cova va da Moura (Kunst, 1993: 47-50). The best preserved parts ts oof the fortification 84 Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium Chronologically the occupation of Zambujal spans from the 3rd to the beginning of the 2nd millennia BC (Kunst & Lutz, 2011: 454-461). E. Sangmeister and H. Schubart established a system for a relative chronology by phases of construction including phases of demolition (Versturz) and settlement activities like layers of fire places (hearths). Based upon observations of the formations of the fortification walls, according to this system, there were 5 periods of defense construction (Fig. 3) which can be subdivided into16 “construction phases”(Sangmeister & Schubart, 1981: 226-255). New excavations in the area of the farm house and the fourth line of fortification walls, which were discovered in 1995, continue to expand our understandings of the boundaries of the site. Thus, the most recent outline of the Chalcolithic fortifications differs a little bit from the ones published in 1981, and now include the recently excavated fourth line of fortification structures within the sequence of construction phases (Kunst & Lutz, 2011: 447-454) (Fig. 2 and 3). phase Este 3: KIA-27564 (3992±24 BP) BC (2 σ) 2572-2468; 2572-2512 (60,1%) phase 3b: GrN-7003 (4055±40 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 2852-2474; 2696-2474 (84,3%) phase 3b: GrN-7004 (3995±35 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 2620-2459; 2586-2459 (93,5%) phase 3c: GrN-7005 (4055±40 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 2852-2474; 2696-2474 (84,3%) The absolute chronology of these 5 periods of defense construction and 16 subdivisions of construction phases is not very precise because of the plateau in the calibration curve of the late 3rd millennium BC. However, even with the calibration curve, according to the radiocarbon dates (Kunst & Lutz, 2011: 454-461; Sangmeister & Schubart, 1981: 263-275) the beginning of settlement at Zambujal dates back to the beginning of the 3rd millennium: bef. ph. Este 4: KIA-28668 (3999±29 BP) 2575-2469; 2575-2469 (95,4%) cal BC (2 σ) bef. ph. Este 4: KIA-28669 (4001±28 BP) 2575-2470; 2575-2470 (95,4%) cal BC (2 σ) bef. ph. Este 4: KIA-27557 (3996±23 BP) 2572-2470; 2572-2512 (62%) cal BC (2 σ) after p. Es. 3b: KIA-27555 (3941±32 BP) 2566-2309; 2497-2338 (81,8%) cal BC (2 σ) after p. Es. 3b: KIA-27556 (3965±32 BP) 2574-2348; 2574-2432 (84,8%) cal BC (2 σ) The dates of period 4 reach the second millennium. They are all charcoal dates, which mean they may be too old in some cases, which is obvious in the case of sample GrN7006. phase 4a-c: GrN-7006 (4090±40 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 28662493; 2763-2563 (68,6%) phase 4b: GrN-6669 (4025±95 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 28752300; 2875-2334 (93,6%) before phase 1a: KIA-27565 (4445±31 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 3333-2936; 3133-3009 (47,9%) phase 4b: GrN-7007C (3950±65 BP) BC (2 σ) 2623-2209; 2623-2276 (92,7%) before phase 1a: KIA-27559 (4238±29 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 2910-2705; 2910-2861 (66,3%) cal phase 4c/d: GrN-6668 (3625±65 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 2198-1776; 2150-1871 (87,7%) before phase 1a: KIA-7260 (4134±43 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 2875-2581; 2875-2617 (89%) Lastly, there are two dates, which likely come from period 5, but for which the exact phase in not clear. Either way the dates do coincide: 14 The C-dates for the periods 1, 2 and 3 come mainly from the first half of the 3rd millennium and date around 2500 BC, excluding a series of date from animal bones without three-dimensional locations (Kunst & Lutz, 2011: 460, Fig. 35). phase 5: KN-4507 (3466±53 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 19211641; 1921-1663 (94,4%) phase Este 5?: KIA-27566 (3467±36 BP) 1886-1691; 1886-1691 (95,4%) phase 1c: GrN-7009 (4200±40 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 2899-2638; 2818-2665 (67,1%) cal BC (2 σ) Thus, the sequence of radiocarbon dates show continued use and construction at the site from circa 3300-2000 cal BC. However, between periods 4 and 5 a hiatus in site activity may have occurred (Sangmeister & Schubart 1981, 247, 272). phase Este 1: KIA-27558 (4129±31 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 2872-2581; 2781-2617 (62,6%) phase 2: GrN-6671 (4170±55 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 28912586; 2891-2619 (93,4%) phase Este 2: KIA-27561 (4155±32 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 2878-2630; 2822-2630 (76,5%) 2.3 Materials and Methods In this study human remains from all regions of the site of Zambujal (Fig. 4) to date were examined and the results integrated with the published findings in Waterman (2012). Skeletal and dental materials were identified by criteria outlined in standard osteological phase 2: GrN-7002 (4050±40 BP) cal BC (2 σ) 28512472; 2680-2472 (85,4%) bef. ph. Este 3: KIA-27563 (4065±37 BP) 2855-2486; 2697-2486 (80,9%) cal cal BC (2 σ) 85 Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium texts (Baker et al. 2005; Scheuer and Black B 2000; White 2000). Duplicate skeletal elemen ents, age-at-death estimations, and skeletal morphology ogy were used to identify distinct individuals. Instancess of o pathology were evaluated on the skeletal and dentall rremains based on Ortner and Putschar (1981), Hillson ((1996; 2005) and Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). Resul sults of previously completed isotopic analyses are discu scussed (Waterman 2012; Waterman et al. 2014). 2.4 Results and Discu cussion Currently there are 349 human an bone fragments recovered from Zambujal. Over two-third hirds of these remains were recovered in a highly fragmen ented condition. In general the only complete bones es found were small, taphonomically resistant bones es such as teeth, carpals and phalanges. Nonetheless, bbasic skeletal element identifications were possible for over 90% of the remains. Skeletal elements from alll bbody regions have been identified suggesting that ther here may have been some primary interments and the remains re of both adults and subadults have been recovered ed (Fig. 5). However, most bone fragments are found in isolated conditions often with >10 human bone fragmen ents recovered together in a location. This suggests some me dispersal of the human remains either through anthr thropogenic or taphonomic means. The exceptions are rema mains recovered from region S, region KM Tower L, region ion KM cut 40a and region AP where larger caches of hum uman bones were recovered. It is possible that the remains ins recovered in these areas may represent primary buriall sp spaces. In the next sections, the amounts and types of hum uman remains are discussed according to region. 