Kushite Lecture CCICS 112010

Between the Cataracts, 2010

In this paper, I interprete the C-Group people’s response to the shifting political climate during the Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate Period with special reference to the shifting relationships to Kush in Upper Nubia and the Theban dynasty in Upper Egypt. Furthermore, I clarify two common misunderstandings of the relationship between the C-Group people and their neighbors: 1) that the trade between the Egyptians and the C-Group people ceased during the Middle Kingdom, and 2) that the Kushites occupied Lower Nubia during the Second Intermediate Period.

The Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1996

2015

The thesis concerns war on the southern frontier of the emerging state of ancient Egypt, and I have studied the native A-Group people in Lower Nubia during the 4 th millennium BCE through a warfare perspective. The aim was to uncover different causes for war, changing patterns of warfare and social effects of violence.

This paper aims to define the socio-economic order of the A-Group in Lower Nubia. The nature of this group has been discussed by several researchers using regional archeological data, but no agreement has been reached. Different interpretations are partly the product of diverse definitions of sedentism and nomadism, and of models commonly used to explain the socio-economical character of A-Group communities. These concepts are often loosely applied without clear definition and evidence supporting the models is often lacking. For this reason, the paper begins by defining concepts such as nomadic pastoralism and sedentism, which are central to this investigation. The approach of different ethno-archaeological papers is also a fundamental methodological tool for the paper. After considering theoretical and methodological tools and the study of archaeological material belonging to the A-Group, the paper postulates that this group could have organized itself as a semi-sedentary community, which exploited diverse ecological niches in Lower Nubia.

The burials are characterized by circular or oval burial shafts, with the body placed on mats or fur in a contracted position on the right side. The bodies were oriented either absolutely north-south with the head in the north facing west, or in an east-west orientation with the head in the west looking south.16 The deceased often wore adornments like elaborate beadwork, Nerita snail shells, and rectangular shell strip bracelets (called spacers in archaeological literature).17 Superstructures were usually a simple arrangement of large stones in a circle.18 Offerings are frequently found in pits surrounding the superstructure, and amongst the most common offerings (aside from pottery) are animal bucrania Intros for the following Chapters Below! Chapter 2 discusses how people, cultures, and ethnic identity have been conceptualized by archaeologists and historians, documenting the transition from the cultural historical approach to the modern understanding that identities are actively created, negotiated, and subscribed to through social practices that take many forms. Similarly, issues in the study of gender in the archaeological record are considered. Within this wider academic debate, the process of Egyptianization as understood by scholars will be contextualized, and ultimately the model of cultural entanglement proposed as a viable method of describing the burial record in Lower Nubia during the New Kingdom. discusses the importance of studying not only Egyptianized cemeteries, but also cemeteries dating to the 18th dynasty which do not show signs of acculturation. Termed “Transitional Cemeteries” by their excavators, it is proposed these should be renamed as simple “New Kingdom Nubian Cemeteries,” and are indicators that acculturation to Egyptian norms was just one possible path Nubian groups could take in response to the Egyptian occupation. Chapter 3 reviews recent developments in anthropological and archaeological theory in mortuary studies, particularly the study of inequality in the burial record. The theoretical justifications for mortuary analysis are explored and responses to critiques are discussed. Methodological criticisms are also debated, as well as some possible ways for overcoming them. Lastly, previous mortuary studies for Egypt and Nubia are reviewed, noting the differences between the plethora of Predynastic Egyptian studies and the far fewer studies of Dynastic Egyptian cemeteries or Nubian cemeteries. In particular, the work of Janet Richards is extensively discussed and several of her techniques are subsequently used in the analysis described in Chapter 5. Chapter 4 discusses the history of excavations in Lower Nubia and how this impacts the consideration of the archaeological material, particularly the UNESCO salvage campaign. The SJE and OINE concessions, excavations, and publications are extensively discussed and critiqued. As the two excavations used different categorization methods and ceramic typologies, a new system is developed to catalog finds. The chronological phasing of the cemeteries by their excavators is discussed, and adaptations are proposed based on new information about ceramic trends in the 18th dynasty published since the original excavation publications. An argument is made for re-dating the tombs, and the implications of reevaluating the dates of the tombs of Fadrus (Site 185) is discussed. This chapter also discusses the importance of studying not only Egyptianized cemeteries, but also cemeteries dating to the 18th dynasty which do not show signs of acculturation. Termed “Transitional Cemeteries” by their excavators, it is proposed these should be renamed as simple “New Kingdom Nubian Cemeteries,” and are indicators that acculturation to Egyptian norms was just one possible path Nubian groups could take in response to the Egyptian occupation. Chapter 5 is the results of a statistical analysis of the cemeteries, which follows three main lines of investigation – changes in socioeconomic status over time, the effects of age and gender on burials, and evidence of cultural entanglement in the burial record. Analysis indicates that socioeconomic status appears relatively stable over time in Pharaonic (Egyptianized) cemeteries, with few burials that can be confirmed as certainly belonging to the late 18th dynasty. A study of socioeconomic status finds that age has an effect on burials in the Pharaonic cemeteries, with child burials demonstrating notably poorer wealth, while older adults are less likely to be buried without grave goods. Amongst the New Kingdom Nubian cemeteries, child burials follow a similar pattern, but with few older adults preserved no conclusions can be made regarding changes in status amongst adults of different ages. In both populations, there appears to be no difference in treatment between male and female adults, suggesting that socioeconomic status played more of a role in burial treatment than biological sex. Lastly, evidence of cultural entanglement is sought by looking for “Nubian” and “Egyptian” burial traits in the data set, as well as evidence of entangled objects. While there was clear evidence of significant adoption of Egyptian burial practices in the Pharaonic cemeteries, it appears that Egyptianization was fairly superficial as a significant amount of burials were abnormal in some key way, such as body position or the orientation of the head. A possible correlation between socioeconomic status and Nubian burial traits is suggested as well. Within the Nubian sites, trends were found in the use of Egyptian objects versus traditionally Nubian ones, suggesting possible economic reasons for the replacement of Nubian ceramics with Egyptian pottery. Chapter 6 concludes the dissertation with a discussion of the processes of Egyptianization in light of the analysis of Chapter 5. It argues for some populations in the region of Tekhet to have adopted Egyptian customs during the Second Intermediate Period as means of facilitating control of trade passing through their region. The reasons for the abandonment of the region at the end of the 18th dynasty are also evaluated. Changes to the economic system, in particular the increasing numbers of specialized craftsmen at the larger Egyptian settlements, are suggested to have been the primary reason for the depopulation of the region. Lastly, avenues for further research are proposed.

Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia, 2021

The cultures of Nubia built the earliest cities, states, and empires of inner Africa, but they remain relatively poorly known outside their modern descendants and the com-munity of archaeologists, historians, and art historians researching them. e earliest archaeological work in Nubia was motivated by its role as neighbor, trade partner, and enemy of ancient Egypt. Increasingly, however, ancient Nile-based Nubian cultures are recognized in their own right as the earliest complex societies in inner Africa. As agro-pastoral cultures, Nubian settlement, economy, political organization, and religious ideologies were organized differently from those of the urban, bureaucratic, and overwhelmingly agricultural states of Egypt and the ancient Middle East. Nubian societies are thus of great interest in comparative study, and are also recognized for their broader impact on histories of the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East, as well as of neighboring areas. Although the archaeology and history of Nubia remains incompletely known, the pace of research on Nubia has increased significantly in the last fifteen years. It is partly because of new dam construction and resulting salvage excavation, partly because other areas of the Middle East and North Africa have become less accessible to research, and partly because of generous funding from the Qatar-Sudan Archaeological Project for about forty archaeological projects in Sudan from 2014 to 2020. The most recent survey of ancient and medieval Nubia—David Edwards’s The Nubian Past (2004)—remains a thought-provoking and insightful overview, but does not take account of more recent research. This volume therefore gathers new research and analytical perspectives on these cultures in the hope that it will make them more accessible to scholars and the broader public. Edited by Emberling and Williams

N. Spencer and A. Stevens (eds.), The New Kingdom in Nubia: Lived experience, pharaonic control and indigenous traditions, British Museum Publications on Egypt and Sudan no. 3, Leuven 2017: Peeters, 2017

This paper deals with the finds of Nubian pottery within the stratigraphy of Tell el-Dab‘a/Avaris. This material seems to originate from Nubians who lived at this site because the open containers were not suitable for sending commodities. Some of the pottery was most probably produced locally. These Nubians were probably traders or mercenaries. They originated from several Nubian cultures. Before and after the Hyksos Period material of the Kerma Culture was involved. During the Hyksos Period, there is no save evidence for the presence of Kerma people. The ceramic remains seem to be distantly related to the Pan-Grave Culture but lack the typical Pan-Grave forms. In the New Kingdom, the pottery displays mainly Kerma beakers and Kerma cooking pots besides other incised wares. Our theory is that after the destruction of the Kingdom of Kush, Kerma people were recruited as soldiers and sent to the other extreme part of Egypt to be ready for the envisaged campaigns in the Near East.

