(PDF) THE INFLUENCE OF FINANCIAL INCENTIVE ON TEACHER MOTIVATION AND LEARNER PERFORMANCE IN RURAL NAMIBIAN SCHOOLS

One of the challenges facing education systems worldwide is the motivation of qualified teachers to teach at rural schools. Teaching at rural schools is a challenge as rural areas are characterised by adverse living and working conditions, making qualified teachers prefer living and working at urban schools where conditions are more comfortable. Namibia implemented the financial incentive to motivate qualified teachers to teach at rural schools and improve learner performance. The implementation of the financial incentive in Namibia has received little research attention in establishing its effectiveness. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the financial incentive on the performance of learners at rural schools, as this performance relates to teacher motivation. To achieve this, a literature study and an empirical investigation were conducted. An interpretivist research paradigm informed the methodology for the study. A mixed-methods research approach, which relied more on a qualitative research design, included a research sample of 28 teachers, five school principals and two education officials. Data were collected through interviews and document analysis. Individual interviews were conducted with education officials and school principals. Focus group interviews were conducted with teachers. Document analysis entailed accessing applicable documents of each research site in the office of the school principal. Textual data were analysed and presented thematically and numeric data were analysed and presented as frequencies and percentages. Key findings established that financial incentive has contributed little to the performance of learners in rural schools. The fact that rural schools are not properly categorised according to environmental challenges results in teachers not receiving realistic financial incentive. Teachers were therefore not motivated by financial incentive, but by other factors relating to being tuned to nature in rural areas, being exposed to lower living costs and enjoying accommodating school leadership and community care. A revisiting of the implementation of the financial incentive is recommended in order to negate shortcomings and enhance the potential of financial incentive to contribute to improved learner performance as steered by motivated teachers.

THE INFLUENCE OF FINANCIAL INCENTIVE ON TEACHER MOTIVATION AND LEARNER PERFORMANCE IN RURAL NAMIBIAN SCHOOLS by ELOCK EMVULA SHIKALEPO submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the subject Education at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF. H.M. VAN DER MERWE 18 January 2018 i DECLARATION Name: ELOCK EMVULA SHIKALEPO Student Number: 57262357 Degree: DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY THE INFLUENCE OF FINANCIAL INCENTIVE ON TEACHER MOTIVATION AND LEARNER PERFORMANCE IN RURAL NAMIBIAN SCHOOLS I declare that the above thesis is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. 18 January 2018 DATE SIGNATURE ii DEDICATION This doctoral research report is dedicated to my late parents, my father Erastus Shikalepo, and mother, Elizabeth Aluteni. I will always remain grateful to them for having given life to me, and for mentorship and guidance throughout my educational journey that capacitated me to develop myself to the doctoral level of education. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my since appreciation to all the people who have contributed immensely to the successful completion of this research project. I am grateful to my supervisor, Prof H.M. van der Merwe, for her scholarly and expert advice as provided through guidance and supervision from the onset of this project to its logical conclusion. Her keen interest in the research and the motivation she provided to me during the course of the project were the driving forces underlying this successful completion. I remain grateful to the Directorate of Education in Omusati Region for allowing me to conduct the empirical investigation in the region. A vote of appreciation goes to all the participants whose contribution has made this publication possible. I am equally grateful to my family, friends and colleagues for their patience and moral support they provided throughout the project. iv ABSTRACT One of the challenges facing education systems worldwide is the motivation of qualified teachers to teach at rural schools. Teaching at rural schools is a challenge as rural areas are characterised by adverse living and working conditions, making qualified teachers prefer living and working at urban schools where conditions are more comfortable. Namibia implemented the financial incentive to motivate qualified teachers to teach at rural schools and improve learner performance. The implementation of the financial incentive in Namibia has received little research attention in establishing its effectiveness. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the financial incentive on the performance of learners at rural schools, as this performance relates to teacher motivation. To achieve this, a literature study and an empirical investigation were conducted. An interpretivist research paradigm informed the methodology for the study. A mixed-methods research approach, which relied more on a qualitative research design, included a research sample of 28 teachers, five school principals and two education officials. Data were collected through interviews and document analysis. Individual interviews were conducted with education officials and school principals. Focus group interviews were conducted with teachers. Document analysis entailed accessing applicable documents of each research site in the office of the school principal. Textual data were analysed and presented thematically and numeric data were analysed and presented as frequencies and percentages. Key findings established that financial incentive has contributed little to the performance of learners in rural schools. The fact that rural schools are not properly categorised according to environmental challenges results in teachers not receiving realistic financial incentive. Teachers were therefore not motivated by financial incentive, but by other factors relating to being tuned to nature in rural areas, being exposed to lower living costs and enjoying accommodating school leadership and community care. A revisiting of the implementation of the financial incentive is recommended in order to negate shortcomings and enhance the potential of financial incentive to contribute to improved learner performance as steered by motivated teachers. v KEY CONCEPTS Financial incentive Good teacher Influence Learner performance Learning Motivation Optimal learning Rural areas Rural schools Teacher motivation Teaching vi ABBREVIATIONS CTA : Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation EFA : Education for All ERG : Existence, Relatedness and Growth GRN : Government of the Republic of Namibia IFAD : International Fund for Agricultural Development MoEAC : Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture NANTU : Namibia National Teachers Union NCTAF : National Commission on Teaching & America's Future PDP : Personal Development Plan SWOT : Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats TRACES : Transformative Research Activities Cultural diversities and Education in Science UNICEF : United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund VSO Voluntary Service Overseas : vii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 ORIENTATION 1.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY.................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 Motivation theories and teacher motivation ............................................................................ 3 1.2.1.1 Theoretical frameworks underlying employees’ motivation .............................................. 3 1.2.1.2 Teacher recruitment and motivation.................................................................................. 5 1.2.2 Teaching and learning at rural schools .................................................................................... 10 1.3 MOTIVATION FOR STUDY ......................................................................................................... 12 1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT ............................................................................................................. 13 1.5 AIMS OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................................. 13 1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 14 1.6.1 Research paradigm and research approach ............................................................................ 14 1.6.2 Research sites and participants ............................................................................................... 16 1.6.3 Data collection ......................................................................................................................... 17 1.6.3.1 Interviews.......................................................................................................................... 17 1.6.3.2 Document analysis ............................................................................................................ 19 1.6.4 Data analysis ............................................................................................................................ 19 1.6.5 Trustworthiness of research findings ...................................................................................... 21 1.6.6 Ethical considerations .............................................................................................................. 23 1.7 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY................................................................................................ 24 1.8 CONCEPT CLARIFICATION......................................................................................................... 24 1.8.1 Influence .................................................................................................................................. 25 1.8.2 Financial incentive ................................................................................................................... 25 1.8.3 Teacher motivation .................................................................................................................. 25 1.8.4 Learner performance ............................................................................................................... 25 1.8.5 Rural schools ............................................................................................................................ 26 1.8.6 Optimal learning ...................................................................................................................... 26 1.8.7 Good teacher ........................................................................................................................... 27 1.9 CHAPTER OUTLINE ................................................................................................................... 27 1.10 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 29 viii CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS AND TEACHER MOTIVATION 2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 30 2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS ON EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION ................................................... 30 2.2.1 Hierarchy of Needs theory ....................................................................................................... 31 2.2.2 Two-Factor theory ................................................................................................................... 35 2.2.3 Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory ................................................................... 36 2.2.4 Expectancy theory.................................................................................................................... 38 2.2.5 Equity theory............................................................................................................................ 40 2.2.6 Goal-setting theory .................................................................................................................. 41 2.3 MOTIVATION OF TEACHERS AS EMPLOYEES............................................................................ 42 2.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHER MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE ................................... 43 2.4.1 The work itself.......................................................................................................................... 43 2.4.2 Rewards and compensation..................................................................................................... 46 2.4.3 Working conditions .................................................................................................................. 47 2.4.4 Professional growth ................................................................................................................. 48 2.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE RELATION BETWEEN TEACHER MOTIVATION AND LEARNER PERFORMANCE ......................................................................................................... 50 2.6 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 52 CHAPTER 3 TEACHING AND LEARNING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 53 3.2 DEFINING OPTIMAL LEARNING ................................................................................................ 53 3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEACHER ................................................................................. 58 3.3.1 Professional characteristics ..................................................................................................... 61 3.3.2 Personality characteristics ....................................................................................................... 66 3.3.3 Social characteristics ................................................................................................................ 69 3.4 RURAL AREAS IN CONTEXT....................................................................................................... 73 3.4.1 Living in rural areas with reference to the Namibian situation ............................................... 75 3.4.2 Working in rural areas with reference to the Namibian situation........................................... 79 3.5 TEACHING IN RURAL SCHOOLS ................................................................................................ 84 3.5.1 Poor working conditions .......................................................................................................... 84 ix 3.5.2 Incompetence .......................................................................................................................... 88 3.5.3 Isolation.................................................................................................................................... 91 3.5.4 Inadequate rewards ................................................................................................................. 92 3.6 LEARNING IN RURAL SCHOOLS ................................................................................................ 94 3.6.1 Persistent poverty .................................................................................................................... 95 3.6.2 Minimum parental involvement .............................................................................................. 96 3.6.3 Shortage of resources .............................................................................................................. 97 3.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 99 CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 4.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 100 4.2 RATIONALE FOR EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION........................................................................ 100 4.3 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................... 101 4.4 RESEARCH DESIGN................................................................................................................. 101 4.4.1 Research paradigm ................................................................................................................ 102 4.4.1.1 Positivism/Post-positivism research paradigm ............................................................... 108 4.4.1.2 Constructivist/Interpretivist research paradigm ............................................................ 109 4.4.1.3 Transformative/Emancipatory research paradigm ......................................................... 110 4.4.1.4 Postcolonial/Indigenous research paradigm .................................................................. 111 4.4.1.5 Interpretivism as the research paradigm of choice ........................................................ 112 4.4.2 Research approaches ............................................................................................................. 114 4.4.2.1 Qualitative research approach........................................................................................ 114 4.4.2.2 Quantitative research approach ..................................................................................... 119 4.4.2.3 Mixed-methods research approach ................................................................................ 119 4.5 RESEARCH POPULATION ........................................................................................................ 124 4.5.1 Sampling techniques .............................................................................................................. 125 4.5.1.1 Purposive sampling ......................................................................................................... 126 4.5.1.2 Snowball sampling .......................................................................................................... 126 4.5.2 Size of the sample .................................................................................................................. 127 4.6 DATA COLLECTION ................................................................................................................. 130 4.6.1 Focus group interviews .......................................................................................................... 132 4.6.2 Individual interviewing........................................................................................................... 133 4.6.3 Document analysis ................................................................................................................. 135 x 4.7 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION .................................................................................... 136 4.7.1 Obtaining data ....................................................................................................................... 137 4.7.2 Organising data ...................................................................................................................... 138 4.7.3 Reading and writing memos .................................................................................................. 138 4.7.4 Coding .................................................................................................................................... 138 4.7.5 Categorisation of themes ....................................................................................................... 139 4.7.6 Interpretation of data ............................................................................................................ 139 4.8 TRUSTWORTHINESS OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ....................................................................... 140 4.8.1 Credibility ............................................................................................................................... 141 4.8.1.1 Adoption of well-established research methods ............................................................ 142 4.8.1.2 Familiarisation with research sites ................................................................................. 143 4.8.1.3 Triangulation ................................................................................................................... 144 4.8.1.4 Ensuring honesty by participants during data collection................................................ 145 4.8.1.5 Iterative questioning ....................................................................................................... 145 4.8.1.6 Member checking ........................................................................................................... 146 4.8.2 Transferability ........................................................................................................................ 146 4.8.3 Dependability ......................................................................................................................... 147 4.8.4 Confirmability......................................................................................................................... 149 4.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................... 150 4.9.1 Accessibility to research sites ................................................................................................ 150 4.9.2 Informed consent................................................................................................................... 151 4.9.3 Confidentiality ........................................................................................................................ 151 4.9.4 Anonymity .............................................................................................................................. 152 4.10 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 153 CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION 5.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 154 5.2 ANECDOTAL OVERVIEW OF THE EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION ............................................... 154 5.2.1 Background information about the research sites ................................................................ 154 5.2.2 Seeking permission and commencement of data collection ................................................. 156 5.3 ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ....................................................................... 156 5.3.1 Individual interviews .............................................................................................................. 157 5.3.2 Focus group interviews .......................................................................................................... 159 xi 5.3.3 Document analysis ................................................................................................................. 163 5.3.3.1 Learner performance ...................................................................................................... 164 5.3.3.2 Teacher profile ................................................................................................................ 165 5.3.3.3 Staff turnover .................................................................................................................. 169 5.3.3.4 Payment of the financial incentive ................................................................................. 169 5.4 INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF Research findings .................................................... 171 5.4.1 Teacher sufficiency at rural schools ....................................................................................... 172 5.4.1.1 Qualified teachers ........................................................................................................... 172 5.4.1.2 Unqualified teachers ....................................................................................................... 174 5.4.1.3 Temporary teachers ........................................................................................................ 176 5.4.1.4 Staff turnover .................................................................................................................. 177 5.4.2 Perspectives on the financial incentive ................................................................................. 177 5.4.2.1 Reception ........................................................................................................................ 177 5.4.2.2 Scope of application ........................................................................................................ 179 5.4.2.3 Suspension ...................................................................................................................... 182 5.4.2.4 Categorisation ................................................................................................................. 183 5.4.2.5 Insufficient amount ......................................................................................................... 187 5.4.2.6 Standard of education .................................................................................................... 191 5.4.3 Factors motivating rural school teachers............................................................................... 196 5.4.3.1 Promotional post ............................................................................................................ 196 5.4.3.2 Family background .......................................................................................................... 198 5.4.3.3 Leadership ....................................................................................................................... 198 5.4.3.4 Environment.................................................................................................................... 