2.4.1 Region S At the eastern edge of the site, te, in region S, 95 fragments of human remains were reco ecovered. These fragments represent elements from all regions reg of the human body, and include 2 vertebral fragm ments, 13 rib fragments, 2 scapula fragments, 5 ulnar frag agments (4 of which refit to form mostly complete rightt ulna), u 4 radial fragments (which refit to form an almost ost complete right radius), 3 humerus fragments (one examp mple Fig. 5 f), 3 carpals (a lunate, capitate and scapho hoid), 16 right and left metacarpal fragments (8 of whi hich are complete or nearly complete), 13 hand phalanges es (9 of which are complete or nearly complete), 1 fibu fibular fragment, 2 tarsal fragments (talus and calcaneus eus), 1 complete metatarsal and 5 metatarsal fragments,, 2 foot phalanges, a right mandibular fragment with the right third and fourth premolars, and right first and nd second molars, a second right mandibular fragment with ith the right fourth premolar, and the right first and sec econd molars, a maxillary fragment with the upper left ft canine, third and fourth premolar and first molar, pluss ffive addition isolated teeth and two unidentified bone fragm agments. The fact that a right ulna and radius were recovere ered with a large cache of other hand bones suggests that at pprimary burials could have occurred here. However, the bones b were recovered in a highly fragmented and disarticu iculated state and the general lack of pelvises, vertebrae,, and femora suggest the possibility that this, alternative ively, may be the site of a secondary burial deposit. Base sed upon the occurrence of two right mandible fragmentss w with in situ duplicate tooth types, we know that at le least two individuals are represented by these remains. ns. From the low levels of occlusal wear on the mola olars on both mandibular fragments these appear to have ha both been young to middle-aged adults at the timee of death. Because of the se constructions of Fig. 3 – The five phases of defense Zambujal (after Sangmeister & Schu hubart, 1981, 226251, modified by M. Kunst and G. Casella). Cas 86 Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium fragmentary nature of the recovered remains no determination of biological sex was possible. 2.4.3. Region U In the western edges of Zambujal, in region U, two isolated human bones were recovered. The first is an isolated adult human phalanx and the second is the distal end of the humerus of an older child. There is no clear relationship between these bones nor is the chronology clear for these finds, one comes from the surface and one could belong to all five periods. Therefore, in region U we have skeletal elements that represent at least one adult and one subadult. Only one radiocarbon date exists from region S (GrN7009: 4200±40 BP; 2899 and 2665 cal BC, see Sangmeister & Schubart, 1981, 264; Kunst & Lutz 2011, 456). The sample of this date belongs to complex Z-971, from which the majority of the region S human remains were found. It belonged to a layer from phase 1c (Tower S, interior, southern half, layer 5 directly above the rock) which was active during the first use-phase of the site. However, later wall constructions also occurred in the area very possibly dating to the end of phase 4 or even possibly into phase 5 (Sangmeister & Schubart, 1981 217-223). The apparent mixing of materials from different archaeological layers also makes clear dating of the human remains difficult. 2.4.4. Region GH In the GH region in the southwest of the site three more isolated human bones were recovered. This first is an adult carpal bone, a capitate, and the second is a fragment of an adult long bone, likely a tibia. The third bone is a fragment of the distal end of a fibula. Again, as with the two bones recovered from region U, the relationship between these bones is not clear. However, both long bone fragments (the tibia shaft and the distal end of fibula) come from the same phase, 1a, and were found in close proximity to one another. Thus, chronologically and by their local proximity they could belong to the same individual. The carpal bone was found in cut 44, in front of entrance G and has a less certain chronology being considered either younger than period 1 or older than phase 5b. Hence, in this region we have partial remains of at least one and possibly two individuals. 2.4.2. Region RW In the RW region in the far southeastern reaches of Zambujal another cache of human remains was recovered. This group of 11 adult bone fragments includes 4 cranial fragments, 1 metatarsal shaft fragment, 1 cervical vertebra fragment, 3 radius and 2 ulna fragments. The lack of other body elements makes the origination of this deposit unclear. As region RW is situated at the southern slope of the site, it is possible that these bones may have accumulated here through sedimentary processes. 2.4.5. Region EG All of the human remains in this area appear to be from adult individuals and no duplicate skeletal elements were recovered suggesting these could all be from one adult individual. However, some questions remain concerning the relationship between these bones. For example, the ulna fragments originate from a complex that relates to the destruction of wall ht in period 1 (Sagmeister & Schubart, 1981, 205; Abb. 37; Beilage 1). The metatarsal was found in the first stone layer located 2 meters east of wall ht and 3 or 4 meters south of tower W and may also relate to wall destruction, however, the three radius fragments were found in the filling around entrance “R,” and should relate to period 3, Thus, the relationship between this assemblage of bones is unclear and it is possible that they represent more than one individual. In the EG region, located in the central east portion of Zambujal, three isolated human bones were recovered. These remains include a fragment of a rib head, a maxilla fragment with two teeth, and a complete first metacarpal. The rib, maxilla and teeth were all identified as adult skeletal elements and the degree of wear on the teeth suggests that these are from a middle-aged or older adult. The metacarpal originated from a subadult. Concerning the relationships between these fragments, the rib fragment was recovered from the filling (middle layer 6) of the barbican, and therefore, dates to phase 3b. However, the earth and stones that form this gravel fill may have been brought in from another area of the site. The subadult metacarpal was found in layer C of Tower B, which was the occupation layer of the tower, and belonged to phase 4a, but we cannot exclude any mixture with younger sediments during the tower’s destruction. The maxilla fragment belongs to the yellow layer in cut 14 at the inside of the first fortification line, which can be dated to phases between 1c and 3b. As these bones all belong to different phases and different locations it is likely that these bones originated from three different individuals. Furthermore, it is possible that they came into this region of the site in