Choice Reviews Online, 2007

Krzysztof Grzymski After briefly catching the world's attention during the 1960s, when an international archaeological salvage campaign was carried out between Aswan in Egypt and Wadi Halfa in the Sudan, Nubia returned to its quiet, almost anonymous existence. It took a while to realize that south of the man-made Lake Nasser (as it is called in Egypt) or Lake Nubia (as it is known to the Sudanese) lies an archaeological promised land. Despite the fact that entire buried cities were to be discovered on the banks of the Middle Nile, very few archaeologists decided to explore the sites of Upper Nubia and Central Sudan. The logistical difficulties of mounting an archaeological excavation in the backcountry of the Sudan meant that only the most intrepid scholars undertook the challenge, among them a Swiss archaeologist, Charles Bonnet. He led the team from the University of Geneva that in 1973 began excavating the remains of the city of Kerma. The site, located south of the Third Cataract of the Nile, had previously been explored from 1913 to 1916 by Reisner's Boston expedition. Reisner worked mainly in the cemeteries, excavating enormous tumuli of the chiefs of Kerma. The Swiss mission concentrated its activity in the urban area near a large mudbrick structure known as the Western Deffufa. The patient and diligent work of Bonnet and his colleagues unearthed the foundations of numerous houses, workshops, and palaces, proving that as early as 2000 B.C.E. Kerma was a large urban center, presumably the capital city and a burial ground of the kings of Kush (Egyptian name for the Kerma Kingdom). Egyptians must have seen Kush as a formidable enemy, considering the size and number of fortresses erected near the Second Cataract by the Middle Kingdom pharaohs. Eventually, ca. 1550 B.C.E. the Egyptians finally invaded their southern neighbor, destroying Kerma and extending their control of the Nile Valley all the way to the Fourth Cataract. Bonnet has spent his life excavating the remains of the Kerma civilization, with remarkable results. Field reports were regularly published in Genava, and two volumes of final reports have already appeared. In 1990, he organized an exhibition on ancient Kerma in Geneva's Musée d'Art et d'Histoire. The first chapter of this elegantly published book gives an extensive outline of the history of the site from the Neolithic to the Meroitic periods based on the results of three decades of work. Yet the most dramatic discovery made by Bonnet, and the main subject of the book under review, did not belong to the Kerma culture. It was of a much later date and was the result of a side project on the Egyptian New Kingdom (ca. 1550-1080 B.C.E.) and the native Napatan-Meroitic (ca. 800 B.C.E.-350 C.E.) remains found at a place called Doukki Gel (a Nubian term meaning the "red mound") on the outskirts of modern Kerma. Some of this research was carried out by a Sudanese member of the Swiss team, Salah Mohammed Ahmed, who presented the first major overview of the excavations at the Meroitic temple of Doukki Gel at the Nubiology Congress held in Boston (T. Kendall, ed., Nubian Studies 1998 [Boston 2004], which should be added to the summary bibliography in Bonnet and Valbelle's book). It soon became apparent that the history of the Doukki Gel temple could be traced back to the Napatan and the New Kingdom periods. It is fortunate that shortly before the discovery of those Egyptian New Kingdom remains, the Swiss team was joined by an Egyptologist, Dominique Valbelle, coauthor of the book and responsible for the epigraphic aspects of the project. The discovery of the Doukki Gel temples and the identification of the place as ancient Pnubs is the subject of the second chapter. The original temple dedicated to Amun of Pnubs was founded by Thutmose III but destroyed in the later years of Akhenaten when the site was transformed to the worship of Aten. Nineteenth Dynasty kings then rebuilt the Amun temple. The native Nubian kings who ruled Egypt as the 25th Dynasty rebuilt the temple again, as did their Napatan successors. It was