200 5.4.3.5 Employment opportunities ............................................................................................. 205 5.4.3.6 Support services .............................................................................................................. 206 5.4.3.7 Financial incentive........................................................................................................... 208 5.4.4 Capabilities for teaching at rural schools ............................................................................... 208 5.4.4.1 Passion ............................................................................................................................ 209 5.4.4.2 Adaptability ..................................................................................................................... 210 5.4.5 Conditions characterising rural schools ................................................................................. 211 5.4.5.1 Commuting...................................................................................................................... 211 5.4.5.2 Climate and rural school teaching .................................................................................. 213 5.4.5.3 Hygiene ........................................................................................................................... 214 5.4.5.4 Facilities and services ...................................................................................................... 215 xii 5.4.5.5 Level of literacy ............................................................................................................... 217 5.4.6 Determinants of learner performance................................................................................... 217 5.4.6.1 The foundation for learning ............................................................................................ 217 5.4.6.2 Teacher-learner ratio ...................................................................................................... 219 5.4.6.3 Language competencies.................................................................................................. 220 5.4.6.4 Parental involvement ...................................................................................................... 221 5.4.6.5 Subject specialisation ...................................................................................................... 223 5.4.6.6 Working environment ..................................................................................................... 224 5.4.6.7 Group of learners ............................................................................................................ 224 5.4.6.8 The influence of climate on teaching and learning ......................................................... 225 5.4.7 Opportunities for improving education at rural schools ....................................................... 226 5.4.7.1 Working environment ..................................................................................................... 226 5.4.7.2 Revisiting financial incentive ........................................................................................... 228 5.4.7.3 Budget allocations........................................................................................................... 231 5.4.7.4 Vocational education ...................................................................................................... 232 5.4.7.5 School cluster system for education provisioning .......................................................... 233 5.5 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 234 CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 236 6.2 SUMMARY OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................................... 236 6.2.1 Chapter 1: Orientation ........................................................................................................... 237 6.2.2 Chapter 2: Theoretical frameworks and teacher motivation ................................................ 238 6.2.3 Chapter 3: Teaching and learning at rural schools ................................................................ 239 6.2.4 Chapter 4: Research design and methodology ...................................................................... 240 6.2.5 Chapter 5: Research findings and interpretation .................................................................. 242 6.2.6 Chapter 6: Summary, conclusions and recommendations .................................................... 247 6.3 CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................ 247 6.3.1 Conclusions relating to the research question: What motivates teachers to teach at rural schools? .................................................................................................................................. 247 6.3.2 Conclusions relating to the research question: How is the performance of the learners after the implementation of the financial incentive?..................................................................... 248 6.3.3 Conclusions relating to the research question: What are the working conditions at rural schools and their influences on teaching and learning activities? ........................................ 249 xiii 6.3.4 Conclusion relating to the research question: What are the attributes of a typical rural school teacher? ................................................................................................................................. 250 6.3.5 Conclusions relating to the research question: What recommendations can be made to improve learner performance at rural schools? .................................................................... 250 6.3.6 Conclusions relating to the main research question: What is the influence of the financial incentive on learner performance at rural schools? .............................................................. 251 6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................................................. 252 6.4.1 Recommendations: Financial incentive as a motivator for rural school ............................... 252 teachers.................................................................................................................................. 252 6.4.2 Recommendations: Improvement of the working environment........................................... 253 6.4.3 Recommendations: Professional development opportunities .............................................. 253 6.4.4 Recommendations: Service provisions .................................................................................. 254 6.4.5 Recommendations: Curriculum reform ................................................................................. 255 6.4.6 Recommendations: Budgetary allocations ............................................................................ 256 6.5 RECOMMENDED AREAS FOR FURTHER STUDIES ................................................................... 256 6.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................. 257 6.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS......................................................................................................... 258 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 260 LIST OF APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................... 290 Appendix A .......................................................................................................................................... 291 Appendix B .......................................................................................................................................... 292 Appendix C .......................................................................................................................................... 293 Appendix D .......................................................................................................................................... 294 Appendix E .......................................................................................................................................... 295 Appendix F .......................................................................................................................................... 296 Appendix G .......................................................................................................................................... 301 Appendix H .......................................................................................................................................... 302 xiv LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Herzberg’s hygiene factors and motivators .............................................................. 35 Table 4.1: Types of research paradigms ................................................................................. 105 Table 5.1: Themes as research findings from the individual and focus group interviews ....... 161 xv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ................................................................................... 32 Figure 2.2: Adelfer’s ERG theory................................................................................................ 37 Figure 2.3: The key elements of Expectancy theory................................................................... 39 Figure 2.4: Conceptual framework for the relation between teacher motivation and learner performance ................................................................................................. 51 Figure 4.1: Philosophical factors influencing the choice of research paradigm ........................ 104 Figure 4.2: The research population for the case study on the influence of financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural Namibian schools. ........... 130 Figure 5.1: School performance in the national examinations for the period 2014-2016 .......... 164 Figure 5.2: Qualified teachers at sampled rural schools for the period 2015 to 2017 ............... 165 Figure 5.3: Shortage of qualified teachers at sampled rural schools for the period 2015-2017 166 Figure 5.4: Shortages of Mathematic teachers at sampled schools for the period 2015-2017 . 167 Figure 5.5: Shortages of Physical Science teachers at sampled schools for the period 2015-2017 .............................................................................................................. 167 Figure 5.6: Shortages of English teachers at sampled schools for the period 2015-2017 ........ 168 Figure 5.7: Teacher transfer at sampled rural schools for the period 2015-2017 ..................... 169 xvi Figure 5.8: Teachers receiving financial incentive for the period 2015-2017............................ 170 Figure 5.9: Teachers not receiving financial incentive for the period 2015-2017 ...................... 170 xvii CHAPTER 1 ORIENTATION 1.1 INTRODUCTION The increasing spending by governments on education over time and the relatively decline in learning achievements by rural schools has led education policy makers to increasingly consider reforms for improving the effectiveness of public spending on education (Engin-Demir & Taneri 2011:92; Litheko 2012:2; Kobakhidze 2010:73; Vegas 2007:219). Among a number of reforms that have been considered, the idea of introducing a financial incentive for teachers has received favourable attention by education stakeholders worldwide (Emiliana & Ilana 2005:4; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:22; Murphy & DeArmond 2003:6; Roland 2011:3-4). Financial incentive has been proven to motivate teachers to improve their teaching practices which in turn positively impacts the learners’ performance (Lavy 2009:1979; Muralidharan & Sundararaman 2011:39). In this regard, the Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture in Namibia (MoEAC) has attempted to implement a financial incentive for qualified teachers in order to improve learning achievements at rural schools (Kavishe 2012:1). The implementation of a financial incentive, also known as a ‘bush allowance’, for teachers in Namibia in 2010 was premised on the assumption that schools in rural areas were characterised by low academic achievements because qualified and professional teachers were not motivated to teach at schools located in rural areas (Namwandi 2014:1; NANTU 2011:6). This led to rural schools being taught by more unqualified teachers and few qualified teachers which then led to low achievement of learning outcomes in rural schools (Hardre & Sullivan 2008:471; Moon 2007:3; Urwick, Mapuru & Nkoboti 2005:53). The purpose of implementing a financial incentive was meant to attract and retain qualified teachers at rural schools, to improve learner performance at rural schools (Glazerman, Mckie & Carey 2009:1). 1 In the case of Namibia, only professionally qualified teachers were meant to receive financial incentive, as the MoEAC in Namibia wanted to attract and retain qualified teachers at rural schools. The implementation of the financial incentive was divided into three categories, according to which schools were classified and on which basis qualified teachers were receiving the amount of money on top of their salaries, as a financial incentive. The categorising of schools was arranged according to what MoEAC consider as characteristics of a rural environment, firstly, the remoteness with regard to how far away the school was from the nearest town, and secondly, the availability of basic services and facilities (Iikela 2011:1). The categories were: Category A, Category B and Category C (Iikela 2011:1). In Category A, each qualified teacher received an amount of N$1 750.00 per month. This category was regarded an ‘extreme hardship’ category. This is when the school was over 100 km from a main town, there was no electricity and water and there were no health and social recreational facilities. In Category B, each qualified teacher received an amount of N$1150.00 per month. This category was regarded as a ‘moderate hardship’ category. There was water and electricity at the school as well as access to health facilities and telecommunications and the main town was less than 100 km away. In Category C, each qualified teacher received an amount of N$750.00 per month. This category was regarded as the ‘least hardship’ category. The nearest town was less than 50 km away, electricity and water were available. Health facilities, shops and transport were available and accessible. While the idea of a financial incentive sounds best in attracting and retaining qualified teachers at rural schools (Guarino, Santibanez, Daley & Brewer 2004:5; Figlio 2002:686), the evidence on the effectiveness of this programme is very limited, mixed and not convincing (Glewwe, Ilias & Kremer 2003:5; Kobakhidze 2010:71; Lavy 2009:1980; Muralidharan & Sundararaman 2011:39; Vegas 2007:220). From the researcher’s observation as a teacher, more than five years after the implementation of a financial incentive were implemented in Namibia, the influence of the financial incentive on learner performance in Namibia is yet to be established. The focus of this study is therefore to establish the influence of the financial incentive on qualified teachers’ motivation and retention as well as learner performance in rural Namibian schools. 2 1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Given the motivational factor underpinning this study and the rural context around which the study revolved, the background section focused, firstly, on the theories relevant to teacher motivation and how these theories can influence the presence of qualified teachers at rural schools. Secondly, the section dealt with an overview of teacher recruitment, teaching and learning at rural schools. 1.2.1 Motivation theories and teacher motivation Motivation is generally referred to as the energy of behaviours which condition the conduct of employees at the workplace (Legotlo 2014:128; Ofoegbu 2004:81; Steyn 2002:85). Motivation can also be defined as the incentives and disincentives that influence employees’ initial and sustained engagement in their work (Hynds & McDonald 2010:525). On the basis of these definitions, it becomes clear that motivation is the underlying force for employees’ optimal performance. Hence, the need to motivate teachers is crucial to enable teachers to gain self-confidence and morale and enable learners to perform exceptionally. Poorly motivated teachers yield low learner achievement. Therefore, it is significant to understand the theoretical frameworks underlying employees’ motivation. These theories are explained next. 1.2.1.1 Theoretical frameworks underlying employees’ motivation The work of classical employee motivation theorists such as Abraham Maslow (1943), Fredrick Hertzberg (1966), Victor Vroom (1964), Edwin Locke (1976), Clayton Alderfer (1972) as well as Lawman Porter and Edward Lawler (1968) have been widely discussed and applied in the context of developed countries (Urwick et al. 2005:3; Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:102-05). However, the discussions around incorporating these theories in the context of developing nations, especially in rural schools, is lacking. The Hierarchy of Needs theory is one of the best known and most widely used theories for the study of motivation in organisations (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:95). According to Maslow (1970), human needs are grouped into physiological needs, safety needs, 3 social needs, esteem needs and self-actualisation needs. The central point of emphasis in Maslow’s needs theory is that low-level needs should be met first before the high-level needs are met. Maslow emphasises that employees, such as teachers, for example, will not be motivated to teach if they have nothing to eat. Moreover, teachers will lack affiliation with others if they do not have proper housing. Herzberg developed a motivation theory that builds on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, namely the ‘Two-Factor theory’ (Herzberg, Mausner & Snyderman 1993). According to Herzberg, the job plays an important role in motivating employees. Herzberg believes that employees can derive their motivation from the work itself in the form of getting recognised and advancement in the job. This recognition motivates employees such as teachers to aspire for more recognition. Herzberg also identifies factors such as company policies, supervision and salaries as factors that can potentially demotivate employees. Research has shown that low-income countries, such as Namibia and Lesotho, face difficult choices of recruitment and deployment policies in relation to teacher motivation and job satisfaction (Urwick et al. 2005:70). These countries are faced with the challenge of recruiting teachers who will be motivated enough to stay at their job, especially at rural schools. Alderfer’s Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory is an extension of Herzberg’s and Maslow’s theories of motivation. The ERG theory summarises the former theories and classifies needs into existence needs (food, clothing), relatedness needs (friendships, colleagues) and growth needs (career growth). While Maslow believes in meeting low-level needs first before aspiring to high-level needs, Alderfer contends that several needs can be experienced at the same time. For example, a teacher may take postgraduate studies as a growth need, while at the same time making friendships with others as relatedness needs. This friendship may be beneficial to the teacher’s study. Lack of these needs are likely to be felt by teachers in rural areas since they are far from services and chances for growth and relatedness might be very limited, which reduces teachers’ morale. Vroom’s (1994) Expectant theory is relevant to a financial incentive as applied at rural schools. Vroom believe that employees join organisations with their own expectations that they would like to get from such organisations. The financial incentive may not be 4 the kind of motivation that teachers at rural schools are expecting. This study established whether a financial incentive was what teachers at rural areas were expecting. The study also established whether the amount of financial incentive received by teachers was sufficient to outweigh socio-economic challenges at rural schools or not. Low salaries and limited incentive have been cited as the cause of poor motivation and enthusiasm for teachers to perform better in developing countries (Kobakhidze 2010:68). While qualified teachers were continually recruited, it appears they do not get the rewards they expected which then affected their performance negatively. Another theory similar to the Expectant theory is Porter and Lawler’s (1968) Equity theory, which asserts that employees hold certain beliefs about their work in relation to the inputs in which they invest to obtain the outcomes (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:108). For example, if teachers do not see the balance between the efforts they spend in the teaching process and the rewards they receive, teachers get demotivated which decreases their effectiveness. This is a relevant theory in explaining teaching in rural areas, where teachers work exceptionally under harsh conditions but receive low salaries. This theory can potentially influence the migration of qualified teachers between schools. The Goal-setting theory, as pioneered by Locke (Locke & Latham 1995), emphasise that employees set goals which direct their attention and actions (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:110). In pursuing these goals employees, for example teachers, will be intrinsically motivated to attain their goals and may not be drawn back by a financial incentive to remain in rural schools. This theory might explain why, despite efforts to recruit and motivate qualified teachers to remain at rural schools, qualified teachers’ recruitment, retention and motivation still remain a challenge (Glewwe et al. 2003:5; Kobakhidze 2010:71; Moon 2007:3; Urwick et al. 2005:132). In this regard, the following part of this section discusses teacher recruitment and motivation. 1.2.1.2 Teacher recruitment and motivation The centrality of a motivated teacher in providing good quality teaching has been researched extensively as a worldwide issue (Chireshe & Shumba 2011; Griffin 2010; 5 Legotlo 2014; Kayuni & Tambulasi 2007; Steyn 2002; Urwick et al. 2005). Although motivated teachers play a central role in the quality of education that learners receive, research has found that many teachers around the world lack motivation to perform their duties due to various reasons, one of which relates to inadequate incentive (Armstrong 2009:24; Legotlo 2014:132; Urwick et al. 2005:132). In Europe and the United States of America, problems of recruiting and retaining teachers still exist (Moon 2007:3). Many schools in the United States of America struggle with recruiting and retaining professionally qualified teachers (Milanowski, Longwell-Grice, Saffold, Jones 2009:2; Schomisch & Odden 2009:1). In California, thousands of unqualified teachers are working in the elementary system (Moon 2007:3). A recent study by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics indicates that South and West Asia are facing a looming teacher shortage in pursuit of quality education (Mhando 2006:4). The situation in Africa has been described as a crisis and more countries, including Burkina Faso, have officially declared the supply of teachers a national crisis (Dladla & Moon 2006:2). In Namibia, the shortage of teachers is a regular occurrence, especially at rural schools (Namwandi 2014:1). NANTU (2011:6) observed that good teachers only teach for about a year or two in rural areas and then leave for urban areas. Even though qualified teachers are being recruited at rural schools, the system fails to retain and motivate qualified teachers to remain at rural schools. The researcher can therefore conclude that despite efforts to motivate teachers, teachers still felt they are not adequately motivated to remain at rural schools. Persistent failure to recruit and motivate qualified teachers is common in many countries such as Bangladesh, Scotland, India, Ghana, Kenya, Tanzania, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Uganda, South Africa and Namibia (Legotlo 2014:132; Urwick et al. 2005:132). In response to this challenge, several strategies have been implemented by different countries to recruit qualified teachers. These strategies include a financial incentive for teachers locating to rural areas, forced transfer of teachers to rural areas and targeted recruitment of teachers to their home areas (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:22). Several parts of the world including the United States of America have considered 6 motivating teachers by way of implementing a financial incentive instead of forced transfer and targeted recruitment (Murphy & DeArmond 2003:6). A number of states in the United States of America, including Michigan, Tennessee and Texas, have implemented nationwide financial incentive programmes for teachers to improve learner achievement, and the results were not convincing (Emiliana & Ilana 2005:4; Roland 2011:3-4). Similar financial incentive initiatives were also underway in the United Kingdom, Chile, Mexico, Israel, Australia, Portugal and parts of India, with results also not conclusive (Roland 2011:4). Notwithstanding these results, financial incentive can be viewed as a relief to teachers’ low salaries which often force teachers to be engaged in secondary employment activities (Alam & Farid 2011:298). Despite persistent arguments that qualified teachers are not motivated by a financial incentive (Bush, Bell & Middlewood 2010:138), research supports the conclusion that higher pay improves teacher motivation and retention (Guarino et al. 2004:5). High salaries also improve the quality of new teachers attracted to rural schools (Figlio 2002:686). In spite of these conclusions, little is known about the effectiveness of financial incentive in attracting and retaining qualified teachers at rural schools, as the results after programme implementation show no measurable success (Glazerman et al. 2009:39; Milanowski et al. 2009:2; Vegas 2005:21). If properly managed, financial incentive is assumed to motivate teachers to improve their teaching practices which in turn positively impact learner performance (Lavy 2009:1979; Muralidharan & Sundararaman 2011:39). For this method to work effectively, Roland (2011:2) recommends that financial incentive be based on learners’ achievement. A recent evaluation of a performance-based financial incentive for teachers in Israel concluded the incentive led to improved learners’ achievement (Lavy 2009:1979). On the contrary, seventeen Latin American countries experimented with a performance-based financial incentive and the results were mixed (Vegas 2007:220). Similarly, a financial incentive system to reward teachers in for teaching in rural Mexico and Bolivia also failed to change teacher performance (Kobakhidze 2010:71). 