earth brought in for construction. In the case of the metacarpal, it is possible that it was the result of a violent altercation, as Zambujal had extensive fortifications and a large number of arrow heads were found around the barbican suggesting that this The four cranial fragments come from the western side of tower R and are from a yellow clay destruction layer related to period 2, 3 or 4, and the cervical vertebrae fragment was recovered to the west of the others from a layer likely related to phases 3c and 4b. Again these skeletal elements could be from a separate individual than the arm bones, but it is not possible to be certain. If all bones in RW were from one individual, it seems likely that these bones should have been deposited in a higher level of the wall between lh and h in order to end up in this configuration. Consequently, we can conclude that we find the remains of at least one, but more likely two, individuals in this region of the site. 87 Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium was the site of some armed conflicts (Uerpmann & Uerpmann, 2003, 100). some of the iliopubic ramus. Based upon morphology of these features the individual appears to have been a female who was middle-aged or older at the time of death. The dental wear on the four recovered teeth also suggests a middle-aged adult. 2.4.6. Region VX In the VX region, located in the west central portion of Zambujal, 23 human bone fragments were found representing upper limb bones, including 2 humeral fragments, two ulnar fragments, 1 metacarpal and 4 hand phalanges, lower limb bones, including 4 femoral fragments, 1 tarsal and two metatarsals, and parts of the axial skeleton, including 3 rib fragments and 1 vertebral fragment. Two isolated teeth were recovered, but no other skull or tooth fragments were found. All of these remains are from adults and no duplicate skeletal elements were recovered so at first glance it seems possible that all of these bones may belong to the same individual. However, when the positions and chronologies of the recovered remains are examined, it appears more likely that in this region we find the partial remains of several different people. For example, the fragments of femur and humerus belong to a different phase (phase 1b) than the vertebral fragment, phase (1c/ 2). A distance away, in the southern portion of the region in cut 71, another portion of the VX bones were found. These bones generally appear to relate to phase 3 a/b, although one rib fragment was recovered from sediments linked to phase 4b. The remaining bone fragments come from the northern region of VX, from cuts 46 and 39. These were recovered from both the surface and from destruction levels 1, 2 and 3, which relate to phases 4b, 4c, 4d and 5. Hence, because of the disparate spacing and chronologies, it is likely that the bones recovered in the VX region represent 3-4 different individuals. Temporally, most of the remains including the female pelvic and infant remains are from the filling of the lower entrance from phases 2 and 3, although there may have been some mixing with phase 4. A metatarsal fragment and tarsal were recovered from sediments related to phase 1 and a metacarpal fragment, a calcaneus fragment and an unidentified bone fragment were recovered from phase 5 or surface sediments. Thus, in this area it appears we have the partial remains of an infant and a middle-aged women dating to phase 2 and/or 3 from the site. It is possible that the older remains relate to additional individuals but the relationships are unclear. 2.4.8. Region KM, cut 40a From cut 40a in the KM region of Zambujal, located in the northeast region of the site, 47 fragments of human remains were recovered. All but one of these come from an adult individual and include 16 vertebral fragments (see Fig. 5 d for an example), 1 clavicle fragment, 13 cranial fragments, 1 femoral fragment, 1 humeral fragment, 1 fibular fragment, 1 patella, 2 pelvic fragments, 2 rib fragments, 4 sacral fragments, 2 tibial fragments, 1 mandibular fragment with lower left and right second incisors, and 1 isolated upper left second incisor (Fig. 6 a). For this collection of remains it was possible to refit many of the fragments of vertebrae, two of the pieces of cranium and the two pieces of tibia (which form an almost complete right tibia). Based on the morphology of the remains and the fact that there are no duplicate skeletal elements it is likely that these remains only represent one adult individual. The humerus and the other long bone remains were quite robust suggesting these came from a large individual, likely a male. In addition to these 45 adult bone fragments one subadult thoracic vertebra centrum was recovered. Thus, the remains of at least two individuals were recovered from this region, an adult (likely male) and a child. The bones recovered from Region KM cut 40a do not have a clear chronology as they were recovered in early excavations at the site and cannot be securely connected with radiocarbon dates based on wall construction and destruction. 2.4.7. Region KM, Tower L Tower L in the KM region of the site is another place where a large amount of human remains were found at Zambujal. These remains were the same ones first recorded and discussed by E. Sangmeister and H. Schubart in 1981 (Sangmeister & Schubart, 1981:116). In this area 91 fragments of human remains were recovered representing all body regions. Over half of the recovered elements (45 bones or bone fragments) were identified as infant remains. These infant remains include 14 rib fragments, 9 cranial fragments, 2 clavicle fragments (see Fig. 6 b for an example), 1 femoral fragment, right and left fibulas (nearly complete), 1 metatarsal fragment, 2 metacarpal fragments, 1 radial fragment, a compete right ulna (Fig. 6 e), a left ulnar fragment and 11 vertebral fragments (see Fig. 6 c for an example). The remaining 46 bone fragments were fully developed and appear to be from an adult individual. These include, 1 humeral fragment, 1 metacarpal fragment, 3 complete hand phalanges, 3 rib fragments, 1 vertebral fragment, 2 metatarsal fragments, 2 tarsal fragments, 1 complete foot phalanx, 5 pelvic fragments, 1 patella, 4 teeth, 4 cranial fragments and 17 unidentifiable bone fragments. One of the pelvic fragments included the pubic symphysis and 2.4.9. Region KM In the rest of the KM region, excluding cut 40a, an additional 13 fragments of human remains were recovered. These recovered fragments include both adult and subadult elements. The subadult remains consist of 5 fragments including 2 rib fragments, 1 long bone fragment likely from a femur or tibia, 1 complete hand phalange, and 1 complete unfused ilium (pelvic bone). These bones all appear to have originated from a young infant. 