THE INFLUENCE OF FINANCIAL INCENTIVE ON TEACHER
MOTIVATION AND LEARNER PERFORMANCE IN
RURAL NAMIBIAN SCHOOLS
by
ELOCK EMVULA SHIKALEPO
submitted in accordance with the requirements for the
degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in the subject
Education
at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
SUPERVISOR: PROF. H.M. VAN DER MERWE
18 January 2018
i
DECLARATION
Name:
ELOCK EMVULA SHIKALEPO
Student Number:
57262357
Degree:
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
THE INFLUENCE OF FINANCIAL INCENTIVE ON TEACHER MOTIVATION AND
LEARNER PERFORMANCE IN RURAL NAMIBIAN SCHOOLS
I declare that the above thesis is my own work and that all the sources that I have
used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete
references.
18 January 2018
DATE
SIGNATURE
ii
DEDICATION
This doctoral research report is dedicated to my late parents, my father Erastus
Shikalepo, and mother, Elizabeth Aluteni. I will always remain grateful to them for
having given life to me, and for mentorship and guidance throughout my educational
journey that capacitated me to develop myself to the doctoral level of education.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my since appreciation to all the people who have contributed
immensely to the successful completion of this research project.
I am grateful to my supervisor, Prof H.M. van der Merwe, for her scholarly and expert
advice as provided through guidance and supervision from the onset of this project to
its logical conclusion. Her keen interest in the research and the motivation she
provided to me during the course of the project were the driving forces underlying this
successful completion.
I remain grateful to the Directorate of Education in Omusati Region for allowing me to
conduct the empirical investigation in the region. A vote of appreciation goes to all the
participants whose contribution has made this publication possible.
I am equally grateful to my family, friends and colleagues for their patience and moral
support they provided throughout the project.
iv
ABSTRACT
One of the challenges facing education systems worldwide is the motivation of
qualified teachers to teach at rural schools. Teaching at rural schools is a challenge
as rural areas are characterised by adverse living and working conditions, making
qualified teachers prefer living and working at urban schools where conditions are
more comfortable. Namibia implemented the financial incentive to motivate qualified
teachers to teach at rural schools and improve learner performance. The
implementation of the financial incentive in Namibia has received little research
attention in establishing its effectiveness.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the financial incentive
on the performance of learners at rural schools, as this performance relates to teacher
motivation. To achieve this, a literature study and an empirical investigation were
conducted. An interpretivist research paradigm informed the methodology for the
study. A mixed-methods research approach, which relied more on a qualitative
research design, included a research sample of 28 teachers, five school principals and
two education officials. Data were collected through interviews and document analysis.
Individual interviews were conducted with education officials and school principals.
Focus group interviews were conducted with teachers. Document analysis entailed
accessing applicable documents of each research site in the office of the school
principal. Textual data were analysed and presented thematically and numeric data
were analysed and presented as frequencies and percentages.
Key findings established that financial incentive has contributed little to the
performance of learners in rural schools. The fact that rural schools are not properly
categorised according to environmental challenges results in teachers not receiving
realistic financial incentive. Teachers were therefore not motivated by financial
incentive, but by other factors relating to being tuned to nature in rural areas, being
exposed to lower living costs and enjoying accommodating school leadership and
community care. A revisiting of the implementation of the financial incentive is
recommended in order to negate shortcomings and enhance the potential of financial
incentive to contribute to improved learner performance as steered by motivated
teachers.
v
KEY CONCEPTS
Financial incentive
Good teacher
Influence
Learner performance
Learning
Motivation
Optimal learning
Rural areas
Rural schools
Teacher motivation
Teaching
vi
ABBREVIATIONS
CTA
:
Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation
EFA
:
Education for All
ERG
:
Existence, Relatedness and Growth
GRN
:
Government of the Republic of Namibia
IFAD
:
International Fund for Agricultural Development
MoEAC :
Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture
NANTU :
Namibia National Teachers Union
NCTAF :
National Commission on Teaching & America's Future
PDP
:
Personal Development Plan
SWOT
:
Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats
TRACES :
Transformative Research Activities Cultural diversities and
Education in Science
UNICEF :
United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund
VSO
Voluntary Service Overseas
:
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
ORIENTATION
1.1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY.................................................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Motivation theories and teacher motivation ............................................................................ 3
1.2.1.1 Theoretical frameworks underlying employees’ motivation .............................................. 3
1.2.1.2 Teacher recruitment and motivation.................................................................................. 5
1.2.2 Teaching and learning at rural schools .................................................................................... 10
1.3
MOTIVATION FOR STUDY ......................................................................................................... 12
1.4
PROBLEM STATEMENT ............................................................................................................. 13
1.5
AIMS OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................................. 13
1.6
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 14
1.6.1 Research paradigm and research approach ............................................................................ 14
1.6.2 Research sites and participants ............................................................................................... 16
1.6.3 Data collection ......................................................................................................................... 17
1.6.3.1 Interviews.......................................................................................................................... 17
1.6.3.2 Document analysis ............................................................................................................ 19
1.6.4 Data analysis ............................................................................................................................ 19
1.6.5 Trustworthiness of research findings ...................................................................................... 21
1.6.6 Ethical considerations .............................................................................................................. 23
1.7
DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY................................................................................................ 24
1.8
CONCEPT CLARIFICATION......................................................................................................... 24
1.8.1 Influence .................................................................................................................................. 25
1.8.2 Financial incentive ................................................................................................................... 25
1.8.3 Teacher motivation .................................................................................................................. 25
1.8.4 Learner performance ............................................................................................................... 25
1.8.5 Rural schools ............................................................................................................................ 26
1.8.6 Optimal learning ...................................................................................................................... 26
1.8.7 Good teacher ........................................................................................................................... 27
1.9
CHAPTER OUTLINE ................................................................................................................... 27
1.10
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 29
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CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS AND TEACHER MOTIVATION
2.1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 30
2.2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS ON EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION ................................................... 30
2.2.1 Hierarchy of Needs theory ....................................................................................................... 31
2.2.2 Two-Factor theory ................................................................................................................... 35
2.2.3 Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory ................................................................... 36
2.2.4 Expectancy theory.................................................................................................................... 38
2.2.5 Equity theory............................................................................................................................ 40
2.2.6 Goal-setting theory .................................................................................................................. 41
2.3
MOTIVATION OF TEACHERS AS EMPLOYEES............................................................................ 42
2.4
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHER MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE ................................... 43
2.4.1 The work itself.......................................................................................................................... 43
2.4.2 Rewards and compensation..................................................................................................... 46
2.4.3 Working conditions .................................................................................................................. 47
2.4.4 Professional growth ................................................................................................................. 48
2.5
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE RELATION BETWEEN TEACHER MOTIVATION AND
LEARNER PERFORMANCE ......................................................................................................... 50
2.6
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 52
CHAPTER 3
TEACHING AND LEARNING IN RURAL SCHOOLS
3.1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 53
3.2
DEFINING OPTIMAL LEARNING ................................................................................................ 53
3.3
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEACHER ................................................................................. 58
3.3.1 Professional characteristics ..................................................................................................... 61
3.3.2 Personality characteristics ....................................................................................................... 66
3.3.3 Social characteristics ................................................................................................................ 69
3.4
RURAL AREAS IN CONTEXT....................................................................................................... 73
3.4.1 Living in rural areas with reference to the Namibian situation ............................................... 75
3.4.2 Working in rural areas with reference to the Namibian situation........................................... 79
3.5
TEACHING IN RURAL SCHOOLS ................................................................................................ 84
3.5.1 Poor working conditions .......................................................................................................... 84
ix
3.5.2 Incompetence .......................................................................................................................... 88
3.5.3 Isolation.................................................................................................................................... 91
3.5.4 Inadequate rewards ................................................................................................................. 92
3.6
LEARNING IN RURAL SCHOOLS ................................................................................................ 94
3.6.1 Persistent poverty .................................................................................................................... 95
3.6.2 Minimum parental involvement .............................................................................................. 96
3.6.3 Shortage of resources .............................................................................................................. 97
3.7
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 99
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4.1
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 100
4.2
RATIONALE FOR EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION........................................................................ 100
4.3
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................... 101
4.4
RESEARCH DESIGN................................................................................................................. 101
4.4.1 Research paradigm ................................................................................................................ 102
4.4.1.1 Positivism/Post-positivism research paradigm ............................................................... 108
4.4.1.2 Constructivist/Interpretivist research paradigm ............................................................ 109
4.4.1.3 Transformative/Emancipatory research paradigm ......................................................... 110
4.4.1.4 Postcolonial/Indigenous research paradigm .................................................................. 111
4.4.1.5 Interpretivism as the research paradigm of choice ........................................................ 112
4.4.2 Research approaches ............................................................................................................. 114
4.4.2.1 Qualitative research approach........................................................................................ 114
4.4.2.2 Quantitative research approach ..................................................................................... 119
4.4.2.3 Mixed-methods research approach ................................................................................ 119
4.5
RESEARCH POPULATION ........................................................................................................ 124
4.5.1 Sampling techniques .............................................................................................................. 125
4.5.1.1 Purposive sampling ......................................................................................................... 126
4.5.1.2 Snowball sampling .......................................................................................................... 126
4.5.2 Size of the sample .................................................................................................................. 127
4.6
DATA COLLECTION ................................................................................................................. 130
4.6.1 Focus group interviews .......................................................................................................... 132
4.6.2 Individual interviewing........................................................................................................... 133
4.6.3 Document analysis ................................................................................................................. 135
x
4.7
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION .................................................................................... 136
4.7.1 Obtaining data ....................................................................................................................... 137
4.7.2 Organising data ...................................................................................................................... 138
4.7.3 Reading and writing memos .................................................................................................. 138
4.7.4 Coding .................................................................................................................................... 138
4.7.5 Categorisation of themes ....................................................................................................... 139
4.7.6 Interpretation of data ............................................................................................................ 139
4.8
TRUSTWORTHINESS OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ....................................................................... 140
4.8.1 Credibility ............................................................................................................................... 141
4.8.1.1 Adoption of well-established research methods ............................................................ 142
4.8.1.2 Familiarisation with research sites ................................................................................. 143
4.8.1.3 Triangulation ................................................................................................................... 144
4.8.1.4 Ensuring honesty by participants during data collection................................................ 145
4.8.1.5 Iterative questioning ....................................................................................................... 145
4.8.1.6 Member checking ........................................................................................................... 146
4.8.2 Transferability ........................................................................................................................ 146
4.8.3 Dependability ......................................................................................................................... 147
4.8.4 Confirmability......................................................................................................................... 149
4.9
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................... 150
4.9.1 Accessibility to research sites ................................................................................................ 150
4.9.2 Informed consent................................................................................................................... 151
4.9.3 Confidentiality ........................................................................................................................ 151
4.9.4 Anonymity .............................................................................................................................. 152
4.10
CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 153
CHAPTER 5
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION
5.1
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 154
5.2
ANECDOTAL OVERVIEW OF THE EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION ............................................... 154
5.2.1 Background information about the research sites ................................................................ 154
5.2.2 Seeking permission and commencement of data collection ................................................. 156
5.3
ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ....................................................................... 156
5.3.1 Individual interviews .............................................................................................................. 157
5.3.2 Focus group interviews .......................................................................................................... 159
xi
5.3.3 Document analysis ................................................................................................................. 163
5.3.3.1 Learner performance ...................................................................................................... 164
5.3.3.2 Teacher profile ................................................................................................................ 165
5.3.3.3 Staff turnover .................................................................................................................. 169
5.3.3.4 Payment of the financial incentive ................................................................................. 169
5.4
INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF Research findings .................................................... 171
5.4.1 Teacher sufficiency at rural schools ....................................................................................... 172
5.4.1.1 Qualified teachers ........................................................................................................... 172
5.4.1.2 Unqualified teachers ....................................................................................................... 174
5.4.1.3 Temporary teachers ........................................................................................................ 176
5.4.1.4 Staff turnover .................................................................................................................. 177
5.4.2 Perspectives on the financial incentive ................................................................................. 177
5.4.2.1 Reception ........................................................................................................................ 177
5.4.2.2 Scope of application ........................................................................................................ 179
5.4.2.3 Suspension ...................................................................................................................... 182
5.4.2.4 Categorisation ................................................................................................................. 183
5.4.2.5 Insufficient amount ......................................................................................................... 187
5.4.2.6 Standard of education .................................................................................................... 191
5.4.3 Factors motivating rural school teachers............................................................................... 196
5.4.3.1 Promotional post ............................................................................................................ 196
5.4.3.2 Family background .......................................................................................................... 198
5.4.3.3 Leadership ....................................................................................................................... 198
5.4.3.4 Environment.................................................................................................................... 200
5.4.3.5 Employment opportunities ............................................................................................. 205
5.4.3.6 Support services .............................................................................................................. 206
5.4.3.7 Financial incentive........................................................................................................... 208
5.4.4 Capabilities for teaching at rural schools ............................................................................... 208
5.4.4.1 Passion ............................................................................................................................ 209
5.4.4.2 Adaptability ..................................................................................................................... 210
5.4.5 Conditions characterising rural schools ................................................................................. 211
5.4.5.1 Commuting...................................................................................................................... 211
5.4.5.2 Climate and rural school teaching .................................................................................. 213
5.4.5.3 Hygiene ........................................................................................................................... 214
5.4.5.4 Facilities and services ...................................................................................................... 215
xii
5.4.5.5 Level of literacy ............................................................................................................... 217
5.4.6 Determinants of learner performance................................................................................... 217
5.4.6.1 The foundation for learning ............................................................................................ 217
5.4.6.2 Teacher-learner ratio ...................................................................................................... 219
5.4.6.3 Language competencies.................................................................................................. 220
5.4.6.4 Parental involvement ...................................................................................................... 221
5.4.6.5 Subject specialisation ...................................................................................................... 223
5.4.6.6 Working environment ..................................................................................................... 224
5.4.6.7 Group of learners ............................................................................................................ 224
5.4.6.8 The influence of climate on teaching and learning ......................................................... 225
5.4.7 Opportunities for improving education at rural schools ....................................................... 226
5.4.7.1 Working environment ..................................................................................................... 226
5.4.7.2 Revisiting financial incentive ........................................................................................... 228
5.4.7.3 Budget allocations........................................................................................................... 231
5.4.7.4 Vocational education ...................................................................................................... 232
5.4.7.5 School cluster system for education provisioning .......................................................... 233
5.5 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 234
CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 236
6.2
SUMMARY OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................................... 236
6.2.1 Chapter 1: Orientation ........................................................................................................... 237
6.2.2 Chapter 2: Theoretical frameworks and teacher motivation ................................................ 238
6.2.3 Chapter 3: Teaching and learning at rural schools ................................................................ 239
6.2.4 Chapter 4: Research design and methodology ...................................................................... 240
6.2.5 Chapter 5: Research findings and interpretation .................................................................. 242
6.2.6 Chapter 6: Summary, conclusions and recommendations .................................................... 247
6.3
CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................ 247
6.3.1 Conclusions relating to the research question: What motivates teachers to teach at rural
schools? .................................................................................................................................. 247
6.3.2 Conclusions relating to the research question: How is the performance of the learners after
the implementation of the financial incentive?..................................................................... 248
6.3.3 Conclusions relating to the research question: What are the working conditions at rural
schools and their influences on teaching and learning activities? ........................................ 249
xiii
6.3.4 Conclusion relating to the research question: What are the attributes of a typical rural school
teacher? ................................................................................................................................. 250
6.3.5 Conclusions relating to the research question: What recommendations can be made to
improve learner performance at rural schools? .................................................................... 250
6.3.6 Conclusions relating to the main research question: What is the influence of the financial
incentive on learner performance at rural schools? .............................................................. 251
6.4
RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................................................. 252
6.4.1 Recommendations: Financial incentive as a motivator for rural school ............................... 252
teachers.................................................................................................................................. 252
6.4.2 Recommendations: Improvement of the working environment........................................... 253
6.4.3 Recommendations: Professional development opportunities .............................................. 253
6.4.4 Recommendations: Service provisions .................................................................................. 254
6.4.5 Recommendations: Curriculum reform ................................................................................. 255
6.4.6 Recommendations: Budgetary allocations ............................................................................ 256
6.5
RECOMMENDED AREAS FOR FURTHER STUDIES ................................................................... 256
6.6
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................. 257
6.7
CONCLUDING REMARKS......................................................................................................... 258
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 260
LIST OF APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................... 290
Appendix A .......................................................................................................................................... 291
Appendix B .......................................................................................................................................... 292
Appendix C .......................................................................................................................................... 293
Appendix D .......................................................................................................................................... 294
Appendix E .......................................................................................................................................... 295
Appendix F .......................................................................................................................................... 296
Appendix G .......................................................................................................................................... 301
Appendix H .......................................................................................................................................... 302
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1
Herzberg’s hygiene factors and motivators .............................................................. 35
Table 4.1:
Types of research paradigms ................................................................................. 105
Table 5.1:
Themes as research findings from the individual and focus group interviews ....... 161
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ................................................................................... 32
Figure 2.2:
Adelfer’s ERG theory................................................................................................ 37
Figure 2.3:
The key elements of Expectancy theory................................................................... 39
Figure 2.4:
Conceptual framework for the relation between teacher motivation and
learner performance ................................................................................................. 51
Figure 4.1:
Philosophical factors influencing the choice of research paradigm ........................ 104
Figure 4.2:
The research population for the case study on the influence of financial incentive
on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural Namibian schools. ........... 130
Figure 5.1:
School performance in the national examinations for the period 2014-2016 .......... 164
Figure 5.2:
Qualified teachers at sampled rural schools for the period 2015 to 2017 ............... 165
Figure 5.3:
Shortage of qualified teachers at sampled rural schools for the period 2015-2017 166
Figure 5.4:
Shortages of Mathematic teachers at sampled schools for the period 2015-2017 . 167
Figure 5.5:
Shortages of Physical Science teachers at sampled schools for the period
2015-2017 .............................................................................................................. 167
Figure 5.6:
Shortages of English teachers at sampled schools for the period 2015-2017 ........ 168
Figure 5.7:
Teacher transfer at sampled rural schools for the period 2015-2017 ..................... 169
xvi
Figure 5.8:
Teachers receiving financial incentive for the period 2015-2017............................ 170
Figure 5.9:
Teachers not receiving financial incentive for the period 2015-2017 ...................... 170
xvii
CHAPTER 1
ORIENTATION
1.1
INTRODUCTION
The increasing spending by governments on education over time and the relatively
decline in learning achievements by rural schools has led education policy makers to
increasingly consider reforms for improving the effectiveness of public spending on
education (Engin-Demir & Taneri 2011:92; Litheko 2012:2; Kobakhidze 2010:73;
Vegas 2007:219). Among a number of reforms that have been considered, the idea of
introducing a financial incentive for teachers has received favourable attention by
education stakeholders worldwide (Emiliana & Ilana 2005:4; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:22;
Murphy & DeArmond 2003:6; Roland 2011:3-4).
Financial incentive has been proven to motivate teachers to improve their teaching
practices which in turn positively impacts the learners’ performance (Lavy 2009:1979;
Muralidharan & Sundararaman 2011:39). In this regard, the Ministry of Education, Arts
and Culture in Namibia (MoEAC) has attempted to implement a financial incentive for
qualified teachers in order to improve learning achievements at rural schools (Kavishe
2012:1).
The implementation of a financial incentive, also known as a ‘bush allowance’, for
teachers in Namibia in 2010 was premised on the assumption that schools in rural
areas were characterised by low academic achievements because qualified and
professional teachers were not motivated to teach at schools located in rural areas
(Namwandi 2014:1; NANTU 2011:6). This led to rural schools being taught by more
unqualified teachers and few qualified teachers which then led to low achievement of
learning outcomes in rural schools (Hardre & Sullivan
2008:471; Moon 2007:3;
Urwick, Mapuru & Nkoboti 2005:53). The purpose of implementing a financial incentive
was meant to attract and retain qualified teachers at rural schools, to improve learner
performance at rural schools (Glazerman, Mckie & Carey 2009:1).
1
In the case of Namibia, only professionally qualified teachers were meant to receive
financial incentive, as the MoEAC in Namibia wanted to attract and retain qualified
teachers at rural schools. The implementation of the financial incentive was divided
into three categories, according to which schools were classified and on which basis
qualified teachers were receiving the amount of money on top of their salaries, as a
financial incentive. The categorising of schools was arranged according to what
MoEAC consider as characteristics of a rural environment, firstly, the remoteness with
regard to how far away the school was from the nearest town, and secondly, the
availability of basic services and facilities (Iikela 2011:1). The categories were:
Category A, Category B and Category C (Iikela 2011:1).
In Category A, each qualified teacher received an amount of N$1 750.00 per month.
This category was regarded an ‘extreme hardship’ category. This is when the school
was over 100 km from a main town, there was no electricity and water and there were
no health and social recreational facilities. In Category B, each qualified teacher
received an amount of N$1150.00 per month. This category was regarded as a
‘moderate hardship’ category. There was water and electricity at the school as well as
access to health facilities and telecommunications and the main town was less than
100 km away. In Category C, each qualified teacher received an amount of N$750.00
per month. This category was regarded as the ‘least hardship’ category. The nearest
town was less than 50 km away, electricity and water were available. Health facilities,
shops and transport were available and accessible.
While the idea of a financial incentive sounds best in attracting and retaining qualified
teachers at rural schools (Guarino, Santibanez, Daley & Brewer 2004:5; Figlio
2002:686), the evidence on the effectiveness of this programme is very limited, mixed
and not convincing (Glewwe, Ilias & Kremer 2003:5; Kobakhidze 2010:71; Lavy
2009:1980; Muralidharan & Sundararaman 2011:39; Vegas 2007:220). From the
researcher’s observation as a teacher, more than five years after the implementation
of a financial incentive were implemented in Namibia, the influence of the financial
incentive on learner performance in Namibia is yet to be established. The focus of this
study is therefore to establish the influence of the financial incentive on qualified
teachers’ motivation and retention as well as learner performance in rural Namibian
schools.
2
1.2
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Given the motivational factor underpinning this study and the rural context around
which the study revolved, the background section focused, firstly, on the theories
relevant to teacher motivation and how these theories can influence the presence of
qualified teachers at rural schools. Secondly, the section dealt with an overview of
teacher recruitment, teaching and learning at rural schools.
1.2.1
Motivation theories and teacher motivation
Motivation is generally referred to as the energy of behaviours which condition the
conduct of employees at the workplace (Legotlo 2014:128; Ofoegbu 2004:81; Steyn
2002:85). Motivation can also be defined as the incentives and disincentives that
influence employees’ initial and sustained engagement in their work (Hynds &
McDonald 2010:525). On the basis of these definitions, it becomes clear that
motivation is the underlying force for employees’ optimal performance. Hence, the
need to motivate teachers is crucial to enable teachers to gain self-confidence and
morale and enable learners to perform exceptionally. Poorly motivated teachers yield
low learner achievement. Therefore, it is significant to understand the theoretical
frameworks underlying employees’ motivation. These theories are explained next.
1.2.1.1 Theoretical frameworks underlying employees’ motivation
The work of classical employee motivation theorists such as Abraham Maslow (1943),
Fredrick Hertzberg (1966), Victor Vroom (1964), Edwin Locke (1976), Clayton Alderfer
(1972) as well as Lawman Porter and Edward Lawler (1968) have been widely
discussed and applied in the context of developed countries (Urwick et al. 2005:3;
Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:102-05). However, the discussions around incorporating
these theories in the context of developing nations, especially in rural schools, is
lacking.
The Hierarchy of Needs theory is one of the best known and most widely used theories
for the study of motivation in organisations (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:95). According
to Maslow (1970), human needs are grouped into physiological needs, safety needs,
3
social needs, esteem needs and self-actualisation needs. The central point of
emphasis in Maslow’s needs theory is that low-level needs should be met first before
the high-level needs are met. Maslow emphasises that employees, such as teachers,
for example, will not be motivated to teach if they have nothing to eat. Moreover,
teachers will lack affiliation with others if they do not have proper housing.
Herzberg developed a motivation theory that builds on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
theory, namely the ‘Two-Factor theory’ (Herzberg, Mausner & Snyderman 1993).
According to Herzberg, the job plays an important role in motivating employees.
Herzberg believes that employees can derive their motivation from the work itself in
the form of getting recognised and advancement in the job. This recognition motivates
employees such as teachers to aspire for more recognition. Herzberg also identifies
factors such as company policies, supervision and salaries as factors that can
potentially demotivate employees. Research has shown that low-income countries,
such as Namibia and Lesotho, face difficult choices of recruitment and deployment
policies in relation to teacher motivation and job satisfaction (Urwick et al. 2005:70).
These countries are faced with the challenge of recruiting teachers who will be
motivated enough to stay at their job, especially at rural schools.
Alderfer’s Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory is an extension of
Herzberg’s and Maslow’s theories of motivation. The ERG theory summarises the
former theories and classifies needs into existence needs (food, clothing), relatedness
needs (friendships, colleagues) and growth needs (career growth). While Maslow
believes in meeting low-level needs first before aspiring to high-level needs, Alderfer
contends that several needs can be experienced at the same time. For example, a
teacher may take postgraduate studies as a growth need, while at the same time
making friendships with others as relatedness needs. This friendship may be beneficial
to the teacher’s study. Lack of these needs are likely to be felt by teachers in rural
areas since they are far from services and chances for growth and relatedness might
be very limited, which reduces teachers’ morale.
Vroom’s (1994) Expectant theory is relevant to a financial incentive as applied at rural
schools. Vroom believe that employees join organisations with their own expectations
that they would like to get from such organisations. The financial incentive may not be
4
the kind of motivation that teachers at rural schools are expecting. This study
established whether a financial incentive was what teachers at rural areas were
expecting. The study also established whether the amount of financial incentive
received by teachers was sufficient to outweigh socio-economic challenges at rural
schools or not. Low salaries and limited incentive have been cited as the cause of poor
motivation and enthusiasm for teachers to perform better in developing countries
(Kobakhidze 2010:68). While qualified teachers were continually recruited, it appears
they do not get the rewards they expected which then affected their performance
negatively.
Another theory similar to the Expectant theory is Porter and Lawler’s (1968) Equity
theory, which asserts that employees hold certain beliefs about their work in relation
to the inputs in which they invest to obtain the outcomes (Lunenburg & Ornstein
2008:108). For example, if teachers do not see the balance between the efforts they
spend in the teaching process and the rewards they receive, teachers get demotivated
which decreases their effectiveness. This is a relevant theory in explaining teaching in
rural areas, where teachers work exceptionally under harsh conditions but receive low
salaries. This theory can potentially influence the migration of qualified teachers
between schools.
The Goal-setting theory, as pioneered by Locke (Locke & Latham 1995), emphasise
that employees set goals which direct their attention and actions (Lunenburg &
Ornstein 2008:110). In pursuing these goals employees, for example teachers, will be
intrinsically motivated to attain their goals and may not be drawn back by a financial
incentive to remain in rural schools. This theory might explain why, despite efforts to
recruit and motivate qualified teachers to remain at rural schools, qualified teachers’
recruitment, retention and motivation still remain a challenge (Glewwe et al. 2003:5;
Kobakhidze 2010:71; Moon 2007:3; Urwick et al. 2005:132). In this regard, the
following part of this section discusses teacher recruitment and motivation.
1.2.1.2 Teacher recruitment and motivation
The centrality of a motivated teacher in providing good quality teaching has been
researched extensively as a worldwide issue (Chireshe & Shumba 2011; Griffin 2010;
5
Legotlo 2014; Kayuni & Tambulasi 2007; Steyn 2002; Urwick et al. 2005). Although
motivated teachers play a central role in the quality of education that learners receive,
research has found that many teachers around the world lack motivation to perform
their duties due to various reasons, one of which relates to inadequate incentive
(Armstrong 2009:24; Legotlo 2014:132; Urwick et al. 2005:132).
In Europe and the United States of America, problems of recruiting and retaining
teachers still exist (Moon 2007:3). Many schools in the United States of America
struggle with recruiting and retaining professionally qualified teachers (Milanowski,
Longwell-Grice, Saffold, Jones 2009:2; Schomisch & Odden 2009:1). In California,
thousands of unqualified teachers are working in the elementary system (Moon
2007:3). A recent study by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics indicates that South
and West Asia are facing a looming teacher shortage in pursuit of quality education
(Mhando 2006:4).
The situation in Africa has been described as a crisis and more countries, including
Burkina Faso, have officially declared the supply of teachers a national crisis (Dladla
& Moon 2006:2). In Namibia, the shortage of teachers is a regular occurrence,
especially at rural schools (Namwandi 2014:1). NANTU (2011:6) observed that good
teachers only teach for about a year or two in rural areas and then leave for urban
areas. Even though qualified teachers are being recruited at rural schools, the system
fails to retain and motivate qualified teachers to remain at rural schools. The
researcher can therefore conclude that despite efforts to motivate teachers, teachers
still felt they are not adequately motivated to remain at rural schools. Persistent failure
to recruit and motivate qualified teachers is common in many countries such as
Bangladesh, Scotland, India,
Ghana, Kenya, Tanzania, Sierra Leone, Nigeria,
Uganda, South Africa and Namibia (Legotlo 2014:132; Urwick et al. 2005:132).
In response to this challenge, several strategies have been implemented by different
countries to recruit qualified teachers. These strategies include a financial incentive
for teachers locating to rural areas, forced transfer of teachers to rural areas and
targeted recruitment of teachers to their home areas (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:22).
Several parts of the world including the United States of America have considered
6
motivating teachers by way of implementing a financial incentive instead of forced
transfer and targeted recruitment (Murphy & DeArmond 2003:6).
A number of states in the United States of America, including Michigan, Tennessee
and Texas, have implemented nationwide financial incentive programmes for teachers
to improve learner achievement, and the results were not convincing (Emiliana & Ilana
2005:4; Roland 2011:3-4). Similar financial incentive initiatives were also underway in
the United Kingdom, Chile, Mexico, Israel, Australia, Portugal and parts of India, with
results also not conclusive (Roland 2011:4). Notwithstanding these results, financial
incentive can be viewed as a relief to teachers’ low salaries which often force teachers
to be engaged in secondary employment activities (Alam & Farid 2011:298).
Despite persistent arguments that qualified teachers are not motivated by a financial
incentive (Bush, Bell & Middlewood 2010:138), research supports the conclusion that
higher pay improves teacher motivation and retention (Guarino et al. 2004:5). High
salaries also improve the quality of new teachers attracted to rural schools (Figlio
2002:686). In spite of these conclusions, little is known about the effectiveness of
financial incentive in attracting and retaining qualified teachers at rural schools, as the
results after programme implementation show no measurable success (Glazerman et
al. 2009:39; Milanowski et al. 2009:2; Vegas 2005:21).
If properly managed, financial incentive is assumed to motivate teachers to improve
their teaching practices which in turn positively impact learner performance (Lavy
2009:1979; Muralidharan & Sundararaman 2011:39). For this method to work
effectively, Roland (2011:2) recommends that financial incentive be based on learners’
achievement. A recent evaluation of a performance-based financial incentive for
teachers in Israel concluded the incentive led to improved learners’ achievement (Lavy
2009:1979). On the contrary, seventeen Latin American countries experimented with
a performance-based financial incentive and the results were mixed (Vegas
2007:220). Similarly, a financial incentive system to reward teachers in for teaching in
rural Mexico and Bolivia also failed to change teacher performance (Kobakhidze
2010:71).
7
A comparative study compared the performance of learners whose teachers received
financial incentive against the performance of learners whose teachers did not receive
financial incentive in Mexico (McEwan and Santibanez 2005:56). The authors found
that the difference was very minimal and concluded that the financial incentive did not
yield success. This shows little evidence of the success of a financial incentive, hence
suggesting the need for more research in this field.
In Africa, an incentive programme in Kenya was implemented to improve teacher
quality by providing teachers with a financial incentive based on learners’ performance
(Barnhardt, Karlan & Khemani 2007:9). The programme was associated with
increased learners’ performance in the short run but found to be not very effective in
the long run in terms of teaching and learning achievements (Glewwe et al. 2003:5;
Kobakhidze 2010:71). Kenya’s performance-based financial incentive programmes
were found to be responsible for manipulation of learners’ marks by teachers while no
long-term gains were achieved (Glewwe et al. 2003:22; Lavy 2009:1979; Muralidharan
& Sundararaman 2011:39). The performance-based financial incentive also decrease
teachers’ intrinsic motivation and lead to unhealthy competition between teachers
(Goodman & Turner 2012:1).
Other African countries such as Mozambique, Lesotho, Kenya and Uganda have
attempted to make working in rural areas more attractive by offering a nonperformance based financial incentive to teachers working at rural schools (Glewwe
et al. 2003:5). In Mozambique, a financial incentive was given depending on the
location of the school and teachers’ qualification. This demotivated teachers with low
qualifications as they received less financial incentive and the incentive was also too
little to encourage highly qualified teachers to locate to remote areas (Mulkeen & Chen
2008:2).
The non-performance based financial incentive did little to motivate qualified teachers
to work at rural schools because of a number of gaps in its implementation (Mulkeen
& Chen 2008:2). Firstly, a financial incentive appeared not to be substantial enough to
outweigh the social and economic costs of living in isolated areas such as rural
schools. Secondly, there was no fair system of classifying schools for receiving
8
incentive. These gaps have influenced the success of the financial incentive
programme.
In South Africa, an effort to force the redeployment of teachers to poorer, rural areas
was unsuccessful (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:24), as teachers were not prepared to be
redeployed. This has reduced the number of graduates for the teaching profession as
teaching was now viewed as a profession where a person can be deployed and moved
at any time (Samuel 2002:408-09). In Malawi and Zambia, forced relocation of
teachers to rural areas was used as a corrective, disciplinary measure for teachers
other than as a motivational measure (VSO 2002:30). This did not boost teachers’
morale, but rather compromised the quality of teaching and learning in rural areas.
Some teachers were trained and then deployed in their home areas (Mulkeen & Chen
2008:25). The presumption is that those teachers will have familial roots in the area
and be more willing to return and remain in these rural settings (Hedges 2002:360). In
contrast, educated members of a rural community may view their education as a
means of social mobility and may have no desire to remain and work in a rural area
once qualified (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:25).
However, this method
of deploying
teachers worked well in Ghana, but using a different model, that of friendship rather
than familial roots by posting newly qualified teachers in pairs in order to draw strength
from the friendship, especially in unfamiliar communities (Hedges 2002:360).
Namibia has implemented the strategy of non-performance based financial incentive
in 2010 instead of forced transfer and targeted recruitment of qualified teachers
(Kavishe 2012:1). The implementation model of Namibia is similar to that of
Mozambique as the financial incentive is given on the basis of the school classification
in terms of their remoteness and teacher qualification (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:2).
However, it differs from that of Mozambique as it does not consider the level of
teachers’ qualifications in giving them a financial incentive, but rather giving a financial
incentive to qualified teachers regardless of whether a teacher has a low or high
qualification. In view of the gaps identified by Mulkeen and Chen (2008:2), it was not
established whether the financial incentive given to teachers in Namibia was sufficient
to outweigh the socio-economic cost of living and working at schools located in
9
Namibia’s rural areas. The fairness and effectiveness of classifying schools to receive
a financial incentive was also yet to be ascertained.
While studies have been conducted on other parts of the world about the impact of
both a performance-based and a non-performance based financial incentive on
teacher motivation and learner achievement (Glazerman et al. 2009; Lavy 2009;
Milanowski et al. 2009; Muralidharan & Sundararaman 2011), similar studies done in
Namibia since the programme implementation in 2010 are very sketchy, if any. Hence,
this study aims to establish the influence of a non-performance based financial
incentive on teacher motivation and learner achievement in rural schools in Namibia.
1.2.2
Teaching and learning at rural schools
According to the Victorian Auditor-General Report (2013:1), the provision of quality
and accessible education to rural communities is a worldwide challenge. Despite this
challenge, limited research has been attempted in the areas of education in rural
settings (Gandara, Gutierrez & O’Hara 2001:73; Milanowski et al. 2009:2; Wallin
2009:10). In Canada, there is a relative lack of research within rural educational
contexts (Wallin 2009:10). In the United States of America, more than 30% of schools
are in rural areas, yet only less than 6% of research conducted makes reference to
rural schools (Hardre 2008:72). This necessitated a need for research focusing on
rural settings to address this research gap.
Rural schools serve large numbers of minority learners from families with little
educational backgrounds (Flora, Flora & Fey 2003:24). These rural learners are at risk
for low motivation and lack of school success as their specific learning needs are rarely
researched (Gandaraet et al. 2001:74; Hardre, Sullivan & Crowson 2009:1). Common
factors influencing rural learners’ motivation are home environments that are not
conducive to learning, financial difficulties, shortage of teachers and lack of school
buildings (Hardre & Sullivan 2008:471). Research on learners’ achievement as this
achievement relates to environmental factors shows that environment plays a
significant role in shaping learner achievement (Hardre et al. 2009:3). However,
research is lacking that discusses these factors in a rural context.
10
In the last two decades across the continent of Africa there has been a growing anxiety
about teaching in rural areas, where approximately 70% of the African population
reside (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:16). The shortage of qualified teachers and poor
conditions of teaching are the major factors affecting the quality of education offered
in many African rural schools (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:10). Most parents in rural areas
are less educated and have less ability to provide educational support for their
children, and are therefore embarrassed to discuss school work with children due to
their lack of knowledge (Legotlo 2014:17; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:10).
The standard of education at rural schools in Namibia has been low due to lack of
qualified teachers, as good teachers are only teaching for about a year or two in rural
areas and then decide to leave for urban areas (Namwandi 2014:1; NANTU 2011:6).
The problem of qualified teachers in Namibia is worsened by the merging of the four
Colleges of Education with the University of Namibia in 2010 as the state does not
guarantee full scholarships for student teachers at the University of Namibia anymore,
unlike in the past when student teachers at former Colleges of Education were fully
funded by the state (Hanse-Himarwa 2015:1).
As from the year 2010, the MoEAC continues to consistently receive at least N$8
billion annually from the national budget in order to improve the education system in
the country (Brown 2014:2; Ihuhua 2012:1; Namwandi 2014:4; Schmidt 2010:17). In
an attempt to address challenges facing education at rural schools, the MoEAC
implemented a financial incentive in 2010 (Kavishe 2012:1). The financial incentive is
intended to motivate and retain qualified teachers at rural schools to improve learner
performance.
As pointed out in this section, education in rural areas is characterised by a lack of
qualified teachers with learners lacking motivation, parental support and guidance
(Hardre et al. 2009:1; Legotlo 2014:17; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:10). Regardless of this
characterisation, less research has been conducted on education at rural settings
(Gandara et al. 2001:74; Wallin 2009:10). This study focused on the state of education
at rural schools in Namibia with the aim of contributing to the knowledge pool on
improving the quality of teaching and learning at rural schools.
11
1.3
MOTIVATION FOR STUDY
Namibia’s vision to become a developed nation is dependent on an effective education
system by means of which the skilled labour is provided that is required to improve
productivity and develop a knowledge-driven economy (GRN 2006:2). This calls for a
motivated teaching team to ensure improved learner performance especially in rural
areas as approximately 70% of the African population resides in the rural areas
(Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:16).
The researcher has been in the teaching fraternity for nine years (2006-2014), having
taught at a rural-based junior secondary school for six years and for three years at an
urban-based high school. While teaching at the rural-based junior secondary school,
the researcher observed that learners who were taught by the researcher and other
teachers were performing well prior to and after the implementation of the financial
incentive in 2010. The researcher’s rural-based junior secondary school was classified
as a ‘less hardship school’ for Category C. The researcher received the financial
incentive for two and a half years before getting transferred to a High school in town
in 2012. As the high school was located in town, qualified teachers including the
researcher were not eligible to receive a financial incentive. Despite the absence of a
financial incentive payment, learners at high school including those that were taught
by the researcher also performed well.
The researcher observed that the performance of learners in schools where he worked
did not necessarily depend on whether teachers were receiving a financial incentive
or not. Furthermore, the researcher’s experience as a teacher whose learners have
consistently been top performers irrespective of him receiving the financial incentive
or not has led him to question whether the financial incentive was indeed the main
motivator for attracting qualified teachers to rural schools and for improving learner
performance. The focus of this study was therefore to establish the effectiveness of
the financial incentive in rural Namibian schools. Insights from this study may
contribute to improving learner performance at schools in rural areas based on efficient
education budget spending.
12
1.4
PROBLEM STATEMENT
The importance of qualified and motivated teachers in providing quality teaching
cannot be over-emphasised (Chireshe & Shumba 2011:115; Legotlo 2014:135; Steyn
2002:84). Poor school effectiveness and lack of improvement in learner performance
among rural Namibian schools have been attributed to a lack of qualified teachers
(Namwandi 2014:1, NANTU 2011:6). In an attempt to address this problem, the
MoEAC has implemented a financial incentive to attract, motivate and retain qualified
teachers at rural schools for the sake of improved learner performance (Glazerman et
al. 2009:1; Kavishe 2012:1). More than five years after the implementation of financial
incentive in Namibia, no evidence of improved learner performance in rural schools
has been established, related to this incentive. This study sought to address this gap.
The study was guided by the following main research question:
What is the influence of the financial incentive on teacher motivation and
learner performance in rural Namibian schools?
The following sub-questions were used to address the main research question:
a)
What motivates teachers to teach at rural schools?
b)
How is the performance of the learners after the implementation of the
financial incentive?
c)
What are the working conditions at rural schools and their influences on
teaching and learning activities?
d)
What are the attributes of a good teacher?
e)
What recommendations can be made for improving learner performance at
rural schools?
1.5
AIMS OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effectiveness of the financial
incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural Namibian schools,
with the aim of presenting appropriate teacher motivation strategies capable of
13
improving teacher motivation and learner performance in rural schools. The following
objectives directed the study, namely to:
Explain the factors that influence teacher motivation at rural schools.
Describe the process of teaching and learning at rural schools.
Outline the characteristics of a good teacher.
Suggest strategies for improving learner performance at rural schools.
The research methodology that was used to address these objectives and find
answers to the formulated research questions is discussed next.
1.6
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The data for this study was collected by both a literature study and an empirical
investigation. Regarding the literature study, the researcher reviewed the studies
related to the financial incentive. In addition to the preliminary literature findings in
Chapter one, the large body of the findings of the literature study is presented in
Chapter two and three respectively. The empirical investigation is discussed by the
following sections.
1.6.1
Research paradigm and research approach
As interpretive research focuses on the immediate and local meanings of social
actions for the actors involved in them (Gall, Gall & Borg 2007:31), this study used an
interpretivist research paradigm. The interpretivist paradigm was relevant because it
enabled the researcher to interpret both the literature and empirical study findings for
the sake of a deep understanding of the specific phenomenon that was studied
(Tichapondwa 2011:106; Thomas 2010:296). Interpretivist paradigm entailed a social
interaction between the researcher and participants, and enabled the researcher to
collect data on the financial incentive in rural schools from participants who were
involved in the programme, and then interpret data for deeper understanding.
14
Although a mixed-methods research approach was adopted, the study relied mainly
on a qualitative research approach for the sake of utilising narratives and descriptions
in order to understand the phenomenon from the perspectives of the participants in
the study (Mills 2011:4). This is because qualitative research studies typically serve to
describe, interpret, verify and evaluate particular policies and practices for the sake of
increased understanding (Leedy & Omrod 2005:134-135). The qualitative research
approach was therefore the most suitable approach for understanding the influence of
a financial incentive on learner performance as explained from the participants’ views.
The application of a qualitative research approach was carried out through a case
study design, as an investigation in which an event is studied in depth for a defined
period of time (Leedy & Omrod 2005:135). A case study focuses in-depth on a
phenomenon in its real-life context to reflect the perspectives of the participants
involved in the phenomenon (Gall et al. 2011:447). Using a case study helped the
researcher to answer the research questions by evaluating the effectiveness of
financial incentive from the participants’ perspectives in their own social environment.
One advantage of a case study is the maximum degree of flexibility with data collection
tools (Bertram & Christiansen 2014:42). The researcher can begin a case study with
one method of data collection and gradually shift to or add other methods. Using
multiple methods to collect data about a phenomenon can enhance the credibility of
case study findings through the process of triangulation, which, in the case of this
study on a financial incentive resulted in the application of different forms of
interviewing combined with document analysis.
As part of the mixed-methods approach, a quantitative research approach was applied
with the collection and comparison of numerical data from document analysis, as
pertains to statistics regarding examination results, number of qualified and unqualified
teachers employed, number of qualified teachers’ turnover as well as the statistics for
the payment of a financial incentive. In line with the findings by Gall et al. (2007:460)
as well as Bertram and Christiansen (2014:42) on the value of a mixed-methods
research approach, the combination of figures, charts, tables and narrative reports
contributed to increased insight into the use of a financial incentive in relation to
teacher motivation and learner performance at rural Namibian schools.
15
1.6.2
Research sites and participants
With reference to a target population representing a group of individuals with at least
one common characteristic which distinguishes that group from other individuals (Best
& Kahn 2006:13), the target population for this study on financial incentive included
school principals and teaching staff of rural schools, Circuit Office official and the
Regional Office official in the Omusati Region of Namibia. The choice of the target
population area, Omusati Region, was informed by the fact that 94% of the region’s
inhabitants were living in rural areas, which made Omusati Region to have a larger
proportion of rural inhabitants than any other region in Namibia (GRN 2011:18).
The researcher obtained Omusati Regional examination statistics and identified a
Circuit Office with poor learner performance for the year 2013 to 2015. From this
circuit, the researcher selected five rural schools that were reachable by normal
vehicles and that have sustained low learner performance in national examinations.
Six teachers from each school, together with their school principals, were purposively
sampled. This gives a total of thirty teachers and five school principals. The Circuit
Office official of the circuit in which the schools belong, was purposively sampled as
the official was directly involved in the provision of education in the Circuit housing the
sampled rural schools. The Regional Office official was sampled by means of snow
balling, as the official was the person who had worked for education in the region for
a long period of time and was thus well positioned in explaining learner performance
in the region in relation to the financial incentive. This gave a total number of thirty
seven participants from the target population.
As purposive sampling involves the researcher selecting participants on the basis of
the researcher’s judgment of their typicality to the phenomenon (Chiromo 2009:18),
teachers were sampled because they were receiving the financial incentive and can
attest to the extent to which they felt attracted, motivated and retained at rural schools.
Teachers were also able to explain the performance of their learners before and after
receiving a financial incentive. Apart from reachability to research sites by a normal
vehicle rather than a four-by-four vehicle, teachers at research sites were sampled on
the basis of three indicators, namely, a minimum of three years teaching experience
at a rural school prior to and after the implementation of the financial incentive,
16
teachers who were receiving financial incentive after it was implemented, and teachers
who were teaching learners in Grade 10, as that was the grade level subjected to
national examinations by means of which standardised learner performance was
determined.
A total number of five school principals of the same schools from which teacher
participants were selected were sampled purposively to explain the effectiveness of a
financial incentive, staff motivation and learner performance at their respective rural
schools from a management and leadership position. School principals occupied
leadership positions in schools and were well-conversant with issues such as
professionally qualified teachers, teacher motivation, qualified teachers retention as
well as attrition tendencies. School principals were also well positioned to direct and
retrieve documents that were useful to the researcher for document analysis.
School principals were purposively sampled on the basis of having been a school
principal for three years preceding the implementation of a financial incentive, having
been a school principal at least three years at a school where teachers were receiving
a financial incentive, and having been a school principal of a school where learners
were subjected to national examinations. The Regional Office official and the Circuit
Office official were sampled with the purpose that they were directly involved in the
operations of education in the region as educational leaders.
1.6.3
Data collection
With reference to data as the collected information in order to find answers to the
particular questions asked (Bertram & Christiansen 2014:71), the data collection tools
that were used for this study were interviews and document analysis.
1.6.3.1 Interviews
Focus group interviews were conducted with teacher participants and individual
interviews with school principals, the Circuit Office official and the Regional Office
official. The responses obtained from the individual interviews served as
complementary data to the responses obtained from the focus group interviews and
17
the analysis of documents.
Interviewing was beneficial in establishing good
relationships with the participants and clarifying questions that participants found
difficult to interpret and answer (Gall et al. 2007:228).
Good relationships also
extended beyond the interviewing process which was beneficial to the researcher for
further prompts for information that needed clarity on the value of a financial incentive
as a motivation factor for teaching in rural areas.
Each focus group consisted of six teacher participants selected from each sampled
rural school and teachers were interviewed at their respective schools. Focus group
interviewing helped the researcher to get a shared understanding about the specific
phenomenon that was studied (Creswell 2008:226; Mills 2011:82), namely the
influence of a financial incentive from teachers’ perspectives. In line with the writings
of Creswell (2008:226) as well as Kahn and Best (2006:265) on the input of specific
participants, focus group interviewing helped the researcher to get the views of specific
teachers about the influence of a financial incentive on their motivation and learner
performance. The researcher was also able to learn of how teachers may agree or
disagree on certain aspects regarding the financial incentive during the focus group
interviews.
With focus group interviewing, participants feel more comfortable talking in a group
than alone and the interaction between the researcher and the participants is
informative and supportive (Leedy & Omrod 2005:146). By organising the interviews
to be semi-structured in the sense of referring to an interview guide while allowing the
discussion to proceed freely, discussions are structured around the focused topic
without imposing formalities which might limit participants’ active participation (Keith
2005:75; Nicholas 2005:61). All focus group interviews were recorded with informed
consent of the respective participants. The recordings were transcribed by the
researcher and provided transcripts that made data analysis possible.
The individual interviews with the five school principal participants, the Circuit Office
official and the Regional Office official were conducted considering the interview
guides whose questions were contextualised to suit the mandate of the specific
participant. School principals were interviewed individually because they may have
experienced the influence of a financial incentive differently at their schools. It was
18
also difficult to administer focus group interviews with school principals since they were
at different schools and arranging for a venue would have compromised their work
schedule. The individual interviews with school principals and the Circuit Office official
were conducted at their respective offices. The individual interview with the Regional
Office official was conducted at a local hotel. All the individual interviews were
recorded with informed consent from the participants. The recordings were transcribed
by the researcher for analysis.
1.6.3.2 Document analysis
With reference to document analysis representing the analysis of various applicable
documents (Bertram & Christiansen 2014:97; Kahn & Best 2006:257), the researcher
identified documents that provided useful information to answer the research
questions. These documents were obtained from the school principals’ offices at
selected research sites. The documents included examination statistics, teacher
recruitment information files, teacher transfer and resignation files and general reports
on examination and financial incentive. As document analysis assists the researcher
to understand the central phenomenon in qualitative studies (Creswell 2014:245),
document analysis provided useful quantitative data that assisted the researcher to
explain financial incentive, teacher motivation and learner performance at rural
schools.
According to Kahn and Best (2006:257), document analysis aims to explain the status
of a phenomenon at a particular time or its development over a period of time. Hence,
document analysis assisted the researcher in establishing whether qualified teachers
got attracted, felt motivated and got retained at rural schools due to a financial
incentive as per the evidence and reporting in the documents for a specified period of
time. The data from the analysis of documents were noted in a document analysis tool.
1.6.4
Data analysis
With reference to Bertram and Christiansen’s (2014:115) definition of analysis as a
systematic study of the whole by separating the whole into its parts for the purpose of
a clear understanding, thematic analysis was used in this study. Thematic analysis
19
comprises the making sense of collected data through organising, determining themes
and processing data (Mill 2011:128). The process of data analysis for this study
consisted of scrutinising the collected body of data as pertains to their sources and
putting similar data sets together in a more organised form as themes and emerging
categories as well as graphic representations (Mojtaba, Jacqueline, Hannele & Sherrill
2016:100-101).
The core aim of analysis was to establish themes from the data as the main ideas that
were raised by the participants during the interviews and that were in line with the
research questions and aims. Each set of data was analysed separately. Interviewing
has its results of analysis as themes and categories, and the document analysis has
frequencies and percentages.
After the textual data was analysed, themes were established and allocated codes.
The specific aspects in each set of data that manifest particular points of emphasis for
a specific theme were coded with the code of the specific theme, so that it was easy
to be traced in the transcripts during the later stages of data analysis, interpretation
and discussion (Creswell 2014:267; Mills 2011:129). With reference to Leedy and
Omrod (2005:141) on the emerging of categories, coding continued until all the data
were assigned with codes after which relationships were determined in the data and
similar data sets were established.
Due to the common phenomenon that was being investigated, the results of the data
analysis from the transcripts was consolidated to produce a comprehensive
representation of the findings as themes and categories representing the answers to
the postulated research questions. The themes and emerged categories that were
established were subsequently interpreted to generate meanings to the intents of the
research. In order to prove relevance and authenticity of the thematic interpretation,
the themes were discussed by drawing insight from participants’ verbatim excerpts
from the transcripts, the findings of the literature study, the researcher’s worldviews
and the existing theoretical frameworks that informed the study (Creswell 2014:281).
The data that was collected from applicable documents were analysed by means of
converting numeric data into percentages in order to enhance an understanding of the
20
influence of a financial incentive on aspects such as examination pass rates, and the
number of qualified teachers recruited and retained at rural schools. The percentages
as the findings resulting from the numerically-related data were entered into graphic
representations for comparison purposes and to establish frequencies. The graphic
representation of percentages as findings of document analysis were interpreted and
discussed concurrently with the thematic findings from interviews. This was because
the sets of findings were meant to triangulate each another. The interpreted and
discussed findings served as answers to the research questions.