7 A comparative study compared the performance of learners whose teachers received financial incentive against the performance of learners whose teachers did not receive financial incentive in Mexico (McEwan and Santibanez 2005:56). The authors found that the difference was very minimal and concluded that the financial incentive did not yield success. This shows little evidence of the success of a financial incentive, hence suggesting the need for more research in this field. In Africa, an incentive programme in Kenya was implemented to improve teacher quality by providing teachers with a financial incentive based on learners’ performance (Barnhardt, Karlan & Khemani 2007:9). The programme was associated with increased learners’ performance in the short run but found to be not very effective in the long run in terms of teaching and learning achievements (Glewwe et al. 2003:5; Kobakhidze 2010:71). Kenya’s performance-based financial incentive programmes were found to be responsible for manipulation of learners’ marks by teachers while no long-term gains were achieved (Glewwe et al. 2003:22; Lavy 2009:1979; Muralidharan & Sundararaman 2011:39). The performance-based financial incentive also decrease teachers’ intrinsic motivation and lead to unhealthy competition between teachers (Goodman & Turner 2012:1). Other African countries such as Mozambique, Lesotho, Kenya and Uganda have attempted to make working in rural areas more attractive by offering a nonperformance based financial incentive to teachers working at rural schools (Glewwe et al. 2003:5). In Mozambique, a financial incentive was given depending on the location of the school and teachers’ qualification. This demotivated teachers with low qualifications as they received less financial incentive and the incentive was also too little to encourage highly qualified teachers to locate to remote areas (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:2). The non-performance based financial incentive did little to motivate qualified teachers to work at rural schools because of a number of gaps in its implementation (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:2). Firstly, a financial incentive appeared not to be substantial enough to outweigh the social and economic costs of living in isolated areas such as rural schools. Secondly, there was no fair system of classifying schools for receiving 8 incentive. These gaps have influenced the success of the financial incentive programme. In South Africa, an effort to force the redeployment of teachers to poorer, rural areas was unsuccessful (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:24), as teachers were not prepared to be redeployed. This has reduced the number of graduates for the teaching profession as teaching was now viewed as a profession where a person can be deployed and moved at any time (Samuel 2002:408-09). In Malawi and Zambia, forced relocation of teachers to rural areas was used as a corrective, disciplinary measure for teachers other than as a motivational measure (VSO 2002:30). This did not boost teachers’ morale, but rather compromised the quality of teaching and learning in rural areas. Some teachers were trained and then deployed in their home areas (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:25). The presumption is that those teachers will have familial roots in the area and be more willing to return and remain in these rural settings (Hedges 2002:360). In contrast, educated members of a rural community may view their education as a means of social mobility and may have no desire to remain and work in a rural area once qualified (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:25). However, this method of deploying teachers worked well in Ghana, but using a different model, that of friendship rather than familial roots by posting newly qualified teachers in pairs in order to draw strength from the friendship, especially in unfamiliar communities (Hedges 2002:360). Namibia has implemented the strategy of non-performance based financial incentive in 2010 instead of forced transfer and targeted recruitment of qualified teachers (Kavishe 2012:1). The implementation model of Namibia is similar to that of Mozambique as the financial incentive is given on the basis of the school classification in terms of their remoteness and teacher qualification (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:2). However, it differs from that of Mozambique as it does not consider the level of teachers’ qualifications in giving them a financial incentive, but rather giving a financial incentive to qualified teachers regardless of whether a teacher has a low or high qualification. In view of the gaps identified by Mulkeen and Chen (2008:2), it was not established whether the financial incentive given to teachers in Namibia was sufficient to outweigh the socio-economic cost of living and working at schools located in 9 Namibia’s rural areas. The fairness and effectiveness of classifying schools to receive a financial incentive was also yet to be ascertained. While studies have been conducted on other parts of the world about the impact of both a performance-based and a non-performance based financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner achievement (Glazerman et al. 2009; Lavy 2009; Milanowski et al. 2009; Muralidharan & Sundararaman 2011), similar studies done in Namibia since the programme implementation in 2010 are very sketchy, if any. Hence, this study aims to establish the influence of a non-performance based financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner achievement in rural schools in Namibia. 1.2.2 Teaching and learning at rural schools According to the Victorian Auditor-General Report (2013:1), the provision of quality and accessible education to rural communities is a worldwide challenge. Despite this challenge, limited research has been attempted in the areas of education in rural settings (Gandara, Gutierrez & O’Hara 2001:73; Milanowski et al. 2009:2; Wallin 2009:10). In Canada, there is a relative lack of research within rural educational contexts (Wallin 2009:10). In the United States of America, more than 30% of schools are in rural areas, yet only less than 6% of research conducted makes reference to rural schools (Hardre 2008:72). This necessitated a need for research focusing on rural settings to address this research gap. Rural schools serve large numbers of minority learners from families with little educational backgrounds (Flora, Flora & Fey 2003:24). These rural learners are at risk for low motivation and lack of school success as their specific learning needs are rarely researched (Gandaraet et al. 2001:74; Hardre, Sullivan & Crowson 2009:1). Common factors influencing rural learners’ motivation are home environments that are not conducive to learning, financial difficulties, shortage of teachers and lack of school buildings (Hardre & Sullivan 2008:471). Research on learners’ achievement as this achievement relates to environmental factors shows that environment plays a significant role in shaping learner achievement (Hardre et al. 2009:3). However, research is lacking that discusses these factors in a rural context. 10 In the last two decades across the continent of Africa there has been a growing anxiety about teaching in rural areas, where approximately 70% of the African population reside (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:16). The shortage of qualified teachers and poor conditions of teaching are the major factors affecting the quality of education offered in many African rural schools (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:10). Most parents in rural areas are less educated and have less ability to provide educational support for their children, and are therefore embarrassed to discuss school work with children due to their lack of knowledge (Legotlo 2014:17; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:10). The standard of education at rural schools in Namibia has been low due to lack of qualified teachers, as good teachers are only teaching for about a year or two in rural areas and then decide to leave for urban areas (Namwandi 2014:1; NANTU 2011:6). The problem of qualified teachers in Namibia is worsened by the merging of the four Colleges of Education with the University of Namibia in 2010 as the state does not guarantee full scholarships for student teachers at the University of Namibia anymore, unlike in the past when student teachers at former Colleges of Education were fully funded by the state (Hanse-Himarwa 2015:1). As from the year 2010, the MoEAC continues to consistently receive at least N$8 billion annually from the national budget in order to improve the education system in the country (Brown 2014:2; Ihuhua 2012:1; Namwandi 2014:4; Schmidt 2010:17). In an attempt to address challenges facing education at rural schools, the MoEAC implemented a financial incentive in 2010 (Kavishe 2012:1). The financial incentive is intended to motivate and retain qualified teachers at rural schools to improve learner performance. As pointed out in this section, education in rural areas is characterised by a lack of qualified teachers with learners lacking motivation, parental support and guidance (Hardre et al. 2009:1; Legotlo 2014:17; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:10). Regardless of this characterisation, less research has been conducted on education at rural settings (Gandara et al. 2001:74; Wallin 2009:10). This study focused on the state of education at rural schools in Namibia with the aim of contributing to the knowledge pool on improving the quality of teaching and learning at rural schools. 11 1.3 MOTIVATION FOR STUDY Namibia’s vision to become a developed nation is dependent on an effective education system by means of which the skilled labour is provided that is required to improve productivity and develop a knowledge-driven economy (GRN 2006:2). This calls for a motivated teaching team to ensure improved learner performance especially in rural areas as approximately 70% of the African population resides in the rural areas (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:16). The researcher has been in the teaching fraternity for nine years (2006-2014), having taught at a rural-based junior secondary school for six years and for three years at an urban-based high school. While teaching at the rural-based junior secondary school, the researcher observed that learners who were taught by the researcher and other teachers were performing well prior to and after the implementation of the financial incentive in 2010. The researcher’s rural-based junior secondary school was classified as a ‘less hardship school’ for Category C. The researcher received the financial incentive for two and a half years before getting transferred to a High school in town in 2012. As the high school was located in town, qualified teachers including the researcher were not eligible to receive a financial incentive. Despite the absence of a financial incentive payment, learners at high school including those that were taught by the researcher also performed well. The researcher observed that the performance of learners in schools where he worked did not necessarily depend on whether teachers were receiving a financial incentive or not. Furthermore, the researcher’s experience as a teacher whose learners have consistently been top performers irrespective of him receiving the financial incentive or not has led him to question whether the financial incentive was indeed the main motivator for attracting qualified teachers to rural schools and for improving learner performance. The focus of this study was therefore to establish the effectiveness of the financial incentive in rural Namibian schools. Insights from this study may contribute to improving learner performance at schools in rural areas based on efficient education budget spending. 12 1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT The importance of qualified and motivated teachers in providing quality teaching cannot be over-emphasised (Chireshe & Shumba 2011:115; Legotlo 2014:135; Steyn 2002:84). Poor school effectiveness and lack of improvement in learner performance among rural Namibian schools have been attributed to a lack of qualified teachers (Namwandi 2014:1, NANTU 2011:6). In an attempt to address this problem, the MoEAC has implemented a financial incentive to attract, motivate and retain qualified teachers at rural schools for the sake of improved learner performance (Glazerman et al. 2009:1; Kavishe 2012:1). More than five years after the implementation of financial incentive in Namibia, no evidence of improved learner performance in rural schools has been established, related to this incentive. This study sought to address this gap. The study was guided by the following main research question:  What is the influence of the financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural Namibian schools? The following sub-questions were used to address the main research question: a) What motivates teachers to teach at rural schools? b) How is the performance of the learners after the implementation of the financial incentive? c) What are the working conditions at rural schools and their influences on teaching and learning activities? d) What are the attributes of a good teacher? e) What recommendations can be made for improving learner performance at rural schools? 1.5 AIMS OF THE STUDY The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effectiveness of the financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural Namibian schools, with the aim of presenting appropriate teacher motivation strategies capable of 13 improving teacher motivation and learner performance in rural schools. The following objectives directed the study, namely to:  Explain the factors that influence teacher motivation at rural schools.  Describe the process of teaching and learning at rural schools.  Outline the characteristics of a good teacher.  Suggest strategies for improving learner performance at rural schools. The research methodology that was used to address these objectives and find answers to the formulated research questions is discussed next. 1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The data for this study was collected by both a literature study and an empirical investigation. Regarding the literature study, the researcher reviewed the studies related to the financial incentive. In addition to the preliminary literature findings in Chapter one, the large body of the findings of the literature study is presented in Chapter two and three respectively. The empirical investigation is discussed by the following sections. 1.6.1 Research paradigm and research approach As interpretive research focuses on the immediate and local meanings of social actions for the actors involved in them (Gall, Gall & Borg 2007:31), this study used an interpretivist research paradigm. The interpretivist paradigm was relevant because it enabled the researcher to interpret both the literature and empirical study findings for the sake of a deep understanding of the specific phenomenon that was studied (Tichapondwa 2011:106; Thomas 2010:296). Interpretivist paradigm entailed a social interaction between the researcher and participants, and enabled the researcher to collect data on the financial incentive in rural schools from participants who were involved in the programme, and then interpret data for deeper understanding. 14 Although a mixed-methods research approach was adopted, the study relied mainly on a qualitative research approach for the sake of utilising narratives and descriptions in order to understand the phenomenon from the perspectives of the participants in the study (Mills 2011:4). This is because qualitative research studies typically serve to describe, interpret, verify and evaluate particular policies and practices for the sake of increased understanding (Leedy & Omrod 2005:134-135). The qualitative research approach was therefore the most suitable approach for understanding the influence of a financial incentive on learner performance as explained from the participants’ views. The application of a qualitative research approach was carried out through a case study design, as an investigation in which an event is studied in depth for a defined period of time (Leedy & Omrod 2005:135). A case study focuses in-depth on a phenomenon in its real-life context to reflect the perspectives of the participants involved in the phenomenon (Gall et al. 2011:447). Using a case study helped the researcher to answer the research questions by evaluating the effectiveness of financial incentive from the participants’ perspectives in their own social environment. One advantage of a case study is the maximum degree of flexibility with data collection tools (Bertram & Christiansen 2014:42). The researcher can begin a case study with one method of data collection and gradually shift to or add other methods. Using multiple methods to collect data about a phenomenon can enhance the credibility of case study findings through the process of triangulation, which, in the case of this study on a financial incentive resulted in the application of different forms of interviewing combined with document analysis. As part of the mixed-methods approach, a quantitative research approach was applied with the collection and comparison of numerical data from document analysis, as pertains to statistics regarding examination results, number of qualified and unqualified teachers employed, number of qualified teachers’ turnover as well as the statistics for the payment of a financial incentive. In line with the findings by Gall et al. (2007:460) as well as Bertram and Christiansen (2014:42) on the value of a mixed-methods research approach, the combination of figures, charts, tables and narrative reports contributed to increased insight into the use of a financial incentive in relation to teacher motivation and learner performance at rural Namibian schools. 15 1.6.2 Research sites and participants With reference to a target population representing a group of individuals with at least one common characteristic which distinguishes that group from other individuals (Best & Kahn 2006:13), the target population for this study on financial incentive included school principals and teaching staff of rural schools, Circuit Office official and the Regional Office official in the Omusati Region of Namibia. The choice of the target population area, Omusati Region, was informed by the fact that 94% of the region’s inhabitants were living in rural areas, which made Omusati Region to have a larger proportion of rural inhabitants than any other region in Namibia (GRN 2011:18). The researcher obtained Omusati Regional examination statistics and identified a Circuit Office with poor learner performance for the year 2013 to 2015. From this circuit, the researcher selected five rural schools that were reachable by normal vehicles and that have sustained low learner performance in national examinations. Six teachers from each school, together with their school principals, were purposively sampled. This gives a total of thirty teachers and five school principals. The Circuit Office official of the circuit in which the schools belong, was purposively sampled as the official was directly involved in the provision of education in the Circuit housing the sampled rural schools. The Regional Office official was sampled by means of snow balling, as the official was the person who had worked for education in the region for a long period of time and was thus well positioned in explaining learner performance in the region in relation to the financial incentive. This gave a total number of thirty seven participants from the target population. As purposive sampling involves the researcher selecting participants on the basis of the researcher’s judgment of their typicality to the phenomenon (Chiromo 2009:18), teachers were sampled because they were receiving the financial incentive and can attest to the extent to which they felt attracted, motivated and retained at rural schools. Teachers were also able to explain the performance of their learners before and after receiving a financial incentive. Apart from reachability to research sites by a normal vehicle rather than a four-by-four vehicle, teachers at research sites were sampled on the basis of three indicators, namely, a minimum of three years teaching experience at a rural school prior to and after the implementation of the financial incentive, 16 teachers who were receiving financial incentive after it was implemented, and teachers who were teaching learners in Grade 10, as that was the grade level subjected to national examinations by means of which standardised learner performance was determined. A total number of five school principals of the same schools from which teacher participants were selected were sampled purposively to explain the effectiveness of a financial incentive, staff motivation and learner performance at their respective rural schools from a management and leadership position. School principals occupied leadership positions in schools and were well-conversant with issues such as professionally qualified teachers, teacher motivation, qualified teachers retention as well as attrition tendencies. School principals were also well positioned to direct and retrieve documents that were useful to the researcher for document analysis. School principals were purposively sampled on the basis of having been a school principal for three years preceding the implementation of a financial incentive, having been a school principal at least three years at a school where teachers were receiving a financial incentive, and having been a school principal of a school where learners were subjected to national examinations. The Regional Office official and the Circuit Office official were sampled with the purpose that they were directly involved in the operations of education in the region as educational leaders. 1.6.3 Data collection With reference to data as the collected information in order to find answers to the particular questions asked (Bertram & Christiansen 2014:71), the data collection tools that were used for this study were interviews and document analysis. 1.6.3.1 Interviews Focus group interviews were conducted with teacher participants and individual interviews with school principals, the Circuit Office official and the Regional Office official. The responses obtained from the individual interviews served as complementary data to the responses obtained from the focus group interviews and 17 the analysis of documents. Interviewing was beneficial in establishing good relationships with the participants and clarifying questions that participants found difficult to interpret and answer (Gall et al. 2007:228). Good relationships also extended beyond the interviewing process which was beneficial to the researcher for further prompts for information that needed clarity on the value of a financial incentive as a motivation factor for teaching in rural areas. Each focus group consisted of six teacher participants selected from each sampled rural school and teachers were interviewed at their respective schools. Focus group interviewing helped the researcher to get a shared understanding about the specific phenomenon that was studied (Creswell 2008:226; Mills 2011:82), namely the influence of a financial incentive from teachers’ perspectives. In line with the writings of Creswell (2008:226) as well as Kahn and Best (2006:265) on the input of specific participants, focus group interviewing helped the researcher to get the views of specific teachers about the influence of a financial incentive on their motivation and learner performance. The researcher was also able to learn of how teachers may agree or disagree on certain aspects regarding the financial incentive during the focus group interviews. With focus group interviewing, participants feel more comfortable talking in a group than alone and the interaction between the researcher and the participants is informative and supportive (Leedy & Omrod 2005:146). By organising the interviews to be semi-structured in the sense of referring to an interview guide while allowing the discussion to proceed freely, discussions are structured around the focused topic without imposing formalities which might limit participants’ active participation (Keith 2005:75; Nicholas 2005:61). All focus group interviews were recorded with informed consent of the respective participants. The recordings were transcribed by the researcher and provided transcripts that made data analysis possible. The individual interviews with the five school principal participants, the Circuit Office official and the Regional Office official were conducted considering the interview guides whose questions were contextualised to suit the mandate of the specific participant. School principals were interviewed individually because they may have experienced the influence of a financial incentive differently at their schools. It was 18 also difficult to administer focus group interviews with school principals since they were at different schools and arranging for a venue would have compromised their work schedule. The individual interviews with school principals and the Circuit Office official were conducted at their respective offices. The individual interview with the Regional Office official was conducted at a local hotel. All the individual interviews were recorded with informed consent from the participants. The recordings were transcribed by the researcher for analysis. 