88 Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium Fig. 4 – Distribution of the hum uman bones over all regions of the Chalcolithic settle ttlement of Zambujal. Circles indicate largerr aand smaller caches of bones (GIS-map created byy D. D Schäffler). Fig. 5 – Distribution off the th human bones over all regions of Zambujal; color lors indicate the different phases es tto which they belong (GIS-map created by D. Schäf häffler). 89 Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium composed of cranial fragments, teeth, and arm bones. Slightly north of cut 46 in cut 40/45 more mixed subadult and adult bones are found, this time including fragments of subadult and adult humeri and subadult femora. It is not clear if these relate directly to the bones recovered from cut 46 but as they are from the same chronology and the subadult age-at-death appears similar it suggests that the bones may be from the same individuals. Consequently, when we consider the location and chronology of the bones it appears that we have human bones representing 2 children, 1 adolescent/young adult and 1 adult in this region. The remaining 8 bone fragments appear to be from an adult and originate from all regions of the body. These include 2 rib fragments, 1 vertebral fragment, a tibia shaft fragment and a humeral shaft fragment, a metacarpal fragment, an isolated lower left 3rd molar and an unidentifiable bone fragment. Ten of these bones come from Tower M. The oldest of these date to phase 1 b/c and are exclusively adult remains. The bones from complex Z-521 relate to the phase 2 and/or 3 in the occupation history of the tower and are again exclusively adult remains. The remaining bones relate to phase 4 from the filling of the tower and are exclusively subadult remains. One remaining bone is recovered from tower N and relates to phase 2a. Therefore, in the rest of the KM region partial remains from an adult and an infant were recovered. It is possible that these remains are related to those recovered from KM cut 40a, however without better chronological control this relationship is unclear. 2.4.11. Other locations. For 6 bone fragments, the provenience is unknown. These include two teeth, ulnar fragments, a rib fragment and a proximal hand phalanx. Additionally, several human bone fragments were recovered from the surface of the site including 2 cranial fragments and a radius fragment. An ulnar and a humeral shaft fragment were also recovered from the fourth line during more recent excavations. For these no clear chronology or relationship is currently discernable. 2.4.10: Region AP In the AP region in the north central area of Zambujal 50 human bone fragments have been recovered. These remains include adult and subadult elements. The 11 recovered subadult bone fragments include 2 cranial fragments, rib fragments, 2 femoral shaft fragment, a distal humerus fragment and 5 teeth. The teeth include both deciduous and permanent dentition. With the exception of one (an upper right third molar) all of the other teeth belong to a child who was between 5-10 years old at the time of death. The development of the humerus also fits this same time frame, thus, it appears that in this area there are the partial remains of an older child. The upper right third molar does not have fully developed roots which suggest this tooth came from an older adolescent or young adult. Of the recovered human remains 34 adult fragments have been identified. These include 21 cranial fragments many of which were found in close proximity and likely belong to the same individual, 2 humerus shaft fragments that refit, 3 ulna shaft fragments, 1 femur shaft fragment, a distal foot phalanx, an upper canine tooth with a broken crown and 4 unidentifiable bone fragments. Thus, in the AP region of Zambujal we have the partial remains of at least one older child and one adult. It is possible that the upper right third molar may belong to the same individual as the adult skeletal remains, suggesting that this individual may have been an older adolescent or young adult at the time of death. When we consider the chronology and find location of the bones, we find that one fragment of subadult vertebrae was recovered on its own from house P in the westernmost area of AP. This area relates to phase 3c, while the adolescent tooth, a cranial fragment, two ulnar fragments and a femoral fragment appear to all relate to the beginning or middle of phase 3 (3a/b). A foot phalanx was found near these bones but from higher destruction layer and may or may not relate to the same individuals. All of the rest of the recovered remains relate to the destruction levels of phase 4d and 5b and come from the northern part of cut 46. These include both subadult and adult skeletal elements which are mainly 2.4.12. Conclusion, Zambujal Past assessments of the minimum number of individuals (MNI) represented by the Zambujal human remains, calculated the MNI based on the total aggregate of bones recovered at the site (at the time of analysis) (Waterman 2012). These assessments provided an MNI of only 5 for Zambujal. However, when the geographic location and the chronological relationships of the finds are considered, we suggest that the MNI is much higher – in the range of 20 individuals. Nonetheless, this is not to say that we find 20 inhumations at Zambujal –quite to the contrary we find little evidence of intact burials or otherwise curated whole human bodies. Instead we find scattered adult and subadult human skeletal elements which, only occasionally, seem to be from related areas of the body or even from the same individuals. The only circumstances where it appears we may have evidence of primary burials are in region S where a large cache of bones belonging to two adults were recovered, in tower L where a large amount of remains from a middle-aged women and an infant were found, and in KM, cut 40a where bones of an adult male were unearthed. An additional primary interment is possible in region AP, but the complexity of the chronology and recovery locations make it harder to discern (Fig. 4 and 5). One of the main goals of this analysis was to attempt to understand how these human remains came to be buried at the settlement rather than in the standard burial locations in the surrounding landscape. Based upon the diverse array of contexts in which the human remains were recovered at Zambujal, it seems prudent to consider that many factors and events contributed to these distributions. As Zambujal was a heavily fortified site, and must have been the site of numerous armed conflicts, it seems likely that at least a portion of these remains 90 Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium were the results of violentt deaths and/or dismemberments. Some settlement inter terments could have occurred based upon funerary practices es which may have excluded particular classes of individ viduals from other burial locations. For example, youngg infants are rarely recovered from burial sites in the regio ion (Waterman and Thomas 2011), but one is found at Zam ambujal in the KM region. This may