1.6.5
Trustworthiness of research findings
Trustworthiness pertains to the accuracy of the way the research was conducted as
reflected in the correctness of the research findings (Jane & Jane 2003:273; Margaret
2014:26). Although a mixed-methods research approach was adopted, the research
relied mainly on a qualitative research approach (section 4.4.2.3). Therefore, Guba’s
(1981:75) choice of the terms regarding the trustworthiness of qualitative research
findings, i.e. credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability, were chosen
and applied as discussed below.
Credibility is a qualitative research term which seeks to establish the congruence of
the findings to reality (Golafshani 2003:599). Credibility establishes whether or not the
research findings represent plausible information drawn from the participants’ original
data and are a correct interpretation of the participants’ original views (Anney
2014:276). The following methods were considered by the researcher to ensure the
credibility of the research findings (Shenton 2004:64): the adoption of well-established
research methods, familiarisation with research sites, triangulation, ensuring honesty
by participants during data collection, iterative questioning and member checking.
These methods are discussed in detail in section 4.8.
Authors such as Bitsch (2005:77) as well as Tobin and Begley (2004:389) defined
transferability as the degree to which the findings of the research can be transferred
to other contexts with other participants. To ensure the possibility of transferring the
research findings to other contexts, the researcher provided a detailed description of
the entire research process, as this description pertains to contextual, philosophical,
21
methodological and procedural aspects used in conducting the research. The use of
purposive sampling also ensured that the researcher selected participants who were
typically knowledgeable of the research interests and thus contributed to meaningful
data collection for a deep understanding of the phenomenon of study, and whose
study findings can be well applied to similar research contexts.
Dependability seeks to show that, if the research was repeated in the same context
with the same methods and same participants, similar results were going to be
obtained (Ary et al. 2010:503). To ensure that the processes used to conduct the
research were dependable in terms of being repeated to provide the same findings,
the research report covered the details of the three levels that are generally accepted
as ensuring dependability of qualitative research findings (Shenton 2004:71). At the
strategic level, the research report covered the research design and its
implementation, describing what was planned and how it was executed. At an
operational level, the research report covered the details of data gathering, addressed
arrangements that were made before the field work started, as well as the details of
what was done in the field during the actual data collection. At a reflective appraisal
level, the research report included a summary of the research findings. Providing
details for the different levels ensured a comprehensive understanding of all the
processes that were used in conducting the research. This understanding will enable
future researchers to repeat the research process the same way to obtain the same
findings.
Confirmability requires that the steps must be taken to help ensure as far as possible
that the research’s findings are the results of the experiences and ideas of the
participants, and not the views and preferences of the researcher (Tobin & Begley
2004:392). The researcher kept all electronic records (audios) and non-electronic ones
(i.e. transcripts and documentary analysis tools). The researcher ensured these
records were available and kept in a safe place. These records will be useful to anyone
who would like to see the procedures employed and to examine whether findings are
confirmable and establish whether they are logically grounded on the data that were
collected (Ary 2010:502). Confirmability was also established by means of data
triangulation, whereby the data collection tools were applied to different participants
and yielded corresponding information that all speaks to one conclusion.
22
1.6.6
Ethical considerations
Ethical considerations refer to the set of standards that researchers should consider
before, during and after their research studies (De Vos 2005:57). The researcher
planned and conducted the research by adhering to the following ethical standards,
namely, accessibility to research sites, informed consent, confidentiality and
anonymity.
Regarding accessibility to research sites, the researcher was given a written
permission by the Director of Education in Omusati Region (Appendix A). With regard
to informed consent as a detailed explanation of the study to enable participants to
decide in a conscious and deliberate manner whether to participate in the study or not
(Jane & Jane 2003:76), the researcher compiled a document, titled Research
Information Sheet (Appendix F). Every participant was furnished with their own copies
of the Research Information Sheet which was explained by the researcher.
Participants who consciously decided to participate in the empirical investigation after
being informed about the investigation were required to sign an Informed Consent
Form in duplicate (Appendix G). Signing duplicate forms was meant for proof, so that
both the researcher and participants kept a copy of the signed Confidentiality
Agreement as individual evidence of the informed consent given.
Confidentiality requires that research information be kept confidential and only used
for the purposes for which it was intended (McMillan 2007:52). The researcher
explained that the contributions of the participants were going to be used for the
intended purpose of research and that they were going to be stored in a safe place
where they would not be accessible to anyone else other than the researcher. All
participants who were interviewed, were required to sign a Confidentiality Agreement
Form in duplicate (Appendix H).
Anonymity is the presentation of the data collected in a manner that the presentation
of the data cannot be identified and linked to the identity of anyone, in order to protect
the person from whom the information was collected (Cohen et al. 2002:61; McMillan
2007:52). Both alphabetic and numeric codes were used to represent research sites
and participants. The codes that were used to serve the purpose of anonymity are
23
presented in section 4.9.4. Participants were informed that these were the codes that
were going to be used in the research report and that the information they provided
was not going to be presented in a way that would be linked to their identity.
Before interviewing, participants were told not to mention names of individuals during
focus group interviewing or mention the names of any participant in the group when
they wanted to refer to their views, but rather use the codes as were given prior to the
commencement of the focus group interviewing, and every teacher knew what his/her
code was. Participants for individual interviews were also informed not to mention
names of individuals during interviewing.
1.7
DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This study focused on the motivation of qualified teachers at rural schools who were
receiving the financial incentive. The study excluded the motivation of qualified
teachers at urban schools. The qualified teachers belonged to rural schools that have
grade ten, which is the junior secondary grade level where learners sit for standardised
national examinations, on which basis learner performance was established. Given
the adverse conditions characterising the rural environment as discussed in section
3.4, the rural schools included in this study were those reachable by normal vehicles
other than by a four-wheel drive vehicle.
The rural schools as research sites were those in the Omusati Region, in Tsandi Circuit
as per the sampling criteria discussed in section 1.6.2. Given the case study as a
qualitative research design adopted for this study (section 1.6.1), the rest of the rural
schools other than the sampled rural schools in Omusati Region, were not the focus
of the study. This implies that the findings of this study may not be generalised to other
schools, unless such schools share common characteristics as the sampled schools
that formed part of the case study investigation.
1.8
CONCEPT CLARIFICATION
The important concepts relating to this study are clarified next.
24
1.8.1
Influence
The word influence refers to the effect that a variable can make to where it is applied.
In the context of this study, influence is used in the title of the study to indicate that the
study sought to evaluate the effect of the financial incentive on teacher motivation and
learner performance at rural schools. As a result of data collection and analysis, the
influence was established from the interpretation and discussion of the analysed data.
1.8.2
Financial incentive
Financial incentive refers to the practice of providing extra monetary rewards to
teachers to motivate them to perform better (Lavy 2009:1979; Muralidharan &
Sundararaman 2011:39). In developed countries, a financial incentive is closely linked
to performance, where teachers get paid if their learners show better performance
(Glewwe et al. 2003:1; Roland 2011:2). However, a financial incentive can also be a
non-performance based financial incentive, given to teachers as a supplement on top
of their usual salaries (Glewwe et al. 2003:5). This study pertains to the influence of a
non-performance based financial incentive given to qualified teachers at rural
Namibian schools on top of their monthly salaries.
1.8.3
Teacher motivation
Teacher motivation refers to the factors which stimulate, maintain and channel
teachers’ behaviour towards a goal (Hoy & Miskel 1991:168; Seniwoliba 2013:183).
Teacher motivation is an integral constituent in the provision of quality education
(Emiliana & Ilana 2005:4; Griffin 2010:60; Kayuni & Tambulasi 2007:89). The factors
that motivate teachers to work at rural schools were established empirically by way of
interviews and a literature study.
1.8.4
Learner performance
Learner performance represents the degree of meeting expected competencies, also
known as ‘learning outcomes’, which learners should be able to demonstrate at the
end of the learning programme (Jacobs et al. 2004:109; Maree & Fraser 2004:16).
25
When learners have mastered the competencies exceptionally, that yields ‘good’
learner performance, and if learners do not master the required competencies as
expected, that yields ‘poor’ learner performance. Learner performance is dependent
on the motivation of teachers in guiding learners to master the required competencies
(Milanowski et al. 2009:2; Glazerman et al. 2009:1). In this study, the mastery of
learning outcomes, as required competencies, was determined by analysing,
interpreting and discussing the data from applicable documents to see how learner
performance was before and after the implementation of the financial incentive. The
empirical investigation and literature study also established factors underlying learner
performance.
1.8.5
Rural schools
Rural refers to the remote parts of a country, usually far from cities and towns and
usually having a low population (Hardre, Sullivan & Crowson 2009:5). In the Namibian
context, rural areas are typically characterised by a lack of services such as clean
water, electricity, housing, medical and transport services. Contrary to the norm, the
rural areas of Namibia are more populated than the urban areas (GRN 2011:18). A
school is an institution where teaching and learning activities take place. For the
purpose of this study, rural schools refer to schools situated in highly populated remote
areas where there is harsh living and working conditions, which are not conducive to
teaching and learning activities. The rural schools were the research sites for the
empirical study.
1.8.6
Optimal learning
The fight against all social and economic challenges can be defeated by the provision
of adequate education and training of the human capital needed for rural development
(Shadreck 2012:768). Optimal learning implies the practice by which learners master
the learning outcomes in schools and are able to demonstrate the mastered learning
outcomes well after completing their schooling, all for the sake of self-realisation while
simultaneously contributing to national development.
26
1.8.7
Good teacher
Walker (2008:63) defines a good teacher as a particular kind of teacher who is most
successful in helping learners to learn. As teacher characteristics are considered the
factors underlying learners’ performance, a good teacher represents that person who
demonstrates the necessary characteristics that enable learners to master the learning
outcomes which translates into optimal learning (Maurer 2012:3; Sharma & Gupta
2014:201).
1.9
CHAPTER OUTLINE
This thesis on financial incentive in relation to teacher motivation and learner
performance in rural Namibian schools is organised according to the following outline:
Chapter one – Orientation
This Chapter serves as preamble for the study and introduces the thesis to the reader.
The Chapter orientate the reader around the research background issues, as these
issues pertain to the introduction, statement of the problem, motivation for the study,
preliminary literature reviews as well as an overview of the methodology that was used
to collect data useful for answering the formulated research questions. A synopsis of
the ethical considerations and the clarification of key concepts underlying the study
are also treated in this Chapter.
Chapter two – Motivation theories and teacher motivation
This Chapter focuses on the relevant theoretical frameworks of employee motivation
with reference to teachers as employees. Drawing insights from the motivation
theories, the Chapter discusses the factors influencing motivation of employees, with
reference to teachers and how these factors shape teaching and learning activities.
The Chapter ends with a discussion of the conceptual framework underlying the study.
27
Chapter three – Teaching and learning at rural schools
This Chapter explains the processes of teaching and learning at rural schools. It starts
by defining the required type of learning that learners ought to acquire and
demonstrate. Since good learning depend on the quality of teaching, the Chapter
discusses the characteristics of a good teacher. The Chapter then ends with debates
related to the living and working conditions in rural communities.
Chapter four – Research design and methodology
The research methodology Chapter contains an explanation of the empirical research
process in terms of the research paradigm, research approach, research design, the
research sites and participants, data collection methods, data analysis techniques and
accounting for trustworthiness of the research findings. The Chapter ends by
explaining how ethical standards were observed during the research.
Chapter five – Research findings and interpretations
This Chapter contains firstly, the presentation of findings as a result of data analysis,
and secondly, the interpretation and discussion of the findings. The discussed findings
serve as the answers to the research questions. This Chapter therefore, contains the
gist of the whole study as it informs the reader of the answers to the research questions
that necessitated the research project.
Chapter six – Summary, conclusions and recommendations
This Chapter summarises the main findings of the research as derived from the
literature study and empirical investigation. From the summary of findings, conclusions
are drawn which shape the recommendations and suggestions for further research in
the field of study. The summarised findings and recommendations made are
considered as the study’s contribution to the pool of existing knowledge on teacher
motivation for improved learner performance in the context of rural education. The
summarised findings will fill the knowledge gap in literature and the recommendations
will be used to solve existing and anticipated problems in the field of study.
28
1.10
CONCLUSION
Financial incentive is regarded as a motivation for teachers worldwide, hence
Namibia’s application of a non-performance based financial incentive to motivate
qualified teachers to teach at rural schools. The available evidence on the success of
a financial incentive is mixed and not convincing. This research attempted to evaluate
the implementation of a financial incentive and establish whether the implementation
generated the envisioned success. The findings can contribute to the discourse on
teacher motivation for optimal learner performance with special reference to the rural
schools of developing countries. The data was collected by means of a literature study
and an empirical investigation, and the findings were analysed and presented. The
findings were then interpreted and discussed which led to the answers for the
formulated research questions. The next Chapter presents the theoretical frameworks
underlying teacher motivation.
29
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS AND TEACHER MOTIVATION
2.1
INTRODUCTION
This Chapter focuses on the theories pertaining to employee motivation with reference
to teachers as employees. The Chapter discusses teacher motivation and
performance with specific emphasis on factors that influence teachers’ motivation. The
Chapter ends with a discussion of the conceptual framework for the study.
2.2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS ON EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
In line with Camp’s (2001:4) interpretation of a theoretical framework as a basis that
provides the underlying assumptions of the issue under research, this Chapter outlines
the theories underlying employee motivation. A theory is a strong foundation from
which a phenomenon can be explained (Imenda 2014:186). This study is explained in
the context of the theories of employee motivation.
Various authors attempted to explain the concept of ‘employee motivation’ in Chapter
one (Hynds & McDonald 2010:525; Legotlo 2014:128; Ofoegbu 2004:81; Steyn
2002:85). Summarising these definitions, Hodgetts and Hegar (2005:39) define
motivation as a set of processes that move an employee towards a goal. There are
two types of motivation, namely, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
According to Gagne and Deci (2005:334), intrinsic motivation is the eagerness and
curiosity to perform a task that an employee obtains from within oneself. Juxtaposed
with intrinsic motivation, Mahadi and Jafari (2012:232) explain extrinsic motivation as
the external forces that encourage an employee to execute a task. In comparative
terms, intrinsic motivation comprises of the internal forces that make an employee
execute a task, whereas extrinsic motivation comprises the external forces that
motivate employees to execute a task.
30
The intrinsic and extrinsic types of motivation are underpinned by a variety of theories.
This study is informed by the following theories, namely, Hierarchy of Needs theory,
Two-Factor theory, Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory, Expectant
theory, Equity theory and the Goal-setting theory. In addition to what was said about
these theories in section 1.2.1.1, these theories are now discussed in detail in the next
sections.
2.2.1
Hierarchy of Needs theory
Abraham Maslow (1970) developed the theory of human motivation known as
Hierarchy of Needs theory. Maslow based his motivation theory on three assumptions,
firstly, there is always something that someone is trying to fulfil; secondly, a need
fulfilled is no longer compelling as an unfulfilled need; and, thirdly, needs are arranged
into five categories in an order of their priority (Van der Westhuizen 1991:195). Maslow
views some human needs as more powerful and important than others which led him
to divide human needs into five categories ranging from the most urgent needs to the
most advanced needs. These categories comprise of physiological needs, safety
needs, social needs, esteem needs and self-actualisation needs (Crook 1997:18; Van
der Westhuizen 1991:196). The central point of emphasis in Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs theory is that low-level needs should be met first before the high-level needs
are met. Figure 2.1 below shows Maslow’s classification of human needs in their order
of importance.
31
Figure 2.1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Source: Beardwell and Claydon (2007:493)
Figure 2.1 shows the five categories of human needs according to Abraham Maslow.
The hierarchy of human needs shows that basic human needs at the bottom are
satisfied first before high human needs at the top of the hierarchy are satisfied. At the
base of the pyramid are the psychological needs which human needs require for
survival for them to be able to progress to the next level. If psychological needs are
not satisfied, employees may become ill and may not have the energy to execute tasks
(Kaur 2013:1062). Organisations can satisfy these needs by providing employees with
a basic salary and favourable working conditions such as air conditioning and cafeteria
services (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:95).
The second level of the hierarchy consists of safety needs which include protection
from psychological and physical harm. Employees need a secure working environment
where their safety is prioritised, and where they can work without anxiety and fear.
Employees need to work in a safe working environment where they feel comfortable
doing the work (Kaur 2013:1062). If safety needs are not met, employees work under
32
fear of their own security and this compromise their productivity, and subsequently
lead to employees’ turnover (Kazi & Zadeh 2011:987). Organisations can satisfy these
needs by ensuring safe working conditions, fair rules and work security (Lunenburg &
Ornstein 2008:95).
The third level of the hierarchy comprises the social needs. Employees desire to be
loved, to be associated with, to belong to a group of people and feel appreciated and
wanted. When employees experience a sense of belongingness, they feel at ease to
associate themselves with others and form relationships (Martin & Joomis 2007:72).
If social needs are not satisfied, employees will feel isolated and detach themselves
from others. Such conditions decrease employee morale and productivity.
Organisations can satisfy these needs by providing opportunities for teamwork,
encouraging group discussions as well as providing good mentoring possibilities to
employees (Kaur 2013:1062).
The fourth level focuses on self-esteem needs. These include the need to have a
status, to be respected and a need to be given an opportunity to show competence in
problem solving. If these needs are not met, employees will feel humiliated and
deprived of the respect they deserve (Martin & Joomis 2007:72). This humiliation
affects employee motivation to move to the next level since their competencies are not
recognised. Kaur (2013:1062) emphasises that organisations can satisfy these needs
through employee recognition, award programmes and promotions.
The fifth level focuses on self-actualisation needs. Employees need to be able to
distinguish themselves from others as dictated by their capabilities, competencies and
achievements and be who they aspire to become in life (Crook 1997:18; Kaur
2013:1062; Martin & Joomis 2007:74). If an employee works in an environment where
there are no chances of realising their potential, employees can be demotivated and
can look for a better working environment where they will be able to realise their full
potential. Organisations can satisfy self-actualisation needs by involving employees in
tasks that capitalise on employees’ unique skills in order to stimulate employees’
personal growth and self-development (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:95).
33
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory has been applauded for improving the
understanding of human functioning and motivating human resources in organisations
(Jerome 2013:42). Despite this applause, researchers have pointed out significant
flaws in the theory. One flaw is the lack of empirical evidence to support the theory
(Salancik & Pfeffer 1977:427). This is because needs are socially acquired and may
vary between cultures, hence making empirical testing difficult to generalise, because
human beings are not alike as the theory assumes (Kaur 2013:1064).
Another flaw lies in the fact that there is little support for Maslow’s five needs
categories and his satisfaction-progression hypothesis (an employee is motivated to
progress to the higher level need after a satisfied need at a lower level) (Wahba &
Bridwell 1976:212). This is because other theorists grouped human needs into two
and three categories respectively (Alderfer 1972; Herzberg, Mausner & Snyderman
1993). In addition, Adelfer (1972) disputed Maslow’s satisfaction-progression
assumption, arguing that several needs can be achieved at the same time, and that
unsatisfied need can result in a frustration-regression tendency (an employee seeks
further satisfaction of a lower level need if the fulfilment of the higher level need is not
achieved), as opposed by satisfaction-progression tendency (Crooks 1997:19).
Hence, there is little evidence that supports Maslow’s strict hierarchy and the fact that
people satisfy only one motivating need at a time (Beardwell & Claydon, 2007:493494).
Moreover, the ranking model of needs may not represent a motivation process but
rather a value system, possibly relating to that of Maslow’s own social group (Hofstede
1980:42). Furthermore, Maslow’s classification of physiological and safety needs may
not be relevant to modern organisations as such needs are catered for by government
legislation (Crooks 1997:19). In terms of practical applications, it is argued that there
is no correlation in Maslow’s theory between employee motivation and employee
performance (Beardwell & Claydon 2007:493-494; Crooks 1997:19).
Contrasted to this limitation, this study established whether there is or is not a
correlation existing between employee motivation and employees’ performance
through a literature study (section 2.3; section 3.5) and empirical investigation (section
5.4.3). The Hierarchy of Needs theory, therefore, is not only relevant to this study for
34
the sake of establishing whether teachers’ categories of needs as identified by
Abraham Maslow, were fulfilled, but also to fill gaps in literature as this gap relates to
the correlation existing between employee motivation and employee performance as
raised by various authors (Beardwell & Claydon 2007:493-494; Crooks 1997:19).
2.2.2
Two-Factor theory
Fredrick Herzberg’s motivation theory builds on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory
with regard to categorising employees’ work-related needs. However, in the context of
Two-Factor theory, Herzberg categorised human needs into two main groups.
Herzberg constructed a two-dimensional paradigm of factors affecting employees’
attitudes about work (Gawel 1997:2), as compared to Maslow’s five-dimensional
paradigm. Herzberg distinguishes these factors as motivators and hygiene factors.
These factors are shown in Table 2.1 below.
Table 2.1: Herzberg’s hygiene factors and motivators
Hygiene Factors
Motivators
Organisational policies
The quality of work itself
Supervision
Recognition for achievement
Work security
Opportunity for advancement
Interpersonal relations
Responsibility
Salary
Personal development
Working environment
Training
Source: Van der Westhuizen (1991:200)
Table 2.1 shows that factors such as organisational policies, supervision, working
conditions and salary are hygiene factors. These are factors whose presence ensures
that employees perform at a minimum level, but do not induce motivation which
enables employees to perform optimally (Dartey-Baah & Amoako 2011:2). The
absence of hygiene factors can create work dissatisfaction, but their presence does
not necessarily motivate employees. On the contrary, Herzberg also identified factors
35
such as the work itself, achievement and recognition as strong determinants of
employee motivation. Herzberg called th ese factors motivators, because their
presence energises employees to work hard.
Thomas Sergiovanni tested Herzberg’s theory with teachers and concluded that
achievement, recognition and responsibility contributed to teacher motivation
(Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:99). Two-factor theory has contributed substantially to
school leaders’ thinking of what motivates teachers by distinguishing between intrinsic
and extrinsic factors. For example, teachers were demotivated as a result of poor
interpersonal relations with learners and other teachers, unconstructive leadership
styles, and ineffective school policies and administrative practices (Adjei & Amofa
2014:20).
Similarly to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, critics of Herzberg’s Two-Factor
theory assert that Herzberg’s theory focuses on employee satisfaction, instead of
focusing on the actual employee motivation and employee performance (Lunenburg
and Ornstein 2008:99). The methodology that Herzberg used to obtain his hygiene
factors and motivators was levelled as being too subjective and lacking empirical basis
(Malik & Naeem 2013:1032).
Hygiene factors are environmental, as they pertain to the context in which the work is
done whereas motivators relate to the content of the work being done by the
employees. This study focused on both the context in which teachers works and the
content of their work and established how the context and content of teaching
influenced teachers’ motivation and subsequent learner performance.
2.2.3
Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory
Alderfer’s Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory is an extension of
Herzberg’s and Maslow’s theories of motivation. ERG summarises Maslow and
Herzberg’s theories and classifies human needs into three categories namely,
existence, relatedness and growth needs. This needs are shown in Figure 2.2 below.
36
Growth
Desire for continued
personal development,
self-esteem, and fulfilment
Relatedness
Interaction, affection,
love, competition
Existence
Material objects: food,
water, money
Figure 2.2: Adelfer’s ERG theo
Source: Sharifzadeh (2015: 1)
Figure 2.2 illustrates that Adelfer concurs with Maslow pertaining to the hierarchical
structure of human needs. However, Adelfer summarised and grouped Maslow’s
needs into three categories, thereby reducing Maslow’s five-level hierarchy to a threelevel hierarchy. The existence needs of Adelfer comprise all forms of physiological and
material desires such as food, water and shelter. Adelfer’s existence needs
corresponds to Maslow’s psychological and safety needs.
The relatedness needs of Adelfer include all those needs that involve interpersonal
relationships with fellow employees and supervisors. The relatedness needs
correspond with Maslow’s belongingness and self-esteem needs. The growth needs
concern an individual’s intrinsic desire to grow and fulfil human potential. Adelfer’s
growth needs correspond to Maslow’s self-actualisation needs.
While Maslow believes in a satisfaction-progression hypothesis, Alderfer contends
that several needs can be experienced at the same time. Adelfer disputes Maslow’s
notion that a satisfied need is no longer compelling as a motivator like an unsatisfied
need, and proposed a frustration-regression hypothesis, whereby an individual will
seek further satisfaction of a lower level need if the fulfilment of the high level need is
not achieved (Crooks 1997:19).
The ERG theory made a useful contribution to motivation theory, but in common with
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, Crooks (1997:19-20) emphasises that the ERG
37
theory fails to address a number of issues of which the following two are the major
ones. Firstly, human motivation is subjective, what is perceived by one person as a
satisfying need may not be a satisfying need for another person. Secondly, not only
do needs vary, but human behaviours as a result of an unsatisfied or satisfied need
may also vary. It can therefore be argued that employee behaviours such as turnover
and transfer from one location to another might be a result of either satisfied or
unsatisfied needs at the workplace.
Related to this study, ERG theory is relevant not only on the justification provided
under the Hierarchy of Needs theory and Two-Factor theory being the founding
theories of ERG, but also on its frustration-regression hypothesis, as this study
established how teachers sought further satisfaction of a lower level need if the
fulfilment of the higher level need was not achieved (section 5.4.3.4).
2.2.4
Expectancy theory
The needs theories for motivation by Alderfer, Herzberg and Maslow explain the
contextual and content necessities that motivate employees in the workplace.
Expectancy theory is concerned with the cognitive aspects involved with motivation
and the way these cognitive aspects relate to each other (Lunenburg 2011:1). The
Expectancy theory was first developed by Victor Vroom then expanded and refined by
Porter and Lawler. Expectancy theory is a cognitive process theory of motivation that
is based on the idea that people believe there are relationships between the effort they
put forth at work, the performance they achieve from that effort, and the rewards they
receive for their performance (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:105). Employees are highly
motivated if they believe that good efforts will lead to good performance and good
performance will lead to desired rewards.
Expectancy theory is based on four assumptions (Lunenburg 2011:2). Firstly,
employees join organisations with expectations about their needs, motivations and
past experiences. These influence how employees react to the organisation.
Secondly, an employee’s behaviour is the result of conscious choice. This implies that
employees’ expectations determine their behaviour in organisations.
38
Thirdly, different employees want different things from the organisation (e.g. good
salary, work security, advancement, and challenge). Fourthly, employees will choose
among alternatives to optimise personal outcomes for them. These assumptions led
the expectancy theory to have three key elements as expectancy, instrumentality and
valence (Lunenburg 2011:2). These key elements are shown in Figure 2.3 below.
Figure 2.3: The key elements of Expectancy theory
Source: Lunenburg (2011: 2)
Figure 2.3 shows expectancy is an employee’s estimate of the probability that jobrelated effort will result in a given level of performance. Expectancy is based on
probabilities and ranges from 0 to 1 (Lunenburg 2011:2). If an employee sees no
chance that effort will lead to the desired performance level, the expectancy is 0. On
the other hand, if the employee is completely certain that the task will be completed
given the effort made, the expectancy has a value of 1. Employee estimates of
expectancy lie between two extremes, effort and performance.
Instrumentality is an employee’s estimate of the probability that a given level of
achieved task performance will lead to various work outcomes (Parijat & Bagga
2014:2). As with expectancy, instrumentality ranges from 0 to 1. For example, if an
employee sees that a good performance will always result in a salary increase, the
instrumentality has a value of 1. If there is no perceived relationship between a good
performance rating and a salary increase, then the instrumentality is 0.
Valence is the strength of an employee’s preference for a particular reward (Parijat &
Bagga 2014:3). Thus, salary increases, promotion, peer acceptance, recognition by
supervisors or any other reward might have more or less value to individual
39
employees. Unlike expectancy and instrumentality, valences can be either positive or
negative. If an employee has a strong preference for attaining a reward, valence is
positive. If the employee has a weak preference for attaining a reward, valence is
negative (Lunenburg 2011:3).
The total range for a valence is from -1 to +1, implying that the employee can have
both a strong and a weak preference for attaining a reward. If an employee is not
satisfied with the reward, valence is 0, if the employee is satisfied with the reward,
valence is 1 (Parijat & Bagga 2014:3). Theoretically, a reward has a valence because
it is related to an employee’s needs. This implies that employees are likely to perform
because they have the needs satisfied that are important to them. Therefore, valence
is closely linked to the needs theories of motivation by Alderfer, Herzberg and Maslow.
An employee is motivated to the degree that he or she believes that the degree of
effort (expectancy), will lead to acceptable performance, and performance will be
rewarded (instrumentality), and the value of the rewards is highly positive (valence).
Applied to this study, Expectancy theory is relevant to this study which focused on
determining whether the efforts (expectancy) teachers exerted to increase their
performance (instrumentality), were worth the rewards (valence) they received.
2.2.5
Equity theory
Another motivation theory similar to the Expectancy theory is Porter and Lawler’s
Equity theory, which asserts that employees hold certain beliefs about their work in
relation to the inputs they invest in to obtain the outcomes (Lunenburg & Ornstein
2008:108). The inputs to employment refer to all the efforts that employees make to
execute work. These inputs include education, experience and training (Hofmans
2012:473-473). The outcomes of employment refer to all the rewards an employee
receives for executing the work and they include salary, promotions, job security and
working conditions (De Gieter, De Cooman, Hofmans, Pepermans & Jegers 2012:50).
Employees evaluate the fairness of their outcomes with employment by comparing
their ratio of outcomes to inputs, with the anticipation that the ratio of outcomes to
inputs will be equitable. When the ratios are equal, employees feel that a fair and
equitable exchange exists with the employer. When the ratios are not equal in the
40
sense of inputs being equivalent to outcomes, employees experience the situation as
one consisting of inequities which can reduce employee motivation.
If there are inequities, an employee may engage in certain behaviours to restore equity
(Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:109). An employee who feels underpaid may contribute
less time and efforts to the job, whereas an employee who feels overpaid may work
extra hours without pay. Alternatively, an underpaid employee can request a transfer
or leave the organisation. It is also argued that the judging of fairness by employees
in this equity theory lacks credibility since it is based on employees’ perceptions which
may not necessarily be valid (Hofmans 2012:473).
Overpayment as a positive inequity have motivated employees to increase their
performance (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:110). In addition, overpayment inequity
appears to work best with those who have a strong conscience and a sense of what
is ethically appropriate. On the other hand, underpayment, as a negative inequity,
causes absenteeism and turnover. The major criticism of equity theory is the inability
to predict what employees regard as inequity and which methods employees will use
to restore equity. This makes it difficult for leaders not to be aware of the areas of
inequities from employees’ perspectives in order to implement appropriate measures
to address inequities (Grant & Shin 2011:9-10).
Expectancy theory is applicable to this study, insofar as this study sought to interact
with teachers to express their views on how they see equity prevailing at their rural
schools, in the conditions of their employment and service benefits. In addition,
teachers were also requested to suggest measures on how equity should be restored
in their working conditions and service benefits.
2.2.6
Goal-setting theory
The Goal-Setting theory emphasises that organisations and employees set goals
which direct their attention and actions (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:110). The goalsetting theory was pioneered by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham, and emphasises the
importance of organisations in setting goals that lead to high performance and
motivated employees. Goal-Setting theory believes that challenging goals mobilise
41
energy, lead to higher efforts and increase persistent efforts. Locke believes that goals
motivate employees to develop strategies that will enable them to perform at the
required level.
Accomplishing a set goal can lead to employee satisfaction and increased motivation.
On the contrary, if the goal is not accomplished it can result in frustration and lower
levels of motivation. Applied to the context of this study, it can be argued that schools
which do not set challenging goals are likely to have low levels of performance since
teachers do not set high targets to achieve. This resulted in low teacher motivation
and low learner performance. Teachers may also set their own goals to pursue which
may require them to leave the schools in pursuit of attaining their goals. This study
established how teachers and other educational stakeholders set goals and how these
goals improved their level of performance (section 5.4.3.3).
These discussions of the different motivation theories informed a focus on teacher
motivation addressed hereunder.
2.3
MOTIVATION OF TEACHERS AS EMPLOYEES
The concept of teacher motivation has been defined by various scholars. Velez
(2007:1) defined teacher motivation as an encouragement of teachers to do their best
in the classroom. Similarly, Naomi, Ronald, Isaac and Raja (2012:45) conceptualised
teacher motivation as the freedom to try new ideas to achieve appropriate
responsibility levels. This freedom brings about the arousal and continuation of
teachers’ behaviours. In support of these definitions, Salifu and Agbenyega (2013:1)
emphasise that teacher motivation refers to the tangible and intangible working
conditions that have the potential to influence teachers positively to demonstrate
desirable behaviours leading to high quality professional practice. Drawing insights
from these definitions, teacher motivation is regarded as the underlying force behind
teachers’ actions.
Although quality teaching has become the focus of many education systems across
the globe, Salifu and Agbenyega (2013:2) emphasise that more attention should be
given to teacher motivation as this motivation pertains to quality teaching and
42
improved learning outcomes in schools. Lack of teacher motivation results in
shortages of teachers among schools (section 1.2.1.2). The motivation of teachers is
therefore very important as it directly affects learner performance which is closely
related to the quality of education that the learners receive (Alam & Farid 2011:1;
Naomi et al. 2012:44). Employers have a responsibility of ensuring that teachers
perform to the best of their abilities. To execute this responsibility successfully,
employers should pay attention to a number of factors that affect teachers’ motivation
and performance.
2.4
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHER MOTIVATION AND
PERFORMANCE
Informed by the motivation theories underlying teacher motivation (section 2.2), the
factors that influence teacher motivation are discussed next.
2.4.1
The work itself
An investigation into the relationship between the quality of work life and employee
motivation in Tehran, found that the quality of the work improves employee motivation
(Sasan & Yahya 2012:30). Similar findings also revealed that teachers who experience
satisfaction at their school or satisfaction with the profession of teaching are motivated
to remain in the profession (Beverly, Vicki & George 2008:2). This implies that the
nature and quality of the work teachers are involved in plays a vital role in their
motivation. However, Beverly et al. (2008:3) contradict the idea of satisfaction at
school and put more emphasis on professional loyalty. The authors argue that
teachers who choose teaching as their profession because of inherent professional
values and loyalty to the profession are more satisfied and motivated than those
whose entry into the profession is solely for economic reasons.
Job satisfaction acts as a motivation to work as it results in a positive psychological
effect for employees as a consequence of their happiness and feeling of content with
their work (Rao 2005:480; Saleem, Mahmood & Mahmood 2010:215). Job satisfaction
enhances job involvement resulting in loyalty and commitment which leads to better
performance by employees (Pandey 2005:5; Velnampy 2008:66). Drawing insights
43
from these arguments by different authors, it is clear that employees who are satisfied
with their work are also motivated employees.
Authors such as Horwitz, Heng and Quazi (2003:23) make Herzberg’s theory more
pertinent to this study on teacher motivation by confirming that employees are
motivated by challenging work and support of management, which Herzberg classified
as motivators. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory as it applies to self-actualisation
as the highest need for humans is hailed by Saleem et al. (2010:215) and Locke and
Latham (2004:388) who emphasise that challenging work is the best motivator as it
enables employees to be more competitive, work with efficiency and utilise their full
capabilities.
Employees aspire to work characteristics such as a meaningful job, sufficient
remuneration, job security, good relationships with colleagues, recognition and credit
for work well done, opportunities for promotion and advancement, a comfortable, safe
and attractive work environment, competent and fair leadership, and reasonable order
and directions from authorities (Islam & Ismail 2008:344; Kalipraad 2006:24).
These employment needs are relevant to the ERG theory due to correlations with
employees’ needs for meaningful existence (meaningful work, remuneration and job
security), employees’ relatedness needs (good relationships with colleagues,
recognition, and credit for work well done) and employees’ growth needs
(opportunities for promotion and advancement). On this basis, a fulfilling work should
be characterised by assembling all the different needs of employees. This ensures
that the employees are not deficient of any work-related need not met.
In light of these needs, Caulton (2012:5) recommends that employers listen to their
employees, value and respect their employees’ dignity, inputs and contributions to
work in order to develop and sustain employees’ positive mind-sets about their work.
The importance of a positive mind-set about the work and workplace relates to the fact
that employees regard their work as a place to find personal meaning, stability, positive
relationships and positive feelings (Cartwright & Holmes 2006:202; Harter, Schmidt &
Hayes 2002:268; Harter, Schmidt & Keyes 2002:205; Wagner & Harter 2006:17). Job
satisfaction in the field of education results in higher levels of teacher retention and
44
high levels of performance (Christopher 2014:13; Dugguh & Dennis 2014:11;
Giacometti 2005:17). It became clear that loyalty to the profession and its challenging
nature in the sense of utilising teachers’ full potential is indeed a motivator for teachers
to stay committed to their teaching.
In spite of all these positive work anticipations by employees, which include teachers,
work can also be a place of frustration and disengagement for many employees
(Cartwright & Holmes 2006:199). This is because employees are faced with demands
of increasing expectations by stakeholders to produce more for less reward, often with
fewer resources and unclear expectations in an environment with limited support
services (Covey 2004:2; Shuck & Wollard 2008:49). This is what Herzberg (1993)
refers to as hygiene factors as these factors cause employee dissatisfaction at the
workplace and ultimately low morale and motivation. These work frustrations also
relate to Vroom’s (1994) Expectant theory insofar as requiring from employers to
provide employees with reasonable work demands and with remuneration that is
equivalent to the work demands and that meets the expectations of the employees.
When employment needs are not met, employee stress increases, resulting in
disengaged employees in the workplace (Cartwright & Homes 2006:199; Harter et al.
2002:205). Disengaged employees distance themselves from the rational and
emotional components of work (Akinfolarin & Akomolafe 2011:26). Disengaged
employees are physically present at the workplace, but they do not have the energy
and passion to execute their work (Shuck & Wollard 2008:49).
This results in employees starting to withdraw from their working teams and eventually
from the work. Applied to this study on teacher motivation, teachers’ attrition and poor
performance at rural schools, despite the implementation of financial incentive, can be
attributed to the absence of appropriate teacher motivation strategies with regard to
profession-related fulfilments such as motivating teachers to have passion towards
their work.
45
2.4.2
Rewards and compensation
A study conducted in Nigerian public schools on the influence of teacher incentive on
learner performance, revealed that teachers who are motivated as a result of an
incentive teach more effectively than those teachers who are not motivated at all
(Akpan 2013:1). Carraher, Gibson and Buckley (2006:7) advocate that there should
be an effective reward system to retain the high performers in the organisation and
reward should be related to their productivity.
Rewards can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic rewards are rewards inherent to the
work itself like the satisfaction experienced from completing a task successfully,
experiencing appreciation from authorities and autonomy, while extrinsic rewards are
tangible rewards external to the work itself like remuneration, bonuses, fringe benefits,
and promotions (Gagne & Deci 2005:334; Mahadi & Jafari 2012:232). In order to
maximise the performance of employees, organisations should formulate a reward
system policy to increase and sustain employee motivation (Hafiza, Shah, Jamsheed
& Zaman 2011:327).
Rewarding employees relates to the Expectant theory which emphasises that
employees are more likely to strive in their work if there is an anticipated reward they
value in return for the work done. Fulfilling work-related needs such as reasonable
remuneration, recognition for good work done, participation in decision making and a
generally conducive working environment reaffirms Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
theory relating to basic and esteem needs. The fact that teachers ranked wages and
salaries as their most important motivational factor as advanced by Adjei and Amofa
(2014:19) serves as evidence that the hierarchical functioning of Maslow’s needs
theory is relevant. School managers need to ensure that teachers’ remuneration is
reasonably serving as a motivational factor.
When teachers feel that they are not paid according to their capabilities and
performance, they will be demotivated, resulting in serious repercussions against
learner performance. Schools should therefore provide all the essential fringe benefits
to their employees and pay teachers according to their qualifications and capabilities
in order to increase their work motivation and performance.
46
2.4.3
Working conditions
A physical environment that is conducive to teaching and learning enhances work
performance and serves as a motivating factor for both learners and teachers (Akpan
2013:1). In many developing countries teachers’ physical working conditions are not
supportive and thus lower their motivation and commitment to teach (Gatsinzi et al.
2014:263). One of the factor inhibiting motivation and a positive teaching and learning
environment is overcrowded classrooms. The factors accompanying over-crowded
classrooms such as a less supportive parent community and less disciplinary control
over learners results in demotivated teachers (Ingersoll 2001:22; Okuni 2003:29). In
many instances, lack of proper housing for teachers also serves as a demotivating
factor. With regard to proper housing, many teachers teaching in rural environments
have to resort to cheap housing since schools have no accommodation for staff (Alam
& Farid 2011:298; Gatsinzi, Jesse & Makewa 2014:265).
An attempt at solving the problem of overcrowded classrooms by teaching some
learners of the same class in the morning session while others are taught in the
afternoon session impacts negatively on teachers in terms of commitment and
motivation. As the same teachers teach both sessions, such practice creates harsh
working conditions for teachers (Gatsinzi et al. 2014:264).
Related to overcrowded classrooms is the lack of sufficient instructional materials
accompanied by unsupportive management, and the perception of being devalued by
the society (VSO 2003:7). Buckley, Schneider and Shang (2004:1) found the quality
of school facilities as an important predictor of teacher retention and attrition. Teachers
who are dissatisfied with the quality of their physical working conditions seek
employment at other schools with more supportive environments (Buckley et al.
2004:1; Gatsinzi et al. 2014:272).
Salifu and Agbenyega (2013:2) emphasise that to ensure teachers’ commitment to
their duties, it is important that their physical and material working environment be
improved by reducing class size for effective classroom management, providing
adequate teaching and learning materials to facilitate pedagogical delivery, making
available enough furniture to cater for every learner, ensuring an opportunity for
47
professional upgrading and paying teachers’ salaries that are reasonable to guarantee
them decent lives. Such working conditions could enable both the attraction and
retention of teachers of high academic quality into the teaching profession.
Various countries worldwide have introduced a variety of non-performance and
performance based incentive to motivate teachers to work under harsh working
conditions (section 1.1). Despite this incentive, there is still a shortage of teachers
caused by poor working conditions (Kobakhidze 2010:71; McEwan & Santibanez
2005:56). The quality of the working environment and working conditions determine
the motivation of teachers by dictating whether teachers should leave or remain in the
teaching profession. The views of Buckley et al. (2004:1) and Gatsinzi et al. (2014:272)
on teachers seeking employment elsewhere for career growth represent the realities
of Adelfer’s (1972) ERG theory. Applied to this study on teacher motivation, it was
established that teachers were forced to leave the environment in which their
relatedness and growth needs were not met and pursue careers in working
environments that were supportive of their aspiring needs. Working conditions should
therefore be made favourable in order to motivate and retain teachers.
2.4.4
Professional growth
Effective schools are successful in creating professional environments that enable
teachers to accomplish their tasks, to participate in decisions affecting their work, to
have reasonable autonomy in executing their duties, to share a common purpose, to
receive recognition, to be treated with respect and dignity by others, to work together
as colleagues and to be provided with ample staff development opportunities to help
them develop their horizons further (Gatsinzi et al. 2014:263). This results in teachers
being creative, persistent and committed to their work as teachers’ professional
conduct and work performance is influenced by motivational factors that are aligned
to their professional needs (Nzulwa 2014:60). If teachers’ motivation is not in line with
teachers’ professional needs, teachers do not exhibit desired professional conduct.
Hence professional development programmes should be tailored to meet teachers’
professional needs and aspirations (Alam & Farid 2011:298).
48
Teachers experience professional satisfaction and growth differently. In the United
Kingdom, teacher motivation and satisfaction are related to working with learners while
dissatisfaction is related to work overload, poor remuneration and how teachers are
recognised by the society (Gatsinzi et al. 2014:263). However, a study conducted to
examine the factors affecting teacher motivation in Rawalpindi City and Kohat City
revealed that teachers prefer to be motivated by factors such as professional training,
incentive and salary commensurate with their qualification, and they are demotivated
by learners’ poor behaviour and teachers’ low socio-economic status (Alam & Farid
2011:298; Ud Din, Tufail, Shereen, Nawax & Shabbaz 2012:442). Henceforth,
professional related factors and reasonable compensation packages can help to retain
high performing teachers who are highly motivated (Nzulwa 2014:65).
Teacher motivational factors are in line with Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory of
motivators and demotivators in that enjoying the content of the work itself (working
with learners) represents a motivator, whereas the context of the work (work overload,
learners’ behaviour and socio-economic status) refers to demotivators. For teachers
to be highly motivated, they need a high level of professional autonomy, an intellectual
challenge and a feeling that they are benefiting the society (Gatsinzi et al. 2014:263).
Teachers’ turnover and low performance can thus be attributed to a lack of
professional autonomy and intellectual challenge in their profession. Teachers’ need
for intellectual challenge can also be related to the Goal-Setting theory, in the sense
that if a specific school does not have clear-cut goals, teachers will be prompted to set
their own goals that challenge their intellectual and professional capabilities. As a
result, some teachers may desert their schools in pursuit of their goals. The argument
is that when teachers are motivated they feel responsible and committed to their
profession (Salifu & Agbenyega 2013:3). A high sense of teacher responsibility and
professional commitment could improve learner performance.
The discussion of the factors that influence teacher motivation shaped the conceptual
framework of the study as explained next.
49
2.5
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE RELATION BETWEEN
TEACHER MOTIVATION AND LEARNER PERFORMANCE
A conceptual framework is the end result of bringing together a number of related
concepts to explain and give a broader understanding of the phenomenon under
research (Imenda 2014:189). The conceptual framework organises the key concepts
in the study in order to define the focus and direction for the study. The key concepts
are derived from the theories and findings from the literature.
The conceptual framework emerges from wide and intensive reading of relevant
literature, and links research projects to ongoing conversations in the researcher’s field
by establishing the following parameters (Thomas 2012:89): firstly, it reminds the
researcher what is the focus and what is not the focus of the research project and,
secondly, it provides direction for the formulation research questions, the research
design and the search for the literature review.
In addition, a conceptual framework provides coherence to the researcher’s thoughts,
making it easy to convey how and why the researcher’s ideas matter relative to some
larger body of ideas embodied in the research, writings and experience of other
scholars (Schram 2006:59). Informed by the theoretical framework and the
discussions of the factors motivating teachers, the conceptual framework that guided
the study is depicted in Figure 2.4 below.
50
Work
Meaningful job
Challenging tasks
Goal-oriented
Job satisfaction
Rewards
Recognition
Appreciation
Reasonable salaries
Fair compensation
Environment
Conducive
Adequate facilities
Able leadership
Good co-workers
Manageable class
size
Teacher Motivation
Context
Content
Attraction
Retention
Loyalty
Teaching
Facilitating
Assessing
Learner performance
High achievement
Promotion
Awards
Profession
Growth
Promotion
Development
Autonomy
Figure 2.4: Conceptual framework for the relation between teacher motivation and
learner performance
Figure 2.4 shows the conceptual framework for the study, indicating that teacher
motivation is influenced equally by the factors relating to the work itself, the reward
systems, the working environment and the profession. The conceptual framework
shows that when teachers’ desired needs attached to these factors are equally met,
teachers become motivated, both with the context in which they execute their work,
and with the content of their work.
In terms of the context, motivated teachers are attracted to the specific work, such that
they want to remain with the specific work and stay committed to what they are doing.
With regard to the content of the work, motivated teachers are optimally involved in
teaching and facilitating the learning process as well as assessing learners’ academic
progress. This conceptual framework relates to Vroom’s Expectancy theory, insofar as
the factors on which efforts should be exerted resembles expectancy, whereas teacher
motivation resembles instrumentality as an achieved performance resulting from
51
successful coordination of the factors, and learner performance resembles valence as
an output of instrumentality.
The philosophy underlying the conceptual framework is that appropriate teacher
motivation strategies should culminate in improved learner performance at rural
schools. Ultimately, teachers’ optimal teaching, their facilitation and assessment of the
learning process will culminate in good learner performance in their standardised
national examination, which is a measure of the teachers’ performance. Teachers’
performance is measured by how best their learners master the learning outcomes.
The desired teacher performance is characterised by high academic achievement, the
promotion of learners to next grades and receiving of awards by learners. The process
is cyclical in good learner performance prompts school management to continuously
motivate teachers to enable learners to produce the same good results repeatedly.
2.6
CONCLUSION
Teacher motivation is an integral part of the success of the teaching and learning
processes. The study established that motivation theories apply to teacher motivation.
Motivating teachers requires school leaders to fulfil crucial work-related needs which
are both intrinsic and extrinsic in nature. The fulfilment of these needs in return
motivate teachers to increase their performance which is demonstrated by learner
achievement in standardised national examinations. Desired learner achievement can
prompt school leaders to continuously adhere to fulfilling teachers’ work-related needs
in order to energise teachers to maintain increased learner performance. The next
Chapter presents the processes of teaching and learning in a rural context.
52
CHAPTER 3
TEACHING AND LEARNING IN RURAL SCHOOLS
3.1
INTRODUCTION
This Chapter discusses the teaching and learning processes as happening in a rural
context. The Chapter begins by explaining optimal learning and the conditions
considered as supportive for optimal learning to take place. The Chapter then explains
what constitutes a good teacher by outlining characteristics of a good teacher, which
is succeeded by an explanation of living and working in a rural environment in Namibia.
The Chapters ends with a discussion of the conditions that characterised teaching and
learning at rural schools.
3.2
DEFINING OPTIMAL LEARNING
Education is a key investment in any society and a critical ingredient for a knowledge
based economy, as it provides knowledgeable human resources that are required to
propel economic growth. Investments in education ensure that young people, whether
in rural or urban communities, are equipped with the knowledge, skills and exposure
they need to enable them to contribute meaningfully to national development (Adedeji
& Olaniyan 2011:23). The fight against all social and economic challenges, particularly
in rural communities, can be defeated by the provision of adequate education and
training of the human capital needed for rural development (Shadreck 2012:768).
The ultimate aim of education is to equip learners with the required competencies that
will enable them to function optimally in society. For the purpose of this study, optimal
learning implies the practice by which learners master the learning outcomes in
schools and are able to demonstrate the mastered learning outcomes well after
completing their schooling, all for the sake of self-realisation while simultaneously
contributing to national development.
Learners are not only required to master the learning outcomes in order to pass
examinations or get promoted to the next grade, but must also be able to apply the
acquired skills, knowledge and experience to real life situations both in and outside
53
school establishments. Optimal learning is demonstrated by the extent to which a
learner masters curriculum content in terms of theories and applications (Aziz 2005:1).
Although teachers have a mammoth task to play in ensuring effective teaching which
translates into optimal learning (section 1.2.1.2), many factors in addition to teachers
are internationally recognised as enablers for optimal learning to take place.
These factors include the provision of adequate resources related to teaching and
learning materials, physical infrastructures and facilities (Chiu & Khoo 2005:575;
Lingam & Lingam 2013:2160). Although teachers are well-trained and dedicated and
ensure an enabling environment for successful learning, they cannot provide a
complete enriching teaching and learning experience to learners which ensures
optimal learning in the absence of adequate resources (Lingam & Lingam 2013:2161).
The school environment is an important enabler for optimal learning because it serves
as the playground for the interaction of all inputs for teaching and learning. School
environments should consist of well-qualified teachers who should be provided with
adequate curriculum materials in order to realise optimal learning and a library should
also be available to assist teachers with additional information to help learners master
the learning outcomes (Cass 2007:65; Lingam & Lingam 2013:2161). The school
environment should have sufficient buildings and instructional materials in order to
facilitate the mastery of learning outcomes as inadequacy of these resources can
detract from efforts to provide optimal learning.
Even though adequate resources are very critical in realising optimal learning, the
Education for All (EFA) campaign and the Dakar World Conference on Education
confirmed that most schools are in need of facilities, whereas some schools’ facilities
need urgent improvement which has negatively affected teachers in implementing
effective teaching for optimal learning (Lingam & Lingam 2013:2161). This is because
suitable and relevant instructional materials and physical facilities can help teachers
in their instruction and help learners to learn who, in response to better resources and
better instructions, would both understand better and profit from all aspects of school
work as it would be more meaningful to them (Lingam & Lingam 2013:2161). Having
a better understanding of school work and regarding them as meaningful on the side
of the learner can best guarantee the achievement of optimal learning.
54
Optimal learning is less achievable in rural areas as learners in rural areas are proven
to be educationally disadvantaged compared to their urban counterparts. Rural
learners are disadvantaged due to the narrow scope of the curriculum at their schools,
poor instructional practices and lack of proper infrastructure in rural areas compared
to urban areas (Monk 2007:155; Howley, Rhodes & Beall 2009:515; OwusuAcheampong & Williams 2015:34-35).
Learners in rural communities in Fiji have poor mastery of learning outcomes due to
poverty and inadequate school facilities (Lingam & Lingam 2013:2161). On the
contrary, a study of high-performing schools in Fiji showed that, among other
characteristics, high performing urban schools performed optimally because they
were adequately resourced (Lingam & Lingam 2013:2162).
This finding is consistent with Chiu and Khoo (2005:576) who found that learners with
more resources have more learning opportunities which makes it easier to master
learning outcomes. It can also be argued that, even with multi-grade teaching which
seems to pose challenges to teachers in rural communities (Adedeji & Olaniyan
2011:6), the practice can be made easier with the availability of sufficient educational
resources (Lingam & Lingam 2013:2162). This is clear evidence that lack of adequate
school facilities and instructional resources inhibit the realisation of optimal learning
whereas sufficient educational resources and facilities enhance optimal learning in
schools.