1.6.3.2 Document analysis With reference to document analysis representing the analysis of various applicable documents (Bertram & Christiansen 2014:97; Kahn & Best 2006:257), the researcher identified documents that provided useful information to answer the research questions. These documents were obtained from the school principals’ offices at selected research sites. The documents included examination statistics, teacher recruitment information files, teacher transfer and resignation files and general reports on examination and financial incentive. As document analysis assists the researcher to understand the central phenomenon in qualitative studies (Creswell 2014:245), document analysis provided useful quantitative data that assisted the researcher to explain financial incentive, teacher motivation and learner performance at rural schools. According to Kahn and Best (2006:257), document analysis aims to explain the status of a phenomenon at a particular time or its development over a period of time. Hence, document analysis assisted the researcher in establishing whether qualified teachers got attracted, felt motivated and got retained at rural schools due to a financial incentive as per the evidence and reporting in the documents for a specified period of time. The data from the analysis of documents were noted in a document analysis tool. 1.6.4 Data analysis With reference to Bertram and Christiansen’s (2014:115) definition of analysis as a systematic study of the whole by separating the whole into its parts for the purpose of a clear understanding, thematic analysis was used in this study. Thematic analysis 19 comprises the making sense of collected data through organising, determining themes and processing data (Mill 2011:128). The process of data analysis for this study consisted of scrutinising the collected body of data as pertains to their sources and putting similar data sets together in a more organised form as themes and emerging categories as well as graphic representations (Mojtaba, Jacqueline, Hannele & Sherrill 2016:100-101). The core aim of analysis was to establish themes from the data as the main ideas that were raised by the participants during the interviews and that were in line with the research questions and aims. Each set of data was analysed separately. Interviewing has its results of analysis as themes and categories, and the document analysis has frequencies and percentages. After the textual data was analysed, themes were established and allocated codes. The specific aspects in each set of data that manifest particular points of emphasis for a specific theme were coded with the code of the specific theme, so that it was easy to be traced in the transcripts during the later stages of data analysis, interpretation and discussion (Creswell 2014:267; Mills 2011:129). With reference to Leedy and Omrod (2005:141) on the emerging of categories, coding continued until all the data were assigned with codes after which relationships were determined in the data and similar data sets were established. Due to the common phenomenon that was being investigated, the results of the data analysis from the transcripts was consolidated to produce a comprehensive representation of the findings as themes and categories representing the answers to the postulated research questions. The themes and emerged categories that were established were subsequently interpreted to generate meanings to the intents of the research. In order to prove relevance and authenticity of the thematic interpretation, the themes were discussed by drawing insight from participants’ verbatim excerpts from the transcripts, the findings of the literature study, the researcher’s worldviews and the existing theoretical frameworks that informed the study (Creswell 2014:281). The data that was collected from applicable documents were analysed by means of converting numeric data into percentages in order to enhance an understanding of the 20 influence of a financial incentive on aspects such as examination pass rates, and the number of qualified teachers recruited and retained at rural schools. The percentages as the findings resulting from the numerically-related data were entered into graphic representations for comparison purposes and to establish frequencies. The graphic representation of percentages as findings of document analysis were interpreted and discussed concurrently with the thematic findings from interviews. This was because the sets of findings were meant to triangulate each another. The interpreted and discussed findings served as answers to the research questions. 1.6.5 Trustworthiness of research findings Trustworthiness pertains to the accuracy of the way the research was conducted as reflected in the correctness of the research findings (Jane & Jane 2003:273; Margaret 2014:26). Although a mixed-methods research approach was adopted, the research relied mainly on a qualitative research approach (section 4.4.2.3). Therefore, Guba’s (1981:75) choice of the terms regarding the trustworthiness of qualitative research findings, i.e. credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability, were chosen and applied as discussed below. Credibility is a qualitative research term which seeks to establish the congruence of the findings to reality (Golafshani 2003:599). Credibility establishes whether or not the research findings represent plausible information drawn from the participants’ original data and are a correct interpretation of the participants’ original views (Anney 2014:276). The following methods were considered by the researcher to ensure the credibility of the research findings (Shenton 2004:64): the adoption of well-established research methods, familiarisation with research sites, triangulation, ensuring honesty by participants during data collection, iterative questioning and member checking. These methods are discussed in detail in section 4.8. Authors such as Bitsch (2005:77) as well as Tobin and Begley (2004:389) defined transferability as the degree to which the findings of the research can be transferred to other contexts with other participants. To ensure the possibility of transferring the research findings to other contexts, the researcher provided a detailed description of the entire research process, as this description pertains to contextual, philosophical, 21 methodological and procedural aspects used in conducting the research. The use of purposive sampling also ensured that the researcher selected participants who were typically knowledgeable of the research interests and thus contributed to meaningful data collection for a deep understanding of the phenomenon of study, and whose study findings can be well applied to similar research contexts. Dependability seeks to show that, if the research was repeated in the same context with the same methods and same participants, similar results were going to be obtained (Ary et al. 2010:503). To ensure that the processes used to conduct the research were dependable in terms of being repeated to provide the same findings, the research report covered the details of the three levels that are generally accepted as ensuring dependability of qualitative research findings (Shenton 2004:71). At the strategic level, the research report covered the research design and its implementation, describing what was planned and how it was executed. At an operational level, the research report covered the details of data gathering, addressed arrangements that were made before the field work started, as well as the details of what was done in the field during the actual data collection. At a reflective appraisal level, the research report included a summary of the research findings. Providing details for the different levels ensured a comprehensive understanding of all the processes that were used in conducting the research. This understanding will enable future researchers to repeat the research process the same way to obtain the same findings. Confirmability requires that the steps must be taken to help ensure as far as possible that the research’s findings are the results of the experiences and ideas of the participants, and not the views and preferences of the researcher (Tobin & Begley 2004:392). The researcher kept all electronic records (audios) and non-electronic ones (i.e. transcripts and documentary analysis tools). The researcher ensured these records were available and kept in a safe place. These records will be useful to anyone who would like to see the procedures employed and to examine whether findings are confirmable and establish whether they are logically grounded on the data that were collected (Ary 2010:502). Confirmability was also established by means of data triangulation, whereby the data collection tools were applied to different participants and yielded corresponding information that all speaks to one conclusion. 22 1.6.6 Ethical considerations Ethical considerations refer to the set of standards that researchers should consider before, during and after their research studies (De Vos 2005:57). The researcher planned and conducted the research by adhering to the following ethical standards, namely, accessibility to research sites, informed consent, confidentiality and anonymity. Regarding accessibility to research sites, the researcher was given a written permission by the Director of Education in Omusati Region (Appendix A). With regard to informed consent as a detailed explanation of the study to enable participants to decide in a conscious and deliberate manner whether to participate in the study or not (Jane & Jane 2003:76), the researcher compiled a document, titled Research Information Sheet (Appendix F). Every participant was furnished with their own copies of the Research Information Sheet which was explained by the researcher. Participants who consciously decided to participate in the empirical investigation after being informed about the investigation were required to sign an Informed Consent Form in duplicate (Appendix G). Signing duplicate forms was meant for proof, so that both the researcher and participants kept a copy of the signed Confidentiality Agreement as individual evidence of the informed consent given. Confidentiality requires that research information be kept confidential and only used for the purposes for which it was intended (McMillan 2007:52). The researcher explained that the contributions of the participants were going to be used for the intended purpose of research and that they were going to be stored in a safe place where they would not be accessible to anyone else other than the researcher. All participants who were interviewed, were required to sign a Confidentiality Agreement Form in duplicate (Appendix H). Anonymity is the presentation of the data collected in a manner that the presentation of the data cannot be identified and linked to the identity of anyone, in order to protect the person from whom the information was collected (Cohen et al. 2002:61; McMillan 2007:52). Both alphabetic and numeric codes were used to represent research sites and participants. The codes that were used to serve the purpose of anonymity are 23 presented in section 4.9.4. Participants were informed that these were the codes that were going to be used in the research report and that the information they provided was not going to be presented in a way that would be linked to their identity. Before interviewing, participants were told not to mention names of individuals during focus group interviewing or mention the names of any participant in the group when they wanted to refer to their views, but rather use the codes as were given prior to the commencement of the focus group interviewing, and every teacher knew what his/her code was. Participants for individual interviews were also informed not to mention names of individuals during interviewing. 1.7 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY This study focused on the motivation of qualified teachers at rural schools who were receiving the financial incentive. The study excluded the motivation of qualified teachers at urban schools. The qualified teachers belonged to rural schools that have grade ten, which is the junior secondary grade level where learners sit for standardised national examinations, on which basis learner performance was established. Given the adverse conditions characterising the rural environment as discussed in section 3.4, the rural schools included in this study were those reachable by normal vehicles other than by a four-wheel drive vehicle. The rural schools as research sites were those in the Omusati Region, in Tsandi Circuit as per the sampling criteria discussed in section 1.6.2. Given the case study as a qualitative research design adopted for this study (section 1.6.1), the rest of the rural schools other than the sampled rural schools in Omusati Region, were not the focus of the study. This implies that the findings of this study may not be generalised to other schools, unless such schools share common characteristics as the sampled schools that formed part of the case study investigation. 1.8 CONCEPT CLARIFICATION The important concepts relating to this study are clarified next. 24 1.8.1 Influence The word influence refers to the effect that a variable can make to where it is applied. In the context of this study, influence is used in the title of the study to indicate that the study sought to evaluate the effect of the financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance at rural schools. As a result of data collection and analysis, the influence was established from the interpretation and discussion of the analysed data. 1.8.2 Financial incentive Financial incentive refers to the practice of providing extra monetary rewards to teachers to motivate them to perform better (Lavy 2009:1979; Muralidharan & Sundararaman 2011:39). In developed countries, a financial incentive is closely linked to performance, where teachers get paid if their learners show better performance (Glewwe et al. 2003:1; Roland 2011:2). However, a financial incentive can also be a non-performance based financial incentive, given to teachers as a supplement on top of their usual salaries (Glewwe et al. 2003:5). This study pertains to the influence of a non-performance based financial incentive given to qualified teachers at rural Namibian schools on top of their monthly salaries. 1.8.3 Teacher motivation Teacher motivation refers to the factors which stimulate, maintain and channel teachers’ behaviour towards a goal (Hoy & Miskel 1991:168; Seniwoliba 2013:183). Teacher motivation is an integral constituent in the provision of quality education (Emiliana & Ilana 2005:4; Griffin 2010:60; Kayuni & Tambulasi 2007:89). The factors that motivate teachers to work at rural schools were established empirically by way of interviews and a literature study. 1.8.4 Learner performance Learner performance represents the degree of meeting expected competencies, also known as ‘learning outcomes’, which learners should be able to demonstrate at the end of the learning programme (Jacobs et al. 2004:109; Maree & Fraser 2004:16). 25 When learners have mastered the competencies exceptionally, that yields ‘good’ learner performance, and if learners do not master the required competencies as expected, that yields ‘poor’ learner performance. Learner performance is dependent on the motivation of teachers in guiding learners to master the required competencies (Milanowski et al. 2009:2; Glazerman et al. 2009:1). In this study, the mastery of learning outcomes, as required competencies, was determined by analysing, interpreting and discussing the data from applicable documents to see how learner performance was before and after the implementation of the financial incentive. The empirical investigation and literature study also established factors underlying learner performance. 1.8.5 Rural schools Rural refers to the remote parts of a country, usually far from cities and towns and usually having a low population (Hardre, Sullivan & Crowson 2009:5). In the Namibian context, rural areas are typically characterised by a lack of services such as clean water, electricity, housing, medical and transport services. Contrary to the norm, the rural areas of Namibia are more populated than the urban areas (GRN 2011:18). A school is an institution where teaching and learning activities take place. For the purpose of this study, rural schools refer to schools situated in highly populated remote areas where there is harsh living and working conditions, which are not conducive to teaching and learning activities. The rural schools were the research sites for the empirical study. 1.8.6 Optimal learning The fight against all social and economic challenges can be defeated by the provision of adequate education and training of the human capital needed for rural development (Shadreck 2012:768). Optimal learning implies the practice by which learners master the learning outcomes in schools and are able to demonstrate the mastered learning outcomes well after completing their schooling, all for the sake of self-realisation while simultaneously contributing to national development. 26 1.8.7 Good teacher Walker (2008:63) defines a good teacher as a particular kind of teacher who is most successful in helping learners to learn. As teacher characteristics are considered the factors underlying learners’ performance, a good teacher represents that person who demonstrates the necessary characteristics that enable learners to master the learning outcomes which translates into optimal learning (Maurer 2012:3; Sharma & Gupta 2014:201). 1.9 CHAPTER OUTLINE This thesis on financial incentive in relation to teacher motivation and learner performance in rural Namibian schools is organised according to the following outline: Chapter one – Orientation This Chapter serves as preamble for the study and introduces the thesis to the reader. The Chapter orientate the reader around the research background issues, as these issues pertain to the introduction, statement of the problem, motivation for the study, preliminary literature reviews as well as an overview of the methodology that was used to collect data useful for answering the formulated research questions. A synopsis of the ethical considerations and the clarification of key concepts underlying the study are also treated in this Chapter. Chapter two – Motivation theories and teacher motivation This Chapter focuses on the relevant theoretical frameworks of employee motivation with reference to teachers as employees. Drawing insights from the motivation theories, the Chapter discusses the factors influencing motivation of employees, with reference to teachers and how these factors shape teaching and learning activities. The Chapter ends with a discussion of the conceptual framework underlying the study. 27 Chapter three – Teaching and learning at rural schools This Chapter explains the processes of teaching and learning at rural schools. It starts by defining the required type of learning that learners ought to acquire and demonstrate. Since good learning depend on the quality of teaching, the Chapter discusses the characteristics of a good teacher. The Chapter then ends with debates related to the living and working conditions in rural communities. Chapter four – Research design and methodology The research methodology Chapter contains an explanation of the empirical research process in terms of the research paradigm, research approach, research design, the research sites and participants, data collection methods, data analysis techniques and accounting for trustworthiness of the research findings. The Chapter ends by explaining how ethical standards were observed during the research. Chapter five – Research findings and interpretations This Chapter contains firstly, the presentation of findings as a result of data analysis, and secondly, the interpretation and discussion of the findings. The discussed findings serve as the answers to the research questions. This Chapter therefore, contains the gist of the whole study as it informs the reader of the answers to the research questions that necessitated the research project. Chapter six – Summary, conclusions and recommendations This Chapter summarises the main findings of the research as derived from the literature study and empirical investigation. From the summary of findings, conclusions are drawn which shape the recommendations and suggestions for further research in the field of study. The summarised findings and recommendations made are considered as the study’s contribution to the pool of existing knowledge on teacher motivation for improved learner performance in the context of rural education. The summarised findings will fill the knowledge gap in literature and the recommendations will be used to solve existing and anticipated problems in the field of study. 28 1.10 CONCLUSION Financial incentive is regarded as a motivation for teachers worldwide, hence Namibia’s application of a non-performance based financial incentive to motivate qualified teachers to teach at rural schools. The available evidence on the success of a financial incentive is mixed and not convincing. This research attempted to evaluate the implementation of a financial incentive and establish whether the implementation generated the envisioned success. The findings can contribute to the discourse on teacher motivation for optimal learner performance with special reference to the rural schools of developing countries. The data was collected by means of a literature study and an empirical investigation, and the findings were analysed and presented. The findings were then interpreted and discussed which led to the answers for the formulated research questions. The next Chapter presents the theoretical frameworks underlying teacher motivation. 29 CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS AND TEACHER MOTIVATION 2.1 INTRODUCTION This Chapter focuses on the theories pertaining to employee motivation with reference to teachers as employees. The Chapter discusses teacher motivation and performance with specific emphasis on factors that influence teachers’ motivation. The Chapter ends with a discussion of the conceptual framework for the study. 2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS ON EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION In line with Camp’s (2001:4) interpretation of a theoretical framework as a basis that provides the underlying assumptions of the issue under research, this Chapter outlines the theories underlying employee motivation. A theory is a strong foundation from which a phenomenon can be explained (Imenda 2014:186). This study is explained in the context of the theories of employee motivation. Various authors attempted to explain the concept of ‘employee motivation’ in Chapter one (Hynds & McDonald 2010:525; Legotlo 2014:128; Ofoegbu 2004:81; Steyn 2002:85). Summarising these definitions, Hodgetts and Hegar (2005:39) define motivation as a set of processes that move an employee towards a goal. There are two types of motivation, namely, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. According to Gagne and Deci (2005:334), intrinsic motivation is the eagerness and curiosity to perform a task that an employee obtains from within oneself. Juxtaposed with intrinsic motivation, Mahadi and Jafari (2012:232) explain extrinsic motivation as the external forces that encourage an employee to execute a task. In comparative terms, intrinsic motivation comprises of the internal forces that make an employee execute a task, whereas extrinsic motivation comprises the external forces that motivate employees to execute a task. 30 The intrinsic and extrinsic types of motivation are underpinned by a variety of theories. This study is informed by the following theories, namely, Hierarchy of Needs theory, Two-Factor theory, Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory, Expectant theory, Equity theory and the Goal-setting theory. In addition to what was said about these theories in section 1.2.1.1, these theories are now discussed in detail in the next sections. 2.2.1 Hierarchy of Needs theory Abraham Maslow (1970) developed the theory of human motivation known as Hierarchy of Needs theory. Maslow based his motivation theory on three assumptions, firstly, there is always something that someone is trying to fulfil; secondly, a need fulfilled is no longer compelling as an unfulfilled need; and, thirdly, needs are arranged into five categories in an order of their priority (Van der Westhuizen 1991:195). Maslow views some human needs as more powerful and important than others which led him to divide human needs into five categories ranging from the most urgent needs to the most advanced needs. These categories comprise of physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs and self-actualisation needs (Crook 1997:18; Van der Westhuizen 1991:196). The central point of emphasis in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory is that low-level needs should be met first before the high-level needs are met. Figure 2.1 below shows Maslow’s classification of human needs in their order of importance. 