suggest that infa infants were more commonly interred in settlement or household ho contexts. It is not clear if the partial remains of the middle-aged female found near the infant are related ed, but it is possible that this represents a peripartum or pos ostpartum mortality event. patterns may have also contribu ibuted to these assemblages, and lastly some of these finds nds may represent intrusive burials from later time periods. s. In order to tease out these different possibilities a more fine-grained fi analysis of the human remains should be under dertaken. In order to ascertain if any of thee potential p primary settlement interments represent indiv dividuals that are somehow socially differentiated from m the rest of the population in the area, Waterman (201 012) and Waterman et al. (2014) gathered stable isotope data da from bone and tooth samples from some of the Zam mbujal individuals. Based upon comparisons of these dataa w with stable isotope data from non-settlements burials in the regions, the sampled adults ate diets that are comp mparable with other adults of this time and region, consis sisting of terrestrial protein sources and C3 plants. For the he older child from the AP region, the δ13C apatite value val was strongly divergent when compared to the rest st of o the population and could provide evidence of C4 or CAM C plant intake. As C4 plants such as millet did not beco ecome prominent in human diets and animal feed in the reg egion until the later Bronze Age it is possible that this child ild represents a later intrusive burial. Alternatively, this ap apatite enrichment could be due to diagenesis. The veryy yyoung infant from tower L exhibited enriched δ15N and δ13Cco values which are probably due to in-utero patt atterns of isotope fractionation and, thus, not necessari arily a product of dietary differentiation with regard to the infant or its mother. Also, in general, the low stand andard deviations in δ18O values suggest similar water sourrces for all of the Zambujal individuals. Based upon thee analysis a of 87Sr/86 Sr isotope ratios none of the tested d individuals from Zambujal were migrants into this regio gion. Thus, only in regard to the older child do we see dietary die patterns that may provide evidence of some differ ferential identity in relationship to burial practice. Fig. 6 – Six examples of hu human remains recovered from Zambujal, a. Adult left ft mandible fragment with in situ teeth (Z-831-45-01). b b. Subadult right clavicle fragment (Z-571-45-01). c. Subadult Su thoracic vertebra fragment (Z-572-45-23) d.. Adult A cervical vertebra fragment (Z-831-45-02). e.. Subadult S right ulna (Z485-45-02). f. Adult right distal dis end of humerus and shaft (Z-971-45-08) (photos by M. Kunst). 3. While some of the Zambujal remain ins were found in cluster with many other bones, in oth other cases only a handful were found spread across a region. We must consider other processes to explain thes ese recoveries. One strong possibility is that an occasional al bone b was brought into Zambujal with stones and earth arth moved in for construction. The stone wall fortificati cations at Zambujal required the moving in of large amou ounts of earth and stone and it is highly likely that somee of o these materials could have been recycled from older burial bu structures. In many cultures throughout time individu idual human bones, or larger portions of skeletons, hav ave been used as religious relics. It is possible at Zambuja ujal that some of the human remains were curated for re religious or other cultural reasons. Animal activity, wea eather, and erosion LECEIA Wa J. L. Cardoso – A. J. Waterman 3.1. Introduction This paper presents a synthesis sis of new and old analyses on the recovered human rema mains from the prehistoric settlement of Leceia. As no larg large scale cemetery features are associated with Leceia and nd burial places during this time are normally geogra graphically distinct from settlements, the aim of this stud tudy is to identity the special contexts in which human rema mains have been recovered from three distinct loci of thee site. In particular because the construction of, and success essive reinforcements to, the fortifications at Leceia suggest st a climate of instability and social competition in the region r across the third millennium BC, we are inte interested in assessing the 91 Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium possibility that incidents of violent conf nflict could explain the occasional finding of human remains rem inside the settlement enclosure. 3.2. Archaeological background Leceia is located on the right slope of o a steep hillside overlooking the valley of the Ribei beira de Barcarena (Oeiras), about 4 km from the Tejo ejo estuary (Fig.1). Continuous excavations of the settlem ement were carried out between 1983 and 2002, under the he direction of J. L. Cardoso (Cardoso, 1999; Cardoso, 2008 08; Cardoso, 2012). Stratigraphic records correlated with ov over 40 radiocarbon dates provide a detailed account of the he cultural sequence and the construction phases at Leceiaa which w span over a millennium (Fig. 7).The earliest hum man occupation at Leceia dates back to the late Neolithicc (s (second half of the 3rd Millennium BC). This occupationn w was followed by a short period of abandonment, lasting ng as long as one hundred and fifty years. Then, in the he beginning of the Early Chalcolithic (2900/2800 to 2600 00/2500 years BC), human occupation resumed and imp imposing defensive structures were erected, in the form off th three semi-circular lines of ramparts and bastions. Th These fortifications supplemented the existing natural def defenses at Leceia, which consisted of two Cretaceous era limestone cliffs overlooking the valley (Fig. 8). The defensive de structures were continually refurbished and reinfor forced over the next 300 years, until approximately the he middle of the millennium, suggesting that social instab stability and conflict were serious concerns for the communit nity which occupied this landscape. Around the middle dle of the third millennium BC, during the beginni nning of the Full Chalcolithic, the building of these def defensive structures stopped and the archaeological reco cord suggests that populations were declining in the pre reviously defended occupied area. By the end of the Ch Chalcolithic, which coincides with the last quarter of the he third millennium BC, Leceia had been abandoned. Fig. 7–Table of cultural and nd construction phases at Leceia and their correlation nw with the stratigraphy and absolute chronology (table created cre by J.L. Cardoso) 3.3. Materials and Methods The human remains examined in this is study come from three distinct locations, two located w within the walled area, Locus 1 (a closed circular structu cture) and Locus 2 (exterior wall of a bastion); the other, Locus L 3, is a small burial cave located on the escarpmentt tthat