Apart from teachers’ professional preparedness, as will be dealt with in this Chapter
(section 3.3.1), teacher motivation as dealt with in section 2.4 also serves as an
important determinant in realising optimal learning in schools. A motivated teaching
staff is essential in ensuring good teaching that translates into optimal learning. It was
established in the United States of America that teachers play a very important role in
the learning process of learners who regard them as their role model (Zvavahera
2012:4). Therefore, teacher motivation is important as it directly affects learners in
terms of academic performance and role modelling.
Despite this importance, the worth of teachers in society is very low due to poor status
given to teachers by society, as teaching has been perceived as a profession for those
55
who could not secure their intended employment. Studies in Malawi and Tanzania that
examined why students opt for the teaching profession revealed negative images
towards the teaching profession. Revelations include seeing teaching as a last resort,
low status, low-paid job, failure to follow a desired career and seeing it as a sense of
vocation (Mtika & Gates 2011:424; Towse, Kent, Osaki & Kirua 2002:637). Proper
teacher motivation is thus required to motivate teachers to teach effectively despite
negative perceptions towards their profession.
Teachers in many African countries are working in challenging conditions that are
aggravated by poor remuneration, delay in payment of salaries, inadequate
allowances and promotions, insufficient teaching and learning resources, and
disrespect from government and the parent community (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:16).
These adverse circumstances that teachers experience have the tendency to reduce
their motivation to teach learners to a level where learners can demonstrate that
optimal learning has taken place. Teachers assert that poor teaching conditions and
decreasing level of motivation affect their performance in the classroom and reduce
the ability of learners to achieve satisfactory learning outcomes, thus reducing their
capability to deliver quality education (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:16).
A study that was conducted in Ghana on teacher motivation and job satisfaction
determined that factors such as salary, working conditions, incentive, medical
allowances, physical security, recognition for achievement, professional growth,
learner discipline, school policy and status of the profession were the most important
factors of motivation to teachers that could enhance their career, ensure that they are
retained for the teaching profession, or cause them to leave the profession (Seniwoliba
2013:181).
It is therefore important that school leaders know how to make these motivating factors
favourable to teachers in order to increase their motivation levels and effectiveness in
realising optimal learning, because if teachers are not motivated, no matter how well
they are trained and how well-resourced their schools are, they will not have the drive
to teach successfully.
56
The provision of sufficient resources and instructional materials alone may not
guarantee optimal learning, as these inputs have to be coordinated by motivated
teachers (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:29). The degree of teacher motivation will determine
the degree of effectiveness to which the various inputs have to be coordinated. For
optimal learning to take place, school leaders and other education authorities should
ensure that they have motivated teaching staff in each classroom in order to
coordinate the various inputs successfully. This can be done by improving the working
conditions and service benefits of teachers in order to motivate them to enhance
optimal learning (Bennel 2004:47).
Professional growth is important in ensuring that teachers empower themselves with
improved capacity. For teachers to be able to equip learners with contemporary
contents in the subject areas, it is imperative that teachers are exposed to a variety of
professional development programmes (Billingsley 2004:370; Shadreck 2012:768).
This will help teachers to ensure that learners receive relevant content and that
teachers utilise recent teaching pedagogies.
Professional development is also considered a method of retaining teachers
(Billingsley 2004: 371; Osterholm, Deborah & Johnson 2006:9). In order to make this
retention strategy effective, Osterholm et al. (2006:6) stress that teachers should be
compensated for acquiring and deepening knowledge and skills that contribute to
improved learner achievement. If teachers are not well compensated, schools are at
risks of losing teachers as they may feel unrecognised and under-utilised, and
therefore will seek employment opportunities that recognise their qualifications.
In terms of measuring optimal learning in schools, Mitra, Dangwal and Thadani
(2008:169) stress that a school is considered to provide high quality education if it has
good academic performance in national examinations, which is a measure used by
most governments in assessing school quality. It is clear that optimal learning implies
learners mastering the curriculum contents by demonstrating this mastery in
standardised national examinations, and being able to apply the contents culminating
in improved skills and behaviour in society.
57
It is clear that optimal learning as the ultimate aim of education representing teaching
that translates into the mastery of learning outcomes, is contingent on certain inputs
that are regarded as critical in enabling optimal learning to take place in schools. Inputs
such as sufficient facilities and instructional materials are required for good teaching
and learning to take place. Competent and high quality teachers are essential in
ensuring that the available resources are coordinated effectively to achieve optimal
learning. Motivation measures devised to retain teachers and ignite their potential to
teach effectively are crucial input measures which are related to continuous
professional development programmes to excel in relevancy and competency for the
teaching profession. All of these measures are applicable to rural schools that have
been proven to be short of resources, comprehensively resulting in optimal learning
remaining a challenge. It is also clear that optimal learning is made possible by a
combination of inputs, coordinated by the provision of good teachers which will be
discussed next.
3.3
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEACHER
Competent and qualified teachers are essential for effective teaching and for
enhancing the quality of learning. The capabilities of a competent teacher as
demonstrated in the classroom play a vital role in provoking effective and efficient
learning on the part of the learners (Markley 2004:1). Many researchers emphasise
that teachers have a fundamental role in their learners’ academic achievement and
their quality can highly influence learners’ performance outcomes (Campbell,
Kyriakides, Muijsc & Robinsona 2004:451; Lasley II, Siedentop & Yinger 2006:13;
Rockoff 2004:247).
An effective teacher encompasses a range of skills, competencies and motivation to
execute good teaching. Specific characteristics are required in order to expect
effective teaching that translate into optimal learning (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:44).
There has been increasing attention and debates in literature on teacher quality and
effectiveness relating to the mastery of learning outcomes by learners (Barley &
Beesly 2007:2; Devine, Fahie & Hannun 2009:14; Hanushek, John, Daniel & Rivkin
2005:12; McGillicuddy 2013:83; Rivkin, Hanushek & Kain 2005:417; Rockoff
2004:248). Researchers are in agreement that competent and qualified teachers are
58
essential for efficient functioning of educational systems and for enhancing the quality
of learning (Shishavan 2009:130). Effective teachers are therefore critical in ensuring
that optimal learning takes place.
Even though it has been established that teachers play a fundamental role in their
learners’ academic achievement as their quality can determine the extent to which
learners are likely to master their learning outcomes (Lasley II, Siedentop & Yinger
2006:14; Rockoff 2004:248; Shishavan 2009:130), there is lack of evidence and
awareness about what constitutes a good teacher since some teachers are more
productive than others in promoting learner achievement.
Understanding the characteristics that distinguish effective teachers from ineffective
teachers is significant in ensuring an increased number of good teachers in schools in
order to improve the quality of education (Maurer 2012:4). Without precise knowledge
of what makes a good teacher, education authorities will continue to encounter
persisting difficulties in tracing, recruiting and retaining teachers who are truly meant
to be teachers (Maurer 2012:4). Education leaders experience difficulties in identifying
talented people and developing them through training to become good teachers.
Some of the characteristics that were traditionally deemed as the sole criteria for
selecting good teachers are no longer applicable to modern times, as such criteria
alone do not result in increased optimal learning (Rivkin et al. 2005:417).
Characteristics such as professional qualifications and years of experience may sound
relevant as requirements for a teaching career, but such requirements alone cannot
define a good teacher, nor predict improved learner performance (Maurer 2012:4;
Rivkin et al. 2005:417). Moreover, it is also difficult to identify and define good teachers
because they are not the same individuals year after year in terms of the quality of
teaching and learner performance (Maurer 2012:5).
Walker (2008:63) relates the concept of ‘good teacher’ to ‘effective teacher’ as a
particular kind of teacher who is most successful in helping learners to learn. Walker
(2008:63) emphasis on ‘most successful’ teacher to engender learning goes beyond
the remarks by Maurer (2002:5) on the length of time it takes to identify a good teacher.
While Maurer (2002:5) stresses that good teachers may not be the same year after
59
year, Walker (2008:63) contradicts Maurer’s (2002:5) view in the sense that to be
‘most successful’, indicates length of time, implying that good teachers remain the
same year after year. Teachers’ identification as being effective is based on the
characteristics they are manifesting consistently.
Walker (2008:63) describes ‘characteristics’ as teachers’ special qualities that enable
them to achieve success in their teaching profession. As teacher characteristics are
considered the factors underlying learners’ performance, a good teacher represents
that person who demonstrates the necessary characteristics that enable learners to
master the learning outcomes which translates into optimal learning (Maurer 2012:3;
Sharma & Gupta 2014:201). In this regard, many studies determined the character,
competencies and behaviour of a good teacher (Dewar 2002:62-63; Devine et al.
2013:90-93; Okoro & Chukwudi 2011:107-110). As optimal learning is closely related
to effective teachers, it is important to understand what constitute a good teacher in
order to establish the appropriateness of a person for the teaching profession.
According to Arnon and Reichel (2007:441), a good teacher is synonymous with an
‘ideal teacher’ and can be defined by characteristics that facilitate good teaching.
Moreover, Adedeji and Olaniyan (2011:47), concurring with Maurer (2012), stress that
good teaching refers to teachers being able to facilitate good instruction that leads to
effective learning, which in turn leads to thorough and lasting acquisition of knowledge
and skills. In the context of this study, the thorough and lasting acquisition of
knowledge and skills is what is referred to as optimal learning.
For good teaching to materialise, teachers should manifest a set of characteristics.
These characteristics relate to a passion for teaching and learning, having professional
knowledge, a warm personality, appropriate behaviours, affective roles towards
others, applicable abilities and relational skills (Arnon & Reichel 2007:442; Devine et
al. 2013:83; Sahin & Cokadar 2009:213). As a result of analysing these diverse
characteristics, three major themes emerged as characteristics of a good teacher,
namely,
professional
characteristics,
personality
characteristics
and
characteristics. These characteristics of a good teacher are discussed next.
60
social
3.3.1
Professional characteristics
This characterisation of a good teacher is based on teachers’ professional
requirements and suitability to serve and fulfil the tasks of the teaching profession.
There has been an increasing international debate on teacher quality and
effectiveness which prompts questions against teachers’ suitability in the profession
(Devine et al. 2013:87; Heeralal 2014:1796; Mitra et al. 2008:169).
A professional teacher has been described from different perspective by different
authors all boiling down to having professional skills, knowledge and experience
applicable to the teaching profession (Bullock 2015:2). Professional knowledge relates
to the ‘pedagogical content knowledge’ which is defined as a teacher’s understandings
of the concepts being taught and skills needed to contextualise, situate and
personalise the content to the learners (Thompson, Greer & Greer 2004:2; Mullock
2003:4).
Good teachers need to be well conversant with teaching pedagogies as all endeavours
aimed at educational development and provision rely much on the competencies that
quality teachers express which relate to sound pedagogical skills, knowledge and
characteristics (Burnett & Lingam 2007:303). Being competent with pedagogic content
knowledge implies that good teachers know how to organise and teach learners in a
way that learners can demonstrate mastery of the learning content.
The significance of pedagogic content knowledge is consistent with the findings of a
study conducted in Australia, where learners rated ability to explain well and
engagement in lesson content as important characteristics of good teaching (White
2009:3). Learners also highlighted the importance of classroom management, learnerteacher relationships and listening to learners’ input as typical characteristics of a good
teacher (Cook‐Slather 2002:21).
Good teachers do not just impart the already compiled subject curricula, but they go
beyond by knowing how their learners learn, understand why their learners learn and
how best they can help learners to learn better. Based on this view, a good teacher is
described as someone who is able to organise classroom environments for easy
61
management and present unambiguous instructions to learners so they capture the
essence of teaching (Bullock 2015:1; Murphy, Delli & Edwards 2004:69). Therefore, a
good teacher knows the techniques for creating an orderly and conducive learning
environment and presents clear explanations of the subject contents to the learners.
A good teacher presents learning material in an organised and engaging way and uses
creative teaching approaches (White 2009:1; Duarte 2013:1; Samples & Copeland
2013:176). Organised teaching materials make it easy for learners to interact with the
learning materials and this helps to facilitate the learning and teaching process. To be
acquainted with such pedagogic capabilities, good teachers should have undergone
an intensive professional training, during the course of which they should have gained
extensive experience, skills and understanding of what methodologies and
pedagogies to apply in their classrooms.
Research on professional teacher behaviours and conduct reveals that good teachers
are organised and conduct themselves in a professional manner, they are efficient in
performing tasks allocated to them, are accountable for the results of their actions and
are intelligent in solving problems which draw appreciation from all those who work
with them (Vlad & Ciascai 2014:41). Professional traits as demonstrated by teachers
in behaviours and duty execution are keys in the characterisation of a good teacher.
Despite the challenging nature of the teaching profession, good teachers have the
ability to apply the skills and knowledge they have learned during their training into
their teaching practice (Bullock 2015:3). Good teachers are not only those who are
teachers by virtue of having a professional qualification, but those with the ability to
apply the learned and experienced competencies in their classes and the environment
in which they function. A good teacher knows how to adapt to a challenging
environment and practice the duties without compromising on output, such as
decreased learner achievement.
In terms of subject content delivery, a good teacher delivers the subject content in a
manner that is very clear, shows knowledge of the subject content, has clear
articulation and is able to motivate learners and summarise the main points at the end
of the lesson (Duarte 2013:3). Learners get the content from a good teacher without
62
misinterpretation of facts, as the teacher imparts subject knowledge in certain terms.
Summarising helps learners to get the main points of the lesson without having to
struggle with what they have learned during the lesson. Samples and Copeland
(2013:179) point out that one of the ways in which teachers can earn themselves trust
from learners is the ability to deliver the subject content effectively to the learners.
Trust is essential in motivating learners to seek support from the teacher so that
learners understand content coherently and explicitly.
With reference to leadership and management, a good teacher knows what style of
leadership to use under different circumstances and avoids being arrogant or
authoritative (Vlad & Ciascai 2014:41). Teachers deal with learners of different
characteristics and attitudes. As a result, a good teacher knows what style of
leadership to use as determined by the situation. This implies that good teachers do
not apply the principle of ‘one style fits all’ as they understand the nature of their
profession and the fact that each learner is unique.
Good teachers are fair at all times, handle learners fairly in terms of teaching,
assessment and grading, as well as afford all learners equal privileges and
opportunities to make contributions (Inan 2014:428; Khojastehmehr & Takrimi
2009:63). Walker (2008:65) emphasises that good teachers have the understanding
that ‘fair’ does not necessarily mean treating every learner the same but means giving
every learner an opportunity to succeed. This reveals that a good teacher understand
that not all learners learn in the same way and at the same rate, which require a
teacher to use different teaching styles in order to accommodate all learners in their
classrooms. Good teachers understand the learners’ learning styles, and are thus
knowledgeable with all the learning styles applicable to their subjects as well as the
different teaching methods relevant to their learners (Samples & Copeland 2013:179).
In terms of subject specialisation, a good teacher is well informed with the subject
specialisation, they know how to stimulate learners’ attention to remain focused on the
subject and show determination in their lesson presentation (Espina 2013:110;
Samples & Copeland 2013:179). Because good teachers are well conversant with the
subject knowledge in terms of content and delivery, good teachers are open for
questioning by learners. This characterisation of teachers helps to ensure mastery of
the subject content by learners and instil a sense of pride, trust and motivation among
63
learners to succeed in their learning. Since learners perceive good teachers to impact
their motivation to learn, a good teacher connects well with each learner to foster
passion and excitement towards a subject (Littkey 2004:12).
Learners have described good teachers as individuals who are competent instructors,
focusing on the transfer of knowledge and skills in such a way that learners understand
what is facilitated (Bullock 2015:1; Duarte 2013:3; Vlad & Ciascai 2014:42). This
assertion is consistent with Adeosun, Oni and Oladipo’s (2013:40) emphasis that only
teachers who possess the necessary technical competence and professional skills
through a well-coordinated teacher training programme can rise to meet the
challenges in the classrooms.
Komarraju (2013:104) contradicts that what learners classify as a good teacher may
not lead to high learner achievement. Komarraju (2013:104) emphasises that learners’
personality differences may influence their classification of a good teacher. There are
no clear criteria in outlining characteristics for good teachers, as this may depend on
how an individual learner views a good teacher. Despite this contention, authors such
as Furnham and Chamorro-Premuzic (2005:176) emphasise that, in general, learners
like open and agreeable teachers who are smart, emotionally adjusted and hardworking.
Good teachers have an open platform for communicating with learners in terms of
subject content and learners’ progress, motivating learners and praising them for good
work. Good teachers create opportunities for learners to ask questions and entertain
learners’ questions to ensure that learners understand the content presented and are
motivated to have interest in the subject. This is because good teachers are well
known for treating their lesson presentations as a serious academic endeavour and
as intellectually-demanding and as important as their coursework during their years of
teacher training (Samples & Copeland 2013:179). This implies that good teachers
consider their teaching responsibility as a serious business and treat it with due
respect, the same way they treated their professional training that made them to be
good teachers. Hence, the professional training of teachers informs the teachers’ own
understanding and respect of their lesson content and presentation.
64
Good teachers are active constructivists of knowledge in their classroom. While
teaching methods vary based on the situation and content, good teachers create
critical thinking environments where learners learn by confronting each other’s
experience of the lesson situation with real life problems that will challenge them to
generate new ideas, rethink their assumptions and examine their solutions (Samples
& Copeland 2013:179). This constructivist perspective of creating knowledge in the
classroom is made possible by good teachers, and correlates well with the
interpretivist/constructivism research paradigm as discussed in sections 4.4.1.2 and
4.4.1.5 respectively. Good teachers believe that every learner has the ability to
construct new knowledge once provided with opportunities.
As a result, good teachers set high academic standards for learners and consistently
challenge their learners to do their best and discover their potential. This type of
interaction is important as it builds learners’ confidence towards the teacher and also
helps learners to establish and believe in their potential. This interaction helps learners
to grasp new concepts, gain new insights about the unknown and strengthen their
relationships with one another. This constructivism helps to generate new knowledge,
thus a good teacher knows how to create an atmosphere conducive to the creation of
new knowledge.
Not all teachers demonstrate the professional characteristics of a good teacher.
Because of this difference in professional competencies amongst teachers, some
learners attain higher achievements in some classes than others. Typical professional
competencies relate to nurturing learners’ potential, possessing a sound subject
knowledge base, constant monitoring of learners’ progress, impartiality, consistent
lesson preparedness, a high level of intellectual competence and good communication
skills (Adeosun et al. 2013:48; Vlad & Ciascai 2014:41).
With regard to the Namibian situation, evidence was lacking whether teachers in rural
schools, possessed professional characteristics or whether their employment into the
profession was merely based on having an applicable teaching qualification and
assumed teaching experience. The empirical investigation sought to fill the gap by
establishing the professional characteristics that Namibian teachers at rural schools
possessed. Besides possessing relevant teaching qualifications, being aware of the
65
realities of rural life is presumed to enable the teacher to appreciate the difficult
situation in rural schools and thereby use suitable practical strategies to ensure
learners achieve optimal learning (Eppley, 2009:4). The empirical investigation further
established how teachers coped with the difficulties they were going through at rural
schools.
3.3.2
Personality characteristics
While professional characteristics focus on the teachers’ professional requirements
and suitability for the teaching profession, personality traits define a good teacher on
the basis of a teacher’s specific personal characteristics that cause an individual
teacher to behave in certain ways, other than by professional knowledge or abilities
(Gao & Liu 2013:84). Personality refers to the patterns of behaviours that are unique
to the individual and how these habits and behaviours are organised (Arif, Rashid,
Tahira & Akhter 2012:161). Personality is therefore person-bound and differs from
person to person and direct a person to behave in a unique way. The personality of
the teacher influences classroom climate and has major implications regarding
learners’ motivation and attitude towards learning (Açıkgöz 2005:104; Maurer 2012:5).
The personality of the teacher is an important variable in shaping the teaching and
learning processes (Arif et al. 2012:162). Personality shapes the behaviours of the
teacher, as it is the interface between the teacher and the learners. Good teachers
demonstrate a good personality during teaching which draws learners’ attention even
if the teacher does not mention a word. Any teacher whose personality creates a
conducive learning environment in which learners feel confident and motivated to learn
is characterised as having a good teaching personality (Sharma & Gupta 2014:202).
All teachers have their own sets of personal characteristics which indicate their
behaviours towards others and how others respond to them (Arif et al. 2012:162). For
example, teachers with dictatorial characteristics are likely to exhibit them during
lesson presentation which then shapes negative interaction between teachers and
learners. On the contrary, well-balanced and non-anxious teachers can create an
active learning environment where learners are at ease to engage with the subject
content. Teacher personality therefore has a direct impact on learning and teaching in
classrooms. It is significant for teachers to recognise their own personality type and
66
the personality type of others in order to help establish a positive intra-personal and
inter-personal relationship with others (Arif et al. 2012:163). This implies that
personality recognition is critical in identifying suitable teaching staff.
Research has proved that personality recognition has been useful in forecasting
workers’ suitability to fill certain roles, establishing relationships in organisations and
predicting future performance (Arif 2012:165). Other research findings on personality
recognition suggest that right personality characteristics can ensure good teachers
entering the profession, retain teachers in the profession and attract teachers who will
remain in teaching and be committed to learner achievement (Duckworth, Quinn &
Seligman 2009:540; Sharma & Gupta 2014:201).
Positive affection and relaxed atmosphere are critical in ensuring optimal learning. If
learners fear the teacher, optimal learning is inhibited. Studies conducted with learners
on what makes a good teacher, revealed that good teachers are those teachers who
are mentally healthy and nurturing and enable learners to score maximum marks in
the subjects taught by these teachers (Cook‐Slather 2002:21; White 2009:3). From
learners’ perspective, the personality of a good teacher can also be manifested by
learners’ performance in the subject the teacher offers.
The personality of a good teacher yields good learner performance. Personal
characteristics such as aggression and hostility cannot constitute a good teacher,
because such characters suppress creativity and learners’ curiosity. Learners who are
exposed to unhealthy behavioural patterns of teachers, such as hostility and being
overcritical and restrictive, usually have low achievement because of the decreased
interest in the subject (Arif et al. 2012:163). The low achievement therefore makes
teachers with unhealthy personality patterns not to be regarded as good teachers.
There is ample evidence supporting the view that the personality of a teacher is a very
important enabler of successful teaching and that teacher effectiveness is perceived
to exist as a consequence of the characteristics of a teacher as a person (Arnon &
Reichel, 2007:445; Thompson et al. 2004:2). The effective use of a teacher's
personality is essential in conducting instructional activities. Learners learn from a
67
teacher’s personality even if there is no formal interaction between learners and
teacher.
The teacher whose personality helps create and maintain the classroom as a learning
environment in which learners feel comfortable and in which they are motivated to
learn depicts a desirable teaching personality and is thus a good teacher (Arif et al.
2012:164). A competent teacher demonstrates a good combination of personality traits
such as kindness, enthusiasm, friendliness, helpfulness and patience in performing
the tasks (Murphy et al. 2004:70; Arnon & Reichel, 2007:446). A good teacher cares
much about learners and communicates politely with them.
Despite the significance of personality recognition, there is lack of measures in
Namibia to recognise whether students applying to teacher training institutions
possess the necessary personality that will make them good teachers and remain in
the profession. This results in students becoming teachers when they were not meant
to be teachers by virtue of their personality. Their unsuitability for the teaching
profession can be evident in their learners’ poor performance and in their turnover
(Bennell 2004:11).
The fact that there are no reliable mechanisms to use in Namibia to determine the
required personal characteristics for the teaching profession relate to aspects such as
evaluating practising teachers to find out whether they have the right personal
characteristics, has been based on preconceived notions of good teaching practice,
rather than determining teacher personality as a true reflection of learner performance
(Maurer 2012:5).
Characteristics such as extraversion, social attractiveness and assertiveness have
been found to elevate an individual’s rating of teacher performance in the absence of
any empirical evidence indicating good learner performance (Duckworth et al.
2009:540). This implies that there is lack of proper systems to detect the personal
characteristics of a good teacher as current evaluation measures are dominated by
subjectivity rather than objectivity of teacher effectiveness.
68
Even if students with personal characteristics of good teachers are detected while in
training, there will still be inequity in terms of deployment. Graduating teachers are not
randomly assigned to schools; instead, teachers choose the school where to work
based on their preferences. Good teachers usually accept deployment in best
performing districts, thereby creating a selection bias where the presence of teachers
with the preferred teacher personality characteristics are concentrated in high
performing schools at the expense of low performing schools (Duckworth et al.
2009:540).
The tendency of teachers opting for their own deployment is common in most subSaharan Africa countries including Namibia, where graduates choose their own duty
station which led to some schools having good teachers and high learner performance
compared to other schools, especially rural schools (Arnaud, Peter & Steven 2007:69;
UNICEF Report 2014:21). There is a lack of a deployment policy for qualified teachers
among Namibian schools to solve inequitable distribution of qualified teachers among
schools.
It becomes evident that there is a close correlation between the personality
characteristics of a good teacher and learner performance. A good teacher reveals
personal characteristics such as being kind to the learners, being kind, enthusiastic,
friendly and helpful. A good teacher demonstrates well-balanced and non-anxious
personal behaviours which stimulate a conducive learning environment where
learners are at ease to engage with the subject content. This implies that professional
qualification and experience alone cannot bring about optimal learning in schools. As
no study has been conducted in Namibia to detect the personal characteristics of
practising teachers and its impacts on learner performance, this research extended
boundaries to include the personal characteristics domain in its inquiry, and included
findings on this terrain in order to fill the gap on teacher personality impacting on
learner performance.
3.3.3
Social characteristics
Teachers do not operate in isolation as schools are organisations composed of
different units as well as different people of different social backgrounds (Dittmar,
69
Mendelsohn & Ward 2002:4). In strengthening social characteristics of teachers, a
school cluster system was introduced in Namibia as from 1996. A school cluster
system relates to the grouping of schools that are geographically close together in
order to share educational resources and instructional materials with the purpose of
improving educational standards and promote social cohesion among schools
(Dittmar et al. 2002:9; Giordano 2008:43). The nature of the school as an organisation
requires teachers to be able to demonstrate certain social characteristics in the
execution of their duties.
In the context of this study, social characteristics refer to the qualities that good
teachers are expected to demonstrate when interacting with all the people involved in
their working environment. Among other stakeholders, teachers execute their work in
close partnership with learners, parents, fellow teachers and school leaders. While
interacting with these people, teachers should demonstrate exceptional skills of
working with people.
Good teachers establish a good relationship with their learners, which Vlad and
Ciascai (2014:45) define as the teacher’s ability to function in a social group and take
on the social responsibilities of a teacher pertaining to learners’ social welfare. Good
teachers are socially responsible, implying they treat learners equally, listen to and
care about learners’ problems and get to know each learner as an individual (Arnon &
Reichel 2007:446). A good relationship between teachers and learners leads to
learners’ motivation, good lesson engagement and high learner achievement (Hughes
2011:39).
Many individuals entering the teaching profession indicate working with learners as
one of the key reasons that got them attracted to the teaching profession (Sinclair
2008:133). Good teachers develop positive relationships with their learners by
engaging them in discussion which then helps to bridge the gaps between teachers
and learners. Good teachers are well-known for expressing how they cannot wait to
get back to school or describing how fulfilling it is just to be with learners at school
(Cornu 2013:3). Being passionate about learners is representative of a positive
relationship established between the teacher and the learners, representing good
social characteristics.
70
This positive relationship emanates from the satisfaction teacher draws from their
learners as a result of their frequent engagement with them. This engagement can be
in the form of lesson presentation, field trips and the positive feedback that is
exchanged between teachers and learners (Robert, Bridget & Joseph 2012: 365).
Good teachers do not only facilitate learning the subject, but their teaching also seeks
to establish a positive and beneficial working learning relationship with their learners,
thus enhancing learner performance.
The positive relationship between teachers and learners has a significant influence on
how teachers feel and act on daily basis as teachers’ relationships with their learners
shape teachers’ state of mind in terms of whether they feel good or bad (Cornu 2013:4;
Kitching, Morgan & O’Leary 2009:43). The relationship between the teacher and the
learners also determines the learners’ state of mind and their success (Robert et al.
2012:374). A positive relationship between teachers and learners encourages a
classroom climate that helps learners to continuously engage with teachers (Robert et
al. 2012:365). Apart from learners, good teachers have positive interaction with fellow
teachers.
A strong, positive working relationship between teachers is critical in ensuring a sense
of belonging and social connectedness (Cornu 2013:4). Good teachers do not
experience isolation and neglect at work because they recognise fellow teachers and
know how to develop relationships with fellow teachers who can provide them with the
support they need. Good teachers express how they would not be able to work
confidently if they did not have the people around them on whom they can rely or just
talk to each day and share laughter (Cornu 2013:4).
This social characteristic with regard to supporting one another and recognising the
value of others in the surrounding promotes the social ideals of the Hierarchy of Needs
theory as discussed in section 2.2.1 and the ERG theory as discussed in section 2.2.3,
both of which theories emphasise a need for an individual to belong and relate to
others in a social setting. These positive working relationships are essential for
establishing friendship between teachers which is beneficial on both the academic and
social level.
71
Jordan (2006:82) maintains that social connections among teachers are vital in
promoting creativity, unity and empowerment among themselves. A good teacher
shows passion towards others and shares wisdom on how to manage and take control
of situations. Good teachers value the time they spend together to explore solutions
to problems, as they have the ability to talk about teaching and learning and interact
in a professional way. According to TRACES (2012:1), good teachers are considerate
of each other’s input by receiving support from others who are going through a similar
experience.
A good teacher therefore has the ability to recognise the presence of other teachers
and appreciate their presence by engaging with them in their duties. This ensures that
the social needs of teachers such as to associate with each other is catered for.
Association ensures collegiality such that teachers do not feel isolated or neglected,
which negatively affects their self-esteem and performance level, resulting in low
learner achievement and high teacher attrition (Bennell 2004:44).
Part of positive association is the relationship between teachers and their school
leaders. Teachers work under the guidance of school principals and heads of
departments. These leaders provide guidance and supervision to the teachers in order
to perform their duties effectively. A good teacher plays a role in establishing and
maintaining a working relationship with the supervisors (Abiddin 2006:109). Good
teachers attend to instructions and carry them out diligently without having to be forced
to execute their work or failing to meet deadlines. Failing to execute duties and not
meeting deadlines results in decreased social connections, poor teacher performance
and ultimately poor learner performance.
In addition to professional and personal characteristics, it is clear that a good teacher
possesses social characteristics enabling him or her to function effectively in the
working environment. Social characteristics of a good teacher include establishing
positive
relationships
with
learners
in
order
to
promote
teacher-learner
connectedness, recognising the presence of other teachers and making use of their
inputs by actively interacting with each other and by attending to instructions to carry
out a mandate as requested by supervisors. Part of this study was to establish how
teachers manifest social characteristics in their working environment.
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Comprehensively considered, teachers’ blend of characteristics contribute to the
quality of teaching and learning processes. Therefore, teachers’ respective
characteristics play an important role and have a life-transforming effect on their
learners’ lives (Inan 2014:427). To realise optimal learning, particularly in rural schools
where there is a shortage of resources (Monk 2007:155; Howley, Rhodes & Beall
2009:515; Owusu-Acheampong & Williams 2015:34-35), it is imperative that teachers
with the correct blend of characteristics for good teaching are appointed in order to
rescue rural schools from deteriorating teacher shortages and poor learner
performance. There is no evidence to prove that teachers in Namibian classrooms
possess all the characteristics of a good teacher. Therefore, the need to establish the
degree to which Namibian school teachers possesses characteristics of good teachers
formed part of this research endeavour.
3.4
RURAL AREAS IN CONTEXT
Most educational contexts lack a precise definition of the concept ‘rural’ (Lingam
2012:1795). To understand the rural context of this study, it is significant to
conceptualise ‘rural’ which can then lead us to ‘rural school’. Various scholars define
the concept ‘rural’ from different perspectives. Aziz (2011:5) explains ‘rural’ as an area
that is outside the city and with low population density. Rural is a place outside a
metropolitan city, with a rural population density under 2500 people and is
distinguished by adverse conditions (Johnson & Strange 2005:15; Kulkarni & Mitra
2015:1). Monk (2007:155) disputes the location and population density factors, and
defines ‘rural’ as an area with economic dependence on agricultural and tourism
activities, regardless of population density and location.
In summarising these definitions, Lingam (2012:1) and Heeralal (2014:1795) states
that the concept ‘rural’ is characterised by isolation, distance and smallness. Rural
areas are easily differentiated from urban areas, as rural communities consist of a
diverse mix of immigrants and native born residents (Hull 2003:1). However, the
researcher contests Hull’s (2003:1) differentiation of urban and rural, that this
difference may not be applicable in modern times as it is observed that urban areas
are now equally populated with a mix of both immigrants and native born residents.
73
Marwan, Sumintono and Mislan (2012:172) offer a simplified version that ‘rural’ is the
opposite of ‘urban’ area, emphasising that if urban areas have high population density,
then rural areas are areas with low population density. Other researchers contend that
defining rural communities is not just about the size or location of the area, but it also
concerns place-based issues such as the economic, social and cultural aspects of the
specific environment (Howley & Howley 2010:34). It is the place-based issues that
define whether an area is considered an ‘urban’ or ‘rural’ area.
This study draws insights from the definitions by the various authors on the concept of
‘rural’ to define and understand a ‘rural school’ as a school located far from towns with
prevailing adverse working conditions. The definition of ‘rural’ in the context of this
study is founded on the explanation provided by Howley & Howley (2010:34), where
the definition of an environment should consider the place-based issues. The definition
of ‘rural’ in the context of this study differs from the definitions of rural as advanced by
authors such as Heeralal (2014:1795), Johnson and Strange (2005:15) and Lingam
(2012:1) with regard to population density and smallness as defining parameters for a
rural area.
Even though it is generally accepted that rural areas have a population density of less
than 2500 residents (Johnson & Strange 2005:15; Kulkarni & Mitra 2015:1), the
Namibian Population and Housing Census of 2011 indicated that the rural population
comprised of 94 percent of the population in the region of study, Omusati Region (GRN
2011:18; section 1.6.2). The fact that only 6% of the population lives in urban areas in
the Omusati Region, proves that the population density in rural areas in Namibia is
generally high compared to what is generally reported in literature.
The finding of a populous rural area in Namibia is consistent with Adedeji and Olaniyan
(2011:21) who indicate that in many developing countries of the world, rural areas are
the most populous areas, and are the most neglected regions in terms of the provision
of basic amenities such as good roads, primary and affordable health care, electricity
supply, potable water, well-equipped schools and other essential infrastructural
facilities. Rural environments are therefore highly populated in developing countries,
yet neglected areas in terms of essential services provisions.
74
With regard to smallness, it can be argued that as the population grows the factor of
‘smallness’ may not be appropriate in defining the concept ‘rural’. This is because,
when the population density is high, it is likely to occupy large areas of land in rural
areas which then makes it inappropriate to refer to rural areas as small areas. Living
in rural areas needs to be well understood in terms of the living conditions prevailing
in such a rural environment. Equally, working in rural areas especially when a person
does not have prior experience and exposure working under such conditions presents
challenges. Living and working in rural areas has not been researched extensively
with the result that the needs of the residents of rural areas are not adequately
addressed (Arnold, Newman, Gaddy & Dean 2005:15), depriving rural residents of
well-being and not realising their full potential. In the next sections, 3.4.1 and 3.4.2,
the concept of ‘rural area’ is discussed as a habitation and as a workplace.
3.4.1
Living in rural areas with reference to the Namibian situation
Rural environments can be geographically, socially, culturally, personally and
professionally isolating (Beutel, Adie & Hudson 2011:378; Hannun 2009:1;
McCormack & Thomas 2003:125). Rural areas are geographically situated far from
main urban areas and cities and accessibility to these areas is not always easy due to
rocky, sandy and bushy areas which make transportation difficult. Rural areas are also
referred to as remote areas due to their distance from cities and urban centres
resulting in these areas being far from resources, services and facilities which are
associated with urban life (Kulkarni & Mitra 2015:1).
The absence of basic amenities in rural areas, as is applicable to some parts of the
world, results in its low population density, which, for the purpose of this study on rural
schools in Namibia, causes restrictive rural definitions, such as small areas. Living in
rural areas also implies lack of social interaction (McCormack & Thomas 2003:127).
Entertainment, recreational services and sporting facilities are limited in rural
communities, resulting in restrictions on social interaction and on opportunities to
realise potential in different spheres of human existence such as sport achievements.
Most of the students graduating from teacher training institutions are not adequately
trained and prepared to live and teach in rural areas (Hellsten, McIntyre & Prytula
2011:11). This inadequacy in teacher training and the realities of rural area conditions
75
results in teachers’ disappointment and deterrence from accepting teaching positions
in rural areas (Hellsten et al. 2011:11). People who live in rural areas are also
disadvantaged professionally due to lack of opportunities for professional growth.
Living in rural areas implies that learners are generally exposed to schools where
lesson presentations are not provided by professional teachers (Jarzabkowski
2003:139). Moreover, most rural schools face unique challenges related to lower
salary levels, unqualified teachers and lack of facilities (Hannun 2009:1; OwusuAcheampong & Williams 2015:34-35). Rural residents are disadvantaged from the
provision of professional programmes due to the lack of capacity to provide such
programmes in rural areas (Hannum, Irvin, Banks, & Farmer 2009:1). In some cases
there are too few learners to justify the establishment of a school in the area (Hannun
et al. 2009:1).
The result is that living in rural areas does not provide opportunities for rural residents
to attain high level education to be able to provide for their communities.
Living in rural Namibia has been regarded as an opportunity for benefiting from tourism
given the country’s natural resources (Ashely 2000:8). Because Namibia is endowed
with plenty of natural resources, rural Namibian environments present opportunities
for tourism activities such as visits to national parks and trophy hunting in
conservancies. However, the national parks and tourist destinations are government
properties, administered and controlled by government authorities. The community
where these parks are located do not benefit necessarily from the proceeds gained
from tourism activities and many Namibians in rural areas continue struggling to meet
their basic needs (Jauch 2012:2). Living in rural areas, therefore, represents adverse
living conditions with the need to develop measures on how to cope with these
conditions.
IFAD (2011:1) reports that at least 70% of the world’s very poor people are rural-based
with a large portion represented by children and young people, and with South Asia
and sub-Saharan Africa being the regions with the greatest number of poor people in
rural areas. Namibia being part of sub-Saharan Africa is not an exception to having
the greatest number of poor people in rural areas. Living in rural areas is related to
experiencing harsh living conditions as manifested by poverty as a lack of resources
with which to acquire a set of basic goods and services (National Planning
76
Commission 2015:9). The lack of resources affect the provision of education including
aspects such as learners’ attendance of classes, teachers’ motivation and parents’
understanding of education and the roles they have to play towards the education of
their children.
According to CTA (2012:2), the average adult male in African rural communities has
less than four years of education, whereas the adult female in African rural
communities has less than three years of education. This implies that rural residents
often lack the necessary practical skills and knowledge to fully engage in the labour
market. This knowledge and skills deficit is detrimental to the livelihood of rural
communities causing poor living standards which generate negative perceptions of
rural living as being linked to poverty and adverse circumstances. The negative
interpretation of ‘rural’ has the tendency to demotivate people from living in rural areas
due to fear of experiencing rural hardships as perceived.
As said earlier, sub-Saharan Africa is one of the regions with the highest rate of poverty
and hunger in the world (IFAD 2011:2). Applied to education, learners living in rural
areas of sub-Saharan African countries, including Namibia, are at great risk of failure
and school drop-out as their parents cannot afford to provide the basic needs for them.
In terms of Maslow’s Needs theory as discussed in section 2.2.1, basic needs form
the basis of human existence and endeavours and, when not satisfied, humans cannot
aspire for higher ideals. Considering the deteriorating and adverse conditions of rural
areas, human motivation is negatively affected as a result of unsatisfied needs.
Therefore, Namibia being part of the sub-Saharan region is not an exception to the
hardships of living in rural areas.
According to the National Planning Commission (2015:9), Namibia has a population
density of 2 113 077 people of which 57% live in rural areas. Poverty in Namibia bears
a distinct rural face, with the poorest regions being those in rural areas where the
majority of the population lives (National Planning Commission 2015:9). This is
consistent with the findings that living in rural areas is distinguished by poverty (Hardré
et al. 2009:1; Shahidul & Karim 2015:26).
77
The regions with the lowest incidences of poverty are Khomas and Erongo, possibly
because they have largely urban populations and are the economic hubs of the
country with relatively more employment opportunities (National Planning Commission
2015:13). Khomas Region is home to Windhoek, the capital city of Namibia, whereas
the Erongo Region not only has most of the operational mines but also borders the
Atlantic Ocean where the fishing industry is the major source of employment. In
addition, the Erongo region has beautiful scenery and landscapes, including the Namib
Desert and the famous Welwitschia Mirabilis desert plant, which are important tourist
attractions and destinations, thus creating job opportunities for tour guides. These
rationales may justify the lowest incidences of poverty in the two regions of, Khomas
and Erongo. The fact that it is difficult to live in rural Namibian communities has forced
rural residents to migrate to urban centres such as Khomas to seek employments for
improved living standards.
The unequal quality of education between rural and urban areas and different school
types in Namibia is reflected by standardised national examinations at the end of grade
10 and grade 12. The best results are achieved by private schools which are expensive
and thus only accessible to the elite, followed by former white schools in towns, while
the worst results are found in rural schools (Jauch, Edwards & Cupido 2009:23). These
examination results confirm that Namibia has not yet made rural communities
attractive places to live in terms of improved learner performance.
It becomes clear that similar to other parts of the world, there are numerous difficulties
associated with living in Namibian rural communities, as this living relates to lack of
basic goods and services which translates into poverty. Poverty in turn results in lack
of resources for rural residents, which minimise their social interaction and isolates
them from professional development programmes which can result in low levels of
education and inability to take part in competitive employment. These difficulties
deprive rural residents of essential services due to the location of their residence,
which makes the provision of resources and facilities almost impossible to them.
Despite government efforts to make education accessible to all citizens irrespective of
locality, providing quality education to rural citizens still remains a challenge. The
empirical part of this study sought to explain living in rural areas from the participants’
perspectives.
78
3.4.2
Working in rural areas with reference to the Namibian situation
The centrality of an effective teaching team for improved learning outcomes cannot be
over emphasised. Any attempts aimed at improving school performance and human
resource management should emphasise the advancement of working conditions of
teachers (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:72). Many studies have been focusing on the
working conditions of teachers and teaching with specific emphasis on identifying
characteristics of good teaching for improved learner performance (Arnon & Reichel
2007:445; Devine et al. 2013:86; Sahin & Cokadar 2009:215).
Amid research findings and recommendations made, the status of rural teachers and
their working conditions continues to deteriorate (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:57-61;
Kulkarni & Mitra 2015:1; McCormack & Thomas 2003:127). Considering the living
conditions in rural areas (section 3.4.1), it is clear that coping with working in a rural
context is challenging, especially if the rural environment is not a familiar environment.
In order to cope with working in rural areas, it is important for teachers to learn ways
of adapting to the rural working environment.
Schools in rural areas provide education to learners who are vulnerable as a result of
family backgrounds, poverty, lack of guardianship, lack of nutrition and lack of high
educational attainment within the family (Hardré et al. 2009:1; Shahidul & Karim
2015:26). Due to these socio-economic factors, drop-out rates are very high in rural
schools and in some case learners leave schools prematurely (Hardre 2012:1).
Working in rural schools therefore demands that teachers be cognisant of the socioeconomic differences of the learners they are going to work with and the environment
in which they are going to work (Howley, Theobald & Howley 2005:2).
Rural school teachers should prepare to work in an environment where learners drop
out of schools earlier than expected and should therefore be prepared to take
meaningful measures to address this rural tendency (Arnold et al. 2005:5). This
demands the ability of the teachers to counsel learners and explain how important it
is to complete school (Arnold et al. 2005:10). This teacher intervention and
understanding of learners’ circumstances is essential in fostering learner motivation to
remain in school (Hardré & Sullivan 2008:472).
79
Studies on rural areas of Australia revealed that the teaching profession consist of
mostly young teachers who are generally, inexperienced (Jarzabkowski 2003:139).
These inexperienced teachers do not have the same opportunities for career growth
and professional development as their urban counterparts, depriving them of guidance
and mentoring (Holloway 2002:139). These Australian rural teachers’ work conditions
include negative aspects such as too much work; poor pay system; poor infrastructure;
inadequate housing; social, cultural and professional isolation, economically deficient
communities and contract employment (Hudson & Hudson 2008:67; Malhoit 2005:12;
Mitra et al. 2008:169). This reveals that working in rural areas is indeed characterised
by adverse working conditions.
Mitra et al. (2008:170) report that rural schools in India are made of bricks and mortar
with cramped classrooms without electricity, proper lighting and ventilation. The author
observed that rural schools are not adequately furnished in the sense of worn-out
blackboards with no dusters and chalk and with chairs and tables for teachers and
principals only with learners sitting on mats on the floor. Teachers working in rural
schools are also subject to lack of good leadership (Arnold 2004:5; Malhoit 2005:12).
School principals are more bureaucratic in administering school affairs, thereby
wasting time in matters that do not contribute to school success. School administrators
are equally reluctant to share leadership with colleagues, thereby increasing the
administrative burden while making teachers feel excluded in administering school
affairs.
The remoteness as applied to rural areas affects negatively teachers’ efforts and
commitment to their work. One survey in two Indian states found that regular rural
government teachers were absent at least one day a week, which can be linked to
remoteness and transportation from urban cities to rural areas (Adedejei & Olaniyan
2011:48; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:5; Zimba, Mufume, Likando & February 2013:173).
The absence of teachers due to remoteness of rural schools compromises the quality
of teaching and learning.
As advanced by Moriarty, Danaher and Danaher (2003:133), teachers working in rural
areas need to develop mechanisms for adapting to such working environments. One
of the mechanism for adapting to working in rural areas is to develop resilience by
80
adjusting and adapting to the circumstances in the workplace and in the process
increasing the required competencies to face such adverse working conditions (Bobek
2002:202; Jarzabkowski 2003:139).
From a motivation perspective, Bobek (2002:202) regards unfavourable working
conditions as motivators for teachers to develop resilient measures to enhance their
productivity. Resilience can be enhanced by developing good relationships with
colleagues. Working in rural areas therefore requires teachers to be resilient by
accepting the rural context in order to be able to cope with the challenges in their rural
working environment.
Due to lack of resources, working in rural areas requires teachers to be multi-skilled in
terms of implementing and managing the multi-grade system of teaching all learners
of different grades in one class (Adedeji and Olaniyan 2011:47; Barley 2009:10; Monk
2007:156; section 3.5.1). This practice creates multiple area responsibilities for rural
teachers in the face of unavailability of instructional resources and lack of professional
support (Barley 2009:10; Beesley, Atwill, Blair & Barley 2010:2; Mulkeen & Chen
2008:11; McCoy 2006:749).
Multi-grade teaching is relevant to rural environments where there is unavailability of
sufficient learners to form a class of their own, as well as lack of infrastructures such
as buildings and insufficient teachers to handle the available classes (Adedeji &
Olaniyan 2011:47; Mitra et al. 2008:168). Being a rural teacher therefore requires
ability in implementing and managing a multi-grade system as a condition typically
impacting on rural teacher competency (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011: 6). Multi-grade
schools in rural Africa show poor results (Jordaan & Joubert 2015:5) due to inadequate
training to capacitate teachers in multi-grade teaching. With regard to the South
African context, Jordaan and Joubert (2015:3) report that multi-grade education
training does not exist. This creates a burden for teachers to implement and manage
the system.
Working in rural areas in sub-Saharan Africa is distinguished by high levels of
informality, dominance of casual employment and high rates of self-employment (CTA
2012:1). According to the International Labour Organisation (2008:32), statistics
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revealed that 76% of the working people in sub-Saharan Africa are involved in
vulnerable employment while 56% live in extreme poverty. The vulnerability of rural
employment is related to labour laws that are not enforced, resulting in rural workers
being poorly organised and poorly paid (CTA 2008:1).
Taking into consideration the statistics of the International Labour Organisation,
employees working in rural areas cannot overcome poverty due to labour exploitation,
contractual working and inability to enforce labour legislation. The prevalence of
diseases in rural areas and the lack of medical facilities have made working in rural
communities even less attractive to teachers (Smith & McDonagh 2003:35). Most
teachers prefer to work in urban areas as working in rural schools is too demanding
given the adverse working conditions (Bennel 2004:17; Lingam 2012:2).
Working in rural schools in sub-Saharan Africa requires teachers to deal with learners
who are less interested in attending schools due to the high opportunity cost and low
returns. Parents in rural communities have a relatively low level of education and thus
attach a low level of importance to education as well as being unable to help their
children learn (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:2). In addition, homes in rural communities are
often ill equipped to support learners’ education as they are often lacking facilities such
as electricity. This results in high drop-out rates, low education participation and less
attainment of education outcomes by learners.
As is the case for all teachers around the world, Namibian teachers are expected to
work in rural schools in order to improve learner performance in rural communities.
Namibian teachers teach under difficult circumstances related to lack of classroom
furniture, no electricity and water, limited teaching and learning materials and distance
from medical and shopping facilities (UNICEF Report 2014:37). Teachers have
problems communicating with parents of their learners, they are subjected to
managing overcrowded classrooms, and they have heavy teaching and administrative
loads that prevent them from effectively executing their teaching duties (Beesley,
Atwill, Blair & Barley 2010:3; Barley 2009:10; Zimba et al. 2013:169).
The Government of the Republic of Namibia (2011: 57) reports that labour force
participation rate in rural areas is 56%t, lower than in an urban area which is 74%. In
82
terms of the urban and rural teacher designation, 74% of teachers taught in urban
areas compared to the 26% of teachers teaching in rural areas for the 2012 school
year (Zimba et al. 2013:176). This shows that working in rural communities in Namibia
is not preferable as this has been confirmed by a large proportion of teachers who
opted to work in urban schools rather than in rural areas. A general complaint from
teachers teaching in Namibian rural areas is the lack of teaching and learning
materials to enable them to teach effectively (Bennel 2004:16; Zimba et al. 2013:179).
Although much emphasis is put on isolation experienced in rural areas, working in rural
areas can be a rewarding experience. Rural areas are viewed as quiet, safe and
pleasing experiences with nature and community members (Adie 2012:120). The cost
of housing in rural areas is lower than in urban areas, which reflects the low monetary
benefits for teachers in rural areas (Hull 2003:15). Beutel et al. (2011:379) argue that
the negative perception of rural communities, interpreting rural areas as inferior
places, is unjustified as contemporary studies with new teachers revealed satisfaction.
A good image of rural communities can be developed by promoting positive aspects
of rural communities to potential beginner teachers. This ensures that a positive
perception is created among beginner teachers with the hope that they will develop
the interest to work in rural schools.
In summary, it is clear that living and working in rural schools is characterised by
several challenges compared to urban schools. Living and working in rural
environments depicts isolation from essential goods and services, working with
learners who have no interest in education, inadequate physical facilities and being
exposed to multi-grade teaching. Teachers in rural schools are faced by challenges
related to poor teacher status, poor career advancement, neglect of teachers,
unqualified teachers and difficulties in recruiting qualified teachers (Adedeji & Olaniyan
2011:57-61). Working with parents who have low educational expectations and
therefore are not supportive towards the education of their children poses an additional
challenge to teachers working in rural schools (Legotlo 2014:17; Mulkeen & Chen
2008:10).
The discussions in the previous sections (3.4.1 and 3.4.2) reveal that living and
working in rural areas comes with a set of challenges, especially to teachers. Since
teachers living and working in rural schools are fundamentally informed by the
83
teaching and learning responsibilities, the next sections, 3.5 and 3.6, present an
elaborate thematic discussion of the factors characterising teaching and learning in a
rural setting.
3.5
TEACHING IN RURAL SCHOOLS
Traditionally, it has been difficult attracting to and retaining teachers and other
professionals in rural areas (Lock 2008:24; Miller 2012:2). Teaching at rural schools
continues to deteriorate as the problem of attracting and retaining qualified teachers
still remains (Heeralal 2014:1797; Owusu-Acheampong & Williams 2015:40). Rural
school locations and socio-economic conditions serve as major barriers in attracting,
retaining and supporting talented teachers (Elfers & Plecki 2006:13).
The World Bank attributed poor learner performance at rural schools to the problem
of low retention of high-quality teachers in rural schools (Aziz 2011:6). In addition to
discussions in section 3.3, a high quality teacher is defined as a teacher with the ability
to produce desired learner achievement (Mitra et al. 2008:168). Lack of talented and
quality teachers culminates in poor quality teaching in rural schools as capable and
professionally qualified teachers engenders quality teaching in schools (Aziz 2011:4;
Hammer, Hughes, McClure, Reeves & Salgado 2005:8; Jimerson 2003:19). To
understand how teaching happens at rural schools, a thematic discussion of the
conditions underlying teaching at rural schools is discussed next.
3.5.1
Poor working conditions
In order to deliver high quality education and realise optimal learning among learners
regardless of their localities, schools must develop, attract and retain good teachers.
As highlighted in sections 2.2.2 and 2.4.3, working conditions play an important role in
enabling schools to deliver high quality education. According to Ali (2013:68) working
conditions refer to working environment and all existing circumstances affecting the
workers in the work place such working hours, facilities, legal rights, responsibilities,
organisational climate and workload.
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Working conditions are characterised as poor when the work environment and the
circumstances under which teachers perform their work are not favourable for
teachers to perform their work effectively. Noble (2003:352) emphasises the
prevention of poor working conditions because, when employees have negative
perceptions about their work environment, they get dissatisfied resulting in less
productivity. Due to the impact of poor working conditions on employees’ productivity,
and in light of the demand for constant improvement in a technologically driven work
environment, poor working conditions is a subject of international debate among
scholars (Ali et al. 2013:76; Dembélé & Miaro-II 2003:44; Mulkeen et al. 2007:51).