31 Figure 2.1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Source: Beardwell and Claydon (2007:493) Figure 2.1 shows the five categories of human needs according to Abraham Maslow. The hierarchy of human needs shows that basic human needs at the bottom are satisfied first before high human needs at the top of the hierarchy are satisfied. At the base of the pyramid are the psychological needs which human needs require for survival for them to be able to progress to the next level. If psychological needs are not satisfied, employees may become ill and may not have the energy to execute tasks (Kaur 2013:1062). Organisations can satisfy these needs by providing employees with a basic salary and favourable working conditions such as air conditioning and cafeteria services (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:95). The second level of the hierarchy consists of safety needs which include protection from psychological and physical harm. Employees need a secure working environment where their safety is prioritised, and where they can work without anxiety and fear. Employees need to work in a safe working environment where they feel comfortable doing the work (Kaur 2013:1062). If safety needs are not met, employees work under 32 fear of their own security and this compromise their productivity, and subsequently lead to employees’ turnover (Kazi & Zadeh 2011:987). Organisations can satisfy these needs by ensuring safe working conditions, fair rules and work security (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:95). The third level of the hierarchy comprises the social needs. Employees desire to be loved, to be associated with, to belong to a group of people and feel appreciated and wanted. When employees experience a sense of belongingness, they feel at ease to associate themselves with others and form relationships (Martin & Joomis 2007:72). If social needs are not satisfied, employees will feel isolated and detach themselves from others. Such conditions decrease employee morale and productivity. Organisations can satisfy these needs by providing opportunities for teamwork, encouraging group discussions as well as providing good mentoring possibilities to employees (Kaur 2013:1062). The fourth level focuses on self-esteem needs. These include the need to have a status, to be respected and a need to be given an opportunity to show competence in problem solving. If these needs are not met, employees will feel humiliated and deprived of the respect they deserve (Martin & Joomis 2007:72). This humiliation affects employee motivation to move to the next level since their competencies are not recognised. Kaur (2013:1062) emphasises that organisations can satisfy these needs through employee recognition, award programmes and promotions. The fifth level focuses on self-actualisation needs. Employees need to be able to distinguish themselves from others as dictated by their capabilities, competencies and achievements and be who they aspire to become in life (Crook 1997:18; Kaur 2013:1062; Martin & Joomis 2007:74). If an employee works in an environment where there are no chances of realising their potential, employees can be demotivated and can look for a better working environment where they will be able to realise their full potential. Organisations can satisfy self-actualisation needs by involving employees in tasks that capitalise on employees’ unique skills in order to stimulate employees’ personal growth and self-development (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:95). 33 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory has been applauded for improving the understanding of human functioning and motivating human resources in organisations (Jerome 2013:42). Despite this applause, researchers have pointed out significant flaws in the theory. One flaw is the lack of empirical evidence to support the theory (Salancik & Pfeffer 1977:427). This is because needs are socially acquired and may vary between cultures, hence making empirical testing difficult to generalise, because human beings are not alike as the theory assumes (Kaur 2013:1064). Another flaw lies in the fact that there is little support for Maslow’s five needs categories and his satisfaction-progression hypothesis (an employee is motivated to progress to the higher level need after a satisfied need at a lower level) (Wahba & Bridwell 1976:212). This is because other theorists grouped human needs into two and three categories respectively (Alderfer 1972; Herzberg, Mausner & Snyderman 1993). In addition, Adelfer (1972) disputed Maslow’s satisfaction-progression assumption, arguing that several needs can be achieved at the same time, and that unsatisfied need can result in a frustration-regression tendency (an employee seeks further satisfaction of a lower level need if the fulfilment of the higher level need is not achieved), as opposed by satisfaction-progression tendency (Crooks 1997:19). Hence, there is little evidence that supports Maslow’s strict hierarchy and the fact that people satisfy only one motivating need at a time (Beardwell & Claydon, 2007:493494). Moreover, the ranking model of needs may not represent a motivation process but rather a value system, possibly relating to that of Maslow’s own social group (Hofstede 1980:42). Furthermore, Maslow’s classification of physiological and safety needs may not be relevant to modern organisations as such needs are catered for by government legislation (Crooks 1997:19). In terms of practical applications, it is argued that there is no correlation in Maslow’s theory between employee motivation and employee performance (Beardwell & Claydon 2007:493-494; Crooks 1997:19). Contrasted to this limitation, this study established whether there is or is not a correlation existing between employee motivation and employees’ performance through a literature study (section 2.3; section 3.5) and empirical investigation (section 5.4.3). The Hierarchy of Needs theory, therefore, is not only relevant to this study for 34 the sake of establishing whether teachers’ categories of needs as identified by Abraham Maslow, were fulfilled, but also to fill gaps in literature as this gap relates to the correlation existing between employee motivation and employee performance as raised by various authors (Beardwell & Claydon 2007:493-494; Crooks 1997:19). 2.2.2 Two-Factor theory Fredrick Herzberg’s motivation theory builds on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory with regard to categorising employees’ work-related needs. However, in the context of Two-Factor theory, Herzberg categorised human needs into two main groups. Herzberg constructed a two-dimensional paradigm of factors affecting employees’ attitudes about work (Gawel 1997:2), as compared to Maslow’s five-dimensional paradigm. Herzberg distinguishes these factors as motivators and hygiene factors. These factors are shown in Table 2.1 below. Table 2.1: Herzberg’s hygiene factors and motivators Hygiene Factors Motivators Organisational policies The quality of work itself Supervision Recognition for achievement Work security Opportunity for advancement Interpersonal relations Responsibility Salary Personal development Working environment Training Source: Van der Westhuizen (1991:200) Table 2.1 shows that factors such as organisational policies, supervision, working conditions and salary are hygiene factors. These are factors whose presence ensures that employees perform at a minimum level, but do not induce motivation which enables employees to perform optimally (Dartey-Baah & Amoako 2011:2). The absence of hygiene factors can create work dissatisfaction, but their presence does not necessarily motivate employees. On the contrary, Herzberg also identified factors 35 such as the work itself, achievement and recognition as strong determinants of employee motivation. Herzberg called th ese factors motivators, because their presence energises employees to work hard. Thomas Sergiovanni tested Herzberg’s theory with teachers and concluded that achievement, recognition and responsibility contributed to teacher motivation (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:99). Two-factor theory has contributed substantially to school leaders’ thinking of what motivates teachers by distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic factors. For example, teachers were demotivated as a result of poor interpersonal relations with learners and other teachers, unconstructive leadership styles, and ineffective school policies and administrative practices (Adjei & Amofa 2014:20). Similarly to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, critics of Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory assert that Herzberg’s theory focuses on employee satisfaction, instead of focusing on the actual employee motivation and employee performance (Lunenburg and Ornstein 2008:99). The methodology that Herzberg used to obtain his hygiene factors and motivators was levelled as being too subjective and lacking empirical basis (Malik & Naeem 2013:1032). Hygiene factors are environmental, as they pertain to the context in which the work is done whereas motivators relate to the content of the work being done by the employees. This study focused on both the context in which teachers works and the content of their work and established how the context and content of teaching influenced teachers’ motivation and subsequent learner performance. 2.2.3 Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory Alderfer’s Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory is an extension of Herzberg’s and Maslow’s theories of motivation. ERG summarises Maslow and Herzberg’s theories and classifies human needs into three categories namely, existence, relatedness and growth needs. This needs are shown in Figure 2.2 below. 36 Growth Desire for continued personal development, self-esteem, and fulfilment Relatedness Interaction, affection, love, competition Existence Material objects: food, water, money Figure 2.2: Adelfer’s ERG theo Source: Sharifzadeh (2015: 1) Figure 2.2 illustrates that Adelfer concurs with Maslow pertaining to the hierarchical structure of human needs. However, Adelfer summarised and grouped Maslow’s needs into three categories, thereby reducing Maslow’s five-level hierarchy to a threelevel hierarchy. The existence needs of Adelfer comprise all forms of physiological and material desires such as food, water and shelter. Adelfer’s existence needs corresponds to Maslow’s psychological and safety needs. The relatedness needs of Adelfer include all those needs that involve interpersonal relationships with fellow employees and supervisors. The relatedness needs correspond with Maslow’s belongingness and self-esteem needs. The growth needs concern an individual’s intrinsic desire to grow and fulfil human potential. Adelfer’s growth needs correspond to Maslow’s self-actualisation needs. While Maslow believes in a satisfaction-progression hypothesis, Alderfer contends that several needs can be experienced at the same time. Adelfer disputes Maslow’s notion that a satisfied need is no longer compelling as a motivator like an unsatisfied need, and proposed a frustration-regression hypothesis, whereby an individual will seek further satisfaction of a lower level need if the fulfilment of the high level need is not achieved (Crooks 1997:19). The ERG theory made a useful contribution to motivation theory, but in common with Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, Crooks (1997:19-20) emphasises that the ERG 37 theory fails to address a number of issues of which the following two are the major ones. Firstly, human motivation is subjective, what is perceived by one person as a satisfying need may not be a satisfying need for another person. Secondly, not only do needs vary, but human behaviours as a result of an unsatisfied or satisfied need may also vary. It can therefore be argued that employee behaviours such as turnover and transfer from one location to another might be a result of either satisfied or unsatisfied needs at the workplace. Related to this study, ERG theory is relevant not only on the justification provided under the Hierarchy of Needs theory and Two-Factor theory being the founding theories of ERG, but also on its frustration-regression hypothesis, as this study established how teachers sought further satisfaction of a lower level need if the fulfilment of the higher level need was not achieved (section 5.4.3.4). 2.2.4 Expectancy theory The needs theories for motivation by Alderfer, Herzberg and Maslow explain the contextual and content necessities that motivate employees in the workplace. Expectancy theory is concerned with the cognitive aspects involved with motivation and the way these cognitive aspects relate to each other (Lunenburg 2011:1). The Expectancy theory was first developed by Victor Vroom then expanded and refined by Porter and Lawler. Expectancy theory is a cognitive process theory of motivation that is based on the idea that people believe there are relationships between the effort they put forth at work, the performance they achieve from that effort, and the rewards they receive for their performance (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:105). Employees are highly motivated if they believe that good efforts will lead to good performance and good performance will lead to desired rewards. Expectancy theory is based on four assumptions (Lunenburg 2011:2). Firstly, employees join organisations with expectations about their needs, motivations and past experiences. These influence how employees react to the organisation. Secondly, an employee’s behaviour is the result of conscious choice. This implies that employees’ expectations determine their behaviour in organisations. 38 Thirdly, different employees want different things from the organisation (e.g. good salary, work security, advancement, and challenge). Fourthly, employees will choose among alternatives to optimise personal outcomes for them. These assumptions led the expectancy theory to have three key elements as expectancy, instrumentality and valence (Lunenburg 2011:2). These key elements are shown in Figure 2.3 below. Figure 2.3: The key elements of Expectancy theory Source: Lunenburg (2011: 2) Figure 2.3 shows expectancy is an employee’s estimate of the probability that jobrelated effort will result in a given level of performance. Expectancy is based on probabilities and ranges from 0 to 1 (Lunenburg 2011:2). If an employee sees no chance that effort will lead to the desired performance level, the expectancy is 0. On the other hand, if the employee is completely certain that the task will be completed given the effort made, the expectancy has a value of 1. Employee estimates of expectancy lie between two extremes, effort and performance. Instrumentality is an employee’s estimate of the probability that a given level of achieved task performance will lead to various work outcomes (Parijat & Bagga 2014:2). As with expectancy, instrumentality ranges from 0 to 1. For example, if an employee sees that a good performance will always result in a salary increase, the instrumentality has a value of 1. If there is no perceived relationship between a good performance rating and a salary increase, then the instrumentality is 0. Valence is the strength of an employee’s preference for a particular reward (Parijat & Bagga 2014:3). Thus, salary increases, promotion, peer acceptance, recognition by supervisors or any other reward might have more or less value to individual 39 employees. Unlike expectancy and instrumentality, valences can be either positive or negative. If an employee has a strong preference for attaining a reward, valence is positive. If the employee has a weak preference for attaining a reward, valence is negative (Lunenburg 2011:3). The total range for a valence is from -1 to +1, implying that the employee can have both a strong and a weak preference for attaining a reward. If an employee is not satisfied with the reward, valence is 0, if the employee is satisfied with the reward, valence is 1 (Parijat & Bagga 2014:3). Theoretically, a reward has a valence because it is related to an employee’s needs. This implies that employees are likely to perform because they have the needs satisfied that are important to them. Therefore, valence is closely linked to the needs theories of motivation by Alderfer, Herzberg and Maslow. An employee is motivated to the degree that he or she believes that the degree of effort (expectancy), will lead to acceptable performance, and performance will be rewarded (instrumentality), and the value of the rewards is highly positive (valence). Applied to this study, Expectancy theory is relevant to this study which focused on determining whether the efforts (expectancy) teachers exerted to increase their performance (instrumentality), were worth the rewards (valence) they received. 2.2.5 Equity theory Another motivation theory similar to the Expectancy theory is Porter and Lawler’s Equity theory, which asserts that employees hold certain beliefs about their work in relation to the inputs they invest in to obtain the outcomes (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:108). The inputs to employment refer to all the efforts that employees make to execute work. These inputs include education, experience and training (Hofmans 2012:473-473). The outcomes of employment refer to all the rewards an employee receives for executing the work and they include salary, promotions, job security and working conditions (De Gieter, De Cooman, Hofmans, Pepermans & Jegers 2012:50). Employees evaluate the fairness of their outcomes with employment by comparing their ratio of outcomes to inputs, with the anticipation that the ratio of outcomes to inputs will be equitable. When the ratios are equal, employees feel that a fair and equitable exchange exists with the employer. When the ratios are not equal in the 40 sense of inputs being equivalent to outcomes, employees experience the situation as one consisting of inequities which can reduce employee motivation. If there are inequities, an employee may engage in certain behaviours to restore equity (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:109). An employee who feels underpaid may contribute less time and efforts to the job, whereas an employee who feels overpaid may work extra hours without pay. Alternatively, an underpaid employee can request a transfer or leave the organisation. It is also argued that the judging of fairness by employees in this equity theory lacks credibility since it is based on employees’ perceptions which may not necessarily be valid (Hofmans 2012:473). Overpayment as a positive inequity have motivated employees to increase their performance (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:110). In addition, overpayment inequity appears to work best with those who have a strong conscience and a sense of what is ethically appropriate. On the other hand, underpayment, as a negative inequity, causes absenteeism and turnover. The major criticism of equity theory is the inability to predict what employees regard as inequity and which methods employees will use to restore equity. This makes it difficult for leaders not to be aware of the areas of inequities from employees’ perspectives in order to implement appropriate measures to address inequities (Grant & Shin 2011:9-10). Expectancy theory is applicable to this study, insofar as this study sought to interact with teachers to express their views on how they see equity prevailing at their rural schools, in the conditions of their employment and service benefits. In addition, teachers were also requested to suggest measures on how equity should be restored in their working conditions and service benefits. 2.2.6 Goal-setting theory The Goal-Setting theory emphasises that organisations and employees set goals which direct their attention and actions (Lunenburg & Ornstein 2008:110). The goalsetting theory was pioneered by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham, and emphasises the importance of organisations in setting goals that lead to high performance and motivated employees. Goal-Setting theory believes that challenging goals mobilise 41 energy, lead to higher efforts and increase persistent efforts. Locke believes that goals motivate employees to develop strategies that will enable them to perform at the required level. Accomplishing a set goal can lead to employee satisfaction and increased motivation. On the contrary, if the goal is not accomplished it can result in frustration and lower levels of motivation. Applied to the context of this study, it can be argued that schools which do not set challenging goals are likely to have low levels of performance since teachers do not set high targets to achieve. This resulted in low teacher motivation and low learner performance. Teachers may also set their own goals to pursue which may require them to leave the schools in pursuit of attaining their goals. This study established how teachers and other educational stakeholders set goals and how these goals improved their level of performance (section 5.4.3.3). These discussions of the different motivation theories informed a focus on teacher motivation addressed hereunder. 2.3 MOTIVATION OF TEACHERS AS EMPLOYEES The concept of teacher motivation has been defined by various scholars. Velez (2007:1) defined teacher motivation as an encouragement of teachers to do their best in the classroom. Similarly, Naomi, Ronald, Isaac and Raja (2012:45) conceptualised teacher motivation as the freedom to try new ideas to achieve appropriate responsibility levels. This freedom brings about the arousal and continuation of teachers’ behaviours. In support of these definitions, Salifu and Agbenyega (2013:1) emphasise that teacher motivation refers to the tangible and intangible working conditions that have the potential to influence teachers positively to demonstrate desirable behaviours leading to high quality professional practice. Drawing insights from these definitions, teacher motivation is regarded as the underlying force behind teachers’ actions. Although quality teaching has become the focus of many education systems across the globe, Salifu and Agbenyega (2013:2) emphasise that more attention should be given to teacher motivation as this motivation pertains to quality teaching and 42 improved learning outcomes in schools. Lack of teacher motivation results in shortages of teachers among schools (section 1.2.1.2). The motivation of teachers is therefore very important as it directly affects learner performance which is closely related to the quality of education that the learners receive (Alam & Farid 2011:1; Naomi et al. 2012:44). Employers have a responsibility of ensuring that teachers perform to the best of their abilities. To execute this responsibility successfully, employers should pay attention to a number of factors that affect teachers’ motivation and performance. 2.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHER MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE Informed by the motivation theories underlying teacher motivation (section 2.2), the factors that influence teacher motivation are discussed next. 2.4.1 The work itself An investigation into the relationship between the quality of work life and employee motivation in Tehran, found that the quality of the work improves employee motivation (Sasan & Yahya 2012:30). Similar findings also revealed that teachers who experience satisfaction at their school or satisfaction with the profession of teaching are motivated to remain in the profession (Beverly, Vicki & George 2008:2). This implies that the nature and quality of the work teachers are involved in plays a vital role in their motivation. However, Beverly et al. (2008:3) contradict the idea of satisfaction at school and put more emphasis on professional loyalty. The authors argue that teachers who choose teaching as their profession because of inherent professional values and loyalty to the profession are more satisfied and motivated than those whose entry into the profession is solely for economic reasons. Job satisfaction acts as a motivation to work as it results in a positive psychological effect for employees as a consequence of their happiness and feeling of content with their work (Rao 2005:480; Saleem, Mahmood & Mahmood 2010:215). Job satisfaction enhances job involvement resulting in loyalty and commitment which leads to better performance by employees (Pandey 2005:5; Velnampy 2008:66). Drawing insights 43 from these arguments by different authors, it is clear that employees who are satisfied with their work are also motivated employees. Authors such as Horwitz, Heng and Quazi (2003:23) make Herzberg’s theory more pertinent to this study on teacher motivation by confirming that employees are motivated by challenging work and support of management, which Herzberg classified as motivators. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory as it applies to self-actualisation as the highest need for humans is hailed by Saleem et al. (2010:215) and Locke and Latham (2004:388) who emphasise that challenging work is the best motivator as it enables employees to be more competitive, work with efficiency and utilise their full capabilities. Employees aspire to work characteristics such as a meaningful job, sufficient remuneration, job security, good relationships with colleagues, recognition and credit for work well done, opportunities for promotion and advancement, a comfortable, safe and attractive work environment, competent and fair leadership, and reasonable order and directions from authorities (Islam & Ismail 2008:344; Kalipraad 2006:24). These employment needs are relevant to the ERG theory due to correlations with employees’ needs for meaningful existence (meaningful work, remuneration and job security), employees’ relatedness needs (good relationships with colleagues, recognition, and credit for work well done) and employees’ growth needs (opportunities for promotion and advancement). On this basis, a fulfilling work should be characterised by assembling all the different needs of employees. This ensures that the employees are not deficient of any work-related need not met. In light of these needs, Caulton (2012:5) recommends that employers listen to their employees, value and respect their employees’ dignity, inputs and contributions to work in order to develop and sustain employees’ positive mind-sets about their work. The importance of a positive mind-set about the work and workplace relates to the fact that employees regard their work as a place to find personal meaning, stability, positive relationships and positive feelings (Cartwright & Holmes 2006:202; Harter, Schmidt & Hayes 2002:268; Harter, Schmidt & Keyes 2002:205; Wagner & Harter 2006:17). Job satisfaction in the field of education results in higher levels of teacher retention and 44 high levels of performance (Christopher 2014:13; Dugguh & Dennis 2014:11; Giacometti 2005:17). It became clear that loyalty to the profession and its challenging nature in the sense of utilising teachers’ full potential is indeed a motivator for teachers to stay committed to their teaching. In spite of all these positive work anticipations by employees, which include teachers, work can also be a place of frustration and disengagement for many employees (Cartwright & Holmes 2006:199). This is because employees are faced with demands of increasing expectations by stakeholders to produce more for less reward, often with fewer resources and unclear expectations in an environment with limited support services (Covey 2004:2; Shuck & Wollard 2008:49). This is what Herzberg (1993) refers to as hygiene factors as these factors cause employee dissatisfaction at the workplace and ultimately low morale and motivation. These work frustrations also relate to Vroom’s (1994) Expectant theory insofar as requiring from employers to provide employees with reasonable work demands and with remuneration that is equivalent to the work demands and that meets the expectations of the employees. When employment needs are not met, employee stress increases, resulting in disengaged employees in the workplace (Cartwright & Homes 2006:199; Harter et al. 2002:205). Disengaged employees distance themselves from the rational and emotional components of work (Akinfolarin & Akomolafe 2011:26). Disengaged employees are physically present at the workplace, but they do not have the energy and passion to execute their work (Shuck & Wollard 2008:49). This results in employees starting to withdraw from their working teams and eventually from the work. Applied to this study on teacher motivation, teachers’ attrition and poor performance at rural schools, despite the implementation of financial incentive, can be attributed to the absence of appropriate teacher motivation strategies with regard to profession-related fulfilments such as motivating teachers to have passion towards their work. 45 2.4.2 Rewards and compensation A study conducted in Nigerian public schools on the influence of teacher incentive on learner performance, revealed that teachers who are motivated as a result of an incentive teach more effectively than those teachers who are not motivated at all (Akpan 2013:1). Carraher, Gibson and Buckley (2006:7) advocate that there should be an effective reward system to retain the high performers in the organisation and reward should be related to their productivity. Rewards can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic rewards are rewards inherent to the work itself like the satisfaction experienced from completing a task successfully, experiencing appreciation from authorities and autonomy, while extrinsic rewards are tangible rewards external to the work itself like remuneration, bonuses, fringe benefits, and promotions (Gagne & Deci 2005:334; Mahadi & Jafari 2012:232). In order to maximise the performance of employees, organisations should formulate a reward system policy to increase and sustain employee motivation (Hafiza, Shah, Jamsheed & Zaman 2011:327). Rewarding employees relates to the Expectant theory which emphasises that employees are more likely to strive in their work if there is an anticipated reward they value in return for the work done. Fulfilling work-related needs such as reasonable remuneration, recognition for good work done, participation in decision making and a generally conducive working environment reaffirms Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory relating to basic and esteem needs. The fact that teachers ranked wages and salaries as their most important motivational factor as advanced by Adjei and Amofa (2014:19) serves as evidence that the hierarchical functioning of Maslow’s needs theory is relevant. School managers need to ensure that teachers’ remuneration is reasonably serving as a motivational factor. When teachers feel that they are not paid according to their capabilities and performance, they will be demotivated, resulting in serious repercussions against learner performance. Schools should therefore provide all the essential fringe benefits to their employees and pay teachers according to their qualifications and capabilities in order to increase their work motivation and performance. 46 2.4.3 Working conditions A physical environment that is conducive to teaching and learning enhances work performance and serves as a motivating factor for both learners and teachers (Akpan 2013:1). In many developing countries teachers’ physical working conditions are not supportive and thus lower their motivation and commitment to teach (Gatsinzi et al. 2014:263). One of the factor inhibiting motivation and a positive teaching and learning environment is overcrowded classrooms. The factors accompanying over-crowded classrooms such as a less supportive parent community and less disciplinary control over learners results in demotivated teachers (Ingersoll 2001:22; Okuni 2003:29). In many instances, lack of proper housing for teachers also serves as a demotivating factor. With regard to proper housing, many teachers teaching in rural environments have to resort to cheap housing since schools have no accommodation for staff (Alam & Farid 2011:298; Gatsinzi, Jesse & Makewa 2014:265). An attempt at solving the problem of overcrowded classrooms by teaching some learners of the same class in the morning session while others are taught in the afternoon session impacts negatively on teachers in terms of commitment and motivation. As the same teachers teach both sessions, such practice creates harsh working conditions for teachers (Gatsinzi et al. 2014:264). Related to overcrowded classrooms is the lack of sufficient instructional materials accompanied by unsupportive management, and the perception of being devalued by the society (VSO 2003:7). Buckley, Schneider and Shang (2004:1) found the quality of school facilities as an important predictor of teacher retention and attrition. Teachers who are dissatisfied with the quality of their physical working conditions seek employment at other schools with more supportive environments (Buckley et al. 2004:1; Gatsinzi et al. 2014:272). Salifu and Agbenyega (2013:2) emphasise that to ensure teachers’ commitment to their duties, it is important that their physical and material working environment be improved by reducing class size for effective classroom management, providing adequate teaching and learning materials to facilitate pedagogical delivery, making available enough furniture to cater for every learner, ensuring an opportunity for 47 professional upgrading and paying teachers’ salaries that are reasonable to guarantee them decent lives. Such working conditions could enable both the attraction and retention of teachers of high academic quality into the teaching profession. Various countries worldwide have introduced a variety of non-performance and performance based incentive to motivate teachers to work under harsh working conditions (section 1.1). Despite this incentive, there is still a shortage of teachers caused by poor working conditions (Kobakhidze 2010:71; McEwan & Santibanez 2005:56). The quality of the working environment and working conditions determine the motivation of teachers by dictating whether teachers should leave or remain in the teaching profession. The views of Buckley et al. (2004:1) and Gatsinzi et al. (2014:272) on teachers seeking employment elsewhere for career growth represent the realities of Adelfer’s (1972) ERG theory. Applied to this study on teacher motivation, it was established that teachers were forced to leave the environment in which their relatedness and growth needs were not met and pursue careers in working environments that were supportive of their aspiring needs. Working conditions should therefore be made favourable in order to motivate and retain teachers. 2.4.4 Professional growth Effective schools are successful in creating professional environments that enable teachers to accomplish their tasks, to participate in decisions affecting their work, to have reasonable autonomy in executing their duties, to share a common purpose, to receive recognition, to be treated with respect and dignity by others, to work together as colleagues and to be provided with ample staff development opportunities to help them develop their horizons further (Gatsinzi et al. 2014:263). This results in teachers being creative, persistent and committed to their work as teachers’ professional conduct and work performance is influenced by motivational factors that are aligned to their professional needs (Nzulwa 2014:60). If teachers’ motivation is not in line with teachers’ professional needs, teachers do not exhibit desired professional conduct. Hence professional development programmes should be tailored to meet teachers’ professional needs and aspirations (Alam & Farid 2011:298). 48 Teachers experience professional satisfaction and growth differently. In the United Kingdom, teacher motivation and satisfaction are related to working with learners while dissatisfaction is related to work overload, poor remuneration and how teachers are recognised by the society (Gatsinzi et al. 2014:263). However, a study conducted to examine the factors affecting teacher motivation in Rawalpindi City and Kohat City revealed that teachers prefer to be motivated by factors such as professional training, incentive and salary commensurate with their qualification, and they are demotivated by learners’ poor behaviour and teachers’ low socio-economic status (Alam & Farid 2011:298; Ud Din, Tufail, Shereen, Nawax & Shabbaz 2012:442). Henceforth, professional related factors and reasonable compensation packages can help to retain high performing teachers who are highly motivated (Nzulwa 2014:65). Teacher motivational factors are in line with Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory of motivators and demotivators in that enjoying the content of the work itself (working with learners) represents a motivator, whereas the context of the work (work overload, learners’ behaviour and socio-economic status) refers to demotivators. For teachers to be highly motivated, they need a high level of professional autonomy, an intellectual challenge and a feeling that they are benefiting the society (Gatsinzi et al. 2014:263). Teachers’ turnover and low performance can thus be attributed to a lack of professional autonomy and intellectual challenge in their profession. Teachers’ need for intellectual challenge can also be related to the Goal-Setting theory, in the sense that if a specific school does not have clear-cut goals, teachers will be prompted to set their own goals that challenge their intellectual and professional capabilities. As a result, some teachers may desert their schools in pursuit of their goals. The argument is that when teachers are motivated they feel responsible and committed to their profession (Salifu & Agbenyega 2013:3). A high sense of teacher responsibility and professional commitment could improve learner performance. The discussion of the factors that influence teacher motivation shaped the conceptual framework of the study as explained next. 49 2.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE RELATION BETWEEN TEACHER MOTIVATION AND LEARNER PERFORMANCE A conceptual framework is the end result of bringing together a number of related concepts to explain and give a broader understanding of the phenomenon under research (Imenda 2014:189). The conceptual framework organises the key concepts in the study in order to define the focus and direction for the study. The key concepts are derived from the theories and findings from the literature. The conceptual framework emerges from wide and intensive reading of relevant literature, and links research projects to ongoing conversations in the researcher’s field by establishing the following parameters (Thomas 2012:89): firstly, it reminds the researcher what is the focus and what is not the focus of the research project and, secondly, it provides direction for the formulation research questions, the research design and the search for the literature review. In addition, a conceptual framework provides coherence to the researcher’s thoughts, making it easy to convey how and why the researcher’s ideas matter relative to some larger body of ideas embodied in the research, writings and experience of other scholars (Schram 2006:59). Informed by the theoretical framework and the discussions of the factors motivating teachers, the conceptual framework that guided the study is depicted in Figure 2.4 below. 50 Work Meaningful job Challenging tasks Goal-oriented Job satisfaction Rewards Recognition Appreciation Reasonable salaries Fair compensation Environment Conducive Adequate facilities Able leadership Good co-workers Manageable class size Teacher Motivation Context Content Attraction Retention Loyalty Teaching Facilitating Assessing Learner performance High achievement Promotion Awards Profession Growth Promotion Development Autonomy Figure 2.4: Conceptual framework for the relation between teacher motivation and learner performance Figure 2.4 shows the conceptual framework for the study, indicating that teacher motivation is influenced equally by the factors relating to the work itself, the reward systems, the working environment and the profession. The conceptual framework shows that when teachers’ desired needs attached to these factors are equally met, teachers become motivated, both with the context in which they execute their work, and with the content of their work. In terms of the context, motivated teachers are attracted to the specific work, such that they want to remain with the specific work and stay committed to what they are doing. With regard to the content of the work, motivated teachers are optimally involved in teaching and facilitating the learning process as well as assessing learners’ academic progress. This conceptual framework relates to Vroom’s Expectancy theory, insofar as the factors on which efforts should be exerted resembles expectancy, whereas teacher motivation resembles instrumentality as an achieved performance resulting from 51 successful coordination of the factors, and learner performance resembles valence as an output of instrumentality. The philosophy underlying the conceptual framework is that appropriate teacher motivation strategies should culminate in improved learner performance at rural schools. Ultimately, teachers’ optimal teaching, their facilitation and assessment of the learning process will culminate in good learner performance in their standardised national examination, which is a measure of the teachers’ performance. Teachers’ performance is measured by how best their learners master the learning outcomes. The desired teacher performance is characterised by high academic achievement, the promotion of learners to next grades and receiving of awards by learners. The process is cyclical in good learner performance prompts school management to continuously motivate teachers to enable learners to produce the same good results repeatedly. 2.6 CONCLUSION Teacher motivation is an integral part of the success of the teaching and learning processes. The study established that motivation theories apply to teacher motivation. Motivating teachers requires school leaders to fulfil crucial work-related needs which are both intrinsic and extrinsic in nature. The fulfilment of these needs in return motivate teachers to increase their performance which is demonstrated by learner achievement in standardised national examinations. Desired learner achievement can prompt school leaders to continuously adhere to fulfilling teachers’ work-related needs in order to energise teachers to maintain increased learner performance. The next Chapter presents the processes of teaching and learning in a rural context. 52 CHAPTER 3 TEACHING AND LEARNING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 3.1 INTRODUCTION This Chapter discusses the teaching and learning processes as happening in a rural context. The Chapter begins by explaining optimal learning and the conditions considered as supportive for optimal learning to take place. The Chapter then explains what constitutes a good teacher by outlining characteristics of a good teacher, which is succeeded by an explanation of living and working in a rural environment in Namibia. The Chapters ends with a discussion of the conditions that characterised teaching and learning at rural schools. 3.2 DEFINING OPTIMAL LEARNING Education is a key investment in any society and a critical ingredient for a knowledge based economy, as it provides knowledgeable human resources that are required to propel economic growth. Investments in education ensure that young people, whether in rural or urban communities, are equipped with the knowledge, skills and exposure they need to enable them to contribute meaningfully to national development (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:23). The fight against all social and economic challenges, particularly in rural communities, can be defeated by the provision of adequate education and training of the human capital needed for rural development (Shadreck 2012:768). The ultimate aim of education is to equip learners with the required competencies that will enable them to function optimally in society. For the purpose of this study, optimal learning implies the practice by which learners master the learning outcomes in schools and are able to demonstrate the mastered learning outcomes well after completing their schooling, all for the sake of self-realisation while simultaneously contributing to national development. Learners are not only required to master the learning outcomes in order to pass examinations or get promoted to the next grade, but must also be able to apply the acquired skills, knowledge and experience to real life situations both in and outside 53 school establishments. Optimal learning is demonstrated by the extent to which a learner masters curriculum content in terms of theories and applications (Aziz 2005:1). Although teachers have a mammoth task to play in ensuring effective teaching which translates into optimal learning (section 1.2.1.2), many factors in addition to teachers are internationally recognised as enablers for optimal learning to take place. These factors include the provision of adequate resources related to teaching and learning materials, physical infrastructures and facilities (Chiu & Khoo 2005:575; Lingam & Lingam 2013:2160). Although teachers are well-trained and dedicated and ensure an enabling environment for successful learning, they cannot provide a complete enriching teaching and learning experience to learners which ensures optimal learning in the absence of adequate resources (Lingam & Lingam 2013:2161). The school environment is an important enabler for optimal learning because it serves as the playground for the interaction of all inputs for teaching and learning. School environments should consist of well-qualified teachers who should be provided with adequate curriculum materials in order to realise optimal learning and a library should also be available to assist teachers with additional information to help learners master the learning outcomes (Cass 2007:65; Lingam & Lingam 2013:2161). The school environment should have sufficient buildings and instructional materials in order to facilitate the mastery of learning outcomes as inadequacy of these resources can detract from efforts to provide optimal learning. Even though adequate resources are very critical in realising optimal learning, the Education for All (EFA) campaign and the Dakar World Conference on Education confirmed that most schools are in need of facilities, whereas some schools’ facilities need urgent improvement which has negatively affected teachers in implementing effective teaching for optimal learning (Lingam & Lingam 2013:2161). This is because suitable and relevant instructional materials and physical facilities can help teachers in their instruction and help learners to learn who, in response to better resources and better instructions, would both understand better and profit from all aspects of school work as it would be more meaningful to them (Lingam & Lingam 2013:2161). Having a better understanding of school work and regarding them as meaningful on the side of the learner can best guarantee the achievement of optimal learning. 54 Optimal learning is less achievable in rural areas as learners in rural areas are proven to be educationally disadvantaged compared to their urban counterparts. Rural learners are disadvantaged due to the narrow scope of the curriculum at their schools, poor instructional practices and lack of proper infrastructure in rural areas compared to urban areas (Monk 2007:155; Howley, Rhodes & Beall 2009:515; OwusuAcheampong & Williams 2015:34-35). Learners in rural communities in Fiji have poor mastery of learning outcomes due to poverty and inadequate school facilities (Lingam & Lingam 2013:2161). On the contrary, a study of high-performing schools in Fiji showed that, among other characteristics, high performing urban schools performed optimally because they were adequately resourced (Lingam & Lingam 2013:2162). This finding is consistent with Chiu and Khoo (2005:576) who found that learners with more resources have more learning opportunities which makes it easier to master learning outcomes. It can also be argued that, even with multi-grade teaching which seems to pose challenges to teachers in rural communities (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:6), the practice can be made easier with the availability of sufficient educational resources (Lingam & Lingam 2013:2162). This is clear evidence that lack of adequate school facilities and instructional resources inhibit the realisation of optimal learning whereas sufficient educational resources and facilities enhance optimal learning in schools. Apart from teachers’ professional preparedness, as will be dealt with in this Chapter (section 3.3.1), teacher motivation as dealt with in section 2.4 also serves as an important determinant in realising optimal learning in schools. A motivated teaching staff is essential in ensuring good teaching that translates into optimal learning. It was established in the United States of America that teachers play a very important role in the learning process of learners who regard them as their role model (Zvavahera 2012:4). Therefore, teacher motivation is important as it directly affects learners in terms of academic performance and role modelling. Despite this importance, the worth of teachers in society is very low due to poor status given to teachers by society, as teaching has been perceived as a profession for those 55 who could not secure their intended employment. Studies in Malawi and Tanzania that examined why students opt for the teaching profession revealed negative images towards the teaching profession. Revelations include seeing teaching as a last resort, low status, low-paid job, failure to follow a desired career and seeing it as a sense of vocation (Mtika & Gates 2011:424; Towse, Kent, Osaki & Kirua 2002:637). Proper teacher motivation is thus required to motivate teachers to teach effectively despite negative perceptions towards their profession. Teachers in many African countries are working in challenging conditions that are aggravated by poor remuneration, delay in payment of salaries, inadequate allowances and promotions, insufficient teaching and learning resources, and disrespect from government and the parent community (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:16). These adverse circumstances that teachers experience have the tendency to reduce their motivation to teach learners to a level where learners can demonstrate that optimal learning has taken place. Teachers assert that poor teaching conditions and decreasing level of motivation affect their performance in the classroom and reduce the ability of learners to achieve satisfactory learning outcomes, thus reducing their capability to deliver quality education (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:16). A study that was conducted in Ghana on teacher motivation and job satisfaction determined that factors such as salary, working conditions, incentive, medical allowances, physical security, recognition for achievement, professional growth, learner discipline, school policy and status of the profession were the most important factors of motivation to teachers that could enhance their career, ensure that they are retained for the teaching profession, or cause them to leave the profession (Seniwoliba 2013:181). It is therefore important that school leaders know how to make these motivating factors favourable to teachers in order to increase their motivation levels and effectiveness in realising optimal learning, because if teachers are not motivated, no matter how well they are trained and how well-resourced their schools are, they will not have the drive to teach successfully. 56 The provision of sufficient resources and instructional materials alone may not guarantee optimal learning, as these inputs have to be coordinated by motivated teachers (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:29). The degree of teacher motivation will determine the degree of effectiveness to which the various inputs have to be coordinated. For optimal learning to take place, school leaders and other education authorities should ensure that they have motivated teaching staff in each classroom in order to coordinate the various inputs successfully. This can be done by improving the working conditions and service benefits of teachers in order to motivate them to enhance optimal learning (Bennel 2004:47). Professional growth is important in ensuring that teachers empower themselves with improved capacity. For teachers to be able to equip learners with contemporary contents in the subject areas, it is imperative that teachers are exposed to a variety of professional development programmes (Billingsley 2004:370; Shadreck 2012:768). This will help teachers to ensure that learners receive relevant content and that teachers utilise recent teaching pedagogies. Professional development is also considered a method of retaining teachers (Billingsley 2004: 371; Osterholm, Deborah & Johnson 2006:9). In order to make this retention strategy effective, Osterholm et al. (2006:6) stress that teachers should be compensated for acquiring and deepening knowledge and skills that contribute to improved learner achievement. If teachers are not well compensated, schools are at risks of losing teachers as they may feel unrecognised and under-utilised, and therefore will seek employment opportunities that recognise their qualifications. In terms of measuring optimal learning in schools, Mitra, Dangwal and Thadani (2008:169) stress that a school is considered to provide high quality education if it has good academic performance in national examinations, which is a measure used by most governments in assessing school quality. It is clear that optimal learning implies learners mastering the curriculum contents by demonstrating this mastery in standardised national examinations, and being able to apply the contents culminating in improved skills and behaviour in society. 