delineates the eastern side of the site (Fig. 8). Forr loci 1 and 3 the human remains had been previously published pu (Cardoso, Cunha & Aguiar, 1991). In this study udy human remains from Locus 2 were examined for thee first f time and the results integrated with the published findings. fin For Locus 2 skeletal and dental materials were ide identified by criteria outlined in standard osteological textss (B (Baker et al. 2005; Scheuer and Black 2000; White 2000). ). D Duplicate skeletal elements, age-at-death estimations, ns, and skeletal morphology were used to identify dis distinct individuals. Instances of pathology were evaluatedd oon the skeletal and dental remains based on Ortner and d Putschar (1981), Hillson (1996; 2005) and Buikstra andd U Ubelaker (1994). Fig. 8 – Aerial photograp aph of Leceia, and the corresponding plan of the eexcavated area, with the locations of the finds mentione oned in the text. 92 Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium occupation of the site, was that th these three individuals were part of an attacking group oup and after being captured and killed, they were disposedd oof in the circular structure, as trash. However, AMS radio diocarbon dating completed on four human bone fragments nts from Locus 1, made by initiative of one of us (J.L.C. .C.) reveal that all of these remains came from a slightly y later l time (Middle Bronze Age). Thus, we suggest tha hat these remains do not represent an episode of conflic flict, but rather the reuse of this Chalcolithic structure durin ring the Bronze Age, when the site was already completely ely abandoned. The reuse of this closed circular structure may m have been in the form of a collective grave site for or primary burials, or more likely, given the state of mixing, mi fragmentation and disconnection evidenced by the bones and the absence of grave goods, as a secondaryy bburial space used for the disposal of human remains ins from other locations. Therefore, although archaeolog logical evidence of Bronze Age occupations at Leceia is lacking, it appears likely that these Chalcolithic fortifi tifications continued to be sporadically visited and usedd over the years by small groups of people. In fact, suchh rreuse has been observed in other large fortified settlements nts in the Extremadura, such as Vila Nova de São Pedro, ro, Azambuja, where many artifacts from the Bronze Age ge were collected (Soares, 2008). 3.4 Results and Discussion 3.4.1 – Locus 1. Closed circular struucture Based upon the data published in Ca Cardoso, Cunha & Aguiar (1991), 36 human bones, bon one fragments, and dental remains were found inside a closed circular structure excavated in 1988, situated in the area adjacent to one of the passages in the second line lin of defense. As indicated by the mixed faunal remainss aand archaeological materials, in the final phase of occup cupation at Leceia, during the Full Chalcolithic, this struc ructure was used as trash pit (Fig. 9). Mixed in with the debr ebris in this location were the human skeletal remains. All ll of these remains were portions of the axial skeleton cons nsisting of 18 teeth, 1 mandibular fragment, 1 vertebrall fragment f and 16 cranial fragments. The previous published analysis of thee te teeth indicates that these remains are from at least three ind individuals, all adult males who likely were in their mid-thir hirties at the time of death. On the teeth of at least two off these t adult males, dental enamel hypoplasias were noted no which may indicate a period of childhood illness or stress. A carious lesion was also noted on the tooth of one of the adults. The AMS radiocarbon resultss obtained o are as follows: Individual Age-at-death B Biological sex Adult 1 30-40 years old Male Adult 2 30-40 years old Male Adult 3 30-40 years old Male 1 – Fragment of a cranium (calotte) (ca Wk – 34420 – 3236 +/- 26 BP, P, 1606-1574 cal BC (7,9%); 1538-1436 cal BC (86,5%) 2 – Fragment of a cranium (distinct (d individual from 1) (calotte) (Cardoso, Cunha andd A Aguiar, 1991, Est. 1, n.º 1) Wk – 36309 – 3201 +/- 25 BP, P, 1516-1426 1 cal BC (2 σ) Table 1. Individuals identified fied in Locus 1 3 – Mandibular fragment (Ca Cardoso, Cunha and Aguiar, 1991, Est. 1, n.º 2) Wk – 36307 – 3217 +/- 25 BP, P, 1527-1431 1 cal BC (2 σ) 4 – Maxillary fragment (Car ardoso, Cunha and Aguiar, 1991, p. 30, n.º 5) Wk – 36306 – 3207 +/- 25 BP, P, 1520-1428 1 cal BC (2 σ). 3.4.2. Locus 2. Exterior wall all of a bastion Human remains were also fou ound at one of the existing bastions of the first defensive ve line (Fig. 8), the Bastion EQ (Fig. 10). The 41 bone fragments frag represent all body regions – upper limb, lower limb, lim and the axial skeleton including the skull – and were recovered from a circumscribed area suggesting ng a primary interment. No duplicate skeletal elements or skeletal landmarks were identified that would sugge gest an assemblage from multiple individuals and no pathologies pa were identified on any of the bones. While inn ssome cases it was possible to refit multiple bone fragm gments, the only complete skeletal elements consist of a ppatella and a hand phalanx. Additionally, although all body ody regions are present, the Fig. 9 – Locus 1 in Leceia, silo laterr used u as trash pit (photo by J.L.Cardoso). As the individuals from which these se bones originated were not given the typical funeral treatm atments of this time period and region, in the past we hav have suggested that these individuals were not native inha habitants (Cardoso, Cunha and Aguiar, 1991). One possibl ible explanation for these remains, if they were from the Chalcolithic 93 Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium recovered skeletal elements represent only a small number of the total bones present in the human body, small bones, such as carpals and tarsals are noticeably absent and only one phalanx is found in the assemblage suggesting a high level of disturbance of the remains. While many of the skeletal elements, in particular a partial tibia, appear adult-size and rather robust in comparison with other skeletons of Chalcolithic populations in this region, proximal and distal ends of the recovered tibia remain unfused, as do the proximal end of the humerus, the femoral condyles and the proximal epiphyses of the recovered hand phalanx. Additionally, the two recovered premolars exhibit no wear. Thus, it is clear that these human remains represent a subadult. The distal epiphyses of the femur and proximal and distal ends of the tibia fuse in late adolescence between the ages of 16 and 20 years-old. Considering the size and robusticity of many of the recovered lower leg bone fragments, it seems likely that these skeletal remains belonged to a male individual who died during late adolescence. de S. Pedro), it has generally not been possible to identify directly associated primary or secondary burial grounds. Instead, only small collective burials (primary