Even though employees share the same teaching profession, their working conditions
differ as determined by the work environment in which they are teaching. This creates
injustices where some teachers enjoy good working conditions whereas some are
subjected to poor working conditions. Poor working conditions are found to be less in
developed countries due to the availability of resources to provide good working
conditions, and severe in developing countries as there is lack of infrastructure and
financial resources (Akyeampong & Bennel 2007:27; Pitsoe 2013:309).
Teaching in developing countries of sub-Saharan Africa is defined by the struggle to
cope with the absence of basic teaching and learning resources, overloaded with
teaching and administrative duties, underfunding to schools and poor teacher salaries
(Weber 2007:293; Thakrar & Zinn 2009:2). These difficult working conditions intensify
the lack of capacity for schools to improve the working conditions of teachers (Adedeji
&Olaniyan 2011:83).
The difference in socio-economic status between urban and rural areas affects the
standard of teaching significantly. There is a wide gap between the socio-economic
status of urban and rural environments with regard to the material and financial
resources which are the means of production (Adedeji 2011:59). Urban environments
are inhabited by people who are often educated and employed with decent salaries
and good working conditions (Legotlo 2014:17). The availability of essential goods and
services in urban areas also means that schools in urban areas are well-established
in terms of resources and facilities, which then attracts good quality teachers to urban
schools due to good working conditions (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:2). Most teachers
85
therefore prefer to work in urban schools in order to enjoy the positive experiences
associated with an urban environment, which widens the disparity between urban and
rural schools (Marwan et al. 2012:172).
The rural environment, on the other hand, is populated with people who are often poor,
less educated and unemployed (Legotlo 2014:17; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:10; National
Planning Commision 2015:51). Rural residents are deprived of basic services such as
clean water, electricity, proper housing and roads infrastructure due to their location
and inability to afford and maintain such services. The lack of basic services in the
rural environment impacts on the limited resources of schools in rural areas, thereby
affecting the potential to attract good teachers for good quality teaching in rural areas.
Teachers shy away from schools in rural environments with their challenging working
circumstances, resulting in a lack of good quality teachers with related good learner
achievement.
In Malaysian schools, poor working conditions is regarded as a factor of dissatisfaction
which increased teacher turnover, with teachers leaving for urban schools where there
is higher socio-economic status and better teaching support services (Aziz 2011:6;
NCTAF 2002:34; Ramesh, Rao & Jani 2011:103). Apart from better teaching and
learning resources, urban schools rely on an educated parent population that
understands schooling and supports the education of their children, and they
contribute financially for better funded school projects (Marwan et al. 2012:172).
Working conditions in rural schools are also influenced by a bureaucratic style of
management (Marwan et al. 2012:172). Bureaucracy as the system of governance
ensures that the administration and management of affairs are conducted in
compliance with legislation and relevant structures (Pont, Nusche & Moorman
2008:22). This governance approach delays progress at rural schools pertaining to the
timely appointment of teachers, as appointing teachers is a fairly long process that
involves different departments (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:52).
Bureaucracy in urban areas is effective as urban schools are in cities where the
different education departments are located which makes the process easy and quick.
On the contrary, rural school principals have to travel long distances to educational
86
departments for administrative and appointments purposes which may take a number
of days. This long process of administration involving teacher appointments is
detrimental to rural schools because, while teachers are waiting for appointment at
rural schools, they may get other appointments in urban schools in the meantime. In
addition, the few teachers at rural schools who received no training in multi-grade
teaching have to cope without having sufficient colleagues to work with and assist
each other. This creates difficult working conditions for teachers at rural schools and
makes teaching a difficult task to perform.
Lack of reliable transport in rural areas compromises rural teachers’ mobility as some
schools are only reachable by crossing rivers (Marwan et al. 2012:173; Monk
2007:155). This type of mobility demotivates teachers and detracts their attention from
teaching at rural schools. In addition, teachers who drive long distances to school
because of a lack of housing are more likely to leave their positions than teachers who
live in or near the community where the school is located (Lowe 2006:9).
As discussed in section 3.4.2, the multi-grade teaching create an unsupportive
environment for quality teaching, resulting in teaching being less effective in rural
schools that practice multi-class teaching as teachers lack the necessary pedagogic
skills to accommodate the needs of all learners in the same class. Most rural schools
also lack facilities for leisure and recreational activities (Towse et al. 2002:637).
Together with poor infrastructure and roads, these conditions make teaching at rural
schools unbearable to qualified teachers and this diminishes the quality of teaching at
rural schools (Zvavahera 2012:1).
While the introduction of a financial incentive in rural areas is a positive milestone in
addressing education imbalances and promoting effective teaching, such incentive
have failed to attract and retain qualified teachers to rural areas (Bush, Bell &
Middlewood 2010:138; Glazerman, Mckie & Carey 2009:39, Milanowski, LongwellGrice, Saffold, Jones, Schomisch & Odden 2009:2; Vegas 2005:21 ). Rural school
teachers regard the financial incentive they receive as minimal as it cannot justify the
hard working conditions under which teachers perform their work in rural areas (Lavy
2009:1979). Locating in urban areas is more rewarding as teachers are exposed to
opportunities to earn additional income from tutorials and offering classes to students
87
in town, which are limited in the rural environment due to widespread poverty in rural
areas (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:58).
It is clear that poor working conditions impact good quality teaching in rural schools.
Although poor working conditions differ from one environment to another, the problem
proves to be prominent in rural areas due to factors related to socio-economic
circumstances, bureaucracy in administering educational affairs related to transport
problems to urban areas where education department and offices are situated, the
practice of multi-grade teaching and lack of educational facilities. The financial
incentive provided to teachers at rural schools is deem not commensurate with the
hardships rural teachers are facing.
3.5.2
Incompetence
An important determinant for learners’ success in schools is the presence of
competent teachers (Hammer et al. 2005:31). As discussed in section 3.3, competent
teachers are distinguished by a set of professional characteristics that makes them
suitable and competent for the teaching profession. Incompetence as the inability of
the teacher to effectively demonstrate the pedagogic content knowledge of their
subject results in learners not learning optimally as a result of poor quality teaching.
The migration pattern of qualified teachers from rural to urban schools is inevitable as
qualified teachers move to urban schools for a better teaching and living standard,
resulting in a situation of unqualified teachers teaching at rural schools (Marwan et al.
2012:172; Ncube 2013:3). The lack of professional competencies among rural school
teaching staff produces a poor standard of teaching as the success of teachers in
addressing teaching challenges is determined by their professional preparation and
competencies (Lingam 2012:2).
Teacher training institutions do not provide specific training for teacher competence
within rural school contexts. Teacher training curriculums are therefore inadequate
with regard to equipping teachers for a teaching career in rural schools (Lingam
2012:1). Many teacher training institutions are located in urban areas and teaching
practice for students often takes place at schools in urban localities (Heeralal
88
2014:1795). Some students do their teaching practice in rural communities as their
community of origin (Lingam 2012:2). However, these students may not go back to
their community of origin for work after graduating as they may regard their education
as a means of social mobility to locate to urban areas (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:25;
section 1.2.1.2). This cause a shortage of competencies in rural communities.
As the content of the teacher training curriculum is not inclusive of the realities at rural
schools (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:21), teachers’ suitability to rural areas can be
attained by specifically improving teachers’ professional competencies for the
circumstances experienced in rural areas (Hu 2007:7). Teachers need adequate
professional preparation during their initial teacher training programme, which entails
all content and contextual issues teachers will be facing at rural schools, such as
isolation from essential goods and services, living and working with learners from
poverty stricken families, insufficient instructional resources and lack of recreational
facilities. It is the adequate preparation for all these content and contextual issues that
can help improve teacher competence in rural areas, and promote effective teaching
and increase learner performance (Moreno 2007:169; Robinson 2008:4).
Due to the failure of the curriculum content to accommodate the specific issues
revolving around rural environments, teachers deployed to rural schools become
incompetent as they cannot cope with the hardships they experience. Lack of
opportunities for in-service training to train teachers to specifically work in rural areas
contribute significantly to incompetence among rural school teachers. These inservice training provisioning for rural school teachers are essential as they assist to
increase teacher competence, increase the appeal of the rural teaching and provide
an attractive long term teaching career (Darling-Hammond 2003:6; Lock, Green,
Hastings, Cooper & White 2009:31).
The geographical locations of rural schools deprive teachers of access to support
services (Hammer et al. 2005:31), as these schools are difficult to reach resulting in
teachers at rural schools being deprived of support services such as visits by advisory
officials or school inspectors. The lack of monitoring in rural schools may also
contribute to poor teacher performance and absenteeism (Mulkeen & Chen, 2008:23).
A lack of opportunities for formal, workshop-based related professional developments
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also contributes to incompetence at rural schools. In some instances, professional
development is perceived as a personal ambition among teachers rather than an effort
to improve rural schools (Aziz 2011:11). This perception results in minimised teacher
competencies, capabilities and motivation for teaching at rural schools.
Rural school teachers are often overloaded with both teaching and administrative work
which can be in conflict with their professional development ambitions (Hudson &
Hudson 2008:67). The result is then that rural school teachers do not have sufficient
time to devote to their career development endeavours helping them to master
improved teaching abilities.
The cultural domains of the rural environment also pose as a challenge to beginner
teachers (Aziz 2011:10; Lingam 2012:2). Newcomer teachers who teach in rural
schools encounter cultural backgrounds of learners that are different to their own
cultural backgrounds which necessitate multi-cultural studies in the teacher education
programme. Urban schools are characterised by a collection of cultural identities to
which it is easy for teachers to adapt. Unlike urban schools, schools in rural areas
usually belong to a community with one culture which may be different from that of the
teacher. This make is it difficult for the teacher to adapt if no multi-cultural training was
provided during teacher training.
It becomes clear that incompetence exists in rural schools with negative implications
for the quality of teaching. Factors pertaining to incompetency include the migration
pattern of qualified teachers to urban schools, training institutions not prepare teachers
adequately for teaching careers in rural contexts, and a lack of in-service training to
capacitate teachers in rural teaching. The geographical location of rural schools
impinges the delivery of support services, whereas negative perceptions prevail
towards professional development. These are complicated by the cultural
backgrounds of learners in rural environments which in many instances are different
to the cultural association of the newcomer teacher.
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3.5.3
Isolation
Through consultation and being close to those sharing similar ideals, best practices
are shared and obstacles are overcomed (Giordano 2008:28). Isolation by being far
from other areas and communities that could provide support services is a
disadvantage in terms of teachers being prevented from gaining information about
best educational practices and sharing teaching and learning resources. Such
isolation has the risk of achieving a low standard of performance due to limited support
services resulting in poor quality teaching.
Because of these detrimental effects of isolation on education and their impact on the
quality teaching, several countries have implemented measures to bring their
educational institutions together. One of these measures is the implementation of a
school cluster system (section 3.3.3). This system ensures that schools do not feel
isolated and share resources with neighbouring schools. Despite the implementation
of measures to bring together educational institutions, the problem of isolation still
manifest itself among rural schools.
Isolation is felt by teachers at rural schools with regard to professional development.
Teachers in rural areas are less likely to have opportunities to engage in professional
development activities due to the remoteness of their schools which are a distance
away from main towns where opportunities for professional development are available.
This makes teachers feel professionally isolated as career advancement and
opportunities for further studies are often unavailable or very difficult to arrange in the
rural areas (Shadreck 2012:772). Teachers therefore prefer to be posted in urban
areas in order to have easy access to further education (Aziz 2011:4; Elfer & Plecki
2006:1; Mulkeen 2006:4).
The physical remoteness of rural schools makes teachers feel isolated as they are
distant from accessing economic infrastructures (Redding & Walberg 2012:4). To
receive their salary teachers need to travel to urban areas to access financial
institutions such as banks for their payments (Mulkeen 2006:21). The isolation of rural
schools may involve the absence of teachers from schools for more than one day
because, when teachers go to financial institutions to access their payment, they use
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the opportunity to do their shopping before returning to rural areas (Holloway
2002:143). This arrangement impacts negatively on the quality of teaching in the
sense of losing possible time needed for teaching lessons.
Rural communities are also isolated from health facilities. Teachers have raised health
concerns in accepting offers to teach in rural schools as most rural health service
centres are not easily accessible. A visit to a doctor that might take a day in an urban
area can involve an absence of three or four days in rural areas (Mulkeen 2006:22).
This lengthy absence from work as a result of schools being isolated from essential
health services negatively affects teaching at rural schools.
As rural environments are often severely impoverished and are associated with an
aging population, unemployment and low quality of life. Many teachers from urban
backgrounds, are faced with challenges regarding recreation and socialising in rural
areas, which adds to their job dissatisfaction (Monk 2007:167). The lack of
opportunities to meet new friends and to socialise hampers teachers’ quality of life in
rural areas.
This study established that isolation that is associated with teaching in rural areas
impacts negatively on professional development opportunities and the accessibility of
financial, shopping and health care provisioning. Isolation as experienced in rural
areas deprives teachers of socialising and meaningful leisure activities which impacts
negatively on rural teachers’ sense of quality of life.
3.5.4
Inadequate rewards
Hodgetts and Hegar (2005:39) maintain that the psychological drive that directs a
person toward an objective is motivation as a set of processes that moves a person
toward a goal. In order to perform well in their teaching activities, teachers need to be
motivated. Rewards as the measures that organisations implement in order to
motivate employees while improving organisational performance affect the motivation
of teachers as employees (San, Theen & Heng 2012:211).
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For increased productivity such as ensuring that high learner performance takes place,
it is imperative that rewards for teachers be realistic and adequate to motivate teachers
for improved performance. Inadequate rewards and compensation for teachers and
adverse working conditions common to rural areas have detrimental effects on learner
performance. Inadequate rewards are experienced in rural areas as relates mainly to
remuneration and the lack of a financial incentive. Most teachers at rural schools are
not well paid compared to their counterparts in other professions with comparable
levels of education, experience and input towards their work (Adedeji & Olaniyan
2011:57; Jimerson 2003:8).
Even though teachers are in general paid according to their qualifications regardless
of where they are teaching, some teachers at rural schools are paid less due to the
misconception that rural areas are cheaper places to live in compared to urban areas
(Jimerson 2003:8). Salaries for teachers need to be competitive in order to recruit and
retain highly qualified teachers regardless of the fact that in some instances teachers
sustain their good performance irrespective of the salaries they are paid. Recruiting
and retaining quality teachers can be achieved by increasing teacher rewards to a
competitive level that will help address the status of the teaching profession and
elevate teacher salaries to a point competitive with what other comparable
professionals earn (Jimerson 2003:8). Adequate rewards in the form of competitive
salaries serve to address teacher motivation and retention while also improving the
status of the teaching profession (Shadreck 2014:770).
Low salaries of teachers force many teachers to find additional income to supplement
their earnings, which influence their overall teaching performance negatively (Alam &
Farid 2011:298). For example, in Uganda, some teachers in rural schools spend fewer
hours on classroom teaching in favour of their private work as a mean of
supplementing their incomes which is reflected in poor learner performance by their
learners (Mulkeen 2006:21).
Opportunities for teachers to earn additional income from private coaching of learners
and school based incentive, which are common in many urban areas, are limited in
rural areas, mainly because of widespread poverty (Shadreck 2014:770). Osterholm
et al. (2006:3) confirm that this situation of lack of opportunities to supplement low
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salaries is common to rural areas in America, thereby functioning as a major obstacle
for teacher recruitment and retention. This obstacle affects negatively the quality of
teaching at rural schools.
In Nigeria, rural school teachers in the mid-western states were over-utilised, with a
teaching workload of 26 periods while their urban counterparts were under-utilised
with a teaching load of 16 periods (Ibadin 2010:87). Yet, rural teachers do not get
adequate rewards for being over-utilised. This demotivates teachers and leads to
teacher turnover since the rewards they get in return for the work done is not realistic.
Lowe (2006:28) and Osterholm et al. (2006:3) suggest offering incentive, bonuses and
salary increases to teachers as a strategy for retaining them. However, the success of
monetary benefits for improved teacher performance is a moot topic (section 2.4.3).
It is clear that inadequate rewards and compensation is common to teachers working
in rural areas relating to low salaries and a lack of opportunities to supplement these
low salaries while having a huge workload as compared to their urban counterparts.
In addition to insufficient remuneration, poor quality of teaching at rural schools is
attributed to poor working conditions, teacher incompetence due to lack of
opportunities for professional development, and isolation from essential facilities and
services (UNICEF Report 2014:37). These obstacles challenge teacher retention in
rural areas which are exacerbated by the fact that teacher rewards in rural areas are
not reflective of teacher workloads. All these factors that influence teaching negatively
need to be considered, with the aim to devise measures for improving teaching in rural
areas.
3.6
LEARNING IN RURAL SCHOOLS
Rural schools encounter many difficulties due to a lack of good teachers, and a
widening knowledge gap between the urban and rural schools due to technology
developments resulting in rural learners falling behind their urban counterparts
(Lingam 2012:3). Poor learner performance at rural schools is intensified by high rates
of learner absenteeism and their inability to read and write effectively (Adedeji &
Bamidele 2003:15). The deficiency in teaching as expressed in section 3.5, shaped
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the learner performance at rural schools, because learning is a result of teaching.
Learning at rural schools is defined by the factors as discussed next.
3.6.1
Persistent poverty
Rural teaching includes teaching impoverished and malnourished learners, which
often leads to interrupted school attendance and learners’ academic needs not being
met (Aziz 2011:9; Epply 2009:3). Impoverished and malnourished conditions of
learners in rural environments are a result of poor families who are often unemployed
and thus unable to provide basic necessities for their families.
Teaching malnourished learners places an added challenge on already overworked
rural teachers to ensure effective learning (Ibadin 2010:87; Monk 2007:156). When
learners are malnourished, they do not have the energy to concentrate during lesson
presentation and grasp the contents being taught. Learners are sleepy and less active
during lessons and this places a mammoth task on teachers to keep them awake and
make them learn what is being taught. This can reduce teacher motivation and morale
since optimal learning cannot take place. As a result, malnourished learners coupled
with unmotivated teaching staff eventually leads to poor masterly of learning outcomes
in rural schools.
Apart from the poor family background and learners’ characteristics as factors
hampering learning in rural schools, Loeb, Darling-Hammond and Luczak (2005:44)
indicates that poverty can also be expressed in terms of the school context, for having
poor school infrastructure and offering low teacher salaries. The state of poverty of
schools leads to massive teacher turnover which negatively affects learning at rural
schools.
Inadequate funding to schools contributes to rural schools’ inability to attract and retain
qualified teachers (Howley et al. 2009:520). Public schools get funding from central
government for the procurement of educational resources. The funds are not sufficient
to acquire sufficient instructional materials for all learners enrolled at a school. In some
cases, learners share instructional materials such as textbooks. Due to insufficient
textbooks, teachers are forced to write summaries on chalkboards for learners to copy
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into their summary books. The time used for writing and copying summaries infringes
the explanations and assessment of subject contents. The inability of schools to
provide enough learning materials because of shortages of funds has resulted in rural
schools’ inability to attract competent teachers for improved learning outcomes.
In addition, learning in critical subjects such as mathematics, science and special
education is minimal as rural areas have difficulties in finding teachers specialising in
these learning areas (Hammer et al. 2005:31; Paul 2005:456). The reason is that the
supply of teachers of these critical subjects is scarce in general, which is exacerbated
by conditions in rural areas that are encountered as challenging.
It is clear that learning in rural school is hampered by poor families whose children
attend school malnourished and who therefore are unable to learn successfully. In
addition, parents’ poverty causes an inability to raise sufficient funds to supplement
government under-funding to schools in order to ensure sufficient resources and the
attraction of competent teachers for improved learning at rural schools.
3.6.2
Minimum parental involvement
Most parents in rural areas are not willing to invest in the education of their children
as they are not convinced of its quality (Shadreck 2012:768). The lack of quality
education in rural schools influences parents to be reluctant to allow their children to
attend after-school education programmes as such programmes are not necessarily
successful in producing the desired results in terms of improved learner performance.
For example, rural parents in India are not likely to support learners involvement in
school programmes that take place in the evenings or on the weekends as that
interferes with taking care of family responsibilities (Cross & Burney 2005:148).
Parents do not want an opportunity cost where family responsibilities suffer in vain as
after school programmes do not produce intended results.
As most parents in rural areas are not well-educated and are not able to provide
educational support to their children, they are embarrassed to discuss school work
with children (Legotlo 2014:17; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:10; section 1.2.2). The result of
parent indifference in many rural schools across the continent of Africa is low learners’
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enrolment and high drop-out rates among rural schools (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:24).
The learners enrolled usually achieve poor performance as influenced by their parents’
understanding of the value of education.
In addition, parents are unlikely to support what they do not understand or value which
causes them to direct learners’ attention to their priority areas which pertains to
household chores and work to help support the family, or work in family businesses
(Legotlo 2014:17; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:10). Being engaged in these activities, limited
time is available for learners to participate in opportunities designed to promote their
learning endeavour, resulting in poor learner performance and a sustaining of limited
opportunities for academic success (Cross & Burney 2005:148; Epply 2009:8; Howley
et al. 2009:523). Despite their literacy level, parents have a moral obligation of
providing emotional guidance and academic support to their children (Van der Merwe
2011:784), which should also apply to rural areas and where it should be utilised
effectively.
It is clear that learning in rural schools is hampered by minimum parental involvement
intensified by parents’ mistrust of schooling due to the poor quality of provisioning.
Parents’ mistrust is combined with their rating of an education as less important than
household duties. Despite the low level of significance parents attach to education,
scholars still emphasise the fact that parents have a moral obligation to support the
learning process of their children.
3.6.3
Shortage of resources
Most rural schools are poor and characterised by lack of resources, with regard to
human resources, facilities and instructional materials (Ncube 2013:3). Efforts by the
School Boards to provide resources to rural schools are not always effective due to
low level of education and poverty among the rural parent population (Van der Merwe
2011:778) resulting in poor learner performance in rural areas due to disparities in
school resources (Lingam 2012:2). The lack of human resources is caused by low
retention of good teachers in rural schools (Aziz 2011:6), diminishing learning
achievement as a direct effect of teacher quality (Bauch 2001:204; Carey 2004:3;
Darling-Hammond 2003:6; Shadreck 2014:768). All initiatives in educational
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development and provision rely on the availability of quality teachers with suitable
pedagogical skills, knowledge and characteristics (Burnett and Lingam 2007:303).
Exacerbating lack of human resources is the lack of school inspectors visiting rural
schools for mentoring teachers and supervising their performance (Lingam 2012:2).
This causes deficiencies in mentoring and supervision areas at rural schools. Apart
from the lack of support from the educational department and due to their geographic
isolation, teachers at rural schools do not have adequate access to professional
development programmes (Hammer et al. 2005:35).
Lack of human resources at rural schools is caused by high teacher turnover due to
unfavourable working conditions in rural areas (section 3.4.1). This situation is
worsened by qualified teachers who prefer to remain in urban areas upon completion
of their teacher training programme, which results in a constant lack of qualified
teaching staff at rural schools (Burnett & Lingam 2007:303). Many rural schools do not
have sufficient buildings to accommodate learners of all grade levels which results in
multi-grade teaching (section 3.5.1). Lack of qualified and skilled teachers and
teachers qualified specifically for multi-grade teaching contributes to poor learner
performance at rural schools (Lingam 2012:2; Narsey 2004:295).
Adding to the state of poor learning at rural schools is the lack of proper understanding
of the concept of learning as this learning is carried out and perceived on the basis of
the economics of the rural environment (Ncube 2013:5). The implication is that learner
achievements in rural schools, which are by implication poor schools, are situated in
poverty, thereby compromising learner achievement and efforts to uplift learning at
these schools.
It is clear that learning in rural environments is hampered by insufficient resources
pertaining to human resources and physical infrastructure which, to a large extent, is
the result of persistent poverty. Factors such as malnourished learners accompanied
by minimal parental involvement worsen the success with learning. Despite the
influence of these factors, quality education at poorly-resourced rural schools can be
achieved by the morality of the school staff in fostering strong relation with parents
and mobilising adequate resources for teaching and learning (Van der Merwe
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2011:771). Teachers have a moral obligation to educate the parent community on the
importance of education and how education stakeholders can collaborate to acquire
sufficient resources for effective learning at rural schools.
3.7
CONCLUSION
Optimal learning as a mastering of the specified learning outcomes and skilfully
applying what is learnt is contingent on competent teachers as the enablers of learning
who teach in environments characterised by sufficient physical infrastructures and
instructional resources. A good teacher manifests a combination of professional,
personal and social characteristics. The Chapter’s focus on education within a rural
context revealed challenges relating to difficult working conditions engendering a lack
of qualified teaching personnel for the impoverished rural environment. Constructive
measures are needed to attract and retain professionally qualified teachers at rural
schools to improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning and ensuring optimal
learning for each individual learner. The next Chapter presents the research design
and methodology used for the empirical investigation.
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CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4.1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter three discussed conditions influencing teaching and learning in rural schools
and established the characteristics for good teaching. This Chapter discusses the
empirical investigation, regarding research paradigm, research approach, research
sample, data collection methods and analysis of the collected data. The Chapter ends
with trustworthiness of the research findings as well as ethical considerations that
surrounded the research.
4.2
RATIONALE FOR EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION
As stated in section 1.6, the data for this study was collected by both a literature study
and an empirical investigation. A detailed literature study was carried out in Chapter
two and Chapter three. This alone was not substantive enough to generate a holistic
understanding of the influence of a financial incentive on learner performance at rural
schools. Multiple sources of data should be used to investigate the subject empirically,
through scrutiny and critical questioning in search of subject clarity and better
comprehension of the phenomenon under study (Johnson, Onwuegbuzie & Turner
2007:120).
As the objective of the empirical investigation was to provide evidence about the
subject being studied (Johnson & Christensen 2004:22), it was imperative for the
investigation to follow a predetermined set of procedures for conducting an empirical
investigation. Procedures for conducting empirical investigations as proposed by
Marczyk, DeMatteo and Festinger (2005:6-7) include; posing significant questions that
can be investigated empirically; linking the research to a relevant theory or conceptual
framework; using methods that allow direct investigation of the research question;
providing a coherent and explicit chain of reasoning; replicating the findings by
extending them across studies and; disclosing the empirical research findings to
prompt professional scrutiny and critique.
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These procedures were all applied during this empirical investigation. Firstly, the
researcher presented questions that were fit to be investigated empirically (section
1.4). Secondly, interpretivist research paradigm was adopted as a paradigmatic
framework for conducting the investigation and treating results. Thirdly, interviews
(section 1.6.3.1) and the document analysis method (section 1.6.3.2) that were
administered were the ideal data collection methods the researcher could use to
evaluate the financial incentive empirically. Fourth, collecting data from different
participants ensured a variety of reasoning from different perspectives and experience.
Fifth, the final research report provided sufficient contextual information about the
research for establishing whether research findings can be applied in other contexts.
Sixth, the findings of this empirical investigation will be published to give scholars an
opportunity for scrutiny and critique.
The empirical investigation was underpinned by the research objectives as outlined
next.
4.3
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The empirical investigation sought to address the following objectives, namely to:
Explain the influence of a financial incentive on teacher motivation and
learner performance in rural schools.
Describe the characteristics of a good rural school teacher.
Suggest appropriate teacher motivation strategies for improved learner
performance in rural schools.
In addressing the above research objectives, the empirical investigation was premised
on the philosophical underpinnings as explained next.
4.4
RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design describes how the researcher sets out a road map for conducting
the investigation as influenced by the purpose of the study, the available resource and
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the researcher’s expertise in carrying out the investigation (Henning, Van Rensburg &
Smit 2004:44; Van Rensburg & Smit 2004:1). An appropriate design ensures
correlation between the various major components of the investigation such as the
research questions, the collected data and the eventual conclusions that were drawn
(Yin 2009:24).
Maree (2010:70) states that research design is a strategy for undertaking the research
and it flows from the underlying philosophical assumptions to the selection of
participants, the data collection techniques and the data analysis methods to be used
and the conclusions to be drawn. This view is supported by Lankshear and Knobel
(2004:21) and Creswell (2006:39) who all view the research design as the plan for the
s+tudy, providing the overall framework that informs the collection of data, outlining
the detailed steps of the investigation and providing guidelines for systematic data
collection. Other than the overall framework, Creswell (2005:51) regards research
design as the specific procedures involved in the last three steps of the research
process, which relates to data collection, data analysis and report writing. In view of
the above explanations, Dash (2005:1) and Merriam (1998:44), summarise research
design as a map used in finding answers to the research questions and planning the
methods by which the answers will be obtained and how the results will be treated and
reported.
All scientific research designs are based on underlying philosophical assumptions
about the choice of the research and the research methods that are deemed
appropriate for the development of knowledge in a specific field of study. The research
design for this study is explained next.
4.4.1
Research paradigm
Researcher makes considerations about the nature of the problem and the available
approaches that can be used in studying the problem and dealing with it to its logical
conclusion. According to Creswell (2002:7), the most quoted definition of research
paradigm is Thomas Kuhn’s (1970) exposition, which states that “a paradigm is the
underlying assumptions and intellectual structure upon which research and
development in a field of inquiry is based”. According to Kuhn (1970), a research
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paradigm is a model or pattern, according to which researchers view the objects of
research. The purpose of research and how research will be conducted are all
influenced by the researcher’s paradigmatic beliefs.
Kawulich (2012:1) states that every researcher has his/her own views of what
constitutes truth and knowledge. These views form the basis of our reasoning and this
basis of reasoning is what came to be known as a paradigm. Therefore, paradigms
are frameworks which guide our thinking, our beliefs and value systems and direct our
assumptions about ourselves and the society we live in as well as framing how we
view the world around us (Schwandt 2001:183). A paradigm is thus a shared worldview
that represents the thinking patterns, imagination, beliefs and values shared in a
discipline and that guides how problems are solved within that specific discipline
(Muhammad, Muhammad, Aijaz, Syeda & Kamal 2011:2083; Schwandt 2001:183-4;
Tichapondwa 2013:105). The term ‘worldview’ implies a basic set of beliefs that guide
an individual’s action (Guba 1990:17).
Patton (2014: 91) states that a paradigm is expressed in terms of three philosophical
aspects, namely, the nature of social reality (known as ontology – that is, what do we
believe about the nature of reality?), ways of knowing (known as epistemology – that
is, how do we know what we know?), and ethics and value systems (known as axiology
– that is, what do we believe is true?). Hence, the choice of the research paradigm is
influenced by a lot of philosophical assumptions a person holds about what is reality,
its nature and its ability to be believed.
Kawulich (2012: 1) asserts that paradigm paves the way for researchers to ask specific
questions and use appropriate approaches and methods to systematic inquiry (known
as methodology – that is, how should we study the world?). Hence, methodology
becomes another important aspects. It is the formula to be used in finding answers to
all questions people ask about reality. The presentation of the research findings as
answers to the research questions also requires a specific format of presentation
(known as rhetoric – that is, how should we present the findings?). Hence, rhetoric
becomes another important philosophical aspect.
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Research paradigm relates to a lot of beliefs advanced by researchers, as these
beliefs relates to ontological, epistemological, axiological, methodological and
rhetorical aspects that inform the way researchers conduct their investigations. The
consideration of all these philosophical aspects informs researchers about the choice
of the research paradigm and the particular direction their research should focus on.
The following diagram depicts the philosophical factors that inform the choice of a
research paradigm.
Theoretical
frameworks,
literature &
research practice
(Methodology and
rhetoric)
Assumptions
about the nature
of reality &
knowledge
Value systems &
ethical principles
(Axiology)
(Ontology and
epistemology)
Research
Paradigm
Figure 4.1: Philosophical factors influencing the choice of research paradigm
Source: Kawulich 2012: 3
Figure 4.1 shows that a chosen research paradigm is a holistic overview of the world
by the researcher. It is a result of various philosophical factors that have been put
together in order to help understand a phenomena and find ways on how to deal with
it in a particular environment. Comprehensively considered, the choice of the paradigm
is influenced by the researcher’s own worldviews about different underpinnings
characterising the environment in which the researcher lives. These worldviews are
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shaped by the discipline area of the researcher, the beliefs of scholars in the
researcher’s area of study and past research experiences.
In considering research problems and attempting to find answers to them, researchers
adhere to specific research paradigms underlying the phenomena and rationale of
their research endeavours (Thomas 2010: 292). The following table illustrates the
common research paradigms used by researchers as the philosophical basis for their
investigations and reasoning.
Table 4.1: Types of research paradigms
Positivist/Post
Constructivist/
Transformative/
Postcolonial/
positivist research
Interpretative
Emancipatory
Indigenous
paradigm
research
research paradigm
research
paradigm
paradigm
Reason for
To discover laws
To understand
To destroy
To challenge
doing the
that are
and describe
myths and
deficit thinking
research
generalizable
human nature
empower people
and
and govern the
to change
pathological
universe
society radically
descriptions of
the former
colonized and
reconstruct a
body of
knowledge that
carries hope
and promotes
transformation
and social
change among
the historically
oppressed
Philosophical
Informed mainly
Informed by
Informed by
Informed by
underpinnings
by realism,
hermeneutics
critical theory,
indigenous
idealism and
and
postcolonial
knowledge
critical realism
phenomenology
discourses,
systems,
feminist
critical theory,
105
theories, race-
postcolonial
specific theories
discourses,
and neo-Marxist
feminist
theories
theories, critical
race- 6 specific
theories and
neo-Marxist
theories
Ontological
One reality,
Multiple socially
Multiple realties
Socially
assumptions
knowable within
constructed
shaped by
constructed
probability
realties
social, political,
multiple
cultural,
realities
economic, race,
shaped by the
ethnic, gender
set of multiple
and disability
connections
values
that human
beings have
with the
environment,
the cosmos,
the living and
the non-living
Place of
Science is value
Values are an
All science must
All research
values in the
free, and values
integral part of
begin with a
must be guided
research
have no place
social life; no
value position;
by a relational
process
except when
group’s values
some positions
accountability
choosing a topic
are wrong, only
are right, some
that promotes
different
are wrong.
respectful
representation,
reciprocity and
rights of the
researched
Nature of
knowledge
Objective
Subjective;
Dialectical
Knowledge is
idiographic
understanding
relational and
aimed at critical
is all the
praxis
indigenous
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knowledge
systems built
on relations
What counts
Based on
Truth is context
It is informed by
It is informed
as truth
precise
dependent
a theory that
by the set of
unveils illusions
multiple
observation and
measurement
relations that
that is verifiable
one has with
the universe
Methodology
Quantitative;
Qualitative;
Combination of
Participatory,
correlational;
phenomenology; quantitative and
liberating, and
quasi-
ethnographic;
qualitative action
transformative
experimental;
symbolic
research;
research
experimental;
interaction;
participatory
approaches
causal
naturalistic
research
and
comparative;
methodologies
survey
that draw from
indigenous
knowledge
systems
Techniques of
Mainly
Mainly
A combination of
Techniques
gathering data
questionnaires,
interviews,
techniques in
based on
observations,
participant
the other two
philosophic
tests and
observation,
paradigms
sagacity, ethno
experiments
pictures,
philosophy,
photographs,
language
diaries and
frameworks,
documents
indigenous
knowledge
systems and
talk stories and
talk circles
Source: Chilisa (2011: 40)
Table 4.1 shows the research paradigms in terms of their definitions and underlying
philosophical underpinning as pertains to ontological, epistemological, axiological and
107
methodological assumptions. These paradigms are explained below, and the
applicability of each specific research paradigm to this study is explained at the end of
the discussion of each research paradigm.
4.4.1.1
Positivism/Post-positivism research paradigm
Positivism emphasises a strict empirical approach in which claims about knowledge
are based directly on experience, facts and the observable causes of behaviour in a
social environment (Bogdan & Biklen 2007:24). It holds the view that scientific
methods and procedures used in the natural sciences offer the best epistemological
framework for investigating the phenomena in the social world as they yield great
objectivity and representation (Crotty 1998:40). Post-positivists hold the same view
that knowledge is discovered through the use of scientific methods and that objects
have existence and meanings independent of human thinking (Kawulich 2012:7).
However, post-positivism postulates that scientific procedures may involve errors and
that theories and procedures can be changed (Ponterotto 2005:130). The argument is
that reality cannot be established in certain terms and therefore attracts critical
analysis to verify the accuracy of scientific procedures and prove bias (Crotty
1998:40). In addition, scientific procedures are carried out by humans influenced by
their individual philosophical underpinnings and theories, and therefore the possibility
of human error and biases cannot be ruled out in positivism. Positivists and postpositivists are related in a way that they both believe in the independence of reality
and the scientific discovery of knowledge using scientific methods. Post-positivists
went further to critique the outcomes of scientific methods in order to safeguard
objectivity and prevent human biases. Hence the two paradigms are usually treated
as interrelated and one.
The relevance of positivism/post-positivism research paradigm to this study manifests
through critical realism and idealism as philosophical underpinnings. The realities of
financial incentive were discovered by the researcher at the research sites by
engaging with the participants. These realities were based on the personal feelings
and accounts of the participants, and therefore the existence of the reality discovered
was dependent on human consciousness and reasoning. Thus, despite an adopted
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research paradigm of choice as will be discussed in section 4.4.1.5, this study cannot
be detached entirely from a positivism/post-positivism research paradigm. The
relevance of the positivism/post-positivism research paradigm also becomes relevant
in view of the mixed-methods research approach as discussed in section 4.4.2.3.
4.4.1.2
Constructivist/Interpretivist research paradigm
Constructivism and interpretivism are related concepts that emphasise the
understanding of the world as others experience it. Its philosophical underpinnings are
informed by the belief that reality is constructed by individuals based on their own
experiences and interactions with one another and their interpretations of the world in
which they live (Jonassen, Cernusca & Ionas 2007:130). Constructivists and
interpretivists view reality as being constructed in a social environment and believe
that there are multiple realities as experienced by different people in a social
environment (McMillan & Schumacher 2010: 6). These multiple realities can be
interpreted in order for them to be understood, hence the relationship and
interdependence between constructivism and interpretivism. According to this
paradigm, knowledge is subjective and truth is dependent upon the context in which
research takes place.
Interpretivism is the most appropriate research paradigm for this study as it underlies
research studies whose aim is to understand and describe human nature (Table 4.1).
The philosophical underpinnings of hermeneutics and phenomenology fit well with the
intentions of this study (section 4.3). Hermeneutics is a branch of philosophy that deals
with the interpretation of phenomena (Paul 2012: 287). The focus of hermeneutics is
the capacity to interpret human understandings (Paul 2012:288). Similar to
hermeneutics, is phenomenology which revolves around the human consciousness of
the objects within the social environment, the experiences derived from the interaction
and
the
explanation
thereof
(Gadamer
2004a:407).
Hermeneutics
and
phenomenology applies to this research insofar as the research sought to interact with
the participants about their consciousness in their own environment and interpret their
expressions.
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The ontological position of constructivism/interpretivism, being multiple reality
construction, concurs well with the data collection section of this study (section 4.6).
The use of this paradigm allowed the researcher to interact with various participants
and collect a multiplicity of views from the participants. The ‘subjective’ epistemological
framework of the constructivism/interpretivism research paradigm becomes relevant
as reality for this research was established by engaging personal experiences and
feelings of individual participants. The logical procedures and methods that were used
to collect data are typically those aligned with a qualitative research approach linked
to the constructivist/interpretivist research paradigm. Hence, a detailed discussion of
the relevance of this research paradigm to this study will be explained in section
4.4.1.5.
4.4.1.3
Transformative/Emancipatory research paradigm
Various researchers have argued that the positivism and interpretivism research
paradigms were characterised by racial bias, and as a result, marginalised African
communities (Mertler 2005:15; Neuman 2014:8; Neuman 2014:118; Shannon-Baker
2016:323). Researchers then advocated for an inclusive paradigm that seeks to
address the flaws and imbalances as suspected in the earlier research paradigms,
with a common motive of emancipating and transforming historically disadvantaged
communities through group action (Mertens 2009:3).
In Africa, Chilisa and Kawulich (2012: 11) noted that some scholars such as Chambers
(1997), Escobar (1995), and Mshana (1992) were of the view that the dominant
research paradigms, those of positivism and constructivism, have marginalised
African communities’ ways of knowing their social environment, and have thus led to
the design of research driven development projects that were irrelevant to the needs
of the people, a sentiment echoed by indigenous scholars in the West (Mihesuah
2005:4). The developmental needs of the indigenous people were thus moved to the
periphery as a result of alien dominant research paradigms.
As a result of this research advocacy, a third paradigm in the name of transformative
or emancipatory research paradigm, which includes critical social science research,
participatory action research and feminist designs, and whose research aims were to
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emancipate, was developed (Mertler 2005:15; Neuman 2014:8-118; Shannon-Baker
2016:323 ).
This paradigms seeks to emancipate humans in various spheres of life such as
empowering previously disadvantaged groups such as women and children (feminist
theory), getting rid of racial inequalities (race-specific theories), addressing
imbalances as a result of colonialism (post-colonial theories), examining and critiquing
the status quo (critical theory) and using education to liberate oneself (Freirean
theory). Broadly considered, the transformative paradigm was a response to the need
for a framework that embodied researchers’ work toward social justice with
marginalised groups, and address social inequities in order to promote positive social
and individual changes for marginalised groups (Shannon-Baker 2016:323).
Related to this study, the rationale for adopting the transformative/emancipatory
research paradigm is informed by postcolonial discourses, and aims at destroying
myths and empower people to change society radically (Table 4.1). This rationale fits
well with the intentions of this study which seeks to suggest appropriate teacher
motivation strategies for rural schools, in order to empower teachers at rural schools
to live a dignified life in rural communities and change the negative image that has
been painted of rural schools over eons. Teachers can be empowered only if they are
emancipated from the current harsh working conditions they are enduring at schools
located in rural communities.
4.4.1.4
Postcolonial/Indigenous research paradigm
Chilisa (2005:562) defines the postcolonial/indigenous research paradigm as a
worldview that focuses on the shared aspects of ontology, epistemology, axiology and
research methodologies of disempowered or historically oppressed social groups. The
paradigm seeks to decolonise indigenous minds by solidifying indigenous values and
cultural practices and placing indigenous peoples and their issues into dominant,
mainstream discourses.
The postcolonial indigenous paradigm serves as a framework for hearing non-western
voices and emancipating the voices of formerly oppressed generations from silence
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imposed by colonisation (Denzin & Lincoln 2005:58). The postcolonial/indigenous
research paradigm provides a means for valuing indigenous knowledge systems and
philosophies (Chilisa 2011:174; Chilisa & Preece 2005:42). This paradigm does not
fall far from the emancipatory research paradigm as it also endeavours to emancipate
historically disadvantaged socially groups, but using a different model, a relational
approach, which is more considerate, fundamental and determined to emancipate.
Given the harsh living and working conditions that oppressed teachers in rural schools
as explained in sections 3.4 and 3.5 respectively, the postcolonial/indigenous research
paradigm becomes a point of reference. This is because the postcolonial/indigenous
research paradigm seeks to promote the indigenous knowledge of the rural school
teachers in terms of expressing collectively how they felt oppressed and what they
think will work better for them while working and residing at rural schools. In the spirit
of Ubuntu as a relational indigenous research paradigm in the African context, the
researcher mobilised teachers for focus group interviewing to collectively assist each
other in answering the questions pertaining to the financial incentive with a view to
collectively making a positive contribution to their academic discourse in rural areas.
As was evident from the discussions of the applicability of the different research
paradigms to this study, the applicability of the interpretivist research paradigm for this
study became prominent and is elaborated on next.
4.4.1.5
Interpretivism as the research paradigm of choice
An interpretivist research paradigm is premised on the fact that knowledge is
developed as a result of people’s subjective interpretations of their experiences about
the social world (Thomas 2010:295). Interpretive researchers believe that there is no
single correct path or a particular method to knowledge, but that knowledge and paths
to improved knowledge are varied and relative. Accordingly, there are no correct or
incorrect theories since human beings think and reflect differently, with the result that
rigid scientific methods are less appropriate for the study of society (Tichapondwa
2013:106).
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The emphasis of an interpretivist paradigm lies in the fact that access to reality,
whether given or socially constructed, is only through social constructions by way of
using language, consciousness and shared meanings (Myers 2009:20). Interpretive
researches contradict objectivity, arguing that knowledge and meanings are the result
of human interpretation, emphasising the relativity of objective knowledge as being not
independent of thinking and human reasoning (Thomas 2010:295).
Due to its social nature, an interpretive paradigm is underpinned by observation and
questioning to collect information about events, as well as by interpretations to make
meanings of that information, either by drawing conclusions or by judging the match
between the information differently collected (Thomas 2010:296). An interpretivist
research paradigm allows researchers to understand phenomena through the
interpretations that specific people assign to these specific phenomena (section 1.6.1).
In addition, interpretivists, by collecting richer, thicker data, typically are able to extract
more meaning from their analysis than are statisticians (Onwuegbuzie, Jiao & Bostick
2004:184).
Through an interpretivist research paradigm, this study provides an understanding of
the influence of financial incentive on teacher motivation in rural schools from the
participants’ own experiences and interpretations, which can possibly be applied to a
wide population from which the sample was drawn. The interpretivist research
paradigm has been criticised by positivists for not using scientific methods to establish
reality, lacking objectivity and prone to investigator’s bias (Kawulich 2012:7; Ponterotto
2005:130). Despite these criticisms and in view of the nature of the study and research
problem, an interpretive research paradigm remained the best paradigm to use for this
study as it allowed the researcher to gain an in-depth understanding of the
phenomenon under study through critical inquiry.
The types of beliefs held by individual researchers as paradigms often lead to
embracing a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods research approach in carrying
out their research (Creswell 2009: 24). The following section will explain the research
approaches as applicable to this study.
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4.4.2
Research approaches
A research paradigm, as discussed earlier, is regarded as an integrated body of
substantive concepts, variables and problems with corresponding methodological
approaches and tools guiding the initiative of finding answers to a research problem
(Huitt 2011:1). As a result, certain research paradigms are associated with certain
research approaches and methods. Research approaches refers to the plans and
procedures for the research and spans the steps from broad assumptions to detailed
methods of data collection, analysis and interpretation (Creswell 2014:31).
The choice of the research approach is informed by the philosophical assumptions the
researchers brings to the study, the procedures of inquiry (research designs) and the
specific research methods of data collection, analysis and interpretation. The choice
of the research approach is also based on the nature of the problem to be addressed,
the researcher’s experience and participants for the study (Creswell 2014:31; Creswell
2009:35). There are three main research approaches, namely, qualitative, quantitative
and mixed-methods research approach. The following section explain the applicability
of each research approach to this study.
4.4.2.1
Qualitative research approach
This study relied mainly on a qualitative research approach in order to evaluate and
interpret the realities surrounding the phenomenon for investigation for the sake of
increased understanding (Leedy & Omrod 2005:134-5). A qualitative research
approach is associated with constructivist/interpretivist research paradigm which are
used to obtain an understanding of the world from a subjective, individual perspective,
with a preference for presenting data in the form of words, rather than in numerical
form as is the case with a positivist research paradigm (Green & Thorogood 2004:25;
Snape & Spencer 2003:15). Both approaches reject a positivist viewpoint that
knowledge is based upon observable and measurable variables that exist as a reality,
but rather believe that human phenomena are socially constructed rather than
objectively tested (Moriarty 2011:6).
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According to Creswell (2006:39) and Johnson and Christensen (2004:30), qualitative
research is a type of research in which the researcher relies on the views of the
participants, asks broad, general questions, collects data consisting largely of
narratives from participants and analyses these words for themes. The fundamental
rationale for adopting the qualitative research approach in this study, lies in the fact
that interviews were used to actively interact with the participants and that a great deal
of the data collected was analysed and presented thematically, as well as interpreted
and discussed narratively.
Qualitative research approaches are preferred for their iterative nature. They have a
high degree of flexibility, as designs and methods are continually refined during the
course of the study for increased clarity and understanding of the subject of study
(Habiba 2013:114). The researcher initially selects the methods based on the
questions, however, the methodological issues may change without losing focus on
research aims, as necessitated by the researcher’s understanding of the reality of the
phenomenon being studied (Jane & Jane 2003:49).
The flexibility with qualitative research approaches that allows methods to be adjusted
and restricted on the basis of the acquired data, ensures continual refinement of the
research methods to provide relevant data. Leedy and Omrod (2005:134-135)
summarise the main benefits of using a qualitative research approach rather than a
quantitative approach into four main categories, namely description, interpretation,
verification and evaluation.
Firstly, a qualitative research approach is descriptive as it can describe the nature of
certain situations, processes and programmes. It allows an in-depth analysis of a
programme through a multiplicity of information from participants’ perspectives, which
may be rendered impossible by quantitative methods. Therefore, qualitative research
methods reach the parts of the research that quantitative methods cannot reach,
particularly in research looking at the influence between processes and outcomes
(Moriarty 2011:3; Shaw 2003:57). This approach was thus relevant for this study which
sought to explain the influence of financial incentive on teaching and learner
performance at rural schools.
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Secondly, because qualitative research approaches are interpretive in nature, they
enable the researcher to gain new insights about a particular phenomenon and
develop new concepts or theoretical perspectives about the phenomenon and
discover the problems that exist within the phenomenon. This is made possible by the
research questions that were not based on assumptions about the existence of a
single reality but aimed to uncover a plurality of truths, thus making qualitative
research methods more appropriate in offering multiple explanations to an influence
(Fraser 2004:181). In addition, the analysis was open to emergent concepts and ideas
which may produce detailed description and classification, identify patterns of
association and explanations (Snape & Spencer 2003:5). Qualitative researchers are
interested in the meanings of how people make sense of their lives, their experiences
and their structuring of meaningful living in their world (Atieno 2009:14).
Thirdly, a qualitative research approach serves the verification purpose of allowing the
researcher to test the validity of certain assumptions, theories and generalisations
within real-world contexts. As the interaction with the participants pertains to
interviews, the researcher gains specific insights to verify the specific views held by
different participants about the financial incentive that was investigated.
Fourthly, qualitative researches serve an evaluative purpose as they provide a means
through which a researcher can judge the influence of a particular policy, action, or
programme. This study that evaluates the influence of financial incentive on learner
performance warrants the qualitative research approach as the most appropriate
approach in order to collect relevant data for evaluation purposes. This will help the
researcher to understand why people behave as they do in particular situations, in
response to interventions vested upon them (Moriarty 2011:3). Evaluation was arrived
at as the researcher, with the use of interviews, interrogated participants on their
perspectives on the influence of a financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner
performance in rural Namibian schools.
Qualitative research methods are suitable for studies whose aim is to communicate
findings, resulting in practitioners and policy makers understanding the phenomenon
of study better (Green & Thorogood 2004:24: Mitchell, Lunt & Shaw 2010:7). A
qualitative research approach helps policy makers to become more appreciative of
116
others’ viewpoints so as to accommodate these viewpoints for a more holistic
understanding and functioning of the phenomenon of study within the specific context
(Moriarty 2011:4). Engaging the views of teachers, school principals and education
senior officials through interviews culminated in recommendations made to education
policy makers through which they can get informed of the views of teachers on their
motivation and how their motivation influences learner performance.
Notwithstanding the above mentioned advantages of a qualitative research approach,
a number of limitations have been identified as typical of qualitative research methods.
While qualitative research methods can examine the social processes at work in a
particular context in considerable depth, the collection and especially the analysis of
data can be time-consuming and expensive (Choy 2014:101; Hancock 2002:2).
Qualitative research methods of data collection and analysis of collected data
incorporate a wide range of techniques and epistemological assumptions,
emphasising the importance of carefully selecting the appropriate methods to use
(Willig 2001:15).
Qualitative research methods usually involve a relatively small number of participants
and this can mean that it is less likely to be considered by other academic researchers
and policy makers as its findings are not verified and objectively tested (Choy
2014:101). This may reduce the trustworthiness and credibility of the research findings
by other people, as the knowledge produced might not be generalised to other people
or other settings and the findings might be unique to the relatively few people included
in the empirical study (Thomas 2010:311).
However, for the specific context, the study contributes to a better understanding of
the situation of those involved, as well as of the meaning they derived from their
situation. The researcher adopted measures applicable to qualitative studies for
enhancing the trustworthiness of the findings (section 4.8). Despite the limitations, the
qualitative research approach was the best option for the study for the sake of a deep
understanding, as learned from the perspectives of the participants who are actively
involved in the specific situation.
117
The qualitative research approach was carried out through a case study investigation,
as an empirical inquiry that investigated in-depth a contemporary phenomenon within
its real-life context (Thomas 2010:309; Yin 2003:13). A case study allows an
exploration from multiple perspectives of the complexity and uniqueness of a particular
project or programme of functioning in a real-life context (Simons 2009: 21). In case
studies, the aim is to provide an explicit context of a phenomenon, out of which new
insights can be developed (Moriarty 2011:16). Insights from the case study can then
be transferred to other situations with similar conditions.
The case study examines matter in detail over time by utilising different sources of
data found in the particular context, which are gathered to arrive at the best possible
response to the research questions (Thomas 2010:309). As a result, the researcher
gains sufficient comprehension about the phenomenon and its implications. As
informed by an interpretivist research paradigm and qualitative research approach, the
case study design is suitable for being premised on the multiplicity of perspectives
which are raised by participants in their social context (Jane & Jane 2003:54; Simons
2009:21). This allows for the interpretations of their experiences about the
phenomenon of study by the people involved in the case.