57 It is clear that optimal learning as the ultimate aim of education representing teaching that translates into the mastery of learning outcomes, is contingent on certain inputs that are regarded as critical in enabling optimal learning to take place in schools. Inputs such as sufficient facilities and instructional materials are required for good teaching and learning to take place. Competent and high quality teachers are essential in ensuring that the available resources are coordinated effectively to achieve optimal learning. Motivation measures devised to retain teachers and ignite their potential to teach effectively are crucial input measures which are related to continuous professional development programmes to excel in relevancy and competency for the teaching profession. All of these measures are applicable to rural schools that have been proven to be short of resources, comprehensively resulting in optimal learning remaining a challenge. It is also clear that optimal learning is made possible by a combination of inputs, coordinated by the provision of good teachers which will be discussed next. 3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEACHER Competent and qualified teachers are essential for effective teaching and for enhancing the quality of learning. The capabilities of a competent teacher as demonstrated in the classroom play a vital role in provoking effective and efficient learning on the part of the learners (Markley 2004:1). Many researchers emphasise that teachers have a fundamental role in their learners’ academic achievement and their quality can highly influence learners’ performance outcomes (Campbell, Kyriakides, Muijsc & Robinsona 2004:451; Lasley II, Siedentop & Yinger 2006:13; Rockoff 2004:247). An effective teacher encompasses a range of skills, competencies and motivation to execute good teaching. Specific characteristics are required in order to expect effective teaching that translate into optimal learning (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:44). There has been increasing attention and debates in literature on teacher quality and effectiveness relating to the mastery of learning outcomes by learners (Barley & Beesly 2007:2; Devine, Fahie & Hannun 2009:14; Hanushek, John, Daniel & Rivkin 2005:12; McGillicuddy 2013:83; Rivkin, Hanushek & Kain 2005:417; Rockoff 2004:248). Researchers are in agreement that competent and qualified teachers are 58 essential for efficient functioning of educational systems and for enhancing the quality of learning (Shishavan 2009:130). Effective teachers are therefore critical in ensuring that optimal learning takes place. Even though it has been established that teachers play a fundamental role in their learners’ academic achievement as their quality can determine the extent to which learners are likely to master their learning outcomes (Lasley II, Siedentop & Yinger 2006:14; Rockoff 2004:248; Shishavan 2009:130), there is lack of evidence and awareness about what constitutes a good teacher since some teachers are more productive than others in promoting learner achievement. Understanding the characteristics that distinguish effective teachers from ineffective teachers is significant in ensuring an increased number of good teachers in schools in order to improve the quality of education (Maurer 2012:4). Without precise knowledge of what makes a good teacher, education authorities will continue to encounter persisting difficulties in tracing, recruiting and retaining teachers who are truly meant to be teachers (Maurer 2012:4). Education leaders experience difficulties in identifying talented people and developing them through training to become good teachers. Some of the characteristics that were traditionally deemed as the sole criteria for selecting good teachers are no longer applicable to modern times, as such criteria alone do not result in increased optimal learning (Rivkin et al. 2005:417). Characteristics such as professional qualifications and years of experience may sound relevant as requirements for a teaching career, but such requirements alone cannot define a good teacher, nor predict improved learner performance (Maurer 2012:4; Rivkin et al. 2005:417). Moreover, it is also difficult to identify and define good teachers because they are not the same individuals year after year in terms of the quality of teaching and learner performance (Maurer 2012:5). Walker (2008:63) relates the concept of ‘good teacher’ to ‘effective teacher’ as a particular kind of teacher who is most successful in helping learners to learn. Walker (2008:63) emphasis on ‘most successful’ teacher to engender learning goes beyond the remarks by Maurer (2002:5) on the length of time it takes to identify a good teacher. While Maurer (2002:5) stresses that good teachers may not be the same year after 59 year, Walker (2008:63) contradicts Maurer’s (2002:5) view in the sense that to be ‘most successful’, indicates length of time, implying that good teachers remain the same year after year. Teachers’ identification as being effective is based on the characteristics they are manifesting consistently. Walker (2008:63) describes ‘characteristics’ as teachers’ special qualities that enable them to achieve success in their teaching profession. As teacher characteristics are considered the factors underlying learners’ performance, a good teacher represents that person who demonstrates the necessary characteristics that enable learners to master the learning outcomes which translates into optimal learning (Maurer 2012:3; Sharma & Gupta 2014:201). In this regard, many studies determined the character, competencies and behaviour of a good teacher (Dewar 2002:62-63; Devine et al. 2013:90-93; Okoro & Chukwudi 2011:107-110). As optimal learning is closely related to effective teachers, it is important to understand what constitute a good teacher in order to establish the appropriateness of a person for the teaching profession. According to Arnon and Reichel (2007:441), a good teacher is synonymous with an ‘ideal teacher’ and can be defined by characteristics that facilitate good teaching. Moreover, Adedeji and Olaniyan (2011:47), concurring with Maurer (2012), stress that good teaching refers to teachers being able to facilitate good instruction that leads to effective learning, which in turn leads to thorough and lasting acquisition of knowledge and skills. In the context of this study, the thorough and lasting acquisition of knowledge and skills is what is referred to as optimal learning. For good teaching to materialise, teachers should manifest a set of characteristics. These characteristics relate to a passion for teaching and learning, having professional knowledge, a warm personality, appropriate behaviours, affective roles towards others, applicable abilities and relational skills (Arnon & Reichel 2007:442; Devine et al. 2013:83; Sahin & Cokadar 2009:213). As a result of analysing these diverse characteristics, three major themes emerged as characteristics of a good teacher, namely, professional characteristics, personality characteristics and characteristics. These characteristics of a good teacher are discussed next. 60 social 3.3.1 Professional characteristics This characterisation of a good teacher is based on teachers’ professional requirements and suitability to serve and fulfil the tasks of the teaching profession. There has been an increasing international debate on teacher quality and effectiveness which prompts questions against teachers’ suitability in the profession (Devine et al. 2013:87; Heeralal 2014:1796; Mitra et al. 2008:169). A professional teacher has been described from different perspective by different authors all boiling down to having professional skills, knowledge and experience applicable to the teaching profession (Bullock 2015:2). Professional knowledge relates to the ‘pedagogical content knowledge’ which is defined as a teacher’s understandings of the concepts being taught and skills needed to contextualise, situate and personalise the content to the learners (Thompson, Greer & Greer 2004:2; Mullock 2003:4). Good teachers need to be well conversant with teaching pedagogies as all endeavours aimed at educational development and provision rely much on the competencies that quality teachers express which relate to sound pedagogical skills, knowledge and characteristics (Burnett & Lingam 2007:303). Being competent with pedagogic content knowledge implies that good teachers know how to organise and teach learners in a way that learners can demonstrate mastery of the learning content. The significance of pedagogic content knowledge is consistent with the findings of a study conducted in Australia, where learners rated ability to explain well and engagement in lesson content as important characteristics of good teaching (White 2009:3). Learners also highlighted the importance of classroom management, learnerteacher relationships and listening to learners’ input as typical characteristics of a good teacher (Cook‐Slather 2002:21). Good teachers do not just impart the already compiled subject curricula, but they go beyond by knowing how their learners learn, understand why their learners learn and how best they can help learners to learn better. Based on this view, a good teacher is described as someone who is able to organise classroom environments for easy 61 management and present unambiguous instructions to learners so they capture the essence of teaching (Bullock 2015:1; Murphy, Delli & Edwards 2004:69). Therefore, a good teacher knows the techniques for creating an orderly and conducive learning environment and presents clear explanations of the subject contents to the learners. A good teacher presents learning material in an organised and engaging way and uses creative teaching approaches (White 2009:1; Duarte 2013:1; Samples & Copeland 2013:176). Organised teaching materials make it easy for learners to interact with the learning materials and this helps to facilitate the learning and teaching process. To be acquainted with such pedagogic capabilities, good teachers should have undergone an intensive professional training, during the course of which they should have gained extensive experience, skills and understanding of what methodologies and pedagogies to apply in their classrooms. Research on professional teacher behaviours and conduct reveals that good teachers are organised and conduct themselves in a professional manner, they are efficient in performing tasks allocated to them, are accountable for the results of their actions and are intelligent in solving problems which draw appreciation from all those who work with them (Vlad & Ciascai 2014:41). Professional traits as demonstrated by teachers in behaviours and duty execution are keys in the characterisation of a good teacher. Despite the challenging nature of the teaching profession, good teachers have the ability to apply the skills and knowledge they have learned during their training into their teaching practice (Bullock 2015:3). Good teachers are not only those who are teachers by virtue of having a professional qualification, but those with the ability to apply the learned and experienced competencies in their classes and the environment in which they function. A good teacher knows how to adapt to a challenging environment and practice the duties without compromising on output, such as decreased learner achievement. In terms of subject content delivery, a good teacher delivers the subject content in a manner that is very clear, shows knowledge of the subject content, has clear articulation and is able to motivate learners and summarise the main points at the end of the lesson (Duarte 2013:3). Learners get the content from a good teacher without 62 misinterpretation of facts, as the teacher imparts subject knowledge in certain terms. Summarising helps learners to get the main points of the lesson without having to struggle with what they have learned during the lesson. Samples and Copeland (2013:179) point out that one of the ways in which teachers can earn themselves trust from learners is the ability to deliver the subject content effectively to the learners. Trust is essential in motivating learners to seek support from the teacher so that learners understand content coherently and explicitly. With reference to leadership and management, a good teacher knows what style of leadership to use under different circumstances and avoids being arrogant or authoritative (Vlad & Ciascai 2014:41). Teachers deal with learners of different characteristics and attitudes. As a result, a good teacher knows what style of leadership to use as determined by the situation. This implies that good teachers do not apply the principle of ‘one style fits all’ as they understand the nature of their profession and the fact that each learner is unique. Good teachers are fair at all times, handle learners fairly in terms of teaching, assessment and grading, as well as afford all learners equal privileges and opportunities to make contributions (Inan 2014:428; Khojastehmehr & Takrimi 2009:63). Walker (2008:65) emphasises that good teachers have the understanding that ‘fair’ does not necessarily mean treating every learner the same but means giving every learner an opportunity to succeed. This reveals that a good teacher understand that not all learners learn in the same way and at the same rate, which require a teacher to use different teaching styles in order to accommodate all learners in their classrooms. Good teachers understand the learners’ learning styles, and are thus knowledgeable with all the learning styles applicable to their subjects as well as the different teaching methods relevant to their learners (Samples & Copeland 2013:179). In terms of subject specialisation, a good teacher is well informed with the subject specialisation, they know how to stimulate learners’ attention to remain focused on the subject and show determination in their lesson presentation (Espina 2013:110; Samples & Copeland 2013:179). Because good teachers are well conversant with the subject knowledge in terms of content and delivery, good teachers are open for questioning by learners. This characterisation of teachers helps to ensure mastery of the subject content by learners and instil a sense of pride, trust and motivation among 63 learners to succeed in their learning. Since learners perceive good teachers to impact their motivation to learn, a good teacher connects well with each learner to foster passion and excitement towards a subject (Littkey 2004:12). Learners have described good teachers as individuals who are competent instructors, focusing on the transfer of knowledge and skills in such a way that learners understand what is facilitated (Bullock 2015:1; Duarte 2013:3; Vlad & Ciascai 2014:42). This assertion is consistent with Adeosun, Oni and Oladipo’s (2013:40) emphasis that only teachers who possess the necessary technical competence and professional skills through a well-coordinated teacher training programme can rise to meet the challenges in the classrooms. Komarraju (2013:104) contradicts that what learners classify as a good teacher may not lead to high learner achievement. Komarraju (2013:104) emphasises that learners’ personality differences may influence their classification of a good teacher. There are no clear criteria in outlining characteristics for good teachers, as this may depend on how an individual learner views a good teacher. Despite this contention, authors such as Furnham and Chamorro-Premuzic (2005:176) emphasise that, in general, learners like open and agreeable teachers who are smart, emotionally adjusted and hardworking. Good teachers have an open platform for communicating with learners in terms of subject content and learners’ progress, motivating learners and praising them for good work. Good teachers create opportunities for learners to ask questions and entertain learners’ questions to ensure that learners understand the content presented and are motivated to have interest in the subject. This is because good teachers are well known for treating their lesson presentations as a serious academic endeavour and as intellectually-demanding and as important as their coursework during their years of teacher training (Samples & Copeland 2013:179). This implies that good teachers consider their teaching responsibility as a serious business and treat it with due respect, the same way they treated their professional training that made them to be good teachers. Hence, the professional training of teachers informs the teachers’ own understanding and respect of their lesson content and presentation. 64 Good teachers are active constructivists of knowledge in their classroom. While teaching methods vary based on the situation and content, good teachers create critical thinking environments where learners learn by confronting each other’s experience of the lesson situation with real life problems that will challenge them to generate new ideas, rethink their assumptions and examine their solutions (Samples & Copeland 2013:179). This constructivist perspective of creating knowledge in the classroom is made possible by good teachers, and correlates well with the interpretivist/constructivism research paradigm as discussed in sections 4.4.1.2 and 4.4.1.5 respectively. Good teachers believe that every learner has the ability to construct new knowledge once provided with opportunities. As a result, good teachers set high academic standards for learners and consistently challenge their learners to do their best and discover their potential. This type of interaction is important as it builds learners’ confidence towards the teacher and also helps learners to establish and believe in their potential. This interaction helps learners to grasp new concepts, gain new insights about the unknown and strengthen their relationships with one another. This constructivism helps to generate new knowledge, thus a good teacher knows how to create an atmosphere conducive to the creation of new knowledge. Not all teachers demonstrate the professional characteristics of a good teacher. Because of this difference in professional competencies amongst teachers, some learners attain higher achievements in some classes than others. Typical professional competencies relate to nurturing learners’ potential, possessing a sound subject knowledge base, constant monitoring of learners’ progress, impartiality, consistent lesson preparedness, a high level of intellectual competence and good communication skills (Adeosun et al. 2013:48; Vlad & Ciascai 2014:41). With regard to the Namibian situation, evidence was lacking whether teachers in rural schools, possessed professional characteristics or whether their employment into the profession was merely based on having an applicable teaching qualification and assumed teaching experience. The empirical investigation sought to fill the gap by establishing the professional characteristics that Namibian teachers at rural schools possessed. Besides possessing relevant teaching qualifications, being aware of the 65 realities of rural life is presumed to enable the teacher to appreciate the difficult situation in rural schools and thereby use suitable practical strategies to ensure learners achieve optimal learning (Eppley, 2009:4). The empirical investigation further established how teachers coped with the difficulties they were going through at rural schools. 3.3.2 Personality characteristics While professional characteristics focus on the teachers’ professional requirements and suitability for the teaching profession, personality traits define a good teacher on the basis of a teacher’s specific personal characteristics that cause an individual teacher to behave in certain ways, other than by professional knowledge or abilities (Gao & Liu 2013:84). Personality refers to the patterns of behaviours that are unique to the individual and how these habits and behaviours are organised (Arif, Rashid, Tahira & Akhter 2012:161). Personality is therefore person-bound and differs from person to person and direct a person to behave in a unique way. The personality of the teacher influences classroom climate and has major implications regarding learners’ motivation and attitude towards learning (Açıkgöz 2005:104; Maurer 2012:5). The personality of the teacher is an important variable in shaping the teaching and learning processes (Arif et al. 2012:162). Personality shapes the behaviours of the teacher, as it is the interface between the teacher and the learners. Good teachers demonstrate a good personality during teaching which draws learners’ attention even if the teacher does not mention a word. Any teacher whose personality creates a conducive learning environment in which learners feel confident and motivated to learn is characterised as having a good teaching personality (Sharma & Gupta 2014:202). All teachers have their own sets of personal characteristics which indicate their behaviours towards others and how others respond to them (Arif et al. 2012:162). For example, teachers with dictatorial characteristics are likely to exhibit them during lesson presentation which then shapes negative interaction between teachers and learners. On the contrary, well-balanced and non-anxious teachers can create an active learning environment where learners are at ease to engage with the subject content. Teacher personality therefore has a direct impact on learning and teaching in classrooms. It is significant for teachers to recognise their own personality type and 66 the personality type of others in order to help establish a positive intra-personal and inter-personal relationship with others (Arif et al. 2012:163). This implies that personality recognition is critical in identifying suitable teaching staff. Research has proved that personality recognition has been useful in forecasting workers’ suitability to fill certain roles, establishing relationships in organisations and predicting future performance (Arif 2012:165). Other research findings on personality recognition suggest that right personality characteristics can ensure good teachers entering the profession, retain teachers in the profession and attract teachers who will remain in teaching and be committed to learner achievement (Duckworth, Quinn & Seligman 2009:540; Sharma & Gupta 2014:201). Positive affection and relaxed atmosphere are critical in ensuring optimal learning. If learners fear the teacher, optimal learning is inhibited. Studies conducted with learners on what makes a good teacher, revealed that good teachers are those teachers who are mentally healthy and nurturing and enable learners to score maximum marks in the subjects taught by these teachers (Cook‐Slather 2002:21; White 2009:3). From learners’ perspective, the personality of a good teacher can also be manifested by learners’ performance in the subject the teacher offers. The personality of a good teacher yields good learner performance. Personal characteristics such as aggression and hostility cannot constitute a good teacher, because such characters suppress creativity and learners’ curiosity. Learners who are exposed to unhealthy behavioural patterns of teachers, such as hostility and being overcritical and restrictive, usually have low achievement because of the decreased interest in the subject (Arif et al. 2012:163). The low achievement therefore makes teachers with unhealthy personality patterns not to be regarded as good teachers. There is ample evidence supporting the view that the personality of a teacher is a very important enabler of successful teaching and that teacher effectiveness is perceived to exist as a consequence of the characteristics of a teacher as a person (Arnon & Reichel, 2007:445; Thompson et al. 2004:2). The effective use of a teacher's personality is essential in conducting instructional activities. Learners learn from a 67 teacher’s personality even if there is no formal interaction between learners and teacher. The teacher whose personality helps create and maintain the classroom as a learning environment in which learners feel comfortable and in which they are motivated to learn depicts a desirable teaching personality and is thus a good teacher (Arif et al. 2012:164). A competent teacher demonstrates a good combination of personality traits such as kindness, enthusiasm, friendliness, helpfulness and patience in performing the tasks (Murphy et al. 2004:70; Arnon & Reichel, 2007:446). A good teacher cares much about learners and communicates politely with them. Despite the significance of personality recognition, there is lack of measures in Namibia to recognise whether students applying to teacher training institutions possess the necessary personality that will make them good teachers and remain in the profession. This results in students becoming teachers when they were not meant to be teachers by virtue of their personality. Their unsuitability for the teaching profession can be evident in their learners’ poor performance and in their turnover (Bennell 2004:11). The fact that there are no reliable mechanisms to use in Namibia to determine the required personal characteristics for the teaching profession relate to aspects such as evaluating practising teachers to find out whether they have the right personal characteristics, has been based on preconceived notions of good teaching practice, rather than determining teacher personality as a true reflection of learner performance (Maurer 2012:5). Characteristics such as extraversion, social attractiveness and assertiveness have been found to elevate an individual’s rating of teacher performance in the absence of any empirical evidence indicating good learner performance (Duckworth et al. 2009:540). This implies that there is lack of proper systems to detect the personal characteristics of a good teacher as current evaluation measures are dominated by subjectivity rather than objectivity of teacher effectiveness. 