or secondary depositions) in the surrounding regions are known. Thus, the situation at Leceia is an exception. The AMS radiocarbon result obtained is as follows: In contrast with the human remains found in the other areas of the site, the distribution of age and sex of this set of individuals is more compatible with the characteristics of typical prehistoric burial populations in the area. Recovered remains from all regions of the body – including the upper and lower limbs and the axial skeleton –are present. However there is a distinct absence of vertebral and cranial remains, although 3 mandibles were recovered. This suggests that this cave may contain secondary burial deposits. Based upon the previous analyses (Cardoso, Cunha & Aguiar, 1991), there are a minimum of 5 individuals represented by these skeletal elements including two young adults (1 male and 1 female), 1 adolescent and 2 young children. Five isolated teeth belonging to at least 1 subadult exhibited hypoplasic defects suggesting childhood illness or malnutrition. Adolescent 1 16-20 years old Biological sex Adult 4 Adult <35 years old Female Adult 5 Adult <35 years old Male Adolescent 2 16-20 years old Unknown Child 1 4-6 years old Child 2 5-7 years old The radiocarbon result obtained based upon a set of human bones is as follows: ICEN-737 – 3920 +/- 70 BP, 2580-2190 cal BC (2 σ) As the community living in and around Leceia during the Chalcolithic were normally buried in properly prepared collective burial spaces in the surrounding landscape, the discovery of an isolated individual interred at the base of the outer wall of one of the bastions built to defend the site, could be explained as a deliberate offensive act which resulted in this individual’s death and possible abandonment at the location of his demise. In contrast to the remains from Locus 1, an AMS date obtained on a human rib from Locus 2 show that the individual was contemporaneous with the last Chalcolithic occupation of the site, bolstering the theory that this could represent someone who perished during an episode of conflict. However, according to the site’s stratigraphic record, the defensive complex had been abandoned at that time. Therefore, this occurrence may simply represent an accidently death and burial event. Age-at-death Age-at-death Table 3 – Locus 3 Wk – 34421 – 3681+/- 26 BP, 2142-1977 cal BC (2 σ) Individual Individual 3.5. Conclusion The human remains collected in Leceia probably show three distinct situations: A. Locus 3, a small natural cave in the limestone escarpment bordering the east side of the settlement, contains the largest interment of human remains representing a minimum of five individuals. The demographic configuration of this burial grouping is compatible with the existing pattern of mortality of the Chalcolithic time period. These remains appear to represent a secondary burial during the later occupation of the site as the human bones were disarticulated, mixed with ash and ceramic vessels, and missing certain skeletal components. This suggests that funerary rituals during this time were likely complex and that there may have been another primary funerary space where the bodies were first deposited. Biological sex Male Table 2 – Locus 2 3.4.3 – Locus 3. Small cave in the escarpment The largest cache of human remains recovered at Leceia were found in a small natural cave excavated by Carlos Ribeiro (Ribeiro, 1878), situated in the bottom of the natural escarpment delineating the eastern side of the settlement. These remains also correspond to the end of Leceia’s occupation and represent a secondary burial deposit with remains from some of these late prehistoric villagers. In two other important Chalcolithic fortified settlements in the Estremadura (Zambujal and Vila Nova B. In Locus 1, a closed circular structure within the settlement, the next largest deposit of human remains was 94 Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium recovered. These remains represent a minimum m of three individuals, all likely adult males. Give ven the fact that the skeletal remains are fragmented and inc incomplete, and that they were recovered from a possible silo si which appears to have been later used as a trash pit, an initial theory was that the remains belonged to a grou oup of community outsiders who may have taken part par in aggressive activities directed at the community ooccupying Leceia. Such an event would have explai lained why these individuals did not receive typical fun funerary treatments and were instead buried in a trash pit pit. However AMS radiocarbon dates disproved this theor eory, revealing that these individuals are not reflective ve of Chalcolithic conflict and unrest as they date to the M Middle Bronze Age – providing evidence of the later reusee oof the site. events cannot explain the majo ajority of the human burials at the settlement. AN LECEIA 4. CONCLUSION: ZAMBUJAL AND In this paper, human skele eletal remains from two prominent settlement sites in n the t Estremadura region of Portugal (Leceia and Zambujal jal) were examined in order to investigate how settlemen ent burials may relate to individual identity, and/or temp mporal and spatial aspects of community life. Our findings gs have been that, at both Zambujal and Leceia, the cont ontexts in which the human remains are recovered aree diverse and cannot be explained by one process oor type of event. The complexity of mortuary and funerary fu practices of the 4th rd and 3 millennia BC, with ith a particular focus on settlements burials, is, at thee m moment, one of the main questions of Neolithic/Chalc alcolithic archaeology in Portugal (Jorge 1999:88-93) and an Spain (Barroso et al. in print; Cruz- Auñón & Mejías ías, 2013: 186-190; García Sanjuán & Díaz-Zorita, 2013;; Gómez G Pérez et al. 2011). Similar investigations are aalso occurring in other European countries, for exam ample in Germany, where recent excavations in the epon onymous settlement site of the late Neolithic so called “Culture “Cu of Salzmünde” (ca. 3400-3050 BC), Salzmünde, e, 7 km west of Halle (Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany) sho show very complex funerary practices (Friedrich 2013, Stec techer et al. 2013; Meyer et al. 2013; Schlenker & Stecher er 2013) which are forcing researchers to reassess standa dard ideas about Neolithic burial traditions. C. The human remains from Loc ocus 2 have been attributed to a minimum of one individ vidual. The remains of this juvenile male of stocky build (16-18 (1 years), were found at the base of the outer wall off on one of the bastions of the most advanced defensive line and an could represent someone who perished during an epi episode of conflict. However, AMS dates and the stratigraphic stra record suggests that these bones may equally ly be attributable to the last period occupation of the sett settlement and may represent an accidently death and bu burial event as the previous