Even though a case study approach allows the researcher to gain an in-depth
comprehension of the phenomenon being studied, the findings of case study
approaches are usually limited as they are not aimed at generalisation. However,
although each case is unique, the emphasis is on what lessons can be learned from
a case study investigation (Thomas 2010:311). The lessons learned can be applied to
settings with similar situations. Hence, case studies have a constructivist value of
encouraging the development of new knowledge in a particular knowledge domain. In
this regard, the underlying philosophy of case studies is not to ‘prove’ but to ‘improve’
the status quo of the phenomenon in a particular context (Stufflebeam, Madaus &
Kellaghan 2000:283). The improvement of the status quo correlates well with the aim
of this study which sought to improve teacher motivation strategies in order to improve
learner performance in rural schools and sustain this performance, with teachers
remaining motivated in their postings at rural schools.
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4.4.2.2
Quantitative research approach
Quantitative research is an approach that tests objective theories by examining the
relationship between variables (Check & Schutt 2012:11). The variables can be
measured on instruments and then the data is numbered and can be analysed
statistically. Quantitative methods are most often used when the motives for doing the
research are evaluation, exploration or description (Check & Schutt 2012:11; Johnson
& Christensen 2004:31).
The rationale for the quantitative approach is that it
measures cause and effect relationships between independent and dependent
variables. The quantitative approach studies behaviour under controlled conditions
and collects data based on precise measurement using validated collection
instruments to answer research questions or test hypotheses (Creswell 2006:6).
Related to this study, quantitative research approach manifested itself when the
researcher sought to find and analyse statistical information related to learner
performance, number of qualified teachers, number of unqualified teachers and
teacher turn over, by way of document analysis. Such types of data collected are
quantitative in nature and therefore made a quantitative approach visible in the
carrying out this research. This information was important in terms of evaluating the
influence of financial incentive at rural schools in relation to teacher motivation and
learner performance over the specified period of time.
4.4.2.3
Mixed-methods research approach
Although the study relies mainly on a case study as a qualitative research design, the
study essentially represents a mixed-methods research approach (section 1.6.1). The
reason for this is the fact that the researcher made use of methods from both
quantitative and qualitative approaches and integrates them into a single study (Wright
& Losekoot 2012:417). The purpose of this integration is that qualitative and
quantitative research approaches when combined provide a better understanding of a
research problem and findings than either of the research approaches alone (Creswell
2009:31). The mixed-methods research approach was relevant for this study because
evaluating the influence of the financial incentive on rural school performance was to
119
be better and more comprehensively understood by analysing and collecting data that
could be both analysed thematically and quantified into frequencies and percentages.
Data that was collected and linked to the quantitative approach relates to statistical
figures of how learners performed in standardised national examinations after the
implementation of the financial incentive for teachers to remain in rural schools. In
addition, descriptions about teacher recruitment, retention and turnover in rural
schools are better understood when presented as percentages. Having these
quantitative data, the qualitative research approach was then used to explain the
reasons underlying the percentages.
Although some researchers are of the opinion that interpretivism is being antipathetic
to positivism (Bryman & Bell 2007:17), current thinking suggests that the mixedmethods research approach can lead to a more comprehensive understanding of the
phenomenon under investigation
(Gorard 2004:7). In the context of this study,
incorporating both qualitative and quantitative research approaches was beneficial as
the narratives obtained from interviews helped to validate the data that was quantified
as obtained with document analysis. In addition, responses from interviews were
substantiated by quantifiable data as collected through document analysis.
As a result of this methodological connectedness between quantitative and qualitative
research, and the fact that many scholars view qualitative and quantitative research
methods as complementary rather than antithetical (Ary et al. 2010:55), a mixedmethods research approach was relevant as it resulted in an improved richness of
understanding through confirmation of results differently collected, extending
knowledge comprehensively and initiating new perspectives by approaching data
collection in varied ways (Bazeley 2004:141; Jack & Raturi 2006:346).
The mixed-methods research approach is a very broad and extensive approach to
research and covers a wide range of designs. Different scholars have defined different
types of mixed-methods research designs, giving these designs different names and
explanations (Creswell 2002:19; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie 2004:14; Onwuegbuzie
2003b:72). According to these authors, the naming and classification of the mixedmethods research designs is determined by the degree of mixing that happens, as
well as by the stage at which mixing happens.
120
Creswell (2002:19), advanced three types of mixed-method research designs, namely;
triangulation design, which is a collection of both quantitative and qualitative data
simultaneously; explanatory design, which involves collecting quantitative data first
and then collecting qualitative data to facilitate the understanding of quantitative data;
and the exploratory design, which involves collecting qualitative data first and then
collecting quantitative data to facilitate understanding of the qualitative data. Of the
three types of mixed-method research designs, the triangulation design is the type of
mixed-methods research design applicable to this study. This choice of mixed-method
research design is explained further in section 4.4.2.3.
As seen in the three mixed-methods research designs above (Creswell 2002:19),
mixed-methods research designs combines quantitative and qualitative research
methods in different ways, with each approach adding something valuable to the
understanding of the phenomenon (Ary et al. 2010:559). Onwuegbuzie (2003:7) and
Creswell (2009:190) proposed that in combining, classifying and naming quantitative
and qualitative approaches to yield mixed-methods research designs, scholars should
consider three aspects, namely, the level of mixing, time orientation and the weighing
of the approaches. On the basis of these aspects Onwuegbuzie (2003:316) has gone
beyond the three mixed-method research designs (Creswell 2002:19), and outlined
eight types of mixed-methods research designs as follow:
a)
Partially mixed concurrent equal status design: This design describes
research studies involving two phases that occur concurrently such that the
quantitative and qualitative phases have approximately equal weight.
b)
Partially mixed concurrent dominant status design: This design describes
research studies with two phases that occur concurrently such that either the
qualitative or quantitative phase has the greater emphasis over the other.
c)
Partially mixed sequential equal status desig: This design describes studies
with two phases that occur sequentially, with the quantitative and qualitative
phases having equal weight.
d)
Partially mixed sequential dominant status design: This design describes
studies with two phases that occur sequentially, such that either the
quantitative or qualitative phase has a great emphasis.
121
e)
Fully mixed concurrent equal status design: This design describes studies
mixing qualitative and quantitative research within one or more or across the
three major research components in a single research study, with the
quantitative and qualitative phases being mixed concurrently at one or more
stages or across the three major research components, and with both
elements being given approximate equal weight.
f)
Fully mixed concurrent dominant status design: This design describes
studies that mix qualitative and quantitative phases concurrently at one or
more stages or across the stages and with either the quantitative or
qualitative phase being given more weight.
g)
Fully mixed sequential equal status design: This design describes studies
that mix qualitative and quantitative research within one or more stages or
across the three major research stages with the quantitative and qualitative
phases occurring sequentially at one or more or across the three stages of
the research process and being given approximately equal weight.
h)
Fully mixed sequential dominant status design: This design describes
studies that mix qualitative and quantitative research within one or more of
the stages or across the stages of the research process, with the quantitative
and qualitative phases occurring sequentially at one or more stages or
across the stages and with either the quantitative or qualitative phase being
given more weight.
Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2009:233) assert that these eight mixed-methods research
designs are comprehensive enough to encompass any mixed-methods research
designs. Any mixed method research design should have laid its assumptions on any
of the eight designs.
This study adopted a partially-mixed concurrent dominant status design as a mixedmethod research design. This design is applicable for research studies involving both
qualitative and quantitative phases that occur concurrently such that either the
qualitative or quantitative phase has the greater emphasis over the other. In terms of
application, both qualitative and quantitative phases were employed concurrently
during the study.
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However, as informed by the research paradigm, the qualitative phase was more
prevalent, thus having more weight and emphasis over the quantitative phase
throughout the entire research process. In terms of the three major research stages,
namely, the research objectives, the data collection and the data analysis (Johnson &
Onwuegbuzie (2004:14), the degree of the emphasis and high prevalence of the
qualitative phase was manifested in the fact that, at the research objective stage, the
main research question and the research objectives were all stated such that the
information being sought was to be addressed mainly by using a qualitative research
approach.
At the data collection stage, the data collection tools that were used as interviews and
document analysis were tools that are classified as data collection tools for naturalistic,
qualitative research studies (Leedy and Omrod 2005:144). The choice of the data
collection tools used was informed by the research design, a case study, which is
traditionally recognised as a qualitative research design (Leedy and Omrod 2005:135).
Creswell (2009:191) emphasises that it is more manageable to collect both
quantitative and qualitative data at roughly the same time, when the researcher is in
the field collecting data, rather than to revisit the field multiple times for data collection.
Hence, data that could be quantified were also collected with document analysis at the
same time with the qualitative data. With regard to the data analysis stage, the
thematic analysis method, which was used to analyse narrative data is a typical
qualitative data analysis method (Braun & Clarke, 2006:79; Mojtaba, Jacqueline,
Hannele & Sherrill 2016:106). The quantitative phase was applied during the data
collection stage by collecting statistical data, as well as during the analysis stage
through tabulation, graphic representations, frequencies and percentages.
According to Onwuegbuzie and Teddlie (2003:352), mixed-methodological data
analysis provides researchers with the opportunity to address the relative weaknesses
of both quantitative and qualitative research by combining the strengths of data
analysis techniques typically associated with both approaches. In addition mixedmethods research designs give the researcher a prerogative to utilise whatever tools
are required to answer the research questions for their studies (Guth 2016:143). A
mixed-methods research approach was therefore relevant and an ideal for this study
insofar as the thematic analysis of interviews, tabulation of themes and categories,
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and quantifying of data into frequencies and percentages served best in contributing
to the pool of existing knowledge on teacher motivation and learner performance
through the use of a financial incentive in rural schools.
4.5
RESEARCH POPULATION
Polit and Hungler (1999:37) refer to the population as an aggregate of all the objects
or members that conform to a set of research specifications. The Student Learning
Centre (2013:1) of the Flinders University classifies research population into three
groups, namely, the target group, the study population and the sample. The target
population refers to the entire membership of research interest, but due to limitations,
the entire memberships cannot be studied. The study population refers to the subsets
of the target population that can be studied. A sample refers to the subsets of the study
population that will be used in the empirical investigation because not every member
of the study population can be used for the study owing to limitations and delimitations
influencing the study (Ranjit 2011:177).
The target population for this study consisted of all public rural schools (both primary
and secondary schools) in Namibia where teachers receive a financial incentive as
motivation to sustainably teach in schools located in desolated areas. Geographically,
Namibia is a country that lies in sub-Saharan Africa, specifically located on the south
west of Africa, with an estimated population of 2.2 million people. Namibia measures
825,615 km², and its home to fourteen geographical regions, namely, Erongo, Hardap,
Karas, Kavango East, Kavango West, Khomas, Kunene, Ohangwena, Omaheke,
Omusati, Oshana, Oshikoto, Otjozondjupa and Zambezi region.
The head of the education directorate in each of the fourteen regions is the Director of
Education. Each region manages its educational affairs as informed by legislative
frameworks from central government. Omusati Region as one of the fourteen
geographical regions in Namibia, served as the study population. Omusati Region
represents one of the most densely populated rural areas in Namibia with schools
located in severely desolated rural conditions (section 1.6.2). According to the Namibia
Statistical Abstract Report 2014-2015, Omusati Region has 276 schools, as the
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highest number of schools compared to other regions, of which eight schools are
private schools and 268 are public schools (Namibia Statistics Agency 2015:9).
The implication is that most of the learners in Omusati Region are attending school in
rural areas where the need is significant to attract qualified teachers to locate and
remain at rural schools in order to reverse poor learner performance which is observed
at rural schools. On this basis, the empirical investigation was confined to Omusati
Region as the most desolated region in Namibia with high population and many public
schools in rural areas.
4.5.1
Sampling techniques
Sampling is a process of selecting a sub-section from the population of interest, as a
‘sample’ (Chiromo 2009:16). A sample is thus a group of participants for the study
who have been drawn from the population of interest (Ranjit 2011:177). The methods
of sampling are classified into two major groups, namely, probability sampling and
non-probability sampling (McMillan 2012:95; Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2012:130).
Researchers such Leedy and Omrod (2005:199) as well as Saunders et al. (2012:
140-41) provide the distinction between the types of sampling and their methods.
Probability sampling provides every member of the population of interests with an
equal opportunity to be selected and become a participant in the study. Typical
methods for probability sampling include simple random, stratified and cluster
sampling. Non-probability sampling does not give every member of the population of
interest an equal chance to be sampled and become a participant in the study; rather,
the researcher retains the prerogative to judge the population and produce the sample.
Typical methods for non-probability sampling include convenience sampling,
purposive sampling and snowballing (Chiromo 2009:18).
The researcher selected Tsandi Circuit as the education circuit in which schools
performed most poorly in the standardised national examinations for the period 2013
to 2015 (section 1.6.2) in Omusati Region. From Tsandi Circuit, schools were sampled
with indicators as pertains to learner performance that was very poor, teachers
receiving the financial incentive and where geographic conditions were such that these
teachers and schools were accessible with two-wheel drive vehicles. The sampling
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techniques for this study were purposive sampling and snow ball sampling as nonprobability sampling methods.
4.5.1.1
Purposive sampling
The choice of purposive sampling is based on the fact of selecting participants who
best suit the specific purposes associated with answering the research questions
(Teddlie & Yu 2007:77). Purposive sampling helped the researcher to focus on key
informants
who
were
particularly
knowledgeable
of
the
phenomenon
for
investigations, thus providing in-depth findings about the investigations (Anney
2014:278). All participants in the study were purposively sampled based on the
expectation of them being typically knowledgeable and experienced about the
financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural schools.
Beyond purposive sampling which was based on the commonalities of all participants
being typically affiliated and knowledgeable of the subject that was being investigated,
it was imperative to supplement purposive sampling with snowball sampling.
4.5.1.2
Snowball sampling
In addition to purposive sampling which purposively samples teachers, school
principals, the Circuit Office official and the Regional Office official, snowball sampling
was also applied. Snowball sampling is a type of non-probability technique where the
sampled subjects indicate other subjects who could provide rich information for the
study (Chiromo 2009:18). Despite the teachers, school principals, the Circuit Office
official and the Regional Office official having been sampled purposively for being
knowledgeable about the financial incentive, the researcher was not well-versed with
the specific teachers at schools who could provide rich information, as well as the
specific official at both the Circuit and Regional Offices who was knowledgeable about
the subject of study. Hence, given the iterative nature of qualitative studies, the
researcher considered snowball sampling to assist with the following key questions:
1.
How do I know qualified teachers and unqualified teachers at schools?
2.
How do I know teachers who are receiving the financial incentive and
teachers who are not receiving the incentive?
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3.
How do I establish the period a teacher has been receiving the financial
incentive?
4.
How do I know teachers who are teaching grades that sit for standardised
national examinations?
5.
How do I know the education official who is knowledgeable about the subject
of study at both the Circuit and Regional Offices?
In view of the above questions, the researcher made use of the school principals,
guided by salient criteria (section 1.6.2), to refer him to potential teachers at schools
who could provide information useful for the study. Following the guiding criteria,
principals were able to direct the researcher to information-rich participant teachers at
their schools. Apart from teachers, at the Regional Office, the researcher was directed
to an official who was regarded as having extensive experience and knowledge of the
standard of education in the region. The Regional Office official was then sampled on
the basis of his vast knowledge and experiences of education in the region.
4.5.2
Size of the sample
As stated in section 1.6.2, the research sample was drawn from five rural schools in
Tsandi Circuit as the most desolated and poorly performing education Circuit in the
Omusati Region. The research sample consisted of rural school teachers from these
five schools that were receiving the financial incentive, the school principals of these
five schools where the financial incentive was commonly applied, the official from
Tsandi Circuit, and the official from the Regional Office in Omusati Region.
The participants for this study included then, the five school principals of the five
research sites that were purposively selected, six teachers from each of the research
sites that were sampled by snowballing, the Circuit Office official of Tsandi Circuit who
was purposively sampled and the Regional Office official in the Omusati Region, who
was sampled by snowballing. Two of the sampled teachers, from two different
research sites, withdrew from participating in the empirical study prior to the focus
group interviews. These teachers indicated that they were not willing to participate in
the study after having read the research information sheet.
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This resulted in three research sites having six teacher participants and one school
principal participant each, and two research sites having five teacher participants with
one school principal participant each. The Circuit Office and the Regional Education
Office as research sites all have one participant.
In total the research sample
consisted of thirty-five participants comprising of twenty-eight teachers, five school
principals, one Circuit Office official and one Regional Office official.
With reference to indicators and criteria for selection of the sample members and
research sites, the Tsandi Circuit of education in the Omusati Region was selected
because it houses the schools that performed most poorly in standardised national
examination despite the implementation of the financial incentive. The five schools
were selected based on their significant and sustained low learner performance for the
period 2013 to 2015. The Regional Office for the directorate of education for the
Omusati Region was considered informative as it was the regional administrative focal
point for the educational affairs of the region, and it was thought as having
comprehensive knowledge on learner performance and teacher recruitments in the
region. The official in this office was knowledgeable on how schools in their region
performed prior to and after the implementation of the financial incentive for rural
school teachers.
In relation to the reasons for selecting the staff members and specific schools as
research sites, the school principal participants were selected on the basis of their
first-hand experience and knowledge of the effectiveness of the financial incentive at
their schools situated in a desolated rural area (section 1.6.2). Their information-rich
knowledge was based on them being school principals of schools where teachers
were receiving the financial incentive for a period of at least three years prior to and
after the implementation of the financial incentive, and where learners were subjected
to standardised national examinations. These indicators placed school principals in a
good position to have acquired sufficient knowledge of the performance of their
teachers and how this performance has changed after the implementation of the
financial incentive for teachers to teach in rural areas.
The main criteria for selecting the teacher participants was firstly directed by the
indicator that teachers should be qualified and in the possession of a three years
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teaching diploma or four years teaching degree, which is the minimum professional
qualification for a teaching career. The indicator of being qualified relates to the fact
that the financial incentive for teachers was initiated as an initiative intended to attract
qualified teachers to locate to rural schools. Teachers should have a minimum of three
years teaching experience at a rural school prior to and after the implementation of the
financial incentive. Selected teachers should be teaching grades that were subjected
to standardised national examinations for the period 2013 to 2015. A three-year-period
was considered sufficient for teachers to have established how learners performed in
response to teachers receiving the financial incentive as a motivation.
Comprehensively considered, the selected teachers and school principals were all
recipients of the financial incentive which was anticipated as a motivator for locating
and remaining in rural schools. The Circuit and Regional offices had an overarching
function of managing education in the region. Hence, participants from all research
sites were typically knowledgeable about what the influence of the financial incentive
on school performance was as this school performance relates to teacher motivation
and learner achievement.
The following Figure 4.2 summarises the research population for the empirical
investigation.
129
All public primary and secondary schools in Namibia, in all fourteen
regions, located in rural areas, receiving the financial incentive
Target Population
All rural schools in Omusati region, in all ten circuits
Study Population
Receiving the financial incentive
Five rural schools: 33 participants
One Regional office: 1 participant
One Circuit office: 1 participant
Sample
Total: 35 participants
Figure 4.2: The research population for the case study on the influence of financial
incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural Namibian schools
Figure 4.2 shows the sample that was used to provide data as empirical evidence and
the target and study population from where it was drawn. The empirical data for this
study was collected using the data collection procedures as discussed in the next
section.
4.6
DATA COLLECTION
Research that relies mainly on a qualitative research approach utilises methods which
involve close contact between the researcher and the research participants. These
research methods are interactive and developmental in allowing emergent issues to
be explored (Snape & Spencer 2003:5). The data was collected using semi-structured
individual and focus group interviews (section 1.6.3.1). The researcher also gathered
statistical data from an analysis of applicable documents (section 1.6.3.2).
Semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with the school principals and
the Circuit and Regional Office officials. The questions for the individual and focus
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group interviews were different as the participants were at different levels of education
management, supervision, teaching and learning. The questions for interviews with
the Circuit Office officials and school principals were the same due to the relatedness
of their mandates, pertaining to the overall performance of the schools as informed by
teacher motivation, learner performance and administrative policies (Appendix C).
During interviewing, the researcher asked the questions in the context of the mandate
of the participant’s office who was interviewed.
The questions for the individual interviews with the Regional Office official were set to
elicit views on the standard of education at a Regional level (Appendix B). This was
because part of the Regional Office’s role pertains to managing appropriate
interventions to improve teaching and learning in rural schools in the region, the
standard of teacher performance in schools and measures to enhance learner
performance as this enhanced learner performance relates to promoting teacher
motivation for enhanced teaching.
The questions for the focus group interviews with teachers focused on teachers’
perception of the effectiveness of the financial incentive as this financial incentive
relates to motivating them for sustained teaching in a rural setting (Appendix D). The
interview guides for the different interviews ensured that discussions of the questions
remained relevant and focused on what was important to clarify for the sake of
understanding the influence of the phenomenon that was being studied (Hancock,
Ockleford & Windridge 2009:17).
The semi-structured nature of the interview questions allowed the researcher to
generate data about the participants’ opinions and experiences with regard to the
phenomenon under study (Moriarty 2011: 8) as the semi-structured format involved
open-ended questions that prompted explanation (Hancock 2002: 9). The open-ended
nature of the questions provided opportunities for both the researchers and
participants to discuss certain topics in more detail. The implication was that when the
participants have difficulties in answering questions or provide only a brief response,
the researcher was able to prompt and encourage the interviewees to consider the
question from a different perspective and to elaborate on responses for the sake of
improved clarity.
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4.6.1
Focus group interviews
The researcher liaised with the respective school principals to arrange for a venue
convenient for conducting the focus group interviews with participant teachers. The
focus group interviews were conducted with six teachers per group at each selected
school. The questions for the focus group interviews with teachers revolved around
motivation for the teaching profession in general and motivation to teach in a rural
school characterised by desolation and seclusion. Focus group interviews was a
suitable tool for data collection from teachers because the participant teachers shared
the same experience, namely, they were all receiving the financial incentive for their
choice to teach in a rural school secluded from modern living. This same experience
promoted spontaneity and synergy when teacher participants interacted in view of the
questions asked during interviewing (Lewis 2006:290; Macnaghten & Myers 2009:65).
The focus group interviews allowed for the collection of meaningful data due to the
prompt of informal social interactions between participants and due to the value of
checks and balances with group discussions. The focus group interview was an ideal
approach for examining collective experiences, different points of view and mutual
concerns held by individuals (Masadeh 2012:64). Focus group interviewing enabled
the researcher to gain access to diverse understandings of the different nuances of
financial incentive-based motivation to teach in secluded rural schools. It would have
been difficult to collect the same kind of data by means of surveys involving structured
questionnaires which would have yielded limited responses (Hancock 2002:10).
In addition, focus group interviewing helped the researcher to confirm agreements on
the same aspects relating to teaching in desolated rural areas as raised by
participants. Since all rural school teachers have one factor in common, being
recipients of a financial incentive, focus group interviewing was the best approach to
use in collecting the views of teachers about the financial incentive programme in
which all the rural teachers were involved. As focus group interviewing explores the
views of diverse groups of people, the researcher was able to unpack different
perspectives within the group in relation to the topic under discussion (Choy
2014:102). In addition, asking a group of people to respond jointly to common
questions can yield varied and detailed data on the same topic (Dudwick, Kuehnast,
Jones & Woolcock 2006:3).
132
The researcher obtained detailed information through probing the underlying beliefs
and assumptions held by the group members about the phenomenon being studied
(Yauch & Steudel 2003:472). As a qualitative research inquiry, the focus group
interviews with teachers was structured in an open-ended manner to allow participants
to raise applicable issues that matter most to them (Yauch & Steudel, 2003:472).
Focus group interviewing is regarded as a relatively low-cost research method
compared to some other research methods such as structured questionnaires
dispatched to a large number of respondents over a wide area. However, focus group
interviewing also requires preparations and arrangements with regard to question
development, moderation of questions for ensuring clarity and relevance,
accommodation of the researcher in the research site during the duration of the study,
and arrangements with regard to the time and place for interviewing (Davies 2007:1).
In addition, conducting the focus group interviewing and the transcription of recorded
interviews demanded considerable time. Travel costs can be more costly than
projected (Masadeh 2012:64).
The researcher was aware of all these logistical arrangements for the empirical
investigation and ensured that research was conducted within the projected time
frame. This ensured successful focus group interviews, premised on the principles of
permissiveness and a non-threatening atmosphere where participants felt comfortable
to discuss their opinions and experiences without fear that they would be judged or
ridiculed by others in the group (Hennink 2007:6). To ensure that all the views that
transpired during interviewing were considered, all the focus group interviews were
recorded as per informed consent by the respective participants.
4.6.2
Individual interviewing
The individual interviews with the Regional Office official, Circuit Office official and
school principals representing different levels of authority and supervision provided
different views about the influence of the financial incentive on school performance.
Each of these administrative authorities was interviewed at their respective offices.
Unlike teachers, these administrators cannot assemble at a particular point due to the
distance between their offices. The interviews with the school principals were
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conducted in their offices at their respective schools. Conducting the interviews in the
offices of the school principals helped the researcher to access documents at the
schools for document analysis. To ensure that all the views that transpired during
interviewing were considered, all the interviews were recorded as per informed
consent by the respective participants.
Individual interviews with school principals, Circuit Office official and Regional Office
official provided an ideal opportunity for the respective participants to present their
experiences about the financial incentive, teacher motivation and learner performance
at their level of authority and administration of education. Individual interviewing
enabled the researcher to understand individual experiences and expectations related
to the phenomenon of study (Boyce & Neale 2006:3). Individuals expressed their
perceptions on the successes and failures of the financial incentive without feeling
intimidated by the presence of others. Such perceptions may not have been articulated
fully within a collective environment as some participants may feel inhibited by talking
openly on certain matters within a group arrangement. Individual interviewing enabled
the researcher to establish individual opinions about the financial incentive as these
individual opinions relate to the individual’s specific office.
Individual interviewing allowed the researcher to listen carefully to what the participant
was saying, engaging with the participant according to his or her personality without
any interruptions as may be the case in group interviewing (Mack, Woodsong,
MacQueen, Quest & Namey 2005:4). The researcher also encouraged the interviewee
to talk more by probing for more answers and by asking follow up questions. Individual
interviewing is the best approach for obtaining expert knowledge by asking
experienced individuals within the field and with sufficient exposure to the
phenomenon of study (Driscoll 2011:162).
Despite the freedom to talk openly during individual interviewing, participants may be
biased in their responses since there is no other participant to offer corrections or
discuss the phenomenon as is the case with focus group interviews. Individual
interviewing may not be suitable for individuals who prefer to share their opinions in
the company of others. This stimulation by the group to share individual opinions can
limit the amount of data the researcher can collect with individual interviewing.
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Unlike focus group interviews, individual interviewing can be time consuming as the
researcher has to meet with every interviewee at different times. Despite these
limitations, a combination of focus group interviews and individual interviewing
provided sufficient data useful for answering the research questions. Masadeh
(2012:64) emphasises that researchers should employ multiple data collection tools
to complement each other. Hence, the effectiveness of focus group and individual
interviewing was enhanced by using these two research methods in conjunction with
another data collection tool, namely, document analysis.
4.6.3
Document analysis
Document analysis is the analysis of a wide range of applicable written materials. It
provides useful additional information in order to understand operations in a setting
(Hancock et al. 2009:19). Since relevant information is recorded in written form and
the participants may not recall all the relevant information to answer the research
questions appropriately, it was meaningful for the researcher to analyse applicable
documents in order to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon being studied
from what is documented on the topic. The understanding gained from document
analysis complemented the responses from the participants. This enhanced the
researcher’s effort of collecting sufficient and relevant data to address the formulated
research aims and objectives.
The researcher analysed relevant documents from each school pertaining to teacher
motivation such as policy documents on teaching and learning, annual reports on
school performance, teacher recruitment and turnover records, examination reports
and statistics on standardised national examinations. The analysis of applicable
documents was guided by the document analysis guide (Appendix E). The researcher
noted the findings of the analysis of applicable documents in the space provided in the
document analysis guide. Data collected from an analysis of applicable documents
triangulated the responses from participants collected with focus group and individual
interviews.
At a data collection stage, the analysis of documents represented the quantitative part
of the mixed-methods research approach adopted by this study. The data collected
135
from an analysis of applicable documents were considered quantitative data because
of its statistical nature. The percentages established were jointly interpreted and
discussed with the data from the focus group and individual interviews for the sake of
a holistic understanding of the influence of the financial incentive on learner
performance at rural schools.
4.7
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
Analysing data involves summarising the mass of data collected and presenting the
results in a way that communicates the most important aspects of the research while
simultaneously answering the postulated research questions (Carcary 2009:13;
Hancock et al. 2009:15). Bassey (2002:85) emphasises that the aim of data analysis
is to yield significant and valid answers to the research questions. This study
generated both qualitative and quantitative data.
The qualitative data was analysed by means of thematic analysis, as pertains to the
analysis of data according to themes and emergent categories (Hancock et al.
2009:31; Jane & Jane 2003:220). Braun and Clarke (2006:79) explain thematic
analysis as a method of dealing with qualitative data by identifying, analysing and
reporting patterns (themes) within data. The authors further defined ‘theme’ as a word
or phrase that captures something important about the data in relation to the research
question and represents some level of patterned response or meanings within the data
set.
Thematic analysis involves various steps that set out the logical sequence for
analysing qualitative data. The following steps were followed in analysing the data for
this study (De Vos 2002:340; Henning et al. 2004:104-105; McMillan & Schumacher
2001:460):
a)
Obtaining data
b)
Organising data
c)
Reading and writing memos
d)
Coding data line by line
e)
Categorisation of themes
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f)
Interpretation of data
The above steps were considered as discussed below:
4.7.1
Obtaining data
As stated in section 4.5.2, the data was collected from a sample of 28 teachers, five
school principals, one Circuit Office official and one Regional Office official. Data was
collected from teachers by using focus group interviews. There were five focus groups
altogether as each school has one focus group. Focus group interviews consisted of
six teachers at three research sites and five teachers at the remaining two research
sites (section 4.5.2).
The focus group interviews were conducted at the research sites where the
participants were working as teachers. The focus group interviews were recorded
using two devices, namely, a PHILIP digital recorder and an Hp Laptop. The two
devices were used for recording in order to improve the credibility of the data during
retrieval and to counteract any defects pertaining to voice, tones or power defects. To
ensure the relevance of the interviewing to the research topic, a focus group interview
guide (Appendix D) was used. As motivated in section 1.6.3.1, the questions in the
interview guide were semi-structured in order to elicit as much information from the
participants without giving them limitations.
In addition to the data collected from focus group interviews, another set of data was
collected from the five principals, one Circuit Office official and one Regional Office
official by using individual interviews which were also recorded. The interviews with
the principals were conducted at their respective schools while the interview with the
Circuit Office official was conducted at the Circuit Office. The Regional Office official
was interviewed in a Hotel in another town where he was attending an educational
conference. At schools where there were two classes of participants, the school
principal and the teachers, the researcher arranged with the school principal to be
interviewed first, after which teachers were to be interviewed later after they were done
with their lesson presentation. In addition to the interviews, data was also collected
with document analysis, where the researcher was granted the permission and
137
analysed the documents in the office of the principal, following a document analysis
guide (Appendix E), and prior to interviewing the school principal.
4.7.2
Organising data
After the data was obtained, the researcher started organising the data, bearing in
mind the manner in which the data was collected. The data collected with document
analysis was already in hard copy, accessible and ready to be analysed. The
researcher transcribed the recorded audio into transcripts so that it became easier for
the researcher to work with the data. Four versions of the transcripts were prepared,
namely: transcripts for focus groups interviews with teachers, for school principals, for
the Circuit Office official and for the Regional Office official. Altogether the data were
organised into twelve transcripts, five for focus group interviews, five for school
principals, one for the Circuit Office official and one for the Regional Office official.
4.7.3
Reading and writing memos
The researcher started familiarising himself with the data by reading the data
repeatedly. While reading the transcribed data, the researcher started making memos
and summaries of the main issues raised during the interviews as pertains to the
research questions and aims with research bearing the specific context in mind (De
Vos 2002:340; Nieuwenhuis 2007:113). The researcher read the transcripts
repeatedly in order to get the general ideas in the transcripts and noted down these
ideas as memos. Where the researcher could not understand the idea being
expressed at a particular section of the transcript, the researcher made use of the
recorded audios and traced the particular part of the audio that was transcribed in
order to comprehend the impressions of the participants and interpret their messages
accurately.
4.7.4
Coding
Reading and memoing serve as pre-conditions for successful coding. Coding implies
that the researcher, after having read the data and established relative similarities and
differences among the data, groups the data and allocates identification symbols to
138
these groups (Nieuwenhuis 2007:105). In order to successfully carry out the coding of
themes, researchers follow the six phases of conducting thematic analysis, which
relates to the following (Braun & Clarke 2006:82); becoming familiar with the data,
searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, generating
initial codes and producing the report.
As a result of extensive reading and familiarisation with the transcribed interviews and
subsequent memoing of the transcripts, the researcher was able to indicate the
similarities that emerged from the responses of the participants regarding specific
questions and named suitable phrases as themes, which captured the holistic views
of the participants’ responses to the questions in the transcripts. The themes were
then allocated codes, as symbols for easy identification during the later stages of
analysis, interpretation and discussion.
4.7.5
Categorisation of themes
As stated in section 4.7, themes represent holistic views of participants about a
particular question or phenomenon that was investigated. For the purpose of this
study, categorisation of themes implies that the researcher made use of the transcripts
and indicated all the categories that fall under a particular theme.
4.7.6
Interpretation of data
As an outcome of the categorisation of themes, the various categories that emerged
from the themes served as the basis of the research findings that were interpreted and
discussed in order to find answers to the research questions. The researcher has
tabulated all the themes next to their corresponding codes, besides their emergent
categories (Table 5.1). The researcher interrogated the emerged categories as guided
by the research aims and related literature. Reference to the literature was
necessitated by the fact that data interpretation should seek to serve three purposes,
firstly, making sense of data; secondly, corroboration of existing theories; and thirdly,
enhancing or questioning existing theories (McMillian & Schumacher 2001:460).
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A discussion of all the emerged categories has contributed to a justification of the main
themes as the findings of the research. In discussing the themes as research findings,
evidence for the emerged themes and categories were provided by applicable, direct
quotations from the responses made by participants as obtained from the transcripts.
As informed by related literature reviews and the key verbatim excerpts from
interviewees as they appear in the transcripts, the analysed, interpreted and discussed
data served as research findings answering the postulated research questions.
As explained in section 1.6.4, the quantitative data that were collected by means of
the analysis of applicable documents were analysed and the themes established were
quantified as percentages. This was because aspects such as examination pass rates,
qualified teachers in rural schools and teacher turnover rates were to be functionally
understood when presented as percentages and then interpreted in tandem with the
qualitative data for the purpose of triangulation. The comparison of quantitative data
collected with document analysis tools with the qualitative data collected via
interviewing generated a conclusive understanding of the influence of the financial
incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance at schools in rural areas.
4.8
TRUSTWORTHINESS OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
Trustworthiness pertains to the accuracy of the way the research was conducted as
reflected in the correctness of the research findings (Jane & Jane 2003:273; Margaret
2014:26). Trustworthiness in qualitative research has been extensively criticised by
positivists because their concepts of validity and reliability cannot be addressed in the
same way as in qualitative research designs (Anney 2014:278). Positivists were
therefore not convinced about the reliability and validity in qualitative research findings.
In view of this criticism, scholars have demonstrated how qualitative studies can
incorporate measures that seek to address issues of validity and reliability in their
qualitative studies and their findings (Guba & Lincoln 1982:3-4). Many naturalistic
investigators preferred to use different terminologies to distance themselves from the
positivist paradigm. One such author is Guba, who proposes four criteria that should
be considered by qualitative researchers in pursuit of establishing trustworthiness in
their qualitative studies (Guba 1981:75). By addressing similar issues as in
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quantitative studies, Guba’s constructs of trustworthiness correspond to the criteria
employed by the positivist researchers, but using different terminologies as follow:
a)
Credibility in qualitative research (in preference to internal validity in
quantitative research);
b)
Transferability
in
qualitative
research
(in
preference
to
external
validity/generalisability in quantitative research);
c)
Dependability in qualitative research (in preference to reliability in
quantitative research);
d)
Confirmability in qualitative research (in preference to objectivity in
quantitative research).
This research relied mainly on a qualitative research approach (section 4.4.2.3).
Therefore, Guba’s choice of terminologies in relation to the trustworthiness of
qualitative research findings were chosen and applied as discussed below.
4.8.1
Credibility
One of the key criteria addressed by positivist researchers in their studies is that of
internal validity, in which they seek to ensure that their study measures or tests what
is actually intended to be measured (Golafshani 2003:599). According to Merriam
(1998:85) the qualitative investigator’s preferred concept of credibility seeks to
establish the congruence of the findings to reality. Credibility establishes whether or
not the research findings represent plausible information drawn from the participants’
original data and is a correct interpretation of the participants’ original views (Anney
2014:276). The following methods should be considered by researchers to ensure the
credibility of their research findings (Shenton 2004:64):
a)
The adoption of well-established research methods
b)
Familiarisation with research sites
c)
Triangulation
d)
Ensuring honesty by participants during data collection
e)
Iterative questioning
f)
Member checking
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The above methods of ensuring credibility of the study were applied as explained
below:
4.8.1.1
Adoption of well-established research methods
Correct methods ensure that the specific procedures employed will be operational in
terms of being carried out and delivering data required in answering the research
questions (Shenton 2004:64). The credibility of this research was firstly related to the
fact that the interview questions were linked to the research aims in order to seek
answers that represent the phenomenon that was studied. The open-ended questions
that guided the individual interviews and focus group interviews sought to elicit the
participants’ views about the financial incentive as they viewed it from their own
perspectives and the questions were asked giving participants enough time to
participate fully and express all that they intended to express. This provided enough
time for the participants to provide the researcher with all the information they have
about the phenomenon that was studied.
The choice of the open-ended question was meant to counteract the weakness that
comes with closed-ended questions in quantitative research designs. Presenting a
simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to a question does not provide rich information for a complete and
holistic understanding of the participants’ opinions and also does not provide
opportunities for analysis of themes which emerge from the participants’ opinions
(Onwuegbuzie, Leech & Collins 2012:23). Furthermore, all interviews were recorded
and transcribed in order to increase credibility of data and avoid bias and confusion
that may result from the researcher trying to remember and memorise what transpired
during the process of interviewing.
To facilitate easy comprehension of the questions during investigations, the questions
in the interview guides for both individual interviews and focus group interviews were
written in clear and simple language which enhanced clear and easy understanding
by participants. The researcher remained impartial, refrained from any gestures or
interruptions that might have influenced the participants’ responses to the questions
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that were asked. The researcher explained any question whose intentions were
misunderstood by the participants in order to allow correct responses to the question
asked. Interviews have been proved to be an appropriate data collection tool for
helping qualitative researchers to obtain the information they are looking for through
in-depth interactions with the participants in their own environment (Keith 2005:75;
Nicholas 2005:61).
The researcher’s supervisor then helped to ascertain the suitability of the questions
for the specific study before they were administered. To enhance the credibility of the
data collected from interviewing and prevent researcher’s bias and influence, the
researcher played the audios for the recorded interviews. While the audios were
playing, the researcher followed the transcribed version to establish accuracy of the
transcription process. A set of data was also collected with document analysis which
helped to corroborate qualitative data and increased its accuracy and correctness.
4.8.1.2
Familiarisation with research sites
In order to keep the participants at ease during the process of research, the researcher
familiarised himself with the research sites before the commencement of the data
collection process. The researcher visited the research sites, introduced himself to the
participants at the research sites and provided the participants with all the information
pertaining to the research that was to be carried out in their social environment.
Participants were also left with their own copies of the Research Information Sheets
to familiarise themselves with the nature and intentions of the study so that they could
make conscious and voluntary decisions whether to participate or not on the basis of
the information available to them.
The researcher familiarised himself with the research sites in order to establish a
relationship of trust between the researcher and the participants. As a result of the
researcher having introduced himself to the research sites prior to the empirical
investigation, participants were willing to participate in the study and were open to
interact with the researcher on the subject that was being investigated. Their
willingness can be linked to them making a credible contribution to the study.
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4.8.1.3
Triangulation
Triangulation has been defined by scholars as the use of multiple methods of data
collection in order to enable these methods to complement each other and to confirm
that the data present common codes and themes (Creswell 2014:13, Kahn & Best
2006:269; Leedy & Omrod 2005:99; Onwuegbuzie & Leech 2007:239). According to
Guba (1981:75) the use of different methods in a study compensates for their
individual limitations and exploits their respective benefits. Where possible, supporting
data may be obtained from documents to provide a background to the phenomena
and to help explain the attitudes and behaviour of those in the group under scrutiny,
as well as to verify particular details that participants have supplied. Triangulation
helps the investigator to reduce bias and it cross-examines the integrity of participants’
responses (Anney 2014:277).
There are various types of triangulation. The types used in this study are data
triangulation and methodological triangulation. Data triangulation involves using
different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study (Creswell
2014:259). Methodological triangulation involves the use of multiple qualitative and
quantitative methods to study the phenomenon (Creswell 2014:260). With regards to
data triangulation, the researcher used a wide range of participants to undertake
triangulation via data collection tools. This implies that individual viewpoints and
experiences can be verified against others and as a result, a rich picture of the
phenomenon under study may be constructed based on a range of participants’
perspectives (Kahn & Best 2006:269). Since there were different research sites for
this study, data triangulations relates to the fact that the researcher could compare the
results from the same methods used on different participants and the conclusions that
were arrived at were broadly the same which confirms the credibility of the research
findings.
With regard to methodological triangulation, the researcher used three data collection
methods in order to enable methods to augment each other. Using multiple data
collection methods is beneficial insofar as one method off-sets the weaknesses of
another method by providing the strengths another method could not provide, as a
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means of improving the credibility of the research findings (Onwuegbuzie & Teddlie
2003:352).
4.8.1.4
Ensuring honesty by participants during data collection
Participants should be given an opportunities to refuse to participate in the study or
withdraw from the study to ensure that the data collection involve only those who are
genuinely willing to take part and are prepared to offer data freely and willingly
(Shenton 2004:66). Willing participants contribute ideas and present their experience
without fear of losing credibility in view of their social setting. The researcher provided
sufficient information about the research prior to interviewing. This was to ensure that
participants were given sufficient information about the research in order to make a
conscious and voluntary decision as to whether to participate or not to participate in
the study.
To ensure that teachers were willing to provide the required information without having
any reservations about how their principal might think about them, the researcher
involved the principal in the sampling of teachers. This tactic instilled courage in the
participating teachers to really provide the information as honestly as they can, having
met the sampling criteria and given the trust their principal was having in them. Two
of the sampled teacher participants withdrew prior to the focus group interview. This
assured the researcher that those participants who remained were willing to participate
without fear and thus made a genuine and credible contribution to the study.
4.8.1.5
Iterative questioning
While the researcher was presenting and analysing the data, the researcher noted
specific issues that arose from the data and that needed clarity. The researcher
followed up with the participants to clarify various aspects that needed clarification so
that they were ready to be presented and discussed explicitly and coherently in the
research report. Follow-up was made by designing specific questions on aspects that
participants raised during the interviews regarding the subject that was investigated,
and that the researcher felt needed further elaboration. This ensured that the content
that was presented in the report was a true reflection of the views of the participants.
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4.8.1.6
Member checking
Member checking seeks to establish whether the participants agree with what the
researcher has written about them (Ary et al. 2010:500). Member checking means the
data and interpretations are continuously tested as they are derived from the
participants (Guba 1981:85). The aim is for the researcher to solicit feedback and
share his or her interpretations of the data with the participants in order to help clear
up miscommunication, identify inaccuracies and help obtain additional useful data.
Participants may be asked to read any transcripts from a discussion in which they have
participated (Anney 2014:277). The emphasis is on whether the participants consider
that their words match what they actually intended to present when the data was
collected.
A substantial amount of the data was collected using interviews that were recorded.
The recorded interviews were transcribed. The researcher discussed the transcripts
with the participants to verify whether the transcribed scripts capture their verbatim
versions they have provided during the recorded interviews. This helped participants
validate the authentic status of the transcribed interviews. Participants were then to
make corrections on the transcriptions if it was found that what transpires in the
transcription was not an accurate representation of what was said during interviewing.
This was to ensure that the analysis and interpretation of the data that was collected
from interviews was based purely on the original versions of the participants as
recorded and transcribed, thereby increasing the credibility of the research findings.
The participants served as a check throughout the analysis process and this ensured
an ongoing dialogue regarding the interpretations of the informant’s reality and
meanings which ensure the true value of the data (Creswell 2014:259).
To ascertain the credibility of the data collected from document analysis, the data was
discussed with the school principals of the specific research sites to ensure that the
data had been captured and recorded accurately. This discussion allowed for the
countering of data misinterpretation by the researcher and kept out error and bias.
4.8.2
Transferability
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The research findings complied with transferability as the degree to which the findings
can be transferred to other contexts with other participants (Bitsch 2005:77; Tobin &
Begley 2004:389). The researcher provided a detailed description about the
methodological aspects, known as ‘thick description’, and by using the purposive
sampling technique to ensure that information-rich participants were selected (Bitsch
2005:85).
Based on the thick description principle, the researcher explained (as appears in the
different research report sections) all the contextual, philosophical, methodological
and procedural aspects used in conducting the research. The final report is
comprehensive in detailing the entire research processes, as from the research
paradigms, research approaches and designs, population and sampling, data
collection methods, methods of data presentation, analysis and interpretation, ethical
considerations to the production of the final report (Anney 2014:278). Such thick
description of the research process enables other researchers to judge by means of
comparison how well this particular research context relates to other contexts with
similar features for possible generalisation of findings (Li 2004:305).
Purposive sampling increases transferability as the researcher focuses on key
informants who are particularly knowledgeable of the issues for investigation (Chiromo
2009:18). Since purposive sampling allows researchers to select information rich
participants, this enables the researcher to select those participants who can
contribute functionally to meaningful data collection for a deep understanding of the
phenomenon of study (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen & Razavieh 2010:272). Therefore, the
use of purposive sampling enhances the transferability possibilities of qualitative
research due to the selection of participants with a thorough knowledge about the topic
that was studied (Annely 2014:278).
4.8.3
Dependability
In addressing the issue of reliability, positivists employ techniques to show that, if the
work were to be repeated in the same context with the same methods and with the
same participants, similar results would be obtained (Ary et al. 2010:503). In order to
address the dependability issue more directly, the processes within the study should
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be reported in detail, thereby enabling a future researcher to repeat the work. Such indepth coverage also allows the reader to assess the extent to which proper research
practices have been followed. The interpretation of both transferability and
dependability sounds alike and related.
In the context of this research, dependability is closely related to transferability, as they
all seek an in-depth coverage of the entire research process. While transferability
seeks an in-depth coverage of the entire research process for purposes of establishing
whether the research findings can be generalised in other contexts with similar
characteristics, dependability seeks an in-depth coverage of the entire research
process for purposes of establishing whether the same processes used, once
repeated, would yield the same findings. Simply put, transferability relates to the
application of results to other contexts, whereas, dependability relates to obtaining the
same findings once the process is repeated in the same context.
In order to enhance the dependability of the research process and enable readers of
the research report to develop a thorough understanding of the methods and their
effectiveness, the research report should cover the following aspects (Shenton
2004:71):
a)
At strategic level, the research report should cover the research design and
its implementation, describing what was planned and executed;
b)
At an operational level, the research report should cover the details of data
gathering, addressing the details of what was done in the field;
c)
At a reflective appraisal level, the research report should cover the evaluation
of the effectiveness of the research process that was undertaken.
In order to ensure that the research findings were dependable, the above aspects
were attended to in the research report as discussed below.
At a strategic level, the researcher ensured that the research design used for the study
was explicitly explained and how it was implemented. The underlying philosophical
assumptions were clearly explained in terms of the relevant research paradigm and
an explanation of its suitability was presented. This was to provide readers with a
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comprehensive overview with regard to ontological, epistemological, axiological,
methodological and rhetorical frameworks that underpinned the research study. At an
operational level, the research design was explained and methods used to collect the
data from the participants were indicated. The sample size was provided and the
procedure followed in collecting the data were made available in the report. At a
reflective appraisal level, the findings of the research are published as a research
report and an article would be published in a peer-reviewed journal article. This is to
make the findings available to researchers for them to get an opportunity to evaluate
the effectiveness of the research that was conducted.
4.8.4
Confirmability
The concept of confirmability is the qualitative researcher’s preference to objectivity.
Confirmability requires that the steps must be taken to help ensure as far as possible
that the research’s findings are the result of the experiences and ideas of the
participants, and not the views and preferences of the researcher (Tobin & Begley:
2004:392). Such steps include keeping a reflexive journal which includes all events
occurring during the field work, personal reflections in relation to the study and other
issues that arise during the process of investigation (Anney 2014:279). The researcher
kept all electronic records (audios) and non-electronic records (field notes and
documentary materials) during the whole investigation. These records helped to crosscheck the data and writing of the final research report.
Triangulation as the use of multiple methods, investigators, sources and theories to
obtain corroborating evidence (Onwuegbuzie & Leech 2007:239) is important to
reduce the effect of investigator bias and promote confirmability. Triangulation helps
the investigator to reduce the systematic bias and cross-examine the integrity of
participants’ responses. Triangulation, therefore is applicable to both credibility and
confirmability, as it serves to confirm the authenticity of data (confirmability) by the
participants, which then enhances the chances of the data to present intended findings
(credibility) (Shenton 2004:66). Confirmability was established by means of data
triangulation, whereby the data collection tools were applied to different participants
and yielded corresponding information that all speaks to one conclusion. The data that
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was obtained with a sample at one research site was confirmed by the participants at
another site.
4.9
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Ethics refers to do what is morally and legally right in conducting the research. This
requires researchers to be knowledgeable about what is being done, to use logical
reasoning when making decisions, to be both intellectual and truthful in the research
approach and reporting of the research findings and to ensure that the outcomes of
the research outweighs any negatives that might occur throughout the course of the
research process (Jacobs, Xie, Reilly, Hughes & Challis 2009:30; Jane & Jane
2003:69). As human beings were involved in the study, this research process complied
with the research ethics by ensuring that the researcher carried out and complete the
research process without causing harm, in any way, to the human beings involved in
the empirical investigation. The following section presents how the researcher
considered ethics in the research that was conducted.
4.9.1
Accessibility to research sites
The researcher applied to the Education Director of the Omusati Region, seeking
permission to conduct research in the region, and a written permission letter was
issued granting the researcher permission to conduct research in Omusati Region at
the identified research sites (Appendix A). Since the majority of the participants who
were involved in the research were teachers (section 4.5.2), the permission to conduct
the research was granted on condition that the research should not interfere with the
normal operations of education at the research sites. In dealing with this condition, the
researcher scheduled appointments to meet with teachers after 14h00, as that was
the time when teaching stops for the day and sampled teachers could then participate
in the focus group interviews.
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4.9.2
Informed consent
Informed consent relates to a detailed explanation of the study in order to brief
participants on the scope of their participation in the study and enable participants to
decide in a conscious and deliberate manner whether to participate or not (Jane &
Jane 2003:76). Informed consent is the permission expressed by the participants who
have made themselves available to take part in the research after they were provided
with all the information pertaining to the research and have full knowledge of the
possible consequences of their participation.
The researcher compiled a document titled Research Information Sheet and all
participants were provided with their own copies of this document (Appendix F). A
discussion was held with all participants about the contents of the document and
participants were given ample opportunities to ask questions related to the research.
All the Research Information Sheets for different participants contained the same
research information. However, the information was contextualised to speak to specific
participants according to their titles such as teachers, principals and officials.
Participants who voluntarily decided to participate in the study were required to sign
an Informed Consent Form (Appendix G) as material evidence of their voluntary
willingness to participate in the study. Both the researcher and the participants kept a
copy of the signed Informed Consent Form to serve as proof of the informed consent
given. The researcher emphasised to participants that they were welcome to withdraw
from the study at any point in time without any negative consequences for them.
Participants were assured of the confidentiality of their participation insofar as their
identities would be protected and their responses would be used only for the purpose
of this specific research study (Jane & Jane 2003:66; Moriarty 2011:25).
4.9.3
Confidentiality
Research information needs to be kept confidential and only used for the purposes for
which it was intended (McMillan 2007:52). It is significant for the researchers to know
the characteristics of the participants and their context in order to make it easier for
them to keep the contribution of the participants confidential (Babbie 2010:67; Cohen,
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Manion & Morrison 2002:62; Gay & Arasian 2003:586). The data from interviews were
recorded and it was essential to assure the participants of how their voices were going
to be kept confidential.
The researcher explained that the contributions of the participants were going to be
used for the purpose of research and that they were going to be stored in a safer place
where they would not be accessible to anyone else other than the researcher.
Participants for individual interviews and for focus group interviews were made to sign
Confidentiality Agreement forms (Appendix H) as testimony of their commitment to
keep the research information confidential. Both the researcher and participants kept
a copy of the signed Confidentiality Agreement as an individual proof of the
confidentiality commitment made.
4.9.4
Anonymity
Confidentiality pertains to the secrecy of the data and the identity of the participants.
It is important for the researcher to ensure that the presentation of the data collected
cannot be identified and linked to the identity of anyone in order to protect the person
from whom the information was collected (Cohen et al. 2002:61; McMillan 2007:52).
During data collection, both alphabetic and numeric codes were used to represent
research sites and participants. School research sites were given codes as School A,
School B, and so on and the office research sites were given codes as Office A and
Office B. Principals were coded as Principal 1 (P1), Principal 2 (P2), and so on.
Teachers were referred to as Teacher 1 (T1), Teacher 2 (T2), and so on. The official
at the Circuit Office was referred to as C1 and the official for the Regional Office was
referred to as R1.
Participants were informed not to mention names of individuals during interviews.
Teacher participants were informed not to mention names of individuals during focus
group interviews or mention the names of any participant in the group they would
wanted to refer to, but rather used the codes that were given prior to the
commencement of the focus group interviews, and every teacher knew what his/her
code was. Participants were informed that these were the codes that were going to be
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used in the research report and that the information they provided was not going to be
presented in a way that would be linked to their identity.
4.10
CONCLUSION
The research adopted an interpretivist research paradigm, as this research paradigm
pertains to the engagement and interpretation of the participants’ experiences about
the phenomenon being studied in their social setting. Although a mixed-methods
research approach was used, the study relied mainly on a qualitative research
approach for the sake of utilising narratives and descriptions. The qualitative approach
allowed the collection of data helpful in understanding the phenomenon of financial
incentive-based teacher motivation in rural schools and how this motivation was
understood from the perspectives of information-rich participants.
The application of a qualitative research approach was carried out through a case
study investigation seeing that an event was studied in depth for a defined period of
time. The investigation purposively sampled key informants who were knowledgeable
about the financial incentive-based teacher motivation in rural schools and whose
experience was helpful in contributing significantly to the answering of the research
questions through an empirical investigation. The next Chapter presents the research
findings.
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CHAPTER 5
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION
5.1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter four outlined the methodological and research design aspects employed for
this study. This Chapter presents the data that was collected through an empirical
investigation. The data presented in this Chapter relates to the findings of the focus
group discussions with teachers, the individual interviews with the Circuit Office
official, the Regional Office official and school principals as well as the findings from
the document analysis. Firstly, the collected data from interviews and document
analysis are analysed and presented. Secondly, the finding are interpreted and
discussed supported by data from the literature and by the key verbatim excerpts
made by the participants. This Chapter therefore establish the influence of the financial
incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural Namibian schools.
5.2
ANECDOTAL OVERVIEW OF THE EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION
This section presents the overview of the sites that were sampled for the empirical
investigation. The logistical arrangements ranging from gaining access to the research
sites to the eventual commencement of data collection process are briefly treated
again to inform the reader of the processes that were followed in ensuring a successful
and procedural commissioning of the empirical investigation at the research sites.
5.2.1
Background information about the research sites
The implementation of the financial incentive by the MoEAC in 2010 was aimed at
attracting qualified teachers to rural schools in order to improve learner performance
which was not satisfactory (section 1.1). The implementation of the financial incentive
was destined for all rural schools only in all the fourteen regions of Namibia (section
4.5). The research was conducted in Omusati Region, situated in the northern part of
Namibia.
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Omusati Region measures an area of 26 551 km2 with a population of 242,900
inhabitants as per the Namibian 2011 Housing and Population Census (National
Planning Commission 2012:5). Outapi is the administrative capital of Omusati Region.
Omusati Region is home to 276 schools in total comprising both primary and
secondary schools, with more than 80 percent of schools situated in rural areas
(section 4.5). The schools in Omusati Region are grouped under ten Circuit Offices.
These Circuits Offices are: Anamulenge, Elim, Etayi, Ogongo, Okahao, Okalongo,
Onesi, Otamanzi, Outapi and Tsandi Circuit (section 4.5.1). The rural schools that
formed part of the research sites were under the Tsandi Circuit.
The schools are located in areas that are characterised by adverse environmental
conditions that translate into harsh working conditions for rural school teachers. There
are no proper road networks to schools and pathways heading to schools could not
be easily mapped out by someone who is not familiar with the area. Roadways to
school from the main road were marked with signposts but they were difficult to map
out once deep into the bush, given emerging diverse roadways. In addition, roadways
to schools pass through flood plains which then make accessing the schools during
the rainy season difficulty for both teachers and learners.
The parent population is mainly subsistence farmers depending on rearing animals
and crop cultivation as a source of survival and livelihood. In addition to rearing
animals and crop cultivation, some households are involved in small-scale businesses,
having established small shops, selling groceries and home-made brews. The shops
are built near roadways and patrons are helpful to visitors in providing directions to
schools or any destination. Homesteads are in communal areas and are grouped into
villages under the leadership of the Headman. Learners attend schools travelling a
variety of long distances as some learners are from homesteads established in close
proximity to schools whereas some learners come from homes established far from
the schools.
Teaching and learning at schools starts at 08h00 in the morning to 13h40 in the
afternoon, with two break sessions in between; each break lasts for about 20 to 30
minutes, depending on the number of breaks an individual school has. Each lesson is
presented for a duration of 40 minutes. From 14h00, learners attend a study session
155
until 15h30 after which the school day ends. After school, learners play a significant
role in assisting their parents to look after animals and execute other household
chores.
The researcher stayed at the research sites for a period of two weeks, during which
time one day was spent at the Circuit Office and another day at the Regional Office
respectively. The remainder of the days were spent at rural schools. The Circuit Office
is located in Tsandi settlement that is not yet proclaimed as a town, but the settlement
has most of the basic services. The distance between the schools that served as
research sites and the circuit offices ranges between 10 to 30 kilometres. The Circuit
Office is 30kms away from the Regional Office in Outapi. The Regional Office is
located in the heart of Outapi town, which is regarded as the capital city of Omusati
Region.
5.2.2
Seeking permission and commencement of data collection
The researcher was granted a written permission letter by the Director of Education
for Omusati Region (Appendix A). The researcher then contacted the Regional Office,
Circuit Office for Tsandi and school principals to schedule appointments and establish
whether proposed dates were appropriate. The Regional Office was easily accessible
and was not the priority research site to start with. The researcher firstly consulted the
Circuit Office to access the school map for rural schools whose locations were
unknown to the researcher. The researcher visited three schools in the first day and
two schools the following day to meet with the participants and draw up an
appointment schedule for collecting data. The researcher has followed the
appointment schedule throughout the course of data collection.
5.3
ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
After the data was collected, recordings were transcribed and discussed with the
participants for increased trustworthiness (section 4.7.2). The following steps guided
the analysis of data (Schulze 2000:49):
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Read through all transcripts several times to get a sense of the whole data
set.
Select data set and think about the underlying meaning of the information.
Re-read the data several times and establish themes and categories.
Assign alphabetic codes next to the appropriate themes and categories.
Show interrelationships between categories.
Make the final decision on themes and categories to focus on.
Present the content for each theme and group together.
The researcher read and re-read all twelve transcripts, looking for units of meanings
such as phrases, sentences and nature of thinking that seemed to appear regularly
and that were regarded as important in answering the research question (section 4.7).
The findings of the analysis of the collected data are presented according to the three
data collection methods used, namely individual interviews, focus group interviews
and document analysis (section 4.6.1-4.6.3).
5.3.1
Individual interviews
Individual interviews were conducted with five school principal participants, one Circuit
Office official and one Regional Office official (section 4.6.2). During these interviews,
five school principals were interviewed following an interview guide (Appendix C),
which sought to inquire the respective principals’ views on the implementation of the
financial incentive and its effectiveness on the learner performance, teaching and
learning at their specific rural schools
The individual interview with the Circuit Office official was guided by the same
interview guide as that of the school principal for the rationale stated in section 4.6.
However, in the context of the Circuit Office official, the questions were contextualised
and sought to obtain the participant’s views on the implementation of the financial
incentive and its effectiveness on teaching and learning at rural schools within the
Circuit (section 4.5.1.2). The Regional education official was interviewed following an
interview guide (Appendix B), which sought to obtain the participants’ views on the
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implementation of the financial incentive and its influence on learner performance at
rural schools in the region (section 4.5.1.2).
As a result of thematic analysis (section 4.7), the researcher arrived at the following
seven themes that emerged from the data collected with individual interviews:
a)
Teacher sufficiency at rural schools
This theme refers to the adequacy of teachers at rural schools. Rural schools employ
teachers with different attributes as a result of various situations facing the schools.
The categories that emerged from this theme include: qualified teachers, unqualified
teachers, temporary teachers and staff turnover.
b)
Perspectives on the financial incentive
This theme captures the diverse views of the participants regarding the financial
incentive at rural schools. The following categories were established: reception, scope
of application, suspension, categorisation, insufficient amount and standard of
education.
c)
Factors motivating rural school teachers
This theme refers to the motivators that informed morale and enthusiasm among rural
school teachers, and that shaped the execution of their teaching responsibilities. The
categories that were identified include: promotional post, family background,
leadership, environment, employment opportunities, support services and financial
incentive.
d)
Capabilities for teaching at rural schools
This theme details the specific personal abilities that a typical rural school teacher
should possess in order to fit well within a rural school setting. Several teachers have
been employed to rural schools and stayed for a short period of time, whereas other
teachers have been employed to rural schools but stayed at these schools for a long
158
time. This theme establishes the specific traits that enable a teacher’s personality to
fit well in a rural school setting. The following categories were derived: passion and
adaptability.
e)
Conditions characterising rural schools
This theme relates to the environmental circumstances that shape schools in rural
communities. These circumstances have significant influences on the way education
is conducted at rural schools and how learning outcomes are met. The following
categories emerged: commuting, climate and rural school teaching, hygiene, facilities
and services.
f)
Determinants of learner performance
This theme sets out the factors that inform learner performance at rural schools. The
learner performance which defines the overall school performance as an institution is
a result of a number of factors combined and managed in a process to produce an
output that can be referred to as learner performance. Whether the learner is
satisfactory or unsatisfactory is subject to how well or deficient these factors are
coordinated. The categories established are: the foundation and the teacher-learner
ratio.
g)
Opportunities for improving education at rural schools
This theme states the propositions in respect of improving learner performance at rural
Namibian schools. The following categories stood out: working environment, revisiting
financial incentive, budgetary allocation and vocational education.
5.3.2
Focus group interviews
Teachers participated in the focus group interviews after 14h00, the time when lesson
presentations for the day would have come to an end (section 4.9.1). The data
collected from the focus group interviews triangulated the data from the individual
interviews. The focus group interviews were an ideal approach for examining collective
159
experiences, different points of view and mutual concerns of individuals about a
subject being studied (section 4.6.1). As teachers in totality, they were better
positioned to collectively share their experiences about the financial incentive that they
were all involved in.
During focus group discussions, participants supported the ideas others have raised
and some teachers were able to build their views on the basis of others’ contributions.
To ensure that the researcher correctly understood the views of the participants, he
reinforced the views by summarising what the participants had said, and confirmed
accuracy with the participants. In addition, the researcher engaged all the participants
in the group to avoid dominance and promote participation by, firstly, simplifying the
question so that the intent of each question was clear to participants and, secondly,
by prompting participants individually for responses.
The analysis established that the themes and categories emerging from the focus
group interviews were identical to those of the individual interviews, with a few
additional categories having emerged from the focus group interview transcripts.
These additional categories were determined and placed under their corresponding
themes as numbered in section 5.3.1.
b)
Perspectives on financial incentive
In respect of this theme as explained in section 5.3.1, urban schools emerged as an
additional category.
e)
Conditions characterising rural schools
In respect of this theme as explained in section 5.3.1, level of literacy emerged as an
additional category.
160
f)
Determinants of learner performance
In respect of this theme as explained in section 5.3.1, the following additional
categories emerged: language competencies, parental involvement, subject
specialisation, working environment, group of learners and climatic changes.
g)
Opportunities for improving education at rural schools
In respect of this theme as explained in section 5.3.1, the following additional
categories emerged: cluster system and tax-free incentive.
Altogether, the analysis of the data from the individual interviews and focus group
interviews produced the following seven themes as tabulated in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Themes as research findings from the individual and focus group
interviews
Code
Name of Theme
Name of Categories for the
Name
A
B
C
Theme
Teacher sufficiency at rural
-
Qualified teachers
schools
-
Unqualified teachers
-
Temporary teachers
-
Staff turnover
Perspectives on the financial
-
Reception
incentive
-
Scope of application
-
Suspension
-
Categorisation
-
Insufficient amount
-
Standard of education
Factors motivating rural school
-
Promotional post
teachers
-
Family background
-
Leadership
-
Environment
161
D
E
-
Employment opportunities
-
Support services
-
Financial incentive
Capabilities for teaching at rural
-
Passion
schools
-
Adaptability
Conditions characterising rural
-
Commuting
schools
-
Climate and rural school
teaching
F
G
-
Hygiene
-
Facilities and services
-
Level of literacy
Determinants of learner
-
The foundation
performance
-
Teacher-learner ratio
-
Language competencies
-
Parental involvement
-
Subject specialisation
-
Working environment
-
Group of learners
-
Climatic changes
Opportunities for improving
-
Working environment
education at rural schools
-
Revisiting financial
incentive
-
Development budget
-
Skills acquisitions
-
Cluster system
Table 5.1 presents the themes and their emergent categories that were established
from the interviews’ transcripts. In addition to the data from interviews, data that were
collected via document analysis are discussed next.
162
5.3.3
Document analysis
The analysis of applicable documents were carried out with reference to a document
analysis guide (Appendix E). Document analysis was conducted the same day
individual and focus group interviews were held at each specific research site.
Sequentially, document analysis was carried out first, followed by the individual
interviews with the school principals and then ending with the focus group interviews
with sampled teachers.
The choice of carrying out document analysis first was to find data in the documents,
which may prompt further inquiry, and thus inform some of the follow-up questions the
researcher was going to ask to the participants insofar as confirming, contrasting or
justifying data in the documents was concerned (section 5.2.2). The document
analysis tool was not extensive in terms of the scope of analysis, as this was dictated
by the quantitative nature of the information that the tool sought to record, which
informed the limited scope of its eventual findings. Hence, the findings of the document
analysis were relatively minimal compared to the findings from the interviews.
Document analysis contributed to the justification and corroboration of findings by
having determined congruence and having detected contrasting views at each
research site. Five themes related to document analysis were established, namely,
learner performance, teacher profile, staff turnover, teachers receiving the financial
incentive and teachers not receiving the financial incentive.
a)
Learner performance
This theme shows how learners at sampled rural schools have performed in the last
three years’ national examinations (2014-2016).
b)
Teacher profile
This theme represents the proportion of qualified and unqualified teachers at sampled
rural schools.
163
c)
Staff turnover
This theme represents the frequency of teachers’ replacements at sampled rural
schools.
d)
Teachers receiving the financial incentive
This theme represents the proportion of teachers receiving the financial incentive at
sampled rural schools.
e)
Teachers not receiving the financial incentive
This theme represents the proportion of teachers not receiving the financial incentive
at sampled rural schools.
The above themes are schematically explained as percentages by the figures that
follow.
5.3.3.1
Learner performance
The performance of schools in the national examination is indicated by the following
Percentages
figure.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
School A
School B
School C
School D
School E
2014
2015
2016
Years
Figure 5.1: School performance in the national examinations for the period 2014-2016
164
Figure 5.1 shows that there has been an increase in learner performance in most of
the sampled rural schools. School A, B, C and E performed below average (50%) in
2014 national examination; only School D performed above average in the 2014
standardised national examination. However, in 2015 to 2016 national examinations,
no school recorded learner performance below average (50%).
5.3.3.2
Teacher profile
The following Figure 5.2 represents the percentages of qualified teachers at the
Percentages
selected rural schools.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
School A
School B
School C
School D
School E
2015
2016
2017
Years
Figure 5.2: Qualified teachers at sampled rural schools for the period 2015 to 2017
Figure 5.2 shows that all rural schools that participated in the study had a satisfactory
number of qualified teachers. It can be seen that there is an increase in the number of
qualified teachers in rural schools, especially for Schools A, B, D and E. Most of these
schools, their percentages for qualified teachers were below 80% especially for the
years 2015 and 2016. However, it is evident that the percentage of qualified teachers
has now increased above 80% as of the year 2017.
As can be seen in Figure 5.2, only School C had 100% qualified teachers in 2015 only.
The fact that schools do not have a 100% staff complement of qualified teachers as
from 2015 reveals that rural schools were still short of qualified teachers. Hence,
165
Figure 5.3 below indicates the percentage for the shortages of qualified teachers at
the sampled rural schools.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentages
School A
School B
School C
School D
School E
2015
2016
2017
Years
Figure 5.3: Shortage of qualified teachers at sampled rural schools for the period
2015-2017
Figure 5.3 reveals that there is a shortage of qualified teachers at rural schools, caused
by, notably, the transfer of teachers from one school to another (Figure 5.7). Only
School C, which did not have a shortage of qualified teachers in the year 2015,
revealing that teachers were all qualified for that particular year (Figure 5.2). Figure
5.3 reveals that the shortages of qualified teachers has been fluctuating from the year
2015 to 2016 within the region of 30%. It is evident though that the shortage of qualified
teachers has decreased as of 2017.
The decrease in teacher shortages at rural schools implies that qualified teachers were
employed at rural schools and were staying longer at these schools. This can be
attributed to the motivation strategies vested upon them, one of which is the financial
incentive. Whether the retention of teachers at rural schools can be solely attributed
to the financial incentive is established at the interpretation and discussion of research
findings in section 5.4.
Apart from the shortages of teachers caused by transfers, participants also expressed
the shortages of teachers specifically for critical subject areas such as Mathematics,
Physical Science and English (section 3.6.1; section 5.4.1.3). Hence, the following
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Figures (5.4-5.6) indicate the percentage of teacher shortage for these specific
Percentages
subjects at the sampled rural schools.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
School A
School B
School C
School E
2015
2016
2017
Years
Figure 5.4: Shortages of Mathematics teachers at sampled schools for the period
2015 – 2017
Figure 5.4 shows that only Schools A, B, C and E have shortages of Mathematics
teachers, while School D has not experience a shortage of Mathematics teachers
since 2015 to 2017. The shortages of Mathematic teachers was less experienced in
Schools A, B and E, but was more prevalent with School C which has been struggling
to employ the required number of qualified teachers for Mathematics since 2015 up to
2017.
Another critical subject that experiences teacher shortages is Physical Science, whose
percentage is indicated by the following Figure 5.5.
100
Percentages
80
School A
School B
School C
School E
60
40
20
0
2015
2016
2017
Years
Figure 5.5: Shortages of Physical Science teachers at sampled schools for the period
2015 – 2017
167
Figure 5.5 shows that the shortages of Physical Science teachers has not been
frequent among all rural schools for the period 2015-2017. Only School B had a
shortage of 33% in 2015, and no shortages of Physical Science teachers were
experienced in the year 2016 among all sampled rural schools. However, in 2017,
Schools A, C and E recorded shortages in Physical Science teachers. School D did
not record any shortages of Physical Science teachers for the period 2015-2017.
Participants also expressed shortages in English teachers, whose percentages are
Percentages
presented below.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
School A
School B
School C
School D
School E
2015
2016
2017
Years
Figure 5.6: Shortages of English teachers at sampled schools for the period 2015 –
2017
Figure 5.6 reveals that of all the critical subject areas (Mathematics, Physical Science
and English), the shortage of English teachers is more frequent at the selected rural
schools than the shortages of the other two subjects at the same schools. All selected
rural schools had between 30-50% of English teacher shortages in the year 2015.
While Schools D and E did not experience teacher shortages in 2016. School C had
a 100% shortage of qualified teachers for English in 2016. The shortage of English
teachers is still prevalent in the year 2017 with the exception of School D, which does
not have a shortage of English teachers in that particular year. It is evident that of all
the critical subject areas, employing the required number of English teachers remains
a challenge at the selected rural schools.
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5.3.3.3
Staff turnover
Document analysis confirmed that transfer was the common attribution for teachers
leaving rural schools. Promotion and resignation have not been recorded at the
sampled rural schools for the period 2015-2017. The following Figure 5.7 indicates the
Percentages
percentages of teacher transfers at the selected rural schools.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
School A
School B
School C
School D
School E
2015
2016
2017
Years
Figure 5.7: Teacher transfer at sampled rural schools for the period 2015-2017
Figure 5.7 shows that teacher transfer was common to all sampled rural schools for
the period of 2015-2017. The percentages of teacher transfer was high, between 1044% for the years 2015-2016. However, for the year 2017, the transfer of teachers
among schools decreased to less than 12%, with School E having recorded no teacher
transferred in that particular year.
5.3.3.4
Payment of the financial incentive
The percentages of teachers who are receiving the financial incentive at the selected
schools are indicated in the following Figure 5.8.
169
Percentages
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
School A
School B
School C
School D
School E
2015
2016
2017
Years
Figure 5.8: Teachers receiving the financial incentive for the period 2015 – 2017
Figure 5.8 shows that the percentages of teachers receiving the financial incentive at
the selected rural schools is very high. Almost all teachers at Schools C and D have
consistently received the financial incentive since the year 2015. Even though the
percentages of teachers receiving the financial incentive at Schools A, B and E were
below 80% in 2015, they have gained momentum and now stand above 90% as of the
year 2017. The fact that selected schools do not have 100% of teachers receiving the
financial incentive implies that some teachers were not receiving the financial incentive
due to a variety of reasons such as temporary appointment and recent recruitments.
The percentage of teachers who were not receiving the financial incentive at selected
schools is presented by the following Figure 5.9.
100
90
80
Percentages
70
60
School A
50
School B
40
School C
30
School E
20
10
0
2015
2016
2017
Years
Figure 5.9: Teachers not receiving financial incentive for the period 2015 - 2017
170
Figure 5.9 shows that most selected rural schools have teachers who are not receiving
the financial incentive, with the exception of School D. Teachers who were not
receiving the financial incentive were mostly temporary teachers who were assisting
with teaching pending the appointment of permanent qualified teachers. With regard
to School A recording 40% of teachers not receiving the financial incentive in 2017,
the percentages were attributed to the fact that two unqualified teachers were still in
the process of receiving their financial incentive and four teachers were recently
appointed at the school and they were still in the process of receiving their salary.
Given the fact that newly appointed teachers may wait up to four months without
receiving their salaries, it was thus impossible for the school principal to establish
whether they were receiving the financial incentive or not in the absence of objective
payment records.
The comprehensive interpretation and discussion of the findings from document
analysis and interviews is presented next.
5.4
INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
The questions that guided the study and that have informed data collection are
(section 1.4):
Main research question:
What is the influence of the financial incentive on learner performance in rural
schools?
The relating sub-questions are:
What motivates teachers to teach at rural schools?
How is the performance of learners after the implementation of the financial
incentive?
What are the working conditions at rural schools and their influence on
teaching and learning activities?
171
What are the attributes of a typical rural school teacher?
What recommendations can be made to improve teaching and learning at
rural schools?
The following themes represent answers to the postulated research questions (Table
5.1).
Teacher sufficiency at rural schools
Perspectives on the financial incentive
Factors motivating rural school teachers
Capabilities for teaching at rural schools
Conditions characterising rural schools
Determinants of learner performance
Opportunities for improving education at rural schools
These themes are interpreted and discussed in the next sections. In this discussion,
the school principal participants are referred to as Principal 1 (P1), Principal 2 (P2),
and so on, the teacher participants are referred to as Teacher 1 (T1), Teacher 2 (T2),
and so on, whereas the Circuit Office official is referred to as participant C1 and the
Regional Office official is referred to as participant R1 (section 4.9.4).
5.4.1
Teacher sufficiency at rural schools
The sufficiency of teachers at rural schools in Namibia pertains to aspects relating to
being qualified or not, being temporary and being exposed to staff turnover.
5.4.1.1
Qualified teachers
The complement of qualified teachers at the selected rural schools was remarkable.
In the context of this study, qualified teachers refer to teachers who are employed on
a permanent basis and hold at least the minimum professional qualifications required
for the appointment of a teacher. The minimum professional qualification is a three
year Basic Education Teaching Diploma (BETD) or a four year Bachelor of Education
172
Degree (B.Ed). The Circuit Office official and school principal participants revealed
that most of the rural schools have almost one hundred percent qualified teachers.
Teacher participants confirmed this revelation. It is clear that most rural schools have
made remarkable strides in attracting qualified teachers to locate to schools in rural
communities. Relating to the availability of qualified teachers at rural schools, T4
observed that:
… most teachers have moved away from their homes to go and
teach in rural areas and this move was beneficial as it have
positively distributed qualified teachers countrywide…
It appears that rural schools have been deprived of qualified teachers in the past, but
that good progress has been made in ensuring that the population of qualified teachers
at schools located in rural communities was at a satisfactory level. Supporting this
move, P3 narrated that:
…I can start with the influx of teachers to rural areas. In the past,
the number of qualified teachers in the rural areas was low, but if
we are to compare now these years, there is a significant
improvement, it is increasing.
With reference to the influx of qualified teachers to rural areas and their retention at
those schools, it was clear that teachers are now qualified and that they choose to
remain at the schools in the rural areas. This was confirmed by school principal
participants:
At least 99% of our staff members are qualified teachers and I do
not notice any sign of teachers planning to leave the school. They
have been at this school for a long time now, and I hope they will
stay for longer (P3).
Almost everybody is now qualified, only one teacher is unqualified
but is improving and the other teacher is almost done. It is also
173
interesting to have noted that most of the teachers have been here
for so long (P4).
Our school has ten teachers, only one teacher is unqualified and
employed on a temporary basis to replace one teacher who got
transferred to another school and we did not manage to employ a
qualified teacher (P5).
The trend of rural school teachers that are now qualified and willing to remain at
schools in desolated rural areas was also confirmed by the Circuit Office participant
who proclaimed as follows:
Most qualified teachers have been applying and are still applying
to rural schools and they are continuously getting employed there.
This move was not the case in the past, but as we are speaking
now, we have many qualified teachers at our rural schools, and
most of these teachers stay there, at rural schools for long periods
of time, unless they are transferred or promoted (C1).
It became clear that the composition of qualified teachers at rural schools is well
established. This composition is corroborated by Figure 5.1, indicating that almost all
schools have a sufficient teaching staff comprising of qualified teachers that are willing
to remain in their posts at schools in rural areas. The implication is that learners at
rural schools are taught by teachers who are certified competent and are well
conversant with the pedagogical content knowledge of their subjects.
5.4.1.2
Unqualified teachers
Despite the fact that the largest proportion of the teaching staff consisted of qualified
teachers, there were isolated cases where one or two teachers were not qualified at
some sampled rural schools (Figure 5.2). In the context of this research, ‘unqualified
teacher’ describe a teacher who is employed on a permanent basis, but the teacher
does not have the minimum required professional qualification. It was established that
unqualified teachers existed at rural schools and that arrangements were in progress
174
to make unqualified teachers qualified. These unqualified teachers comprised of less
than one percent of teaching staff members at the respective rural schools, as
confirmed by participants:
… only one staff member who is not qualified but have enrolled
with the programme offered by the MoEAC, to improve the
qualification… (P3).
…only one teacher who is unqualified, but is improving and the
one teacher is almost done (P4).
At the moment, we have fifteen teachers, whereby thirteen are
qualified teachers and two are unqualified teachers but still
furthering their studies (P1).
When asked about the proportion of qualified to unqualified teachers in the circuit, the
Circuit Office participant confirmed the sufficiency of qualified teachers, but admitted
shortages are still experienced with regard to qualified teachers for the junior primary
phase:
Mostly, we have enough qualified teachers at rural schools. The
only phase that we have few unqualified teachers in the Circuit is
the junior primary phase. Currently, we have a programme with
the University of Namibia (UNAM), where these teachers are
enrolled and are studying by attending classes during holidays. At
least they are also being encouraged to further their studies. But
for now I could say, we really have more qualified teachers as
compared to unqualified teachers (C1).
It was clear that although some teachers were still unqualified, the composition of
unqualified teachers at rural schools is kept at a minimum as shown in Figure 5.2.
Moreover, educational stakeholders have made concerted efforts to assist unqualified
teachers to upgrade their qualifications through distance educational programmes.
175
5.4.1.3
Temporary teachers
The appointment of temporary teachers is determined by the following two factors,
either the temporary teacher does not have the minimum qualifications required for
permanent appointment, and is only appointed temporarily pending a permanent
appointment, or the temporary teacher has the minimum qualifications but is appointed
to serve in the position of a permanent staff member who is off the duties at the specific
time due to circumstances such as study or sick leave.
Three of the sampled schools had one temporary teacher each who were all employed
while the schools were in the process of finalising the appointment of permanent
qualified teachers. P5 confirmed the presence of temporary teachers at his school to
cope with the struggle of employing teachers in English language posts:
…only one teacher is unqualified and employed on a temporary
basis to replace one teacher who got transferred to another school
and we did not manage to employ a qualified teacher. …we are
struggling to fill language posts for three years now, because
language teachers are very scarce…
The scarcity of teachers for particular subjects such as English corroborates with
literature findings (section 3.6.1) that teaching and learning in some subject areas such
as Mathematics, Science and Special Education is rendered ineffective by the nonavailability of specialised teachers. The reason is that the supply of teachers of these
critical subjects is scarce in general, which is exacerbated by conditions in rural areas
that are encountered as challenging. This leads to the appointment of temporary
teachers. While the scarcity of teachers is detected in Mathematics, Science and
Special Education in other parts of the world, the results of the empirical investigation
for this study corroborates this scarcity but with inclusion of English as second
language and Oshindonga as first language.
176
5.4.1.4
Staff turnover
This category relates to the movement of teachers from rural schools due to transfer
to other schools, promotion or resignations. The data reveals that staff turnover is very
low at rural schools. This implies that rural school teachers are likely to stay at rural
schools for a long period of time. Staff retention at rural schools has been confirmed
by participant C1:
…we have many qualified teachers at our rural schools, and most
of these teachers stay there, at rural schools for long periods of
time, unless they are transferred or promoted.
The views of the participants that teachers were remaining at their rural schools for
long periods of time was confirmed by the document analysis findings as presented in
Figure 5.3.
5.4.2
Perspectives on the financial incentive
The views of participants on the financial incentive to retain teachers at rural schools
transpired into the issues relating to reception, scope of application, suspension,
categorisation, insufficient amount and standard of education.
5.4.2.1
Reception
As informed by interpretivism as the research paradigm for this study (section 4.4.1.5),
the feelings and personal views of the participants on the influence of the financial
incentive to retain teachers in desolated rural areas were considered.
It was clear from the interviews with participants that the implementation of the
financial incentive was welcomed to improve learner performance in rural areas. With
regard to the question on participants’ views about the implementation of the financial
incentive for teachers, participants emphasised the virtues of retaining qualified staff,
which could be improved with an increased financial incentive amount and with a
classification of schools according to the degree of hardships:
177
…it was something good and it brought some good changes to
rural schools because it helps to keep qualified teachers at rural
schools, although there are some challenges. Generally, it was
something good (P5).
It is a very good initiative, I know that it is applauded and
appreciated by the majority of teachers especially at rural schools.
We are getting our financial incentive although it is not enough one
can say. But there are a few things that needs attention when
comes to the implementation of the financial incentive, especially
when comes to the classification of schools (P3).
The implementation of financial incentive was a very good move
by the government but the incentive is not enough (T21).
The implementation of the financial incentive was a positive move by the government
of the Republic of Namibia in its efforts to improve the quality of education at rural
schools. Participants welcomed this gesture and rated it as motivation to remain in
rural areas and to teach as dedicatedly as possible:
The implementation of financial incentive so far is good and really
motivating teachers to apply for teaching posts at rural schools and
to work hard (C1).
With emphasis on attraction of qualified teachers to rural schools the view was raised
that the incentive should also include housing in addition to financial assistance as
proper housing for teaching staff in rural areas is not adequate:
The implementation of the financial incentive was a good move,
but I think the government needs to do more to attract teachers to
rural schools. They need to build better facilities such as housing
(T3).
178
The shortfall with regard to the financial incentive that relates to a lack of proper
housing also includes aspects such as urban life attractiveness and the desolation of
rural remoteness.
I do not think the implementation of the financial incentive was a
positive move because there are still a lot of unqualified teachers
at rural schools due to rural desolation (T18).
I believe that the implementation of financial incentive did not
make an impact as most of the teachers are still interested in
working in urban schools. They only resort to rural schools in most
cases when they cannot find a job in town (T6).
As expressed by the participants, the implementation of the financial incentive was a
positive move by the Government of the Republic of Namibia. However, it was
characterised by shortfalls which influenced its effectiveness in achieving outcomes
relating to the retention of qualified teachers in rural areas. The implementation of the
financial incentive was well-received with reservations by the participants relating to
proper housing for rural school teachers, rural life attractiveness, desolation of rural
remoteness, increasing the financial incentive amount and classification of schools.
5.4.2.2
Scope of application
This category reports on the various classes of staff members who qualify for financial
incentive. At the inception stage, the financial incentive was designed as a motivational
strategy to attract qualified teachers to locate and remain at rural schools, while
improving the performance of learners at these schools (section 1.2.2). On the basis
of this intent, the financial incentive was intended for qualified teachers only.
From the interviews with participants, it became clear that the earlier implementation
model of giving the financial incentive exclusively to qualified teachers only was altered
to be inclusive in implementation. The latter model of implementation is designed in
such a way that all teachers at rural schools, regardless of whether they are qualified
or not, should receive the financial incentive as per the category of their school. In
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addition to the qualification, the post held by the teacher was also not taken into
account. This inclusive application was in effect at the time of data collection, the
percentages of which are indicated in Figure 5.5, which reveals that almost all teachers
at every school sampled received the financial incentive with a few exemptions of
those who were employed on a temporary basis or recently employed.
The inclusive implementation of the financial incentive was testified to have changed
from a financial incentive motivating qualified teachers to locate to rural areas to a
financial incentive convincing all teachers to remain in the desolated areas:
Initially, financial incentive was only meant for qualified teachers
to be attracted to rural schools and improve performance there.
But now it has been changed and everyone at school is receiving
it, making it a universal benefit (T6).
Some staff members at school who were not receiving financial
incentive felt victimised, such as unqualified teachers and nonteaching staff. NANTU as a union for teachers and NAPWU is a
union for non-teaching staff got involved, and after rigorous
negotiations, all staff members at schools are now receiving
financial incentive because we are suffering the same hardships
(P5).
The implementation of the financial incentive has been changed to include all different
classes of employees, such as qualified teachers, unqualified teachers and nonteaching staff members. The decision to change the financial incentive to an allinclusive endeavour for teaching and non-teaching staff was motivated by a fairness
engendering motivated input especially as this fairness and input relates to unqualified
teachers. Participants motivated the all-inclusive financial incentive as follow:
It is quite unfair to give only financial incentive to qualified
teachers, because when a person joins the staff, they need to
receive financial incentive. But I think it was only like that for few
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years, but all teachers are receiving now. Even non-teaching staff
members are also receiving now (P4).
It is good for unqualified teachers to get the financial incentive
because they are doing the same job as qualified teachers. Apart
from ensuring fairness, it is essential in helping unqualified
teachers to come and help the schools in rural communities for the
sake of increased performance (P2).
Providing unqualified teachers with financial incentive encourage
them to work hard (P3).
Most of the participants agreed that it was essential to provide unqualified teachers
with the financial incentive as they were doing the same work as the qualified teachers
relating to teaching and learning actions. Because both qualified and unqualified
teachers were involved in teaching, they were entitled to the same benefits relating to
the financial incentive.
Considering this view on fairness, the question on teaching effectiveness can be
raised. Both qualified and unqualified teachers are involved in teaching but are their
outcomes the same as these outcomes pertain to the influence of teacher training on
learner performance? ‘Surface teaching’ by both qualified and unqualified teachers
cannot be used to justify the fact that both qualified and unqualified teachers should
receive the financial incentive, because ‘surface teaching’ must be replaced by ‘deep
teaching’, a competency gained through intensive professional training.
With the above rationale in mind, the researcher prompted participants on the
efficiency of granting the financial incentive to qualified teachers only in order to
motivate unqualified teachers to improve their qualifications. Responses from
participants varied from being positive about the motivational impact of such a gesture
on qualification improvement to debilitated nihilism relating to not being qualified now
or in the future:
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Yes, unqualified teachers were going to take that move as courage
to upgrade their qualifications to become qualified and receive
financial incentive (P3).
On one side unqualified teachers will be encouraged to upgrade
their qualifications. On the
other side, together with the non-
teaching staff, they were going to be demotivated because they
are the one receiving low payment and again omitted by the
financial incentive (P5).
Some participants were of the opinion that even if unqualified teachers were not given
the financial incentive that would have motivated them to upgrade their qualifications
to be considered for the financial incentive. P4 explained as follows:
Exactly, there is always pros and cons. If unqualified teachers
were not given financial incentive, it was going to be unfair, but at
the same time it was going to be a motivation for them to improve
their qualifications so that they can get financial incentive as
qualified teachers themselves.
The fact that unqualified teachers are receiving the financial incentive resulted in less
motivation for them to upgrade their qualifications, jeopardising the main reason
underpinning the original idea with the financial incentive, namely, to attract and retain
qualified teachers to rural schools. Embedded in this rationale was the assumption
that unqualified teachers will be motivated by the fact that they were not receiving the
financial incentive to obtain their qualifications to receive the financial incentive like
their qualified counterparts. The ultimate goal with the financial incentive was to have
a well-established qualified teaching staff at rural schools. The offering of a financial
incentive to unqualified teachers has therefore defeated the original intention with
financial incentive, namely to ensure proper provisioning of qualified teachers at
desolated rural schools.
5.4.2.3
Suspension
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Participants indicated that after the financial incentive was implemented and run for a
period of time, it was stopped and teachers were not receiving it. There were different
views from the participants regarding the rationale for the suspension of the incentive,
but the majority agreed that it pertained to ineffective application as explained by T26:
…the financial incentive was not awarded fairly to schools which
brought much commotions and contradictions. Unions got
involved and there was a stoppage in the paying of financial
incentive.
Participants explained that there were disparities in the way the financial incentive
were paid to teachers. These disparities leading to disagreement between
stakeholders necessitated the financial incentive to be stopped for a while to rectify
the disparities. Some participants were of the opinion that the suspension of the
financial incentive did not have an influence on teacher retention or learner
performance at rural schools. Participant R1 proclaimed:
…there was a time may be two years back when the financial
incentive were cut-off and teachers were not receiving financial
incentive for a period of time but there was no difference in
teachers locating to rural schools and learner performance.
It seemed that the financial incentive that was suspended for a period of time did not
deter teachers from locating to rural areas and maintaining their standard of teaching.
Perhaps teachers were aware that disparities were being corrected. Operations at
rural schools continued as usual, the same way they had been progressing before and
during the implementation of the financial incentive.
5.4.2.4
Categorisation
Schools are classified into categories to determine the amount of financial incentive to
be allocated to each category of school (section 1.1). While participants welcomed the
implementation of the financial incentive to rural schools, participants were of the view
that the schools were not properly categorised. The feeling prevailed that teachers at
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the selected rural schools did not receive the correct amount of financial incentive due
to skewed categorisation. Participants explained as follows:
I think we were supposed to be in a different category, because
we are far from the main town. The place that they have
considered close to us has just been proclaimed as a settlement
and not a town yet. So we still have to travel to town to access
services (P4).
…there are a few things that needs attention when comes to the
implementation of financial incentive, especially when comes to
the classification of schools in categories. The issue of hardships
was not fairly looked at, as you will find one school close to the
road and one school is far, yet these schools are grouped in one
category and receiving the same amount of financial incentive. It
is something that needs to be reviewed (P3).
The classification of schools into categories was supposed to be done according to
the criteria of remoteness, namely, how far away the school was from the nearest town
and the availability of basic services and facilities (section 1.1). Participants
emphasised that these criteria were not applied appropriately to justify hardships in
real terms. Categories needed to be reviewed to ensure schools are placed in their
rightful categories with teachers receiving their realistic financial incentive amount.
The main problem with wrong categorising seemed to be of a human nature due to
the lack of objective application of the criteria for categorising schools. There was a
feeling among participants that certain education offices were more involved in
categorising schools as they saw fit, rather than complying with the stipulated criteria
for school classification. T1 explained as follows:
…there is an element of subjectivity involved in the way the
schools were categorised. Categorising was not really based on
national guidelines but sometimes it is the Circuit Office which
decide which school should get which category. This negatively
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influence the motivation of the teachers in addition to lack of
facilities.
It was clear that the categorising of schools according to distance from locations for
resource access causes ambiguous interpretation. A main point of confusion related
to the misinterpretation of the Circuit Office as a location for resource replenishment.
Several participants complained about this misinterpretation:
I think schools were not appropriately categorised, because some
schools were categorised on the distance between the school and
the Circuit Office. But the Circuit Office has nothing to offer in
terms of basic needs and essential services required for human
existence (T25).
Schools were unfairly categorised as they were categorised on
basis of the distance between the school and the Circuit Office,
which is already in the rural area. Categorising schools should
consider the geographical location of the school and the distance
between the school and the main town and not from a settlement
as there are no basic services (T27).
Misinterpretation of category specifications was also experienced with regard to school
locality to road networks. Schools were categorised based on the distance between
the school and the road network. Participants described the road network as a mere
road passing by a point close to the school with that point not having anything to offer
in terms of services and basic needs. Equally experienced as a misinterpretation was
the categorising of schools on the basis of the distance between the school and the
nearby settlement. Participants emphasised that settlements do not provide essential
services required by teachers and teachers were still required to travel long distances
to the main town to access essential services and goods. Settlements and proximity
to road networks were not regarded as justifiable benchmarks for school classification.
Participants agreed that the distance between the school and the main town or places
that provide essential goods and services sufficiently be considered as the main
determinant for categorising schools.
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The improper categorisation of schools had an influence on teacher provisioning and
the kind of provisioning at schools in rural areas (Figure 5.3). Teachers who were
appointed to rural schools or who were considering to be transferred between rural
schools have considered the category of the school to make their final decision. The
implication was that wrong categorisation caused teacher shortages in terms of
numbers and competency. Participants explained as follows:
In terms of attracting teachers to rural areas, this year we were
having many vacant posts and two teachers declined because the
category of incentive for the school is not inviting. This negatively
affects learning as learners would go for a long period of time
without a teacher (T12).
…teachers did not get motivated because the schools are not
categorised appropriately, seeing that some schools that are close
to towns are placed in one category with schools that are far from
town. Due to this improper categorisation of schools, teachers
especially those with high qualification were not attracted to rural
schools and mostly only teachers with low qualifications were
moving to rural schools (T15).
Participants also raised concerns about school categorisation that did not consider
teacher efforts with learner performance in standardised national school examinations.
T7 explained skewed classification due to not considering teacher effort with learner
preparation for national examinations and the influence of this skewed classification
on teacher motivation that:
…the schools that are placed in encouraging categories are in
minority, very few. What is discouraging is the fact that most of
those schools that are in the categories for the highest amount of
financial incentive, are just primary schools, having grade 1-4, and
not schools whose learners sit for national examinations. In other
words, schools who receive the highest amount of financial
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incentive are not schools whose performance is measured by
national examinations, whereas for those schools whose
performance is measured by national examinations, teachers get
low financial incentive amount and you are not motivated.
The fact that the performance of schools is usually evaluated in terms of their
performances in national examinations, teachers teaching learners who write national
examinations experience excessive stress due to media exposure. When learner
performance is not adequate, teachers are blamed without considering the
circumstance under which teaching happens. For this reason, the fact that schools
receiving the highest amount of financial incentive were mostly primary schools whose
learner performances were not measured by standardised national examinations was
considered unjust and unfair. Teachers teaching learners who write the standardised
national examination had to work hard with little resources available to them to ensure
good learner performance. The fact that teachers were not receiving an adequate
financial incentive was considered unfair, influencing teacher motivation negatively.
5.4.2.5
Insufficient amount
In addition to skewed categorisation, participants felt that the financial incentive
amount allocated to them was inadequate in relation to the challenges they experience
by teaching in a desolated area. It was clear that a main challenge related to ensuring
proper housing as expressed by participants:
The implementation of the financial incentive was a good move by
government but the incentive is not enough and thus not attracting
a lot of qualified teachers to come to rural areas due to poor
working conditions (T21).
…the amount of financial incentive is not convincing… and
qualified teachers would not want to remain in poor working
conditions where there are not even teachers’ houses (T20).
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Apart from pointing out that assistance was needed with proper housing, participants
also quantified bad road conditions and a lack of electricity and proper recreational
facilities as desolated rural-area-challenges for which a substantial financial incentive
could have compensated. Participants asserted as follows:
One of the problems is that if a teacher buys a car, the car usually
develops mechanical problems due to poor road infrastructure and
long distance. Unfortunately, the amount of money that we receive
as financial incentive is not enough to service the car (T25).
…I have also observed that most of the young graduating teachers
prefer to work in urban schools where there is electricity and sports
facilities available, as rural living is harsh with coupled with little
financial incentive (P1).
Whatever the challenges, it was clear that participants considered the amount
received as financial incentive as significantly insufficient and not encouraging them
to remain in a rural area. T7 proclaimed as follows:
The implementation of the financial incentive was a good idea to
motivate qualified teachers to come and teach at schools located
in rural areas, but still the money is not enough. The money that
we are receiving is peanuts and this is discouraging us. Some of
us are still planning to move to urban areas because the money
does not really motivate us, it is not enough.
The above view concurs with literature findings in section 3.4.2 that most teachers
prefer to work in urban areas as working in rural schools is too demanding given the
adverse working conditions. Although many participants rated the financial incentive
as insufficient, others experienced it as positive in the sense that “the money is not
enough, but it is better because if you receive one, it replaces zero” (T12). The fact
that the participants regarded the financial incentive as peanuts evidenced the paucity
of the financial incentive on their lives and their preparedness to locate to urban areas
if and when possible.
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With regard to the link between the financial incentive, teacher motivation and
satisfactory learner performance, T20 pointed out that “the performance that exists
has been there before financial incentive were introduced, due to self-motivation” and
not because of the extrinsic motivation of financial incentive, because “the money that
we are getting as financial incentive is not enough to cater for our needs”. Participant
teachers agreed that despite their level of performance, the reward they are receiving
as a financial incentive was not motivating them as the amount was little compared to
the performance they were achieving and the challenges they were facing at rural
schools. The inadequacy of the financial incentive amount resulted in teachers leaving
schools in desolated rural areas to locate to other schools, where the working
environment in terms of proper housing and better road networks are better.
With regard to the influence of insufficient financial incentive on learner performance,
participants emphasised the acute shortages of teaching staff at their schools. Rural
schools encounter considerable staff shortages for lengthy periods of time without
being able to appoint qualified teachers to attend to learners’ urgent learning needs.
T7 asserted as follows:
Teachers decline to teach at rural schools, this means that the
school has to stay for some months or terms without a teacher and
learners continue suffering, and we should not expect good
performance. So, may be if they can increase the incentive then
may be schools can expect good learner performance.
It was clear from the interviews with participants that financial incentive did not have
any positive influence on improved learner performance. This was due to an already
existing and sustained performance standard regardless of the financial incentive. The
financial incentive granted to teachers willing to teach in desolated areas was not
adequate to convince a sufficient number of teachers to locate to rural living and
improve performance significantly, as confirmed by principal P1:
...this low amount does not encourage qualified teachers to apply
at our schools. As a result, the performance of the learners has
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always been affected because even when schools have vacant
posts, qualified teachers did not apply for these posts and this left
schools with the option of appointing temporary teachers, who
cannot carry out teaching effectively since they are not qualified to
teach effectively.
Participants emphasised the devaluation of their financial incentive amount as the
financial incentive did not appear as a separate package in addition to teachers’
existing monthly salaries, but formed part of teachers’ gross salaries. As a result,
teachers were prone to an increased tax deduction as explained by participants:
This financial incentive did not make an impact as teachers only
opt for rural schools when they cannot find a job in town. By adding
this financial incentive to a person’s salary, it might move a teacher
to the next tax bracket, which will make a teacher pay more tax
and left with less money than a teacher who do not receive
financial incentive (T6).
The financial incentive can make a tax difference especially to the
salaries of teachers whose schools were placed in the high
category of financial incentive. These teachers may add up being
taxed heavily (R1).
It is clear that teachers are exposed to double negative effects of the financial incentive
in rural areas, namely, wrong categorising of schools and increased tax deduction.
The wrong categorising of schools deprived teachers of receiving their realistic amount
for the financial incentive. In addition, the increased tax deduction did not make
teachers feel any addition on top of their usual salaries and thus did not leave them
with an extra amount to help deal with the challenges teachers are facing at rural
schools. Hence, the financial incentive appears not to have positively influenced the
motivation of teachers at rural schools in as much as schools were not properly
categorised and the financial incentive amount was little and was subjected to taxation.
The amount of the financial incentive was not enough to make a significant difference
to the life conditions of teachers teaching at schools in desolated areas. They were
therefore not convinced to locate and remain at rural schools. For the teachers who
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received the highest amount of financial incentive, a gridlock situation developed in
that their increased salary resulted in an increased tax deduction. These negativities
associated with the financial incentive for teachers, considered with the challenges
related to rural school teaching, caused a sustainment of teachers’ preference to teach
in urban areas. The result was a sustainment of acute teacher shortages in rural
schools especially in critical subject areas (Figures 5.4; 5.5; 5.6).
5.4.2.6
Standard of education
With regard to the influence of the financial incentive on learner performance,
participants indicated that learner performance has improved (Figure 5.1). remained
the same regardless of the financial incentive to encourage and motivate teachers to
teach in rural areas. Some participants admitted a slight improvement in learner
performance; however, considered comprehensively this improvement is negligible.
Participants explained as follows:
There is only a slight improvement. Our learners are still
performing poorly when it comes to academic performance. Some
learners are dropping out of school. Financial incentive does not
add any positive change according to my observation (P3).
Learner performance has improved slightly. Before financial
incentive was introduced, we have been teaching in the rural areas
and the performance has been the same (T7).
Learners are still failing and promotional rates are low. May be
there is little improvement at secondary level but at lower and
primary level learners are still performing poorly despite teachers
receiving the financial incentive (P2).
Participants related the slight improvement in learner performance to secondary
school grades. In Namibia, secondary school phases entail a junior secondary phase
including grades 8 to 10, and a senior secondary phase, extending from grade 11 to
12. This study pertains to the junior secondary phase, as this is the phase in rural
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communities where learner performance is determined by a national examination for
grade 10 learners. Participants’ opinion on the slight improvement in learner
performance was based on the outcomes of this national examination for grade 10s in
the junior Secondary phase of schooling.
It was difficult to determine objectively the performance of learners in the junior primary
phase as the progression of learners from one phase to another was not subjected to
national examinations. In the absence of a national examination for primary phases,
Circuit and Regional examinations were used for summative assessment of learners
in the primary phases. In addition, some grades such as grade one and two were
usually assessed by continuous assessment that individual teachers were carrying out
and were therefore not subjected to examinations. Participants have observed that the
performance of learners at primary level as determined by continuous assessment
methods, and Circuit and Regional examinations was low compared to the slight
improvement in learner performances in the junior secondary phase.
Although the majority of participants emphasised that the performance of their learners
has remained poor regardless of a financial incentive, some acknowledged a
noticeable improvement, which was attributed to the presence of young teachers who
had recently graduated from university. P2 stated:
There is a change in learner performance. In the past our school
uses to fall under the ‘schools of concern’. But ever since the
school received young graduates, the school performance
improved.
P2 quantified this improvement in learner performance as pertaining to the subjects
taught by the young graduates. She confirmed as follows:
This performance is attributed to the young graduates coming to
our school. If you look at the statistics, the subjects that performed
well to uplift the school performance are subjects for those
teachers, the young graduates (P2).
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It was clear that, because these young teachers recently graduated from teacher
training institutions, they were better equipped to teach effectively and help improve
learner performance. Participants pointed out, however, that the improvement in
learner performance still excluded crucial subjects because “even though qualified
teachers have taken up teaching posts at rural schools, the challenge remains that the
performance has not improved significantly as anticipated, especially in subjects like
English, Mathematics and Physical Science (T15; Figures 5.4-5.6).
Apart from the positive influence of young graduates on learner performance,
participants admitted that the financial incentive has functioned as a push factor to a
certain extent to encourage some teachers from urban areas to move to rural areas.
T14 explained as follows:
Financial incentive served as a push factor for teachers to locate
from urban schools to rural schools. In terms of performance, it is
improving because teachers from urban areas bring innovation
and creativity to rural schools.
Considering the attractiveness of urban living, no problem was foreseen in
jeopardising teacher capacity in urban areas as “urban schools will always be filled by
qualified teachers” (T14). The reason for this security of teacher availability in urban
areas related, again, to comfortable urban living conditions compared to the harshness
of rural survival, which, in the face of insufficient financial incentive, discouraged
teachers from remaining in rural areas. T15 proclaimed:
Urban schools will always remain with qualified teachers because
once qualified teachers were located to rural areas where there
are no accommodations comparing to the good accommodations
and facilities they were having access to at schools in urban areas,
and the fact that the financial incentive that they are receiving is
not enough, teachers usually go back to schools in urban areas.
It was clear that participants differ with regard to the influence of financial incentive on
learner performance. While some participants acknowledged only a slight
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improvement in learner performance, others were most positive that the
implementation of financial incentive to encourage qualified teachers to relocate to
rural areas have yielded the required fruit of improved learner performance.
Participants acknowledged the positive influence of the financial incentive on learner
performance as follows:
The learners’ performance has really changed. There is a
significant difference between the percentages of how schools
were performing those years, and how they are performing now.
This performance is because of the qualified teachers that are
teaching those learners and most of these teachers were
employed since the era of financial incentive (C1).
…although there are some challenges, financial incentive had
make a difference because qualified teachers can stay at rural
schools, and if you look at the performance it has also changed for
the better… performance has been picking up (P5).