defensive structures had beenn aabandoned by this time in the settlement’s history. These new findings suggest st that perhaps the human skeletal remains recovered from fro Neolithic/Chalcolithic settlements could provide evide idence of multistage funerary practices (see Schwarz 2013). ). Similar occurrences have been noted in Portuguese bur urials in the cave sites of Ribatejo (Oosterbeek, 1997)) and, a for example, in the tholos of Praia das Maçãs (Lei eisner et al., 1969:94). The complexity of multistage fun unerary practices has been discussed in detail by R.. M Meyer-Orlac in Hallstatt contexts (Meyer-Orlac 1982:12 123-143). In the region of Zambujal wee hhave, on the one hand, the nearby (2km) burial site of Bolo olores, where it appears that, at times, primary interments of whole bodies occurred – as articulated skeletal elements nts are recovered. However, disarticulated and commingled ed remains are also found at this site. Based on the examples les of Locus 3 of Leceia, the cave sites of the Ribatejo, thee tholos t of Praia das Maçãs, and the human remains at Castelo Ca Velho de Freixo de Numão (Jorge 1999, 88-93), 3), we cannot exclude the possibility that multistage buria rials occurred at burials sites like Bolores, wherein thee deceased, after ritual ceremonies in settlements likee Leceia and Zambujal, and perhaps after the decompositio ition of some portion of the bodies, were deposited in separa arate burial places. At times, settlement interments may have ha occurred based upon cultural practices that exclud uded particular individuals from secondary burial in othe her locations. For example, Fig. 10 – View from outside the Basti stion EQ at Leceia (photo by J.L.Cardoso) In sum, a synthesis of new and old analy alyses on the human remains recovered from Leceia provides des evidence that the limited number of burials at the settlement set occurred under a diverse set of conditions. On One set appears to originate from standard burial practice tices, while another provides evidence of the later reuse off tthe site. The third, a single interment, suggests a deathh caused by either violent conflict or an accident, either inc incident resulting in an anomalous burial event. While one o goal of this investigation was to assess the possibili ility that settlement burials were commonly the result of societal so conflict, as the threat of continued external aggres ression is suggested by intensive fortifications constructed aat Leceia, with the exception of the young male burial in Locus Lo 2, aggressive 95 Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium perhaps some infants, such as the one found at Zambujal, were only buried in settlements. It is possible that other socially differentiation groups, such as foreigners, may have also experienced differential burial practices. However, in order to gather data on the life histories of the people whose remains are recovered from settlements, further bioanthropological analyses are required. Other explanations may be needed to take into account the isolated findings of human remains at settlements like Leceia and Zambujal, such as the keeping of human remains in settlements as relics or for apotropaic reasons, or as possible ritual demonstrations of power wherein skulls or other parts of deceased enemies or criminals are displayed. Some recovered human remains may simply reflect the reuse of settlement structures for later burials, like perhaps in Locus 1 and 2 of Leceia, or the transportation of human bones into settlements with rocks and soils brought in for construction projects, such as in the barbican in Region EG at Zambujal. Erosion patterns, and the activities of burrowing or scavenging animals may have also played a role in deposition of human remains at these sites, however, more detailed analyses of the individual caches of recovered human remains are needed to provide clearer insight into these depositional events. In sum, it appears that, in the cases of Leceia and Zambujal, the finds of human remains at these Chalcolithic settlement sites are likely due to multiple anthropogenic processes and that burial practices in these communities were more complicated than previously thought. Further research into these collections of human remains and the contexts in which they were recovered will help to clarify our understanding of funerary practices in late Prehistoric Portugal. Concepción, Sevilla). Resultados preliminares de una excavación de urgencia. Anuario Arqueológico de Andalucía 1995, Actividades de Urgencia, Informes y Memorias. Sevilla. pp. 589-599. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: CARDOSO, J. L. (2002) – Pré-História de Portugal Lisboa: Verbo. BAKER, B.J.; DUPRAS, T.K. AND TOCHERI, M.W. (2005) – The Osteology of Infants and Children. Texas A&M University Press. College Station, Texas. BARROSO, R.; BUENO, P.; DE BALBÍN, R.; VÁZQUEZ, A. AND GONZÁLEZ, A. (in print) – Nekropolen des 3. Jahrtausends v. Chr. aus dem Zentrum der Iberischen Halbinsel. Madrider Mitteilungen. BLASCO, C.; LIESAU, C.; RÍOS, P.; BLANCO, J. F.; ALIAGA, R.; MORENO, E. AND DAZA, A. (2009) – Kupferzeitliche Siedlungsbestattungen mit Glockenbecher- und Prestigebeigaben aus dem Grabenwerk von El Camino de las Yeseras (San Fernando de Henares, Prov. Madrid). Untersuchungen zur Typologie des Grabritus und zu dessen sozialer Symbolik. Madrider Mitteilungen. Mainz. pp. 50: 40-70. BUIKSTRA, J. AND UBELAKER, D. (EDS.). (1994) – Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains: Proceedings of a Seminar at the Field Museum of Natural History. Arkansas Archeological Survey. Fayetteville. CARDOSO, J. L. (2000) – The fortified site of Leceia (Oeiras) in the context of the Chalcolithic in Portuguese Estremadura. Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 19 (1). pp. 37-55. We would like to thank Dr. Isaltimo Morais, mayor of the Oeiras Municipality, for his support to one of us (J.L.C.) during the excavation campaigns at Leceia and for the publication of results, including newly completed AMS radiocarbon dates. We would also like to thank Guida Casella and Doris Schäffler for their assistance (and quick turnaround) with many of the Zambujal figures. Additionally, we would like to thank the president of the Câmara Municipal de Torres Vedras, Dr. Carlos Miguel, for his support of the Zambujal and Sizandro-Alcabrichel projects and the excellent staff of the Museu Municipial de Torres Vedras for their ongoing assistance with the curation of the Zambujal collection. CARDOSO, J. L. (2008) – The Chalcolithic fortified site of Leceia (Oeiras, Portugal). Verdolay. Murcia. No. 11. pp. 49-66. CARDOSO, J. L. (2011) – The prehistoric settlement of Leceia (Oeiras, Portugal). Results of the excavations of 1983-2002. Supplement to the Archaeological Journal. 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Portugal (Archaeology)NeolithicChalcolithicSettlement burialsHuman Skeletal RemainsZambujalLeceia