P5 also emphasised the changed scenario of qualified teachers now considering
employment in rural areas due to the possibility of a financial incentive and the
influence this has had on a decrease in unqualified teachers at rural schools. P5
asserted this snowball effect as follows:
In the past teachers can only come here (at rural school) while
they were looking for teaching vacancies elsewhere, and schools
were forced to employ unqualified teachers. Because of the
financial incentive, qualified teachers could now remain at rural
schools. I can say financial incentive helped us to retain qualified
teachers at schools and the longer the teachers stay, they more
the experience they gain and the better the teaching and learner
performance.
It was clear that once qualified teachers were retained at rural schools they helped
improving the performance of the school. It was also clear that the financial incentive
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assisted in retaining staff who were already appointed at rural schools, but who were
considering a transfer to an urban area.
I observed that teachers who were at rural schools were trying to
get transfers, but now because of financial incentive, they were
motivated to remain at rural schools, because they want the
money although the feeling from the bottom of their heart is that
they really want to go elsewhere (T26).
While one group of participants acknowledge a significant improvement in learner
performance, another group indicated only a slight improvement in learner
performance, with another group of participants having denied any change in learner
performance with the implementation of the financial incentive. These participants
proclaimed as follows:
The performance of our learners has just been fluctuating, both
before and after the implementation of financial incentive (T12).
There are schools which have been with the same qualified
teachers, same principals, receiving financial incentive but still
these schools are performing poorly (T17).
Financial incentive did not encourage teachers to work at rural
schools and therefore financial incentive did not serve what it was
meant to serve, the improvement of learner performance at rural
schools in the country (P1).
It was clear that the third group of participants believed good learner performance in
rural schools to have been in existence before the implementation of the financial
incentive. Attributing school performance to the financial incentive was therefore not
acknowledging other factors such as target setting, teachers’ intrinsic motivation,
leadership and support services that might have influenced learner performance
positively. These participants felt that teachers are motivated to teach, or are not
motivated for their teaching task, regardless of the presence of a financial incentive.
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In conclusion, it became evident that an improvement in learner performance was
recorded with the implementation of a financial incentive for teachers to teach at
schools in rural areas. However, the improvement was not as significant as was
anticipated. Learner performance at sampled schools has improved, regardless of the
implementation of the financial incentive.
Where an improvement in learner
performance was experienced, this improvement could not be attributed to the
financial incentive alone, but also to factors relating to teachers’ intrinsic motivation,
leadership and support services. It was clear that the influence of the financial
incentive on learner performance in rural areas was minimal.
This view concurs with literature findings that the financial incentive have failed to
attract and retain qualified teachers in rural areas (section 3.5.1). Considering the fact
that the financial incentive is not an all-inclusive strategy for teacher motivation, the
factors that motivate teachers to teach at rural schools are elicited next.
5.4.3
Factors motivating rural school teachers
The factors that motivate teachers to locate and remain at schools in rural areas relate
to aspects pertaining to promotional posts, family background, leadership,
environment, employment opportunities, support services and financial incentive.
5.4.3.1
Promotional post
The two common promotional posts available to rural school teachers are the Head of
Department and School Principal posts. Promotion could further progress to the
positions of Inspector of Education, Education Officer and Director of Education.
Participants determined the availability of promotional posts at schools in rural areas
as an important factor to locate and remain at rural schools. Apart from prestige and
self-esteem, management posts also implied increased salaries and allowances
resulting in “teachers going to rural areas because of opportunities such as
promotional posts” (R1).
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Considering the benefits of these promotional positions, holders were likely to remain
in rural areas regardless of geographically-related challenging conditions. Based on
the same argument, teachers are not motivated to locate to rural schools if
opportunities for career growth, such as promotional posts, are not available, or
benefits accompanying promotional posts are not adequate.
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5.4.3.2
Family background
Some teachers originate from rural areas with their homes and families still located
there. As they have grown up in a rural environment and are used to rural conditions,
they prefer to remain with their families and render assistance to their families.
Participants explained this motivation for teachers to remain in rural areas because of
familiarity with the environment and closeness to family as follows:
Teachers have their families to look after, they really want to
remain at rural areas (T26).
Teachers are there at rural areas because they are happy with the
environment (R1).
As discussed in section 3.4.2, living and working in a rural area can be rewarding as
rural areas are safe and a pleasing experience with nature and community members.
Teachers who originated from rural areas do not feel isolated, but content in their rural
comfort zones. In addition to familiarity with the environment, the cost of living in rural
areas is less demanding than in urban areas, especially when residing with family,
which is common in rural areas.
5.4.3.3
Leadership
The commonly known statement by John Maxwell that “everything rises and falls with
leadership” implies that leaders need to motivate their employees for them to feel
valued and part of the team. From the interviews with participants it was clear that they
attributed teachers’ decisions to remain at schools in the rural environment to effective
and humane school leadership. The kind of leadership required is explained by
participants as follows:
As a supervisor, I always try to lead my teachers by example. In
other word, the teachers are motivated by my actions (P3).
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The motivation level of our teachers is very high. So, when I came
here, teachers were not really on task, but now once the bell has
ring, everyone is heading to the class. I think they are very much
self-motivated now as a result of me practising what I preach (P4).
Teachers are motivated by the type of school principals they are having at the rural
schools. The manner in which they are influenced, such as the leader leading by
example, is what motivates teachers to remain committed to rural schools and execute
their responsibilities to the best of their abilities. The example set by their principal as
a leader is inspiring them to be self-starters and self-driven teachers. The positive
influence of the school principal on teacher motivation results in good learner
performance which in turn serves to raise motivation levels amongst teachers:
Teachers have high motivation levels due to good results the
school enjoys in national examinations. We always set targets and
that is what is motivating teachers to push hard (P5).
The visionary leadership of the school ensures that a target is set to be achieved, and
that everyone is geared to pro-actively function towards the realisation of the set
target. The leader’s responsibility relates to ensuring that teachers are energised to
achieve the targets that are set. With regard to this visionary leadership experienced
in rural schools, satisfactory learner performance is achieved, regardless of the
presence or absence of a financial incentive. R1 confirmed the inevitability of improved
learner performance because of effective leadership:
The improvement in the performance of schools is a result of
leadership. When financial incentive was introduced, good school
performance has already been there as a result of our strategic
plan and targets on what we should do and these strategies
started in 2005, way back before the implementation of financial
incentive in 2010.
It was clear that regional leadership influenced school leadership, enabling school
principals to influence teachers in pursuing set targets. This practice prevailed before
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the implementation of the financial incentive. Teachers have always been motivated
by setting their own targets and getting support from leadership to achieve these
targets. Teachers’ good performance can therefore not be entirely linked to the
financial incentive.
With regard to the important role of effective leadership to ensure acceptable learner
performance, R1 confirmed that:
…when we set strategies to improve learner performance, we
rarely look at incentive, but the focus is good leadership and selfdriven teachers.
Apart from leadership, shared leadership existed in the regional structures that serves
as motivation for teachers. Educational leaders share the responsibilities of motivating
teachers as Directors and Inspectors visit rural schools to interact with teachers. The
moral support teachers enjoying with this gesture motivated teachers to strive for high
ideals while they continue teaching in rural schools.
5.4.3.4
Environment
Teachers are motivated by an environment that is both physically and psycho-socially
conducive for them to execute their teaching responsibilities successfully. Every
participant has made reference to accommodation as a motivating factor for teachers
to locate and remain at rural schools. It was clear that teachers experienced an acute
shortage of housing in the desolated rural areas. P5 explained as follows:
There is a problem of accommodation at rural schools. Teachers
can come and teach here but they have to commute from towns
because accommodation is really a factor that challenges
teachers to leave for other schools with accommodation and
where they will feel comfortable and motivated.
Participants emphasised that the financial incentive defeats its purpose if it is not
accompanied by accommodation for teachers at rural schools. Teachers want to teach
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at rural schools and they “go to schools in rural areas due to passion and the financial
incentive, but they leave these schools again due to a lack of accommodation” (R1).
The lack of accommodation in the rural environment has forced many teachers to
leave rural schools to schools where accommodation is provided, despite these
teachers’ passion to teach at rural schools. For some teachers, their passion for rural
school teaching compelled them to settle for accommodation relating to temporary
structures typical of informal settlement constructions. These constructions are not
comfortable and do not provide proper safekeeping against crime. C1 admitted that
“some of the teachers at rural schools have constructed their kabashus (shack
dwellings), but these kabashus are not safe especially during holidays when they
[teachers] have to leave, their properties might be stolen”.
Proper accommodation in the sense of basic housing constructed with bricks would
motivate teachers to stay at rural schools. Apart from not being safe, the temperature
change in an informal housing structure (shack) is unbearable in winter when it is very
cold and in summer when it is very hot resulting in inhabitants not being able to acquire
sufficient rest. T6 emphasised that:
If the teacher sleeps in a makeshift structure and do not get
enough rest, you cannot expect this teacher to perform in the class
the next day.
The challenging conditions in which teachers reside at schools in desolated rural areas
include a lack of electricity, running water and bathroom facilities. Participants
emphasised that teachers are truly motivated to teach even at schools in rural areas.
However, the housing conditions for teachers impact negatively on their teaching
performance. P2 voiced these difficult living conditions which forced teachers to
relocate to more comfortable environments as follows:
Teachers are really suffering. If you can see there, those are the
shacks for teachers. No electricity, no water, no sanitation, a lot of
things are missing. There are even no toilets, they must go to the
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nearby bushes to relieve themselves. This forced teachers to
transfer.
The harshness of living conditions in rural areas had also a demotivating effect on
teachers who were not sufficiently qualified because “even unqualified teachers are
not happy with the environment” (P1). This dissatisfaction with housing conditions was
experienced to such an extent that the granting of a financial incentive could not
convince unqualified teachers to further their studies because “the environment where
they are working is just not conducive” (P1). Participants pointed out that government’s
attempt to provide accommodation for teachers was not adequate to accommodate all
teachers in need of housing.
“Government only constructs a house that can
accommodate two teachers” (T4) resulting in teachers having to share facilities such
as “sharing a room three of us [them]” (T4) and having “one bachelor flat only that
accommodates those teachers from far” (P5) while the rest of the teachers have to
commute.
The insufficiency of accommodation at rural schools causes tension between staff
members about whom to accommodate as many teachers are hailing from far
distances. The result is the jeopardising of good relationships between staff members.
The lack of accommodation for teachers at schools in remote areas relates to
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (section 2.2.1), where if teachers’ basic needs are not
met, it negatively influence their motivation to teach at schools in rural areas.
Participants confirmed that the fact that they did not feel safe and comfortable on a
basic level, was a challenge to work hard to experience self-realisation at schools
situated in rural areas.
In addition to housing provision, teachers are also motivated by the available
resources and facilities. Physical facilities within the teaching context pertain to
classrooms, laboratories, libraries and staffrooms, whereas outside the school setting
it includes establishments such as hospitals and police stations. The presence or
absence of physical facilities and instructional materials determine the motivational
levels of teachers. From the interviews with participants, the poor state of rural schools’
infrastructure became clear:
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Some of the classrooms are very old. It is not really safe for the
teachers to be in those classrooms. Some classrooms have holes
and some classrooms have cracks (C1).
Apart from the need for physical facilities to be of good standard for teachers to feel
safe while teaching, classrooms need to be available in the right quantities so that
each teacher has his or her own classroom. Presenting lessons in the open
demotivates teachers and causes low morale because “presenting lessons under the
tree really demotivates teachers as they would also like to work in a conducive
environment (T4).
Presenting a lesson under a tree implies exposure to weather patterns resulting in
difficulties for teachers to present lessons during rainy seasons as learners and
teachers have to seek shelter until rain stops. This negatively affects time
management and curriculum coverage with learners not mastering all the stipulated
learning outcomes. Lesson presentation for subjects like Physics and Chemistry
comprises both a theoretical and practical component. Theoretical knowledge needs
to be linked with practical application in laboratories. In rural environments teachers
are demotivated by the lack of well-equipped laboratories to facilitate knowledge
acquisition as “at some schools, when laboratories are there, there are no materials
for carrying out experiments (R1).
Participants emphasised the demotivating effect of misconceptions relating to
assumptions that competent teachers can improvise in the face of facilities and
teaching aid shortages. Although valid to a certain extent, participants emphasised
that proper teaching for the sake of successful learning requires applicable facilities
with related teaching equipments. Participants proclaimed as follows:
In terms of facilities and teaching aids, there is a misconception
out there, that when a teacher is qualified and have subject
knowledge, then people expect learners to pass exceptionally. No,
you can only perform if you do have certain resources at your
disposal such as textbooks and other teaching media. That is the
only way through which the teacher can improve learner
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performance. Hence, these are some of the factors that
demotivate teachers because they feel that they are not supported
even though they are qualified (T6).
We need modern teaching aids in order to keep up to date with the
world of technology. Every time, it is just chalkboards while others
are using Overhead Projectors. The chalk whitens us all over and
this is not encouraging (T19).
It appeared that the challenges characterising rural schools in other parts of the world
(section 3.5) resemble the challenges rural schools in Namibia are facing. While other
scholars observe some schools having only chairs for teachers and school principals
(section 3.4.2), the researcher observed that learners at the selected rural schools in
Namibia were sitting on chairs while they were taught under trees in the school
premises.
Apart from a lack of laboratories for Physical science subject, participants pointed to
the libraries at their schools that do not have sufficient and recent books. The lack of
sufficient library resources included the absence of a competent librarian to assist
learners in their literature searches. Participants confirmed as follows:
Our library needs to be stocked with current books as most of the
books currently on the shelves are outdated (T12).
Some schools have libraries but there are no Library Assistants
employed to assist library users. It is teachers again to assist
learners or anyone who is willing to use the library, and teachers
are usually busy (T10).
In addition to the lack of libraries and laboratories, participants expressed dismay
about not having staffrooms for teachers, resulting in a situation such as “when
teachers have free lessons, they stay in the outside waiting for the next lesson’’ (T9).
Teachers involved in class teaching usually remain in their classrooms during breaks,
with their classes serving as a staffroom. Teachers involved in subject teaching, have
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nowhere to retreat to during breaks or free periods resulting in a condition not
convenient for effective teaching. The financial incentive cannot compensate for a
debilitating environment, as T1 confirmed that “financial incentive may motivate
teachers but the environment says much too”.
With reference to the vast distances between rural schools and major towns, essential
services such as police services and medical facilities served as important factors
influencing teacher decisions to locate to rural schools. Considering the fact that their
working conditions are usually poor and makes them prone to possible ill health,
teachers need clinics in rural areas for medical help. Teachers also need increased
safety and protection as provided by the presence of police services.
It was clear that even the most generous financial incentive could not compensate for
the harsh realities of rural life associated with a lack of proper housing, electricity,
medical care and policing. For that reason, and as stated by T6, “if the government
could improve facilities at rural areas, teachers will be motivated to stay even if the
financial incentive is low” because proper facilities and essential services in the work
environment is important in ensuring a motivated teaching team.
5.4.3.5
Employment opportunities
In the face of high rates of unemployment in developing countries, being employed
underpins teacher motivation to teach at rural schools. As employment opportunities
in urban areas are scarce, teachers have to seek employment opportunities at rural
schools where there are more vacancies available. For that reason, “teachers go to
rural areas not because there is financial incentive but because there are employment
opportunities (R1).
The need to be employed is more prominent than the financial incentive because even
when the financial incentive was stopped for a long period of time at rural schools in
Namibia, “there was no difference, no teacher said ‘I will not go to rural areas because
there is no financial incentive’, teachers were still getting employed there” (R1). It was
clear that “financial incentive was not the motivating factor; teachers go to rural schools
because they need to be employed, especially new graduates” (R1).
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5.4.3.6
Support services
Despite the fact that teachers are qualified and possess subject knowledge, they need
to be supported in their duties. Without support structures, teachers lose morale
because of the magnitude of challenges with which they have to cope on their own.
The support that teachers need relates to opportunities for professional development
such as “people with whom to share our subjected-related problems with” (T23). In
this regard, it was stressed that workshops should be organised for teachers to discuss
their subject related problems with one another and to share skills on content delivery.
The lack of professional development support was illustrated by the fact that
workshopping is not part of the reference framework of young teachers as stated by
T23:
Like these young ones, they do not know how a workshop setting
looks like. They have never attended a workshop since they were
employed here.
Congruent with findings by other scholars (section 3.5.2), a lack of opportunities for
workshop-based professional development contributes to incompetence at rural
schools resulting in poor learner performance. An important factor for professional
development is the availability of assistance accompanied by expert knowledge from
regional educational offices. This assistance demands that “support services
personnel should come down to teachers at rural schools” (T15), to acquire first-hand
knowledge of school-related problems. P1 stressed that “the Education Officers are
needed to come down to schools so that we [schools] can tell them our problems,
rather than sending circulars which do not speak for themselves. Participants felt
strongly that regardless of the geographical location of rural schools which makes it
difficult to reach these schools, diverse efforts should be exploited to ensure that
teachers receive the support they require.
A positive action with regard to teachers’ professional development is the Personal
Development Plan (PDP) for each teacher. Teachers compile their own plans after
they have evaluated themselves by means of a SWOT analysis. Once teachers have
produced their PDP, they are able to determine weaknesses and explore opportunities
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for further growth. This enables principals of rural schools to determine what
assistance is needed for specific teachers. Participants revealed that the compilation
of this PDP assisted teachers to understand their competencies better, as proclaimed
by C1:
Teachers are motivated by the support we give them such as with
the PDP arrangement. We ask our teachers to produce their PDPs
so that it becomes easier to detect areas where support is needed.
A crucial part of teacher support motivating them to persevere with their teaching
endeavours is meticulous and timely remuneration. In this regard, teachers receive
little support from the Human Resource Division of the MoEAC with the timely
processing and payment of their salaries, especially new appointees. Apart from a
demotivating effect on the psyche of teachers who are not paid on time, they are also
affected physically in the sense of “no teacher can teach effectively on an empty
stomach (T3). This affects proper teaching which is further jeopardised by teachers
who are forced to leave their classes to visit the Human Resource section of the
Directorate of Education about their outstanding salaries. T6 explained as follows:
New appointees are not paid their salaries well on time. These
teachers struggle for three to four months without getting paid,
they are forced on a regular basis to travel in order to make
inquiries at Human Resource offices, to find out when they will be
paid.
The snowball effect of decreased learner performance because of lost teaching time
spent on approaching the Directorate of Education for outstanding teacher salaries
implies the Directorate of Education is an accomplice in jeopardised learner
performance. T6 proclaimed as follows:
The poor learner performance should not be blamed squarely on
the teachers alone, but also on the appointing authority for the
delay they are causing in the system which have a detrimental
effect on teachers’ performance.
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When teachers are unjustifiably blamed for poor learner performance, they are
demotivated which can be recovered with the Directorate of Education discharging
responsibility for their part of good learner performance, namely timeous remuneration
of teachers.
5.4.3.7
Financial incentive
An effective reward system retains the high performers in the organisation with these
rewards related to employee productivity (section 2.4.2). In the context of this study,
the reward system that was implemented to motivate teachers was the financial
incentive (Figure 5.5). Even though the majority of participants were of the view that
many factors motivate teachers to locate and remain at rural schools, the importance
of the financial incentive was acknowledged. It motivated teachers to apply for
teaching posts at rural schools because many teachers, before accepting vacant
positions at rural schools, “they contact the Circuit Office to enquire where the school
is located and the category of the financial incentive for the school” (C1).
In many instances, these teachers enquiring about the financial incentive are already
employed, but “financial incentive attract teachers to rural schools as they were not
attracted before (T13). It was clear from the interviews with participants that the
implementation of financial incentive has encouraged teachers to teach at rural
schools to a certain extent, which has contributed to an increase in the proportion of
qualified teachers at rural schools (section 5.4.2.1).
In addition to the characteristics of a good teacher (section 3.3), the empirical
investigation also focused on attributes specific to a rural school teacher, which are
discussed next.
5.4.4
Capabilities for teaching at rural schools
The personality traits of a teacher significantly influence classroom climate and have
major implications for learners’ motivation and attitude towards learning (section
3.3.2). Professional qualifications and years of teaching experience alone do not
define a good teacher or predict good learner performance. Equally important are the
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personality attributes distinguishing teachers as competent and effective. From the
interviews with participants, the attributes of passion and adaptability are determined
as crucial to competent teaching in a rural setting.
5.4.4.1
Passion
Participants indicated that a rural school teacher must have the passion to teach,
regardless of the kind of child or environment. Participants concur with what was
discussed in section 3.3 that a good teachers should have a passion for teaching and
learning. Passion as the keen desire to be involved in the execution of a task to provide
required services at own will implies that teachers will teach without hesitation and
regardless of challenging environments. When asked to determine the typical
characteristics that a rural school teacher should possess, participants identified a
passion for what is best for the learner as most important:
…a rural teacher should have the interest of the learners at heart,
who is committed with a clear understanding of why one chose to
become a teacher (P1).
This focus on what is best for the learner implies taking care of the specific learning
needs of learners at rural schools. Considering that many learners in rural areas do
not receive proper physical, emotional and cognitive care from their families (section
3.4.2), a rural school teacher should be someone who is willing to provide the full
extent of parental care to learners so that they can learn. Participants explained as
follows:
…in most cases our learners are not really cared for. A rural school
teacher should be willing to fully execute his or her role of in loco
parentis (P3).
Above all, someone who is fit to be a rural school teacher, should
regard teaching as a care calling (P4).
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Participants agreed that teachers who are passionate about educating learners and
who have a keen interest in the well-being of learners pursue ways of countering
environmental conditions. For these teachers, passion is then linked to their work of
caring for their learners while teaching them, motivating teachers to remain in their
rural school teaching posts.
5.4.4.2
Adaptability
In addition to a teacher being passionate about the interests of the learners at rural
schools, participants felt that complementing passion was the ability of the teacher to
adapt to a rural school environment. Adaptability refers to the ability of teachers to
relate well with the conditions of the environment in which they find themselves.
Adaptability as raised by participants pertains to the teacher’s ability to function in the
rural area as a specific social group and take on the social responsibility of a teacher
in a rural environment, namely that of ensuring learners’ social welfare.
Participants pointed out that this responsibility implied that the teacher treats learners
equally, listens and cares about learners’ problems and gets to know each learner as
an individual. As pointed out by other scholars, social responsibility results in good
relationships between teachers and learners, which enhances learner motivation for
good lesson engagement resulting in good learner performance (section 3.3.3).
The necessity for adaptability understood as social responsibility to fit into the rural
area as a social unit was emphasised by various participants:
Rural school teachers possess the ability to make an
environmental analysis in order to establish their adaptation
pattern in the environment (P2).
Rural teachers believe in themselves and associate themselves
with
the
community
and
environment
where
they
find
themselves... they are having the ability to adapt into the
environment in view of the challenges available (P1).
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By conducting an environmental analysis, teachers become familiar with the rural
environment and associate themselves with the conditions of the environment. This
enables them to adapt functionally to the environment in the sense of being prepared
for the specific challenges, such as housing in the rural environment. One participant
explained as follows:
A rural school teacher is strong enough to cope with harsh working
conditions at rural schools. Ability to cope with learners of different
backgrounds and preparedness to counter challenges such as
erecting shacks in response to lack of accommodation makes a
good rural school teacher (P5).
Participants confirmed that rural teaching includes teaching impoverished and
malnourished learners, which often leads to interrupted school attendance and
learners’ academic needs not being met, a finding that concurred with the discussion
in section 3.6.1. Impoverished and malnourished conditions of learners in rural
environments are a result of poor families who are often unemployed and thus unable
to provide basic necessities for their children, resulting in rural school teachers having
to see how best to help these children. Typical rural school teachers are therefore
passionate about teaching learners in rural schools, and they are able to adapt to the
harsh conditions of rural school living.
5.4.5
Conditions characterising rural schools
It is important to understand the circumstances prevailing at rural schools for an indepth comprehension of the challenges facing teaching and learning at rural schools.
Informed teachers are better able to determine the extent to which they fit into rural
environment teaching.
5.4.5.1
Commuting
Teachers at rural schools have to commute far distances on a daily basis to work,
because they do not reside in villages close to their schools. Within a third world rural
context, commuting implies teachers making use of the limited public transport
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available, or travelling by foot or with their own car. Participants emphasised the nature
and strenuousness of this daily commuting and the influence thereof on teachers’ work
performance:
Commuting from town and other far places to come to school and
go back tires teachers (P3).
Teachers are frustrated as they have to come to school from town
and still go back, and this makes them tired and not having enough
time to prepare their lessons (P1).
The distance exhaust teachers and when they arrive at school they
are tired and not in the mood to teach (T22).
A teacher may get a hike from town and get dropped at the
roadside. If the teacher did not get a transport heading to the
direction of the school, the teacher will have to walk at least ten
kilometres arriving late and tired. This is a very big challenge
especially during the rainy season (T24).
The impact of the rainy season on harsh commuting arrangements, and the fact that
rural teaching in a third world context did not necessarily imply ownership of one’s own
car, was illustrated as follows:
There are no hikes and we are not paid enough money to buy cars.
You have to walk at least thirteen kilometres from the main road
to the school. During the rainy season, teachers with cars have to
leave them here at school and walk through the water to the road
(T11).
It was clear from the interviews with participants that regardless of financial incentive,
rural living circumstances in a third world context included many challenges. Erecting
informal structure houses consisting of corrugated iron sheets (zinc shacks) at schools
to reduce distance and commuting costs posed many challenges. Apart from being
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too hot in summer and too cold in winter (section 5.4.3.4), teachers suffer during the
rainy season as they cannot cook their food because of a lack of electricity in the first
place and wet wood not suited for combustion.
Commuting to school was made more difficult by extreme weather conditions such as
floods when both teachers and learners were not able to reach school. The implication
was that during the rainy season with its many floods commuting teachers are not able
to reach school which has a negative influence on lesson presentation and covering
the complete curriculum. It was clear that commuting to schools in rural areas included
severe challenges influencing teaching and learning negatively and causing many
frustrations for all stakeholders.
5.4.5.2
Climate and rural school teaching
Climate as referring to extreme occurrences such as floods and droughts is
experienced more heavily at rural schools due to poor housing and commuting
conditions. During the rainy season, for example, when the area is flooded “even the
school principal camps at school because cars get stuck oftenly” (T12).
During focus group interviews, the researcher was introduced to a video on a most
recent flood where teachers and learners were walking through flood water above their
knees. As a result of the floods, school attendance was suspended until the water level
had subsidised resulting in learners who “stayed at home for a month as they could
not go through the water and this affects their performance (T10).
Floods affect teachers who are forced to reside at school because “during floods our
teachers cannot move anywhere, they are forced to stay at schools due to poor road
infrastructure that is worsened by the floods” (C1). During such periods and due to
scarce accommodation options, “some teachers share the shack with learners” (P2).
It was clear that climate served as an important factor challenging effective teaching
and learning and teacher motivation to remain at rural schools.
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5.4.5.3
Hygiene
Hygiene in terms of sanitary arrangements posed a major challenge at rural schools.
Participants explained as follows:
A major challenge is hygiene. The use of a pit latrine is not healthy
and snakes can also hide there as these latrines are poorly
constructed (T22).
As there are no toilets, teachers go to the nearby bushes to relieve
themselves (P2).
Correlating with literature, it was clear that conditions at the selected schools consisted
of typical rural environment circumstances such as excessively populated areas of
poor people that are uneducated and unemployed (section 3.5.1). As a result, rural
inhabitants lack basic services such as clean water, electricity, proper housing and
road infrastructures. The sampled rural schools were without flushing toilets, but were
situated in areas of dense bushes for relieving purposes. Participants experienced this
situation as undignified for qualified personnel and for that reason “the government
needs to recruit unqualified teachers because they are the ones who can tolerate
working under harsh conditions, but I cannot come from the university only to use the
bushes” (T22).
These undignified harsh sanitary arrangements result in poor retention of qualified
teachers at rural schools:
If you get qualified teachers at rural school, they only stayed for a
short period of time and then get a transfer. This causes a gap
already, making the school to appoint a new teacher every year
(P5).
It was clear that sanitary arrangements at rural schools served as a major factor
influencing the retention of qualified teachers negatively. This low standard of hygiene
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at rural schools impacting negatively on qualified teacher retention influenced learner
performance at rural schools adversely.
5.4.5.4
Facilities and services
This category interprets the presence and standard of facilities as these facilities
pertain to school buildings, road infrastructure, teaching resources and essential
services such as hospitals. As was discussed in previous sections, participants all
emphasised inadequate housing facilities for teachers at rural schools (section 5.4.2.5;
section 5.4.3.4).
Apart from proper housing for teachers, rural schools also “lack facilities such as
classrooms, staffrooms, libraries and laboratories” (R1), which correlate with literature
findings on facility and instructional material shortages in rural schools (section 3.6.3).
A shortage or complete lack of facilities inhibit proper learning. Classrooms are
essential for lesson presentation, staffrooms for teacher interaction and lesson
preparation, libraries for accessing learning resources and laboratories for
supplementing theoretical knowledge with practical skills (section 5.4.3.4).
External to school settings, facilities such as transportation, protection, medication and
banking services are required for basic sufficiency. Road networks as the backbone
of economic functioning are experienced as significantly hampering teaching and
learning at the selected rural schools:
Roads infrastructure really affects learning because sometimes
teachers need to travel long distances to town to collect materials
for experiments. The teacher may take long because the road
infrastructures and networks are poor and distances are long (T4).
Transport challenges in rural areas compromises teacher mobility demotivating
teachers and discouraging them from being retained in rural school teaching. Poor
road networks effected the health and safety of both teachers and learners as the poor
condition of roads hampered speedy access to medication and police services in town.
T5 explained that:
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Lack of clinics and hospitals and police stations in rural areas put
the health and safety of the teachers and learners at risk, given
poor road infrastructure and long distance they need to travel to
access medical facilities and police assistance at towns.
In addition to the absence of medical facilities in rural areas, participants also
expressed dissatisfaction with the unavailability of banking institutions. To access their
salaries, teachers travel to urban areas for financial institutions. These actions may
result in the absence of teachers from schools for more than one day because when
teachers go to financial institutions to access their payment, they use the opportunity
to do their shopping before returning to the rural areas (section 3.5.3).
Due to the absence of physical banking facilities at the selected schools, participants
envisioned accessing financial institutions via the internet. However, limited internet
access caused online banking to be difficult to achieve. The gridlock situation of a lack
of basic facilities, the time frames with facility access, improper road networks and
limited internet access were voiced by T2 as follows:
In terms of accessing financial institutions, we cannot go to town
due to long distance, and again we cannot use services such as
internet banking due to poor network coverage. Teachers may
only have to visit banks on weekends. Unfortunately, banks close
early on weekends and teachers may not get helped given the
distance they have to travel, and sometimes lack of transport from
rural areas to town.
Limited internet access also affects teaching and learning because internet
connectivity is important “to assist teachers to browse online content to facilitate
teaching and learning” (T1). Considering the large proportion of young graduates at
rural schools, participants emphasised the lack of sport facilities at rural schools as a
major factor hindering the quality of life of especially young graduates impacting
negatively on opportunities for social interaction, a recreational need that was also
expressed in section 3.5.1.
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5.4.5.5
Level of literacy
Participants revealed that most of the parent population in the rural areas have
achieved very low levels of literacy. As a result, most parents do not attach much
significance to education and therefore “do not assist their children academically as
most parents do not read properly, thus lacking an understanding of what learners are
doing at schools” (T25). Due to lack of understanding the importance of education and
their role in assisting their children with proper learning, parents hinder their children’s
progress with school work by engaging them in excessive home chores.
T24
proclaimed that: “parents prioritise learners to fulfil household chores first to school
work”.
From the interviews, it was clear that participants were aware that to teach at a rural
school implied a parent population with low levels of education impacting negatively
on learner performance as parents either do not assist their children with their
schoolwork, or blatantly hinder their children to be properly engaged in school work.
5.4.6
Determinants of learner performance
Since the essence of this study comprised teacher motivation with its related learner
performance, it was important to determine the factors responsible for achieving good
learner performance at rural schools. The factors determined as engendering good
learner performance at rural schools as expressed by participants related to the
foundation for learning, teacher-learner ratio, language competencies, parental
involvement, subject specialisation, working environment, group of learners and the
influence of climate on teaching and learning.
5.4.6.1
The foundation for learning
According to participants, the foundation upon which learners build further knowledge
should be well established. If a solid foundation with initial learning is not built, learners
struggle to cope as they proceed with further grades. Participants pointed out that in
many cases this solid foundation is not established resulting in poor learner
performance as opined by P3:
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The major problem is that our learners have a weak background
knowledge in most of the subjects. Learners do not have a strong
foundation from the lower grades.
The reason for this lack of an initially solid foundation for further learning related to
teachers not being qualified sufficiently for junior primary teaching which is
accompanied by insufficient assessment of learning outcomes. In this regard,
participants determined as a major problem the emphasis on final school year
assessment without ensuring that benchmarks are reached in preceding grades.
Participants also pointed to the problem experienced with English as language of
teaching and learning, as English is the second language for both teachers and
learners. Participants explained as follows:
The foundation at primary school needs to be strengthened. What
I can see, we only value grade ten as being important in measuring
learner performance. But at grade four, there is no benchmark. It
will be irrational to expect learners to perform well at exit level,
such as at grade ten when they cannot make it at primary grades
(P4).
Junior primary and senior primary learners need strong
foundation.
The
learners
lack
basic
English
language
competencies from the primary level… teachers at primary levels
should be empowered to groom these learners and have them
prepared for junior secondary phase (T26).
It was clear that the fight against all social and economic challenges, as also
experienced at the selected rural schools, is the endeavour to provide adequate
education and training for human capital development relevant to the rural
environment. A further reason responsible for the poor learning foundation of primary
school learners is the lack of continuation of the subjects taught at primary school
level. It is anticipated that the content of subjects started in the primary phase relates
to what is built on in the secondary phase. According to participants, this linkage needs
refinement for the sake of more successful learning at rural schools.
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5.4.6.2
Teacher-learner ratio
Participants indicated that the teacher-learner ratio for the primary phase (grades 1-7)
as idealised by government was 35:1, for the junior secondary phase 30:1 and for the
senior secondary phase 30:1. In real terms, the teacher-learner ratio differed
significantly from the idealised suggestion. Participants emphasised that the real
teacher-learner ratio that they are working with was not favourable for effective
teaching and learning. T2 explained as follows:
The teacher-learner ratio of 50 to 60 learners in a class is not
appropriate. It is difficult for teachers to pay attention to each and
every learner’s learning needs given the length of the lesson,
which is forty minutes.
Teachers were teaching in overcrowded classrooms which is the result of financial
constraint to accommodate vast population growth accompanied by poor economic
growth. Vast numbers of learners in the same classroom for a limited period of time
hinders individual attention resulting in hampered learner performance. T1 confirmed
that:
Teacher-learner ratio is hampering progress in most schools.
Teachers are teaching a lot of learners within a limited period of
time. The forty minutes lesson is not enough for the teacher to
attend to every learner’s learning needs.
Apart from a lack of sufficient numbers of teachers and classrooms, overcrowded
classrooms also imply insufficient didactic materials with teachers struggling to
manage sharing arrangements among learners:
There are not enough teaching resources, given the teacherlearner ratio that teachers have to cope with. For example, a
teacher teaches at least fifty learners in a class, yet the
government only provides one textbook. What type of miracle can
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one make to ensure that each learner make use of this textbook
during the lesson presentation? (T20)
It was clear from the interviews with participants that the teacher-learner ratio of more
than 50 learners per teacher influenced negatively the performance of learners at rural
schools. A correct number of learners that is manageable within the lesson
presentation time can ensure a good learner performance in rural schools.
5.4.6.3
Language competencies
At the selected rural schools, the language of teaching and learning for the junior
primary phase is the vernacular language, namely Oshindonga. From the senior
primary
phase onwards, the language of teaching and learning is English, which is
both learners and teachers’ second language. Participants emphasised that neither
teachers nor learners were fully conversant in English, posing threats for the clear
facilitation and profound mastering of subject content:
The problem lies with us and our learners for having language
barriers, specifically English. Our learners cannot communicate
easily and effectively in English and this mostly affect their
performances (T25).
When learners are not able to express themselves eloquently, it is difficult to ask clear
questions on subject content. Learners therefore encounter difficulty to interact with
their teachers in English in order to get clarity on subject content. Assessment in
English posed a further threat to learners, namely, the struggle of presenting their
thoughts coherently by means of English. T25 explained this predicament as follows:
Learner performance is influenced by English language barriers.
Our learners are really struggling with expressing themselves and
their ideas in English.
As learners in rural areas are rarely exposed to English, unlike their counterparts in
urban areas, learners in rural areas present their answers confusingly making it difficult
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for teachers to assess the extent to which learners have reached anticipated outcomes
in real terms. P5 confirmed that “learners at rural schools have English language
barriers unlike learners at schools located in urban areas”. Part of the lack of continuity
with what is taught in the junior and senior phases of schooling relates then specifically
to the discontinuing of mother tongue as the language of teaching and learning. The
result is that “junior and senior primary learners do not have a strong foundation in
English language skills because they lack the basic language competencies from the
primary level (T25).
It was clear from the interviews with participants that a lack of English proficiency
because of vernacular teaching and learning during the first four years of schooling
contributed to weak learner performance in the senior phases of schooling.
Considering the value of mother tongue instruction for proper understanding, the
importance of English as a global language is equally important, and participants
agreed that the earlier learners are exposed to English as a language of teaching and
learning, the sooner they will become proficient in English and be able to master
content successfully by means of English.
5.4.6.4
Parental involvement
Constructive parent involvement contributes to improved learner performance (section
3.5.1). Participants expressed that parents were not supportive to the teachers’ efforts
at school because teachers try their best at school, but once learners go home, they
are influenced by indifferent parents because “parents do not read properly, thus
lacking an understanding of what learners are doing at school” (T25). The situation is
worsened by school holidays when learners are exposed to a non-schooling
environment for a long period of time with parents not encouraging their children “to
stay in touch with their books due to their [parents] low level of literacy” (T26). The
result is that teachers first have to revise after school holidays which impact negatively
on available instruction time to cover the complete syllabus.
Apart from parents being indifferent to the education of their children, parents are also
guilty of not providing the required physical and emotional support to their children.
The result is that “the home backgrounds of the learners pose threats to good
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performance due to factors like alcohol and lack of food at home as parents are often
at cuca shops (shebeens)” (T28).
Participants emphasised that parents who understand the value of education are
supposed to excuse their children from house chores and ensure sufficient time and
nutritional food for their children to perform optimally at school. Such a scenario is not
relevant at the selected rural schools as parents do not ensure sufficient food for their
children and they blatantly hinder their children from attending school regularly.
Participants confirmed as follows:
I call upon the government to make the school feeding programme
available to all school grades, catering for all learners to ensure
that no learner is taught on an empty stomach (T28).
Our learners assist their parents with house responsibilities and
sometimes these responsibilities compromise teaching and
learning, resulting in poor learner performance (T24).
A learner is sometimes absent from school for three days. When
that learner comes back to school, he will indicate that his parents
instructed him to take the cattle to the cattle post for better grazing
(P1).
The tendency of parents using learners to cater for household chores at the expense
of their education is well documented and relates to parents’ attitude of not being
convinced of the value of education (section 3.6.2). Such an attitude interferes with
teachers’ endeavours to improve the performance of their children. Learners who are
regularly absent from school for three days and more, are not able to compete with
learners who are attending school on a daily basis and who are enjoying the essential
physical and psychological support from their parents.
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5.4.6.5
Subject specialisation
Participants revealed that teachers are teaching a combination of subjects, comprising
of subjects that they were trained to teach as well as subjects for which they did not
receive any training. This resulted in work overload as teachers had to prepare more
extensively for the subjects not known to them. Overloading teachers with subjects
they are not qualified to teach “affects the motivation of the teachers and the learner
performance”
(T6).
Considered
against
the
background
of
challenging
accommodation arrangements and insufficient teaching facilities and materials,
overloading teachers “with lessons for which they are not qualified to teach decreases
teacher morale and in the end teachers may not perform to expectations” (T6).
Not performing to expectation as a result of being required to teach subjects in which
teachers did not receive initial training was understood by participants to be
unreasonably unfair because “when these learners go to the next grade and failing to
perform, the previous teacher was always to blame” (T1), regardless of the fact that
that ‘previous teacher’ had to teach subjects for which he/she had not been trained.
Participants emphasised that being professionally trained as a teacher does not imply
being an expert in all subjects. Apart from specialised subject content, different
subjects have different teaching methods and pedagogies which require specialised
training. The allocation of teachers to subjects for which they have not received
training is necessitated by teacher workload that relates to the number of lessons per
week per teacher. School principal participants explained that for a five day teaching
cycle teachers must conduct 40 lessons and for a seven day cycle 52 lessons.
With regard to class teaching per grade, teachers must conduct 40 lessons per week
for grades 4 to 7 and 41 lessons per week for grades 8 to 10. As a result of many
teachers not meeting this required number of lessons per cycle or per week with their
subjects of specialisation, they are obliged to teach additional subjects for which they
are not qualified.
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5.4.6.6
Working environment
As stated in section 5.4.3.4, accommodation for teachers at rural schools is not
sufficient and comfortable resulting in exhausted teachers. In this regard, T6
emphasised that “if the teacher sleeps in a makeshift structure and do not get enough
rest, then you do not expect this teacher to perform in the class the next day”. Apart
from challenges with accommodation, the lack of classrooms forcing teachers to
present their classes under trees is not conducive for optimal learning.
Trees serving as ‘classrooms’ pose their own challenges that relate to rain and wind
storms. During times of strong wind, it was difficult for teachers to deliver their lessons
effectively as their voice projection was compromised by the movement of the wind.
During a rain storm, teachers and learners seek shelter where possible, but mostly in
occupied classrooms and, if the rain continues throughout the day, lesson presentation
for that day is hindered. Rain storms do not only disturb learners who are taught under
a tree, but also learners whose classrooms get occupied for shelter.
In addition to a realistic financial incentive and adequate housing, participants valued
sufficient and proper facilities on the school premises as motivating factors to remain
at rural schools. Participants pointed out that learners are also motivated by enough
and proper learning facilities and didactic materials. Teaching some learners under
the trees while others are being taught in the classroom was considered unfair and
humiliating. With regard to didactic materials, participants emphasised the importance
of technological-related equipment because “modern teaching aids are needed in
order to keep up with the world of work-related technology (T19), such as computers
and projectors for PowerPoint presentations by teachers.
5.4.6.7
Group of learners
Relying on the years of their teaching experience, teacher participants noticed the
correlation between school performance and specific groups of learners admitted for
a specific grade and year at a school. Linking financial incentive with learner
performance, participants acknowledged fluctuating learner performance, differing
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from year to year, regardless of the payment of the financial incentive or not.
Participants explained as follows:
Regarding the performance of learners, this depends on the group
of learners admitted in a particular year (T25).
We have cases whereby one year you have a group of learners that
performs well and the other year you have a group of learners that
performs poorly, regardless whether you receive financial incentive
or not (T27).
Performance wise, financial incentive is not reaching its intended
purpose, because learner performance is usually fluctuating. The
school may have a group of learners who are talented coming in
that year or a group of leaners with mixed-abilities (T26).
Maybe financial incentive has succeeded in attracting and retaining
qualified teachers at rural schools, but it is struggling to improve
learner performance, as this is determined by the group of learners
a teacher is having for a particular year (T24).
Participants were convinced that financial incentive does not influence learner
performance, as learner performance is the result of academic potential as determined
by genes that correlate with a specific home environment. The quality of input from
teachers remains the same. However, due to hereditary factors differing from year to
year, the same kind of teaching efforts results in differing learner performance.
5.4.6.8
The influence of climate on teaching and learning
As discussed in section 5.4.5.2, teaching and learning at rural schools are inhibited by
weather patterns. Floods cause damaged roads with schools having to close for many
weeks. Since ploughing activities take place during the rainy season, many learners
are involved in farming activities at home while school is suspended because of floods.
Some parents take advantage of having their children at home to continue with farming
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activities while parents enjoy extra leisure time at the shebeens (section 5.4.6.4).
Eventually continuing with school implies backlogs too large to catch up on resulting
in teaching and learning outcomes not being reached optimally.
5.4.7
Opportunities for improving education at rural schools
One of the objectives of this study was to determine strategies for improving the quality
of education provided at rural schools. Informed by the views of the participants,
strategies that are determined relate to enhancing the work environment, revisiting the
financial incentive, budget allocations, vocational education and a school cluster
system for educational provisioning.
5.4.7.1
Working environment
The working environment as the setting where teaching and learning takes place
comprises issues relating to physical facilities, surrounding infrastructure and teaching
and learning resources. With regard to physical facilities, proper accommodation for
teachers is important, the absence of which forces teachers to commute or to be
transferred to other schools. Participants pointed out that government must provide
adequate and proper housing for teachers so that they could use their financial
incentive for something else instead of spending all their money on commuting and
renting costs. If housing is provided adequately, “more teachers will be attracted to
rural schools and their motivational levels will be much higher than what they are now”
(P5).
Making the school environment conducive for teaching and learning firstly
implies “teachers’ housing to reduce commuting” (P3).
Another aspect related to facilities that are important for teacher motivation, and the
improvement of the quality of education at rural schools through sufficiency of
classrooms to counter teaching and learning actions under trees with its exposure to
weather conditions. Related to sufficient classrooms is the need for reasonable
teacher-learner ratios that “do not compromise the quality of teaching” (P5). Linked to
classrooms and reasonable class sizes are sufficient laboratories and libraries. “Rural
schools must have laboratories for experiments to help learners understand Physical
Science better” (T23).
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Libraries stocked with contemporary publications and resources “and library assistants
to help learners use the library” (T10), may contribute to levelling learners’ knowledge
with global demands. Related to libraries is well-equipped resource centres to
enhance learners’ access to knowledge, and for young graduate teachers to have
access to resources for professional development. Young graduates are demotivated
to remain at rural schools without any resource centres because the absence of
resource centres intensifies teachers’ feelings of professional isolation in rural areas.
Professional growth necessitates resource centres at rural schools in order for
teachers to facilitate relevant information competently to learners. Participants
suggested a resource centre to be built at one of the schools that is comfortably
accessible to most of the schools in the area enabling teachers of surrounding schools
easy access.
Linked to proper housing for teachers and the availability of laboratories and libraries
to enhance teaching and learning is the need for hostels for learners at schools in
desolated rural areas. These hostels are needed in order “to groom our own learners
because if we could have our own hostels and take on our learners throughout their
whole school life, they may continue performing well throughout, as we know their
learning styles and how best to help them to learn better” (T11).
Participants felt hostel facilities for learners to be important in ensuring a consistent
focus on school work countering distractions relating to excessive home chores with
learners’ families. Consistency with learning is also enhanced by hostel facilities for
learners in that continuity of assistance with specific learning styles is possible with
learners being retained at the same school for their whole school life.
Linked to classrooms, laboratories, libraries and a central resource centre, participants
emphasised the need for sports facilities to attract young graduates and to ensure a
more holistic development of learners by providing them with a basic extra-curricular
programme. Participants also emphasised the crucial need for regular visits by subject
specialists from the Regional Office to capacitate teachers who are teaching subjects
for which they are not trained.
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With regard to infrastructure needs to ensure teachers are retained at rural schools,
participants emphasised the upgrading of road networks, “especially the roads in the
villages because during rainy seasons teachers drive their cars through the water”
(T6). If tarred roads are too expensive to construct, participants anticipated wellmaintained gravel roads which “will motivate teachers to stay at rural schools even if
the financial incentive is low (T6).
It was clear that regardless of the financial incentive, teachers needed certain facilities
and a road infrastructure basic to normal functioning and acceptable learner
performance.
5.4.7.2
Revisiting financial incentive
Participants emphasised the revisiting of the financial incentive for improved
implementation. A first action of the suggested revisiting is increased amounts for
teachers to ensure that the financial incentive amount is on par with the challenges
teachers in rural areas are facing. Participants suggested that the financial incentive
be increased to a thousand Namibian dollars per month, “because 750 Namibian dollar
is not enough compared to the challenges that teachers are facing” (P5). Such an
increase will serve as a motivating factor “because the current amount is too little to
make an impact on the lives of teachers” (P1). Not making an impact on quality living
pertained to the financial incentive not being enough for car repairs due to mechanical
breakdowns caused by a poor road infrastructure, or for the cost of renting. For that
reason:
The government should increase financial incentive amount in
order to attract qualified teachers to schools in rural areas as they
[teachers] will then rest assured that the money they will receive is
enough for them to cater for their needs (T13).
The second action with regard to revisiting the financial incentive relates to a fair
categorisation of schools. Participants felt that their schools are not placed in the
category they deserve. The result is that teachers are receiving a financial incentive
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amount that is not realistic considering the challenges they are facing. Participant P3
explained as follows:
Another aspect required is the fairness of categories. There is no
way you can give the same amount to a school that is 50km away
from the main road and the school that is 15km away from the
main road. It is not fair. The imbalances in the categorisation of
schools should be rectified!
It was clear that the guidelines provided for placing schools into categories as
discussed in section 1.1, are in order, but that these guidelines are not properly
followed. The revisiting endeavour therefore relates to ensuring that the guidelines are
meticulously and fairly applied in categorising schools. As the financial incentive was
suspended for a period of time, participants anticipated the suspension to have related
to fair categorisation with re-implementation. However, after the financial incentive
resumed, some schools still concluded that they were not properly categorised.
The third action required from a revisiting of the financial incentive relates to the
implementation of a financial incentive for notable performance in addition to the
existing financial incentive amount. Such an incentive is needed to motivate teacher
dedication especially with regard to schooling exit levels such as grades 10 and 12.
Participants voiced this additional financial incentive as follows:
There is a need to put some strategies in place to motivate
teachers to improve academic performance by way of using
financial incentive (P4).
In addition to the default financial incentive amount, those
teachers with improved results should be given additional financial
incentive amounts to motivate them (P1).
The MoEAC should link the financial incentive to the performance
of the learners, especially at grade ten and grade twelve
performances. If a teacher’s subject improved by a certain
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percentage, that teacher should receive a certain amount, in
addition to the common basic amount given to everybody (T21).
The financial incentive was initially paid to qualified teachers only for them to locate
and remain in rural schools to improve learner performance. However, the mode of
implementation changed to include all staff members in the financial incentive
allocations. However, participants stressed the importance of a financial incentive
exclusively paid to good performing teachers in order to improve learner performance
in desolated rural schools. Considering the current socialistic approach of allocating
financial incentive to teaching and non-teaching staff regardless of performance, there
is no motivation for qualified teachers to excel in their teaching careers.
Linked to the financial incentive allocated to good performance only, participants
stressed the importance of an additional financial incentive as motivation for highly
qualified teachers to locate to rural areas. P4 suggested that:
Highly qualified teachers can be attracted by giving them
additional financial incentive on the basis of their qualifications to
vacate urban areas knowing they will be employed where there
are better benefits.
An additional financial incentive should therefore be used to attract highly qualified
teachers to rural schools, with the sustaining of that financial incentive dependent on
persistent good performance as measured by learner performance in grades 10 and
12.
A fourth action needed for improved functioning of the financial incentive relates to the
taxation of the financial incentive amount resulting in participants not really having
additional remuneration due to an increased taxable amount. Treasury rules require
that any taxable income disbursed by the state should be subjected to taxation. The
financial incentive was therefore not an exemption to treasury rules as the financial
incentive is paid by the state.
T1 suggested the following approach to avoid the financial incentive being taxed:
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Perhaps what they should do is to say, look, this is your salary and
this is your tax amount from your salary. After deducting the tax
from the salary, they can now add the financial incentive amount.
Otherwise, if financial incentive amount is made part of the gross
salary and get deducted, teachers do not get anything, especially
if their tax bracket shifts to the next level of taxation. Teachers will
only be satisfied if financial incentive is tax-free.
Participants agreed that the financial incentive be exempted from tax deduction.
Alternatively, the financial incentive amount should be increased to such a level that
even if the amount is subjected to taxation, teachers still enjoy an improvement in their
payment.
5.4.7.3
Budget allocations
Changes are required in national budgetary allocations in order to meet the demands
of education at rural schools. The amount of money allocated to every school’s
development budget is not enough to fulfil the needs of rural schools. C1 confirmed
that:
The budget for capital projects needs to be revisited and increased
to cater for the materials required at rural schools. For example,
right now we need more than 200 classrooms in Omusati Region,
but we only get a budget enough to construct about 10
classrooms.
The view of participant C1 concurs with the findings in section 3.6.1, about inadequate
government funding which disables schools to secure sufficient instructional materials
and facilities for all learners enrolled at their schools. In 2017, the budget allocation for
the education directorate of Omusati Region decreased as a result of budget cuts to
national budget because due to adverse economic climate conditions. The
directorate's operational budget decreased by 47.7%, while the development budget
decreased by 41.9% in 2017 (Hilukilwa 2017:1).
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The shrinking national budget allocation implied challenges with developmental
projects at rural schools to such an extent that planned capital projects could not take
off. Since budget cuts were necessitated by an adverse economic climate, once the
economy stabilises again, regional budget allocations should increase to address
matters such as “dignified housing for staff” (C1) and “financial support to take learners
on excursions” (T10). Participant T10 pointed out that when they take learners on
excursions at their school, “it is our own cars, our own fuel and our own food that we
make available to learners”.
In 2017, the shrinking budgets also resulted in a grounding of government vehicles in
the Omusati Education Directorate making it difficult for subject advisors to travel to
schools in rural areas to provide assistance to teachers, especially for the subject
areas they are not trained. It was clear that participants were under the influence of
harsh economic realities and the debilitating effect thereof on operational and
development budget allocations. However, the approach of doing what is possible with
what is available within the specific context, applies to rural school teaching ensuring
that teaching and learning occurs according to acceptable standards.
5.4.7.4
Vocational education
Participants felt that many learners’ potential is not developed due to the focus on
academic schooling. Learners are all compelled to take academic subjects regardless
of the fact that they are more practically inclined. As a result, many learners do not
succeed in passing academic subjects, and because their practically-inclined
aptitudes are not catered for, these learners are eventually prone to unemployment
living unproductive lives in society. R1 emphasised the need to foster the acquisition
of vocational skills alongside academic subjects:
The kind of education that we are giving to the nation does not
address the needs of the nation’s market demands. We are having
graduates sitting at home because their qualifications do not
address the market demands.
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It was clear from the interviews with participants that there is a need to introduce
learners to a vocational education from the early grades of schooling. Learners who
are not able to succeed with academic subjects will then be catered for by providing
them with vocationally-related skills ensuring an independent adult life. All-rounders
succeeding in both vocational and academic subjects will enjoy a more holistic
education preparing them for professional careers such as doctors, engineers,
actuaries and artisans. It was acknowledged, however, that schools need to be
provided with enough resources to cater for the provision of both vocational and
academic subjects.
5.4.7.5
School cluster system for education provisioning
Participants emphasised the need for a well-functioning school cluster system at rural
schools to share resources. Grouping rural schools together that are geographically
close in order to share facilities, instructional materials and cooperative learning
practices will improve learner performance. By sharing educational resources and
teaching methodologies, and ensuring that available human capital is exploited to the
advantage of all members of the cluster population (section 3.5.3), rural schools in
Namibia are able to ensure proper teaching and learning.
Although a cluster system for educational provisioning was introduced in Namibia in
1996, it was not successful as school principals who were leading the implementation
of the cluster system in their Circuits felt that they were exploited as they were not
remunerated for the extra work they were doing. In this regard, T26 confirmed that
although a school cluster system was implemented at rural schools in Namibia for the
constructive sharing of available services, “they have now abolished the cluster
system, because principals were doing works without pay”.
Participants emphasised, however, that a school cluster system is essential for
schools in rural communities with limited resources to share resources in order to
improve their learner performance. While the implementation of a school cluster
system in Namibian rural areas was a positive move for education decentralisation
and learner performance, successful implementation failed as the system did not have
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a legal policy framework and there were no resources made available to schools for
the implementation and management of school cluster activities (Shikalepo 2012: 69).
Operations of the school cluster system were dependent on the budget of the school
which was regarded as the cluster centre, rendering the school cluster system
ineffective. In addition to have been school principals appointed for their own schools,
some school principals had to perform duties as cluster centre principals and they also
had to act as Circuit Inspectors. However, school principals were not paid for these
additional responsibilities due to the lack of a legal basis for the cluster system
functioning. Circuit Offices have stopped using the school cluster system due to its
perceived exploitative nature. However, participants agreed that the school cluster
system for educational provisioning must be reinstated. This implies that government
must revisit shortfalls and consider recommendations to ensure proper functioning for
the sake of optimal educational provisioning in rural areas resulting in improved learner
performance.
5.5
SUMMARY
This Chapter provided findings on the influence of a financial incentive on education
at schools located in Namibian rural communities. The interpreted data was collected
by using individual interviews, focus group interviews and document analysis. The
findings revealed that Namibian schools located in rural communities have enough
qualified teachers and that the implementation of the financial incentive as a motivation
strategy for teachers to locate and remain at schools in rural areas was well-received,
however with reservations. The reservations pertained to the schools that are not
properly categorised and the little amount of the financial incentive.
The findings also revealed that in addition to the financial incentive, other factors
influence learner performance and teacher motivation at rural schools. Amongst these
factors are scant housing and school facilities, and insufficient road networks that
inhibit teacher motivation while learner performance is hampered by English as
language of teaching and learning and a lack of continuity between primary and
secondary schooling.
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Strategies for improving teaching and learning in rural areas were determined to relate
to the implementation of a well-functioning cluster system for education provisioning
in the face of decreasing operational and development budgets. The implementation
of financial incentive contributes little to improved learner performance in the face of
other factors influencing teacher motivation and the learning outcomes that learners
obtain. Amongst others, these factors relates to language competencies, parental
involvement and group of learners. The next Chapter presents the summary,
conclusions and recommendation for this study.
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CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1
INTRODUCTION
This Chapter provides an overview of the study conducted. This is done firstly by
providing a summary of each Chapter of the thesis, highlighting the main issues
treated in each Chapter. Secondly, conclusions are drawn from the findings of the
literature study in Chapter two and Chapter three, as well as from the findings of the
empirical investigation from Chapter five. The writing of the conclusions was guided
by the research questions that the study sought to answer. In view of these
conclusions, recommendations on the improvement of learner performance at rural
schools are made for possible consideration and implementation by education
stakeholders.
This study used a partially-mixed concurrent dominant status design, as a mixedmethod research design that relied mainly on the qualitative research approach for the
sake of answering research questions and addressing research aims using narratives.
In answering the formulated research questions (section 1.4), individual interviews,
focus group interviews and document analysis were used as methods of data
collection (section 4.6.1-4.6.3). Individual interviews were conducted with school
principals and education officials, while focus group interviews were conducted with
teachers. The document analysis was conducted by the researcher in the offices of
the school principals. The data as collected with the different data collection methods
yielded seven themes as research findings (Table 5.1). The use of different data
collection methods helped the researcher to triangulate the trustworthiness of the data.
6.2
SUMMARY OF THE STUDY
The rural environment in which teachers have to work and learners have to learn are
often not conducive for optimal learning as discussed in section 3.2. Some issues
characterising the rural environment can be addressed directly by teachers and the
parent community, but a considerable level of government commitment is required in
order to make schools in rural areas better and attractive places for qualified teachers
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to work. This study argues that rural areas consist of a vast learner population, yet
these areas are neglected in terms of services provision to render teaching and
learning effective to these learners. The provision of essential services and facilities is
lacking at rural schools to motivate teachers to improve teaching and learning.
Therefore, appropriate teacher motivation strategies for rural school teachers should
culminate in both teacher motivation and improved learner performance at rural
schools.
The study sought to address the following objectives:
Explain the factors that influence teacher motivation at rural schools.
Describe the process of teaching and learning at rural schools.
Outline the characteristics of a good teacher.
Suggest strategies for improving learner performance at rural schools.
The following sections (section 6.2.1-6.2.6) deal with the summary of each Chapter of
the thesis, thereby revealing how the research objectives were addressed.
6.2.1
Chapter 1: Orientation
Chapter one presented an outline of the thesis and a brief background of the literature
review on the phenomenon of financial incentive as a motivation strategy for qualified
teachers to improve learner performance in rural schools. The background focused on
the overview of the implementation of financial incentive in both developed and
developing countries. This overview revealed that the results of implementing financial
incentive is not convincing and created mixed feelings about its effectiveness (section
1.1). Chapter one also focused on the overview of the theoretical frameworks on
employee motivation with specific emphasis on teachers as employees (section
1.2.1.1). The theories were explained and suggestions provided on how employers
can use these theories to motivate their employees such as teachers.
The motivation of this study lies in the fact that the researcher was once involved in
the teaching activities at both a rural school as well as at an urban school. As a result
237
of exposure and experience, the researcher observed that the performance of learners
have been the same prior and after the implementation of the financial incentive
(section 1.3). This observation prompted the researcher to embark upon an inquiry to
establish whether financial incentive has any influence on learner performance in rural
schools.
The significance of the study lies in the fact that the outcomes of the study might assist
governments and stakeholder across education sectors to revisit implemented
motivation measures in order to ensure that appropriate teacher motivation strategies
are implemented and sustained, and that these strategies result in improved learner
performance in rural schools. The research background indicated how a wellmotivated teaching staff can play a role in improving the performance of learners in
rural schools (section 1.2.1.2). The problem statement that underlies the study is
expressed and research questions are formulated that guided the entire research
process (section 1.4). Informed by the research questions, the researcher strived to
address the specific research objectives (section 1.5).
An outline of the qualitative research methodology (section 1.6.1) highlighted the
research design and methods used in this study. The qualitative research
methodology enabled the researcher to understand the phenomenon of financial
incentive from the participants’ own perspectives in their own social environment by
using a case study design. The delimitations of the study is outlined in section 1.7,
pertaining to the motivation of qualified teachers in rural schools. Important concepts
related to the study are listed and explained in section 1.8. This thesis contains six
Chapters in total. Hence, section 1.9 provided the outline of the study by highlighting
the contents captured in every Chapter of the thesis. The Chapter ended by indicating
that the study sought to evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation of financial
incentive in Namibia, given the fact that the available evidence on the success of
financial incentive in literature, were mixed and not convincing (section 1.1).
6.2.2
Chapter 2: Theoretical frameworks and teacher motivation
238
Chapter two started with an elaborate discussion of the theoretical frameworks
underlying the study and as applicable to teachers as employees (section 2.2). The
theoretical frameworks enabled the researcher to build a foundation for the study and
keep in mind the context within which the study should revolve. The theories all
concluded that a well-motivated teaching team is essentially for good teaching and
good learner performance, especially in rural schools where there are adverse working
conditions and low learner performance.
In view of this reasoning, Chapter two also discussed the factors that influenced
teacher motivation as reported in the literature (section 2.4). As a result of analysing
these factors on teacher motivation and their influences, the researcher established a
conceptual framework for the study (section 2.5). This conceptual framework indicated
the relationship between the factors that are generally regarded as motivators for
increased teacher motivation, as well as the eventual desired learner performance as
an ultimate aim of motivating teachers in the context of this study. The Chapter ended
by establishing that motivation theories apply to teacher motivation and that motivating
teachers requires school leaders to fulfil crucial work-related needs which are both
intrinsic and extrinsic in nature (section 2.6).
6.2.3
Chapter 3: Teaching and learning at rural schools
Chapter three started by defining the concept of optimal learning as an overall aim of
quality teaching. Optimal learning implies the practice by which learners master the
learning outcomes in schools and be able to demonstrate the mastered learning
outcomes well after completing their schooling, all for the sake of self-realisation while
simultaneously contributing to national development (section 3.2). This study argues
that optimal learning is made possible by the presence of a good teacher in every
classroom (section 3.3). Hence, the Chapter further discussed the characteristics that
are associated with a good teachers (section 3.3.1 - 3.3.3). All the established
characteristics revealed that a good teacher is someone with a blend of essential
professional, personal and social characteristics that are required to function optimally
within a school environment.
239
Given the rural context of the study, Chapter two also discussed living and working in
a rural area, with specific reference to Namibia. This discussion concluded that living
and working in rural areas is characterised by adverse working conditions (section
3.4.1; section 3.4.2). The Chapter then established how these adverse conditions at
rural areas affect, specifically, the teaching and learning processes (section 3.5;
section 3.6), all which determine learner performance.
It was established that the standard of teaching and learning at rural schools was not
satisfactory, owing to the variety of adverse conditions under which teaching and
learning activities were taking place. The Chapter ends by concluding that meaningful
motivation strategies are needed to attract and retain professionally qualified teachers
at rural schools to improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning and ensure
optimal learning for each individual learner (section 3.7).
6.2.4
Chapter 4: Research design and methodology
Chapter four discussed the methodological and research design processes as applied
during the empirical investigation for this study. The Chapter started with motivating
the need for an empirical inquiry on the financial incentive (section 4.2). The rationale
for an empirical investigation lies in the fact that, given the qualitative research
approach that was adopted, a literature study alone was not substantive and
conclusive to generate a holistic understanding of the influence of the financial
incentive on learner performance at rural schools. In order to generate a better
understanding of the influence of financial incentive, multiple sources of data were
used to investigate the subject empirically, through scrutiny and critical questioning in
search of subject clarity and better comprehension of the phenomena under study
(section 4.2). Hence, it was justifiable to use multiple sources of data to investigate
financial
incentive
empirically,
by
involving
participants
to
scrutinise
the
implementation of the financial incentive and its influence on learner performance at
rural schools.
Although various research paradigms are applicable to this study (section 4.4.1.14.4.1.4), the empirical investigation adopted an interpretivist research paradigm as the
most appropriate research paradigm. The interpretivist research paradigm enabled the
240
researcher to interact with the participants and learn from their feelings and personal
perspectives about the influence of financial incentive, as related to teacher motivation
and learner performance at rural schools (section 4.4.1.5). Even though this study
adopted a partially-mixed concurrent dominant status design as a mixed-methods
research design (section 4.4.2.3), the research relied mainly on the choice of the
qualitative research approach (section 4.4.2.1). The choice of a qualitative research
approach was carried out by means of a case study design, seeing that the
phenomenon of financial incentive was studied in its social setting for a considerable
period of time (section 4.4.2.1).
Participants for the study were sampled by using purposive and snowball sampling as
methods of non-probability sampling (section 4.5.1.1; section 4.5.1.2). The two
sampling methods were essential given the fact that the researcher wanted to involve
participants who were knowledgeable about the phenomenon that was studied in order
to provide rich information useful for answering the formulated research questions.
Data was collected using individual interviews (section 4.6.1), focus group interviews
(section 4.6.2) and document analysis (section 4.6.3). The interviews were recorded
and transcribed by the researcher, and the data for the document analysis tools were
noted in a document analysis tool.
The use of multiple data collection tools ensured the provision of rich data collected
as well as serving as a measure for the trustworthiness of the research findings
through triangulation (section 4.8.1.3). Organising, reading and writing memos,
establishing themes, categories and percentages, as well as discussing the research
findings in terms of the categories that emerged and the percentages established,
were parts of the data analysis and interpretation (section 4.7; section 4.8).
The measures that were complied with to ensure trustworthiness of the research
findings, pertains to credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability (section
4.9). These measures were informed by the qualitative nature of this study. The ethical
standards that were considered for the study include accessibility to research sites,
informed consent, confidentiality and anonymity (section 4.10). The Chapter ends by
justifying the case study investigation as an appropriate qualitative research design
for the study (section 4.10).
241
6.2.5
Chapter 5: Research findings and interpretation
Chapter five analysed the data as collected by using the interviews and document
analysis methods (section 4.6). The thematic analysis method informed the analysis
of the data for this study. The analysis provided the themes as the main findings of the
research, which were interpreted and discussed in order to generate the answers to
the postulated research questions. The interpretation and discussion of the themes
were conducted according to the categories that emerged (Table 5.1).
It became clear that the learner performance in rural schools was satisfactory for the
last three years (2014-2016) (Figure 5.1). The satisfactory learner performance can
be related to the fact that most rural schools have more qualified teachers (Figure 5.2).
Despite the presence of more qualified teachers among rural schools, there were
schools that were still having shortages of qualified teachers. However, the shortages
of qualified teachers at the selected rural schools were kept at a minimum (Figure 5.3).
The shortage of qualified teachers were minimal because qualified teachers stay for
long periods at rural schools, as only a few cases of teacher transfer were recorded
(Figure 5.7).
Unqualified teachers who were at the schools that formed part of the case study were
all enrolled in professional development programmes to upgrade their qualifications
(section 5.4.1.2). Given the presence of more qualified teachers at rural schools, it
was obvious that learners at rural schools were taught by teachers who were well
conversant with pedagogic content knowledge and this could positively affect their
academic performance. Even though qualified teachers represented the largest
proportion of teachers at the selected rural schools, teaching and learning in some
subject areas was rendered ineffective due to the unavailability of specialised teachers
for these subjects. The selected rural schools experienced shortages of qualified
teachers in the subject areas of Mathematics (Figure 5.4), Physical Science (Figure
5.5) and English (Figure 5.6).
The study established that the implementation of the financial incentive was wellreceived by teachers at rural schools (section 5.4.2.1). Even though the financial
incentive was initially meant to be given to qualified teachers, all teachers at rural
242
schools, are now receiving it regardless of whether they are qualified or not (section
5.4.2.2). The payment of financial incentive has also been extended to include nonteaching staff members. The trend of teachers receiving the financial incentive at rural
schools, regardless of their qualifications, has been gaining momentum for the period
2015-2017 (Figure 5.8). This implies that only a few teachers did not receive the
incentive at selected schools due to being temporary or recently appointed (Figure
5.9). While teachers regarded the implementation of the financial incentive as a
positive move towards the motivation of teachers at rural schools, teachers were not
happy with the way the financial incentive was paid to them.
Firstly, schools were not properly categorised, which caused teachers to receive a
financial incentive amount not realistically related to their real circumstances (section
5.4.2.4). Secondly, the financial incentive amount for the different categories was too
little to contain the challenges that teachers were faced with at rural schools (section
5.4.2.5). As a result of these disparities, teachers indicated that their motivation at rural
schools and the performance of their learners cannot be attributed to the financial
incentive.
The corresponding evidence in literature (section 3.5.1), triangulates this fact that
while the implementation of the financial incentive to schools located in rural areas is
a positive milestone in addressing education imbalances, such incentive has failed to
attract and retain qualified teachers in rural areas to improve learner performance.
Linked to Expectancy theory (section 2.2.4), which emphasise positive rewards for
good performance, teachers felt that despite their level of performance (Figure 5.1),
the rewards they were receiving as a financial incentive was not positive as the amount
was little compared to the learner performance they were achieving and the challenges
they are facing at rural schools.
It became clear that there are many factors that motivate teachers to locate and remain
at schools located in rural communities. Teachers were motivated to locate to rural
communities due to employment opportunities (section 5.4.3.1; section 5.4.3.5). Some
teachers grew up in a rural environment and were happy to work in rural areas as that
was the environment they were used to (section 5.4.3.2). This concurs with the
findings in section 3.4.2 that although much of the emphasis in literature is on the
243
isolation experienced in rural areas, living and working there can be a rewarding
experience, as rural areas are viewed as quiet, safe and pleasing experiences with
community members and nature.
In addition, the cost of housing in rural areas is lower than in urban areas, as residing
in urban areas would attract renting fees, municipal charges and taxes and the cost of
travelling to schools (section 3.4.2). Sound leadership that existed at rural schools also
motivated teachers to remain working at rural schools (section 5.4.3.3). This scenario
contradicts the findings in literature (section 2.2.2) where teachers were demotivated
by factors such as unconstructive leadership styles, poor interpersonal relations with
learners and teachers and ineffective school policies and administrative practices at
rural schools.
This reporting of unconstructive leadership styles was not applicable to the schools
that participated in the study as teachers were motivated by their school leadership.
Therefore, the type of leadership informed the motivation of the teachers and their
eventual performance at the sampled rural schools. Given the diverse circumstance
under which rural teachers operate, teachers were motivated by the support services
that was rendered to them to execute their duties optimally (section 5.4.3.6).
In addition to the characteristics of a good teacher as discussed in section 3.3,
characteristics that pertain specifically to rural school teachers relates to having
passion for teaching and learning regardless of the environments and the learners that
the teacher have to work with (section 5.4.4.1). Linked to this passion is the ability to
adapt to adverse working conditions so that these conditions do not become a burden
to good learner performance (section 5.4.4.2).
Working and living in rural schools is characterised by adverse working conditions. It
was clear that teachers working in rural schools were commuting on a daily basis
(section 5.4.5.1). Due to the remoteness of rural schools, weather patterns resulting
in regular floods negatively influenced education at rural schools as teachers and
learners were all commuting (section 5.4.5.2). Commuting was necessitated by lack
of sufficient accommodation facilities at rural schools. Insufficient accommodation
facilities were accompanied by lack of proper sanitation among rural schools (section
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5.4.5.3). The lack of facilities also pertained to insufficient classrooms and instructional
materials to render teaching and learning effective (section 5.4.5.4). These conditions
are consistent with what is reported in section 3.6.3, that many rural schools lack
sufficient classrooms and teaching resources. This was evident at the selected
schools as some teachers were presenting their lessons under trees. Effective
teaching and learning is not readily achieved at rural schools, owing to low literacy
level among the parent community, and thus not supporting the education of their
children (section 5.4.5.5.).
The study established that the learner performance is determined by the subject
knowledge base learners have gained during their elementary grades (section
5.4.6.1). The number of learners allocated to a teacher per subject determines how
effective the teacher attends to learners to assist learners individually with their
learning needs (section 5.4.6.2). The mastery of English as a language of teaching
and learning by both teachers and learners served as an indicator for learner
performance (section 5.4.6.3). The extent to which parents fulfil their responsibility of
being supportive to the education of their children shaped the mastery of learning
outcomes by learners (section 5.4.6.4).
The subject specialisation of a teacher determines pedagogic content knowledge to
impart content to the learners (section 5.4.6.5.). A conducive teaching and learning
environment plays a significant role in shaping learner performance (section 5.4.6.6).
School principals as leaders ensure that teachers are energised to achieve the target
they were made to set. Target setting as raised by the participants resembled the
Goal-Setting theory of emphasising the importance of organisations in setting goals
that lead to high performance and motivated employees (section 2.2.6). Hereditary
factors as related to specific family backgrounds can determines the performance of
the learners in schools (section 5.4.6.7).
For the improvement of education at rural schools, the working environment needs to
be improved and made conducive by providing proper housing for teachers, providing
enough physical facilities such as classrooms, as well as providing enough
instructional materials to render teaching and learning effective (section 5.4.7). The
fact that the accommodation needs of the teachers was not fulfilled meant that such a
245
need was still compelling and teachers could not progress to the next categories of
working hard for achievements. The empirical investigation thus proved the reality of
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (section 2.2.1) This is a counter argument to the criticism
advanced towards Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (section 2.2.1) that there is a lack of
empirical evidence to support the theory. The participants confirmed that they were
unable to feel safe and work hard for achievement to realise their potential if their basic
needs such as accommodation were not met. This emphasised the need for
educational leaders to adopt a conceptual framework relating to the motivating factors
for teachers, enabling the education system to improve teacher motivation and learner
achievement (Figure 2.4; section 2.5).
To improve learner performance at rural school as a function of teacher motivation,
there is a need to revisit the implementation of the financial incentive in order to
eliminate the shortcomings relating to its implementation (section 5.4.7.2). There is
also a need for an improvement in budgetary allocations to engender operational and
capital developments among rural schools (section 5.4.7.3). School curriculum should
also focus on the vocational education to enhance practical skills development of
learners in addition to academic competencies (section 5.4.7.4). The revitalisation of
the school cluster systems to enable the sharing of resources will counter the limited
resources experienced at rural schools (section 5.4.7.5). Chapter five provided an
answer to the main research question, namely, financial incentive has little influence
on the motivation of teachers and related performance of learners in rural schools.
Chapters two, three and five highlighted how the first, second and third research
objectives were addressed by analysing and interpreting data as obtained from
literature and from interviews and document analysis. Identified themes helped the
researcher to address the research objectives. Regarding the first objective, the
factors that motivated teachers at rural schools were explained in section 2.4 and
section 5.4.3. Regarding the second research objective, the process of teaching and
learning as happening at rural schools, were described in section 3.4 and section
5.4.5. In addressing the third research objective, the characteristics of a good teacher
were outlined in section 3.3 and section 5.4.4. In addressing the fourth research
objective, strategies for improving education at rural schools were suggested in
section 5.4.7 and are presented as recommendations in section 6.4.
246
6.2.6
Chapter 6: Summary, conclusions and recommendations
Chapter six, this Chapter, presents the conclusions, guided by the research questions
as outlined in section 1.4 and section 5.4. Subsequently, recommendations on
improving the motivation of teachers and learner performance at rural schools are
presented (section 6.4). Possible areas for further study are presented in section 6.5.
6.3
CONCLUSIONS
The research conclusions stated in section 6.3.1 to 6.3.6 serve as answers to the
research questions. The researcher first addresses the sub-research questions that
served as the building blocks for the main research question, and then addresses the
main research question.
6.3.1
Conclusions relating to the research question: What motivates
teachers to teach at rural schools?
Teachers are employed at rural schools because that is where employment
opportunities exist (section 5.4.3.1; section 5.4.3.5). These employment opportunities
are either for entry posts, such as teaching, or for promotional posts such as Head of
Department or School Principals. Teachers feel they have an obligation to locate to
rural communities to help their families (section 5.4.3.2). Teachers remain at rural
schools because they are happy with the rural school leadership (section 5.4.3.3).
Some teachers are attracted to rural environments because that is the environment
where they grew up and where their families live (section 5.4.3.4). Given the adverse
working conditions and lack of facilities, teachers are motivated by the support
services that are provided to rural schools (section 5.4.3.6). Although teachers
indicated that the financial incentive could serve as a motivating factor if realistically
applied (section 5.4.3.7), the majority of factors that motivate teachers to teach at
schools in rural areas do not relate to monetary benefits.
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6.3.2
Conclusions relating to the research question: How is the
performance of the learners after the implementation of the financial
incentive?
The literature study revealed that the implementation of a financial incentive as a
motivation strategy for teachers did not improve learner performance (section 1.1).
The results achieved after implementing the financial incentive was not convincing,
which resulted in mixed feelings by educational stakeholders as to whether financial
incentive are effective with regard to teacher motivation and learner performance.
Similarly, the findings of the empirical investigation concurred with the literature
findings, namely, that the implementation of the financial incentive as a motivation
strategy contributes little to the improvement of learner performance at rural schools
(section 5.4.2.6).
While teachers regard the implementation of the financial incentive as a positive move
in improving the quality of education at rural schools, teachers have reservations about
the manner in which their schools are categorised and the amount of money they are
receiving (section 5.4.2.4). Schools are not properly categorised resulting in teachers
not receiving an applicable financial incentive amount. In addition, the amount of
money that is allocated per each category of financial incentive is not enough to
contain the challenges teachers face at rural schools (section 5.4.2.5).
Teachers are therefore not motivated by the financial incentive, implying that the
financial incentive for teachers does not necessarily contribute to increased teacher
motivation and improved learner performance. There are many factors that, firstly,
influence the motivation of teachers (section 5.4.3) and, secondly, that influence the
performance of learners at rural schools (section 5.4.6). The main factors that
influence the motivation of teachers are employment opportunities and a conducive
environment. Learner performance is influenced by factors relating to their foundation
of learning and language competencies.
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6.3.3
Conclusions relating to the research question: What are the working
conditions at rural schools and their influences on teaching and
learning activities?
Literature reveals that rural areas are areas that are generally characterised by
adverse working conditions (section 3.4). These adverse conditions were confirmed
by the findings of the empirical investigation (section 5.4.5). Working in a rural area is
typified by commuting on a daily basis because of a lack of adequate and proper
housing facilities for teachers, which exhausts teachers and compromises their time
management (section 5.4.5.1). Exhausted teachers due to challenging travelling
arrangements do not have enough time and energy to prepare and present their
lessons adequately. This compromises optimal teaching and learning resulting in
learners not performing satisfactorily.
The location of the rural areas characterised by flood pans and bushy areas involves
having to cross rivers to access schools (section 3.5.1). Apart from crossing large pans
of water, school attendance is often suspended until water levels have subsidised
(section 5.4.5.2), resulting in precious teaching and learning time lost. Eventually, the
limited time remaining to complete the curriculum may cause important subject content
not to be addressed, resulting in a poor mastery of learning outcomes.
A poor level of hygiene at rural schools (section 5.4.5.3), caused by a lack of proper
housing facilities with proper ablution and sanitation facilities results in qualified
teachers seeking transfers to schools with hygiene conditions (Figure 5.7). The
transfers of teachers leaves learners unattended for considerable periods of time with
a consequent lack of content facilitation. When temporary teachers are appointed who
are not fully qualified, the possibility of inadequate content facilitation is increased
hampering learners’ chances for optimal development.
Rural schools lack laboratories and libraries influencing learners’ exposure to practical
lessons and experiments in laboratories negatively, thereby diminishing learning
outcomes (section 5.4.3.4). Given the absence of instructional resources at rural
schools, libraries are instrumental for teachers and learners to facilitate teaching and
learning activities. The lack of sufficient classrooms resulting in teachers presenting
249
lessons under trees influences teacher and learner morale negatively, especially when
lessons presented under trees are affected by environmental barriers such as wind
and rain (section 5.2.1).
In general, parents in rural communities have low levels of education resulting in them
not valuing education, and not supporting the education of their children (section 3.6.3;
section 5.4.5.5). Teachers working in rural areas are faced with the challenges of
educating learners without the support of parents who distract their children from doing
school work by forcing them to attend to house chores (section 5.4.5.5). The result is
poor learner performance at rural schools.
6.3.4
Conclusion relating to the research question: What are the attributes
of a typical rural school teacher?
Literature revealed that a good teacher comprises a blend of professional, personality
and social characteristics (section 3.3). In the context of a rural environment, a good
teacher is someone with the passion to educate children regardless of their
backgrounds and the environment in which teaching takes place (section 5.4.4.1). In
addition, a good rural school teacher is resilient enough to adapt to challenging
environmental conditions prevailing at rural schools, ensuring that teaching and
learning occur optimally regardless of hampering environmental conditions (section
3.4.2; section 5.4.4.2).
6.3.5
Conclusions relating to the research question: What
recommendations can be made to improve learner performance at
rural schools?
Learner performance at rural schools can be improved when the working environment
is conducive for both teachers and learners to work in (section 5.4.7.1). Conducive
working environments relate to proper housing facilities for teachers, the availability of
laboratories and libraries, sufficient instructional material and adequate classroom
facilities to accommodate the vast numbers of learners admitted to rural schools. With
regard to financial incentive, fair application contributes to increased learner
250
performance with this fair application relating to the proper categorising of schools to
engender realistic financial incentive amounts.
Since many learners at rural schools are not talented academically, vocational
education is needed to prepare these learners suitably for responsible adulthood
(section 5.4.7.4). Increased educational budgetary allocations can address the need
for providing both academic and vocational subjects. Revitalising the school cluster
system to share educational resources among rural schools will contribute positively
to good quality teaching and learning in rural schools (section 5.4.7.5).
6.3.6
Conclusions relating to the main research question: What is the
influence of the financial incentive on learner performance at rural
schools?
The findings from the literature and empirical investigation revealed that the financial
incentive has little influence on the learner performance in rural schools (section 1.1
section 5.4.2.6). Teachers are not motivated by the financial incentive because the
amount is little compared to the challenges teachers face at rural schools. Rural
schools are not properly categorised resulting in teachers not receiving financial
incentive amounts realistic to their specific environmental conditions.
Mastery of learning content is dependent on the motivational levels of teachers
(section 2.3; section 3.3), which is not enhanced by the current financial incentive. The
result is that learner performance is not influenced positively by teachers’ financial
incentive, but by other factors relating to the foundation of learning, language
competencies and parental involvement (section 5.4.3). A main conclusion of this
study is that the financial incentive has little influence on teacher motivation and
learner performance in rural schools. Teachers are motivated by a variety of factors
(section 5.4.3), and learner performance is determined by a variety of factors (section
5.4.6), all of which needs to be considered for quality teaching and learning.
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6.4
RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations are based on what this study regards as critical areas for
improving learner performance at rural schools as discussed in section 5.4.7. These
areas relate to financial incentive, working environment, professional development,
services provision, curriculum reform and budgetary allocations.
6.4.1
Recommendations: Financial incentive as a motivator for rural school
teachers
The implementation of a financial incentive has been welcomed as a positive measure
for motivating teachers especially at rural schools which are characterised by adverse
working conditions (section 3.4). However, the success record as a result of this
implementation has never been satisfactory (section 1.1; section 5.4.2.6). To enhance
the success of a financial incentive as a motivator for teachers to locate and remain at
schools in rural areas, the following recommendations apply:
1.
For teachers to be motivated by a financial incentive, categorise their rural
schools properly according to criteria relating to how far away the school is
from the nearest town, and the availability of basic services and facilities
(section 1.1). This will ensure that teachers receive a realistic financial
incentive amount corresponding with the degree of hardships they are
experiencing at their rural schools. In addition, the amount of the financial
incentive should be increased to an amount significantly noticeable as an
improvement in remuneration (section 5.4.7.2). This increment is relevant
because the financial incentive amount is subjected to taxation resulting in
teachers not experiencing any improvement in their real financial positions.
Alternatively, legislation should be changed to arrange for the financial
incentive not to be taxable.
2.
As financial incentive is a default payment to all staff members at rural
schools including non-teaching staff members, it is recommended that an
additional performance-based financial incentive specifically for teaching
staff is implemented (section 5.4.7.2). The current inclusive payment to all
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staff members at rural schools does not make the financial incentive as
specific to teachers and their teaching performance. In order to encourage
improved teaching for the sake of successful learning, a financial incentive
restricted to performance-based teaching is applicable.
6.4.2
Recommendations: Improvement of the working environment
The working environment at rural schools is not conducive for optimal teaching and
learning (section 3.4; section 5.4.5). In order to enhance the rural school environment
to be conducive for teaching and learning, the following recommendations are made:
1.
Mobilise resources for the sufficient provisioning of proper accommodation
facilities for teachers at rural schools. This will reduce commuting while
enhancing motivated and sustained teaching for improved learner
performance.
2.
Provide an adequate number of classrooms to avoid learners being taught
under trees. Provide laboratories for Physical Science experiments and
libraries for additional teaching and learning resources for teachers and
learners. Provide sufficient instructional resources such as textbooks and
recommended books for enriched learning. To prevent ending the beneficial
learning relationship between teachers and learners, provide hostel facilities
for learners to complete their schooling at the same rural school. The
provision of these resources will contribute to optimal learning within the
context of desolated rural schools.
6.4.3
Recommendations: Professional development opportunities
Teachers working at rural schools are subjected to professional isolation, due to the
remoteness of the rural environment (section 3.4.2; section 3.5.3). In order to enhance
the professional development of rural school teachers, the following recommendations
are made:
253
1.
Establish resource centres in rural areas in order to enable rural school
teachers to access resources for their teaching responsibilities and for their
further education endeavours.
2.
As rural schools are far from each other and because their instructional
materials are limited, support services staff such as education officers must
visit these schools regularly to provide the required specialised services. The
services pertain to assistance with curriculum facilitation, identifying the
professional and training needs of rural school teachers, and developing
measures to assist with these needs.
3.
Education authorities must revitalise the school cluster system in order to
promote networking between schools in rural areas. This networking will
ensure that the available human capital and instructional resources are
equally shared to benefit everyone in the same cluster.
6.4.4
Recommendations: Service provisions
The remoteness of the rural community deprives residents of rural areas, including
teachers, of opportunities to access diverse services (section 3.5.3). To ensure that
rural residents have access to services, the following recommendations are made:
1.
Health institutions such as clinics and hospitals should be constructed in rural
communities to provide health care as needed. Although rural areas are safe
places to work in, protection services such as police stations should be
noticeably present within rural communities for the increased safety of rural
residents. The presence of both safety and health institutions will promote
the well-being of rural residents including teachers willing to locate and
remain at schools in rural areas (section 5.4.5.3).
2.
The road infrastructures connecting rural schools to main road networks
should be upgraded and well maintained. This will ensure easy access to
towns for banking services and shopping by rural school teachers. To
capitalise on technological innovation, network coverage for rural schools
254
should be enhanced so that teachers can access online teaching and
learning resources as well as online banking and shopping.
6.4.5
Recommendations: Curriculum reform
School curriculums do not adequately provide for the development of vocational skills
in order to cater for learners who are not gifted academically (section 5.4.7.4). To
ensure holistic mental development for all learners, the following recommendations
are made:
1.
The school curriculum must include vocational subjects to ensure that
learners who do not excel in academic subjects are adequately catered for
with the offering of vocational subjects equipping them with vocationalrelated skills for their careers and livelihood.
2.
To counteract the challenges experienced by second language speakers,
English as language of teaching and learning must start from the elementary
grades. This will ensure improved English language competencies among all
learners as this is the language learners will use throughout their schooling
career and as adults participating in the labour market of a global economy.
In addition, the content of subjects at elementary and senior grades must be
aligned in order for students to relate contents from one phase to another
phase. Furthermore, subjects must be taught by teachers with formal training
in those subjects to ensure applicable subject content is facilitated based on
expertise, pedagogic knowledge and skills.
3.
Parents must be encouraged to play their educative role by supporting
teachers to educate their children holistically. Parents must consult with
teachers on the learning needs of their children to determine how best to
provide for the learners’ academically-oriented and vocationally-oriented
needs. In addition, parents should ensure that their children have enough
time to study while at home by minimising the time children spend on house
chores.
255
6.4.6
Recommendations: Budgetary allocations
The provision of services and facilities required at rural schools are dependent on the
availability of financial resources which are limited due to financial constraints and
budget cuts. To ensure the execution of development projects among rural schools,
the following recommendation is made:
1.
Government should increase the annual budget allocation for education to
enable the MoEAC to carry out development projects at rural schools. Given
the diverse challenges in rural communities, the annual budget for education
should be increased significantly. Annual budget allocations for education
must not be subject to decreasing tendencies because education is the
backbone of any country’s economic progress delivering future citizens who
contribute to societal development.
6.5
RECOMMENDED AREAS FOR FURTHER STUDIES
This study focused on the financial incentive as a motivation strategy for rural school
teachers to remain teaching in rural areas. The literature and empirical investigation
revealed the importance of teacher motivation for improved learner performance at
rural schools. Possible areas for further research have been identified during the
course of this study and are presented below.
1.
Since the empirical investigation for this study was confined to rural schools
in Omusati Region, it is recommended that similar investigations be
extended to rural schools in other regions of Namibia for a more
comprehensive understanding of the influence of financial incentive as a
motivator for teachers teaching in rural schools.
2.
This study established that, apart from the shortages of qualified teaching
staff in general at rural schools, a lack of qualified teachers was observed in
the critical subject areas such as Mathematics, Physical Science and
English. Of all the three subject areas, the shortage of qualified teachers was
prevalent with English as a second language in all sampled rural schools. It
256
is recommended that further research be conducted to establish measures
for recruiting and retaining qualified English teachers at rural schools.
3.
The study identified parental involvement and the provision of support to their
children’s schooling as not adequate in rural communities. A study should
be conducted in rural areas to assess parents’ understanding of their role
regarding the education of their children, and how best they can be helped
to support the education of their children.
6.6
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This study focused on the motivation of teachers teaching at schools in rural
communities. Given the rural context of the research, the researcher encountered
challenges caused by weather conditions, as data collection was planned for the first
school semester of the 2017 school year. However, during the first school semester,
the research sites were flooded and class attendance was suspended. The classes
resumed only towards the end of the first semester when the water level subsidised.
Too little time was left for teachers to cover all the content they were meant to have
covered by the end of the first semester. When schools re-opened for the second
semester, teachers were burdened with an extensive teaching and administrative load.
The result was that some teachers withdrew from participating in the study owing to
an extensive workload relating to outstanding lesson preparations. The withdrawal of
some of the initially selected participants may have had a hampering influence on the
completeness and authenticity of the data collected.
The permission to conduct research was granted on condition that the research should
not interfere with the normal operations at the research sites. As a result, all focus
group interviews were conducted after 14h00 when the school day had ended. The
limitation related to this arrangement pertains to participants who were exhausted due
to their teaching loads. The researcher observed that some participants were
exhausted when they entered the focus group interview venue. This exhaustion might
have had an influence on the quality of the data provided by the participants during
the inquiry.
257
6.7
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of financial incentive on
the motivation of qualified teachers at rural schools, as this motivation influences
learner performance. The most important challenge that all educational systems
across the world face is ensuring optimal learning, as demonstrated by fostering
knowledge and skills among learners so that they are prepared to participate in a
knowledge-based economy.
The mastery of required skills and knowledge by learners is dependent on teacher
motivation. Motivating qualified teachers at rural schools remains a mammoth task for
all educational systems across the world, given the remoteness of the rural areas and
the adverse working and living conditions. Considering these challenges, countries
that implement, revisit and improve motivation strategies for teachers can attain high
levels of optimal learning. Motivation strategies should motivate teachers to maximise
their performance and increase learner performance.
The financial incentive as a motivation strategy was established as having little
influence to good learner performance as it did not enhance the motivation of teachers
on which learner performance is dependent. The study established that there are
many factors that motivate rural school teachers to enhance learner performance
which can be considered in addition to a financial incentive for improved teacher
motivation and learner performance in rural schools.
The study also demonstrated that motivating teachers is a collective responsibility of
all education stakeholders at different levels of education system functioning. The
provision of support services at rural schools from Regional education offices is crucial
in assisting teachers with interpreting curriculum contents and identifying training
needs due to rural school teachers’ deprivation of resources because of the
remoteness of their schools.
This study contributes to the discourse on teacher motivation as this motivation relates
to the financial incentive as a motivator to teach at schools in rural areas. Apart from
eliciting the influence of financial incentive on teacher motivation, this study also
258
contributes to a holistic understanding of the factors that motivate teachers to teach at
schools in rural areas and the factors that determine learner performance at rural
schools. The study also contributes to the knowledge of the challenges that teachers
teaching at schools in remote rural areas experience on a daily basis. All of these
themes addressed with this study contribute to an understanding of teaching and
learning at schools in desolated rural areas.
259
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APPENDIX A: PERMISSION LETTER TO CONDUCT RESEARCH IN OMUSATI REGION
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APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS WITH THE
REGIONAL OFFICE OFFICIAL
1.
What are your views on the implementation of the financial incentive for teachers at
rural schools in Namibia?
2.
How did the financial incentive influence learner performance in rural schools in the
region insofar as attracting more qualified teachers?
3.
How did the learners perform prior to financial incentive implementation as
compared to their performance well after the implementation of the financial
incentive?
4.
Is the financial incentive achieving its intended outcomes of attracting qualified
teachers to rural schools and improving learner performance in the region?
5.
How would you describe the general working conditions in rural schools and how
do these conditions influence learner performance?
6.
What measures would you suggest for implementation to improve teacher
motivation and learner performance at rural schools?
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APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS WITH SCHOOL
PRINCIPALS AND THE CIRCUIT OFFICE OFFICIAL
1.
What are your views on the implementation of the financial incentive for teachers at
rural schools in Namibia?
2.
What do you think are the successes achieved by the teacher financial incentive in
terms of learner performance in rural schools?
3.
How did the learner performance changed in terms of before and after the
implementation of financial incentive for rural school teachers?
4.
How can the teacher incentive be linked to the professional development of
unqualified teachers?
5.
What proportion of your school staff is fully qualified and for how long do they stay
at your school?
6.
How motivated are rural school teachers and what motivates them to teach at rural
schools?
7.
Given the differences between urban and rural schools, what characteristics do you
think rural school teachers should possess?
8.
What do you think are some of the measures that can be implemented to improve
learner performance at rural schools?
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APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW WITH
SAMPLED RURAL SCHOOL TEACHERS
1.
What are your views in general on the implementation of the financial incentive as
motivation for teachers to teach at rural schools in Namibia?
2.
How does the implementation of the financial incentive influence learner
performance in rural schools?
3.
What do you think are the successes exclusively achieved by the financial incentive
for teachers?
4.
What are the challenges that teachers face when teaching in rural areas, and how
does the financial incentive assist to overcome these challenges?
5.
Do you think qualified teachers are satisfied with the financial incentive in rural
schools?
6.
What recommendations would you make regarding the motivation of teachers and
the improvement of learner performance at rural schools?
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APPENDIX E: DOCUMENT ANALYSIS GUIDE
Rural School Name: …………………….
Document
Focus of Analysis
Findings
Examination File
Statistics of school
performance (2014-2016)
Attributions/reasons for
examination statistics
Number of qualified teachers
Teacher
Number of unqualified
teachers
recruitment File
Number of temporary
teachers
Number of teacher turnover
Required number of qualified
teachers for Mathematics,
Physical Science and English
Incentive File
Number of teachers receiving
incentive
Number of teachers not
receiving incentive
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APPENDIX F: RESEARCH INFORMATION SHEET FOR TEACHERS
RESEARCH TITLE
The influence of financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural
Namibian schools
DEAR PROSPECTIVE PARTICIPANT
My name is Elock Emvula Shikalepo and I am studying towards a Doctor of Philosophy
(PhD) in Education. I am currently undertaking research study under the supervision of Prof
HM van de Merwe, a Professor in the Department of Education Leadership and
Management, at the University of South Africa (UNISA). We are delighted to invite you to
participate in our study entitled ‘The influence of financial incentive on teacher motivation
and learner performance in rural Namibian schools’. We hope your participation in this
study will be an enriching and rewarding experience to us all.
I would like to provide you with more information about this project and what your involvement
would entail if you should agree to take part.
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY?
I am conducting this study to explain the influence of financial incentive on teacher motivation
and learner performance in rural Namibian schools, with a view to introducing interventions
aimed at enhancing rural school performance.
WHY ARE YOU BEING INVITED TO PARTICIPATE?
I approached your school principal to help me with identifying staff members who can provide
useful information for this study as a result of their years of experiences and exposure to
teaching and learning in a rural setting. You were therefore chosen on the basis of your
qualifications and considerable teaching experiences in a rural setting. The approximate
number of interviewees for individual interviews is seven participants (five School Principals,
one Circuit Office official and one Regional Office official). The focus group interviewing, of
which you will be part, will comprise of approximately thirty teachers in total, whereby six
teachers constitute a focus group at each selected rural school.
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WHAT IS THE NATURE OF YOUR PARTICIPATION IN THIS STUDY?
You are expected to participate in a focus groups interview with the researcher. In this
interview, I would like to have your personal views and opinions on the influence of the financial
incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance at rural schools. This information can
be used to develop understanding of the financial incentive as well as the improvement of
teacher motivation strategies at rural schools for improved learner performance. With your
kind permission, the interview will be audio-recorded to facilitate collection of accurate
information and later transcribed for analysis. Shortly after the transcription has been
completed, I will send you a copy of the transcript to give you an opportunity to confirm the
accuracy of our conversation and to add or to clarify any points.
The interview questions will be semi-structured and revolve around the financial incentive,
teacher motivation, teaching and learning as well as learner performance. The focus group
interviewing is expected to last for less than 60 minutes. Since you will participate in a focus
group, it is necessary to define a focus group as a group of people discussing a topic, guided
by a set of questions. In this case, the group will consist of at least five teachers. While every
effort will be made by the researcher to ensure that you will not be connected to the information
that you share during the focus group, I cannot guarantee that other participants in the focus
group will treat information confidentially. I shall, however, encourage all participants to treat
information confidentially. For this reason I advise you not to disclose personally sensitive
information in the focus group.
CAN I WITHDRAW FROM THIS STUDY EVEN AFTER HAVING AGREED TO
PARTICIPATE?
Participating in this study is voluntary and you are not obliged to consent to participate. If you
voluntary decide to take part, you will be asked to sign a written Informed Consent form as
well as a Focus Group Interview Confidentiality form. You are free to withdraw at any stage
and without giving a reason.
WHAT ARE THE POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF TAKING PART IN THIS STUDY?
Your participation in the study will contribute to the existing tank of knowledge about teacher
motivation strategies for rural schools, as driving forces underlying learner performance. As
an outcome of your participation, the findings of the study will inform education policy makers
about the influence of the financial incentive on rural school performance and how best rural
school teachers can be motivated to enhance learner performance at rural schools. Informed
policy maker can implement interventions for ensuring a motivated teaching team and an
improved learner performance in rural schools.
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ARE THERE ANY NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES FOR ME IF I PARTICIPATE IN THE
RESEARCH PROJECT?
No considerable risks are foreseen during the course of the research or as a result of the
research undertaken, as participants are anticipated not to incur cost or use their resources,
to a great extent, to make the study possible. The only resource the researcher is humbly
requesting from you is a few minutes of your time. Your time will be used for you to participate
in the interview and for verification of data correctness after transcription. The researcher will
access the participants at their duty stations and arrange to meet with them at a day and time
convenient to them. The phenomenon/subject under investigation (financial incentive), is a
phenomenon that applies to all teachers in the rural parts of the region, and making inquiry
into its influence and effectiveness will not harm anyone involved, given its wide application.
However, since the use of the financial incentive is individually-based, individual participants
may not be comfortable in narrating the impact of the financial incentive on their motivation
and may develop discomfort in narrating the subject of study during interviewing or thereafter.
HOW WILL THE INFORMATION THAT YOU CONVEY TO THE RESEARCHER AND YOUR
IDENTITY BE KEPT CONFIDENTIAL?
All information you provide is considered completely confidential. Your name will not appear
in any publication resulting from this study and any identifying information will be omitted from
the report. Your answers will be given a code number or a pseudonym and you will be referred
to in this way in the data, any publications, or other research reporting methods such as
conference proceedings. The researcher will be in possession of the recorder in order to
ensure confidentiality of information. A confidentiality agreement will be signed by the people
responsible for making sure that the research is done properly.
Your answers may be reviewed by people responsible for making sure that research is done
properly, including the transcriber, external coder, and members of the Research Ethics
Review Committee. Otherwise, records that identify you will be available only to people
working on the study, unless you give permission for other people to see the records. Your
anonymous data may be used for other purposes such as a research report, journal articles
and/or conference proceedings. Confidentiality and anonymity will be ensured by not using
your names and by not making presentations in a way that the information can be linked to
you.
298
HOW WILL THE RESEARCHER(S) PROTECT THE SECURITY OF DATA?
The hardcopies (sheets of document analysis findings and transcribed interview sheets) will
be stored safely in a lockable safe at the researcher’s home, with keys only in possession of
the researcher and only the researcher can access the safe. The recorder will also be stored
in the same safe. The soft copy (Report) will be stored safely in the researcher’s computer
with a password. This computer will only be used by the researcher and he will not let any
user have access to the computer for the safety of the data. Future use of the stored data will
be subject to further Research Ethics Review and approval if applicable. Should it become
necessary to destroy the stored data, hard copies will be shredded and electronic copies will
be permanently deleted from the hard drive of the computer through the use of a relevant
software program.
WILL YOU RECEIVE PAYMENT OR ANY INCENTIVES FOR PARTICIPATING IN THIS
STUDY?
Taking part in the study by the participants is based on understanding the aims of the research,
is at own will and upon personal informed consent. Therefore, participants will not be entitled
to any reward in return for participating in the study. As stated earlier, participants will not incur
any costs as the research will be conducted at their work places, on a mutual agreed date and
at the time convenient to them.
HAS THE STUDY RECEIVED ETHICAL APPROVAL
This study has received the required approvals as detailed below:
1.
A written Ethical Clearance Certificate granted by the Research Ethics Review
Committee of the College of Education Research and Ethics Committee, University
of South Africa, permitting the researcher to go into the field and collect data.
2.
A written Permission Letter was granted by the Regional Director of Omusati
Education Directorate, permitting the researcher to conduct the research in Omusati
Region, Tsandi Circuit and at the selected rural schools in Tsandi Circuit. Copies
of the approval letters can be obtained from the researcher on request.
HOW WILL I BE INFORMED OF THE FINDINGS/RESULTS OF THE RESEARCH?
If you would like to be informed of the final research findings, please contact Elock Emvula
Shikalepo on +264 81 400 9190 or by e-mail (shikalepoelock@gmail.com). Upon enquiry, you
will be informed when the finding are available. For your convenience, and when possible, the
researcher can visit your workplace to inform you of the findings. Should you require any
299
further information or want to contact the researcher about any aspect of this study, please
contact +264 81 400 9190, or by e-mail (shikalepoelock@gmail.com).
Should you have concerns about the way in which the research has been conducted, you may
contact Prof HM van der Merwe, at +27 83 442 1503 or e-mail to vdmerhm@unisa.ac.za.
Alternatively, contact the College of Education Research and Ethics Commitee Chairperson,
Dr Madaleen Claassens at mcdtc@netactive.co.za
Please fill the Informed Consent return slip on the next page as confirmation of having read
the content pertaining to the study and voluntary agreeing to participate in the study.
Thank you for taking time to read this information sheet and for willing to participate in this
study.
Thank you.
____________________
Elock Emvula Shikalepo
PhD Candidate, UNISA
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APPENDIX G: INFORMED CONSENT FORM
Informed Consent to participate in this study
1.
I, ______________________________________ (participant name), confirm that
the person asking my consent to take part in this research has told me about the
nature, procedure, potential benefits and anticipated inconvenience of participation.
2.
I have read (or had explained to me) and understood the study as explained in the
information sheet.
3.
I have had sufficient opportunity to ask questions and am prepared to participate in
the study.
4.
I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any
time without penalty.
5.
I am aware that the findings of this study will be processed into a research report,
journal publications and/or conference proceedings, but that my participation will be
kept confidential.
6.
I agree to the audio-recording and transcription of the focus group interviewing and
its confidentiality agreement
7.
I have received a signed copy of the informed consent agreement.
Participant Name & Surname (please print) ____________________________
_________________________
Participant Signature
________________
Date
Researcher’s Name & Surname: ELOCK EMVULA SHIKALEPO
_________________________
Researcher’s signature
________________
Date
301
APPENDIX H: CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENT FORM
Confidentiality Agreement
1.
I_________________________________________________ grant consent that
the information I share during the focus group interviews/individual interviews may
be used by Elock Emvula Shikalepo for research purposes.
2.
I am aware that the group discussions/individual interviews will be audio-recorded
and grant consent for these recordings, provided that my privacy will be protected.
3.
I undertake not to divulge any information that is shared in the group discussions/
individual interviews to any person outside the group in order to maintain
confidentiality.
Participant Name & Surname (please print) _____________________________
________________________
Participant Signature
_____________
Date
Researcher’s Name & Surname: ELOCK EMVULA SHIKALEPO
_________________________
Researcher’s signature
______________
Date
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