68 Even if students with personal characteristics of good teachers are detected while in training, there will still be inequity in terms of deployment. Graduating teachers are not randomly assigned to schools; instead, teachers choose the school where to work based on their preferences. Good teachers usually accept deployment in best performing districts, thereby creating a selection bias where the presence of teachers with the preferred teacher personality characteristics are concentrated in high performing schools at the expense of low performing schools (Duckworth et al. 2009:540). The tendency of teachers opting for their own deployment is common in most subSaharan Africa countries including Namibia, where graduates choose their own duty station which led to some schools having good teachers and high learner performance compared to other schools, especially rural schools (Arnaud, Peter & Steven 2007:69; UNICEF Report 2014:21). There is a lack of a deployment policy for qualified teachers among Namibian schools to solve inequitable distribution of qualified teachers among schools. It becomes evident that there is a close correlation between the personality characteristics of a good teacher and learner performance. A good teacher reveals personal characteristics such as being kind to the learners, being kind, enthusiastic, friendly and helpful. A good teacher demonstrates well-balanced and non-anxious personal behaviours which stimulate a conducive learning environment where learners are at ease to engage with the subject content. This implies that professional qualification and experience alone cannot bring about optimal learning in schools. As no study has been conducted in Namibia to detect the personal characteristics of practising teachers and its impacts on learner performance, this research extended boundaries to include the personal characteristics domain in its inquiry, and included findings on this terrain in order to fill the gap on teacher personality impacting on learner performance. 3.3.3 Social characteristics Teachers do not operate in isolation as schools are organisations composed of different units as well as different people of different social backgrounds (Dittmar, 69 Mendelsohn & Ward 2002:4). In strengthening social characteristics of teachers, a school cluster system was introduced in Namibia as from 1996. A school cluster system relates to the grouping of schools that are geographically close together in order to share educational resources and instructional materials with the purpose of improving educational standards and promote social cohesion among schools (Dittmar et al. 2002:9; Giordano 2008:43). The nature of the school as an organisation requires teachers to be able to demonstrate certain social characteristics in the execution of their duties. In the context of this study, social characteristics refer to the qualities that good teachers are expected to demonstrate when interacting with all the people involved in their working environment. Among other stakeholders, teachers execute their work in close partnership with learners, parents, fellow teachers and school leaders. While interacting with these people, teachers should demonstrate exceptional skills of working with people. Good teachers establish a good relationship with their learners, which Vlad and Ciascai (2014:45) define as the teacher’s ability to function in a social group and take on the social responsibilities of a teacher pertaining to learners’ social welfare. Good teachers are socially responsible, implying they treat learners equally, listen to and care about learners’ problems and get to know each learner as an individual (Arnon & Reichel 2007:446). A good relationship between teachers and learners leads to learners’ motivation, good lesson engagement and high learner achievement (Hughes 2011:39). Many individuals entering the teaching profession indicate working with learners as one of the key reasons that got them attracted to the teaching profession (Sinclair 2008:133). Good teachers develop positive relationships with their learners by engaging them in discussion which then helps to bridge the gaps between teachers and learners. Good teachers are well-known for expressing how they cannot wait to get back to school or describing how fulfilling it is just to be with learners at school (Cornu 2013:3). Being passionate about learners is representative of a positive relationship established between the teacher and the learners, representing good social characteristics. 70 This positive relationship emanates from the satisfaction teacher draws from their learners as a result of their frequent engagement with them. This engagement can be in the form of lesson presentation, field trips and the positive feedback that is exchanged between teachers and learners (Robert, Bridget & Joseph 2012: 365). Good teachers do not only facilitate learning the subject, but their teaching also seeks to establish a positive and beneficial working learning relationship with their learners, thus enhancing learner performance. The positive relationship between teachers and learners has a significant influence on how teachers feel and act on daily basis as teachers’ relationships with their learners shape teachers’ state of mind in terms of whether they feel good or bad (Cornu 2013:4; Kitching, Morgan & O’Leary 2009:43). The relationship between the teacher and the learners also determines the learners’ state of mind and their success (Robert et al. 2012:374). A positive relationship between teachers and learners encourages a classroom climate that helps learners to continuously engage with teachers (Robert et al. 2012:365). Apart from learners, good teachers have positive interaction with fellow teachers. A strong, positive working relationship between teachers is critical in ensuring a sense of belonging and social connectedness (Cornu 2013:4). Good teachers do not experience isolation and neglect at work because they recognise fellow teachers and know how to develop relationships with fellow teachers who can provide them with the support they need. Good teachers express how they would not be able to work confidently if they did not have the people around them on whom they can rely or just talk to each day and share laughter (Cornu 2013:4). This social characteristic with regard to supporting one another and recognising the value of others in the surrounding promotes the social ideals of the Hierarchy of Needs theory as discussed in section 2.2.1 and the ERG theory as discussed in section 2.2.3, both of which theories emphasise a need for an individual to belong and relate to others in a social setting. These positive working relationships are essential for establishing friendship between teachers which is beneficial on both the academic and social level. 71 Jordan (2006:82) maintains that social connections among teachers are vital in promoting creativity, unity and empowerment among themselves. A good teacher shows passion towards others and shares wisdom on how to manage and take control of situations. Good teachers value the time they spend together to explore solutions to problems, as they have the ability to talk about teaching and learning and interact in a professional way. According to TRACES (2012:1), good teachers are considerate of each other’s input by receiving support from others who are going through a similar experience. A good teacher therefore has the ability to recognise the presence of other teachers and appreciate their presence by engaging with them in their duties. This ensures that the social needs of teachers such as to associate with each other is catered for. Association ensures collegiality such that teachers do not feel isolated or neglected, which negatively affects their self-esteem and performance level, resulting in low learner achievement and high teacher attrition (Bennell 2004:44). Part of positive association is the relationship between teachers and their school leaders. Teachers work under the guidance of school principals and heads of departments. These leaders provide guidance and supervision to the teachers in order to perform their duties effectively. A good teacher plays a role in establishing and maintaining a working relationship with the supervisors (Abiddin 2006:109). Good teachers attend to instructions and carry them out diligently without having to be forced to execute their work or failing to meet deadlines. Failing to execute duties and not meeting deadlines results in decreased social connections, poor teacher performance and ultimately poor learner performance. In addition to professional and personal characteristics, it is clear that a good teacher possesses social characteristics enabling him or her to function effectively in the working environment. Social characteristics of a good teacher include establishing positive relationships with learners in order to promote teacher-learner connectedness, recognising the presence of other teachers and making use of their inputs by actively interacting with each other and by attending to instructions to carry out a mandate as requested by supervisors. Part of this study was to establish how teachers manifest social characteristics in their working environment. 72 Comprehensively considered, teachers’ blend of characteristics contribute to the quality of teaching and learning processes. Therefore, teachers’ respective characteristics play an important role and have a life-transforming effect on their learners’ lives (Inan 2014:427). To realise optimal learning, particularly in rural schools where there is a shortage of resources (Monk 2007:155; Howley, Rhodes & Beall 2009:515; Owusu-Acheampong & Williams 2015:34-35), it is imperative that teachers with the correct blend of characteristics for good teaching are appointed in order to rescue rural schools from deteriorating teacher shortages and poor learner performance. There is no evidence to prove that teachers in Namibian classrooms possess all the characteristics of a good teacher. Therefore, the need to establish the degree to which Namibian school teachers possesses characteristics of good teachers formed part of this research endeavour. 3.4 RURAL AREAS IN CONTEXT Most educational contexts lack a precise definition of the concept ‘rural’ (Lingam 2012:1795). To understand the rural context of this study, it is significant to conceptualise ‘rural’ which can then lead us to ‘rural school’. Various scholars define the concept ‘rural’ from different perspectives. Aziz (2011:5) explains ‘rural’ as an area that is outside the city and with low population density. Rural is a place outside a metropolitan city, with a rural population density under 2500 people and is distinguished by adverse conditions (Johnson & Strange 2005:15; Kulkarni & Mitra 2015:1). Monk (2007:155) disputes the location and population density factors, and defines ‘rural’ as an area with economic dependence on agricultural and tourism activities, regardless of population density and location. In summarising these definitions, Lingam (2012:1) and Heeralal (2014:1795) states that the concept ‘rural’ is characterised by isolation, distance and smallness. Rural areas are easily differentiated from urban areas, as rural communities consist of a diverse mix of immigrants and native born residents (Hull 2003:1). However, the researcher contests Hull’s (2003:1) differentiation of urban and rural, that this difference may not be applicable in modern times as it is observed that urban areas are now equally populated with a mix of both immigrants and native born residents. 73 Marwan, Sumintono and Mislan (2012:172) offer a simplified version that ‘rural’ is the opposite of ‘urban’ area, emphasising that if urban areas have high population density, then rural areas are areas with low population density. Other researchers contend that defining rural communities is not just about the size or location of the area, but it also concerns place-based issues such as the economic, social and cultural aspects of the specific environment (Howley & Howley 2010:34). It is the place-based issues that define whether an area is considered an ‘urban’ or ‘rural’ area. This study draws insights from the definitions by the various authors on the concept of ‘rural’ to define and understand a ‘rural school’ as a school located far from towns with prevailing adverse working conditions. The definition of ‘rural’ in the context of this study is founded on the explanation provided by Howley & Howley (2010:34), where the definition of an environment should consider the place-based issues. The definition of ‘rural’ in the context of this study differs from the definitions of rural as advanced by authors such as Heeralal (2014:1795), Johnson and Strange (2005:15) and Lingam (2012:1) with regard to population density and smallness as defining parameters for a rural area. Even though it is generally accepted that rural areas have a population density of less than 2500 residents (Johnson & Strange 2005:15; Kulkarni & Mitra 2015:1), the Namibian Population and Housing Census of 2011 indicated that the rural population comprised of 94 percent of the population in the region of study, Omusati Region (GRN 2011:18; section 1.6.2). The fact that only 6% of the population lives in urban areas in the Omusati Region, proves that the population density in rural areas in Namibia is generally high compared to what is generally reported in literature. The finding of a populous rural area in Namibia is consistent with Adedeji and Olaniyan (2011:21) who indicate that in many developing countries of the world, rural areas are the most populous areas, and are the most neglected regions in terms of the provision of basic amenities such as good roads, primary and affordable health care, electricity supply, potable water, well-equipped schools and other essential infrastructural facilities. Rural environments are therefore highly populated in developing countries, yet neglected areas in terms of essential services provisions. 74 With regard to smallness, it can be argued that as the population grows the factor of ‘smallness’ may not be appropriate in defining the concept ‘rural’. This is because, when the population density is high, it is likely to occupy large areas of land in rural areas which then makes it inappropriate to refer to rural areas as small areas. Living in rural areas needs to be well understood in terms of the living conditions prevailing in such a rural environment. Equally, working in rural areas especially when a person does not have prior experience and exposure working under such conditions presents challenges. Living and working in rural areas has not been researched extensively with the result that the needs of the residents of rural areas are not adequately addressed (Arnold, Newman, Gaddy & Dean 2005:15), depriving rural residents of well-being and not realising their full potential. In the next sections, 3.4.1 and 3.4.2, the concept of ‘rural area’ is discussed as a habitation and as a workplace. 3.4.1 Living in rural areas with reference to the Namibian situation Rural environments can be geographically, socially, culturally, personally and professionally isolating (Beutel, Adie & Hudson 2011:378; Hannun 2009:1; McCormack & Thomas 2003:125). Rural areas are geographically situated far from main urban areas and cities and accessibility to these areas is not always easy due to rocky, sandy and bushy areas which make transportation difficult. Rural areas are also referred to as remote areas due to their distance from cities and urban centres resulting in these areas being far from resources, services and facilities which are associated with urban life (Kulkarni & Mitra 2015:1). The absence of basic amenities in rural areas, as is applicable to some parts of the world, results in its low population density, which, for the purpose of this study on rural schools in Namibia, causes restrictive rural definitions, such as small areas. Living in rural areas also implies lack of social interaction (McCormack & Thomas 2003:127). Entertainment, recreational services and sporting facilities are limited in rural communities, resulting in restrictions on social interaction and on opportunities to realise potential in different spheres of human existence such as sport achievements. Most of the students graduating from teacher training institutions are not adequately trained and prepared to live and teach in rural areas (Hellsten, McIntyre & Prytula 2011:11). This inadequacy in teacher training and the realities of rural area conditions 75 results in teachers’ disappointment and deterrence from accepting teaching positions in rural areas (Hellsten et al. 2011:11). People who live in rural areas are also disadvantaged professionally due to lack of opportunities for professional growth. Living in rural areas implies that learners are generally exposed to schools where lesson presentations are not provided by professional teachers (Jarzabkowski 2003:139). Moreover, most rural schools face unique challenges related to lower salary levels, unqualified teachers and lack of facilities (Hannun 2009:1; OwusuAcheampong & Williams 2015:34-35). Rural residents are disadvantaged from the provision of professional programmes due to the lack of capacity to provide such programmes in rural areas (Hannum, Irvin, Banks, & Farmer 2009:1). In some cases there are too few learners to justify the establishment of a school in the area (Hannun et al. 2009:1). The result is that living in rural areas does not provide opportunities for rural residents to attain high level education to be able to provide for their communities. Living in rural Namibia has been regarded as an opportunity for benefiting from tourism given the country’s natural resources (Ashely 2000:8). Because Namibia is endowed with plenty of natural resources, rural Namibian environments present opportunities for tourism activities such as visits to national parks and trophy hunting in conservancies. However, the national parks and tourist destinations are government properties, administered and controlled by government authorities. The community where these parks are located do not benefit necessarily from the proceeds gained from tourism activities and many Namibians in rural areas continue struggling to meet their basic needs (Jauch 2012:2). Living in rural areas, therefore, represents adverse living conditions with the need to develop measures on how to cope with these conditions. IFAD (2011:1) reports that at least 70% of the world’s very poor people are rural-based with a large portion represented by children and young people, and with South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa being the regions with the greatest number of poor people in rural areas. Namibia being part of sub-Saharan Africa is not an exception to having the greatest number of poor people in rural areas. Living in rural areas is related to experiencing harsh living conditions as manifested by poverty as a lack of resources with which to acquire a set of basic goods and services (National Planning 76 Commission 2015:9). The lack of resources affect the provision of education including aspects such as learners’ attendance of classes, teachers’ motivation and parents’ understanding of education and the roles they have to play towards the education of their children. According to CTA (2012:2), the average adult male in African rural communities has less than four years of education, whereas the adult female in African rural communities has less than three years of education. This implies that rural residents often lack the necessary practical skills and knowledge to fully engage in the labour market. This knowledge and skills deficit is detrimental to the livelihood of rural communities causing poor living standards which generate negative perceptions of rural living as being linked to poverty and adverse circumstances. The negative interpretation of ‘rural’ has the tendency to demotivate people from living in rural areas due to fear of experiencing rural hardships as perceived. As said earlier, sub-Saharan Africa is one of the regions with the highest rate of poverty and hunger in the world (IFAD 2011:2). Applied to education, learners living in rural areas of sub-Saharan African countries, including Namibia, are at great risk of failure and school drop-out as their parents cannot afford to provide the basic needs for them. In terms of Maslow’s Needs theory as discussed in section 2.2.1, basic needs form the basis of human existence and endeavours and, when not satisfied, humans cannot aspire for higher ideals. Considering the deteriorating and adverse conditions of rural areas, human motivation is negatively affected as a result of unsatisfied needs. Therefore, Namibia being part of the sub-Saharan region is not an exception to the hardships of living in rural areas. According to the National Planning Commission (2015:9), Namibia has a population density of 2 113 077 people of which 57% live in rural areas. Poverty in Namibia bears a distinct rural face, with the poorest regions being those in rural areas where the majority of the population lives (National Planning Commission 2015:9). This is consistent with the findings that living in rural areas is distinguished by poverty (Hardré et al. 2009:1; Shahidul & Karim 2015:26). 77 The regions with the lowest incidences of poverty are Khomas and Erongo, possibly because they have largely urban populations and are the economic hubs of the country with relatively more employment opportunities (National Planning Commission 2015:13). Khomas Region is home to Windhoek, the capital city of Namibia, whereas the Erongo Region not only has most of the operational mines but also borders the Atlantic Ocean where the fishing industry is the major source of employment. In addition, the Erongo region has beautiful scenery and landscapes, including the Namib Desert and the famous Welwitschia Mirabilis desert plant, which are important tourist attractions and destinations, thus creating job opportunities for tour guides. These rationales may justify the lowest incidences of poverty in the two regions of, Khomas and Erongo. The fact that it is difficult to live in rural Namibian communities has forced rural residents to migrate to urban centres such as Khomas to seek employments for improved living standards. The unequal quality of education between rural and urban areas and different school types in Namibia is reflected by standardised national examinations at the end of grade 10 and grade 12. The best results are achieved by private schools which are expensive and thus only accessible to the elite, followed by former white schools in towns, while the worst results are found in rural schools (Jauch, Edwards & Cupido 2009:23). These examination results confirm that Namibia has not yet made rural communities attractive places to live in terms of improved learner performance. It becomes clear that similar to other parts of the world, there are numerous difficulties associated with living in Namibian rural communities, as this living relates to lack of basic goods and services which translates into poverty. Poverty in turn results in lack of resources for rural residents, which minimise their social interaction and isolates them from professional development programmes which can result in low levels of education and inability to take part in competitive employment. These difficulties deprive rural residents of essential services due to the location of their residence, which makes the provision of resources and facilities almost impossible to them. Despite government efforts to make education accessible to all citizens irrespective of locality, providing quality education to rural citizens still remains a challenge. The empirical part of this study sought to explain living in rural areas from the participants’ perspectives. 78 3.4.2 Working in rural areas with reference to the Namibian situation The centrality of an effective teaching team for improved learning outcomes cannot be over emphasised. Any attempts aimed at improving school performance and human resource management should emphasise the advancement of working conditions of teachers (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:72). Many studies have been focusing on the working conditions of teachers and teaching with specific emphasis on identifying characteristics of good teaching for improved learner performance (Arnon & Reichel 2007:445; Devine et al. 2013:86; Sahin & Cokadar 2009:215). Amid research findings and recommendations made, the status of rural teachers and their working conditions continues to deteriorate (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:57-61; Kulkarni & Mitra 2015:1; McCormack & Thomas 2003:127). Considering the living conditions in rural areas (section 3.4.1), it is clear that coping with working in a rural context is challenging, especially if the rural environment is not a familiar environment. In order to cope with working in rural areas, it is important for teachers to learn ways of adapting to the rural working environment. Schools in rural areas provide education to learners who are vulnerable as a result of family backgrounds, poverty, lack of guardianship, lack of nutrition and lack of high educational attainment within the family (Hardré et al. 2009:1; Shahidul & Karim 2015:26). Due to these socio-economic factors, drop-out rates are very high in rural schools and in some case learners leave schools prematurely (Hardre 2012:1). Working in rural schools therefore demands that teachers be cognisant of the socioeconomic differences of the learners they are going to work with and the environment in which they are going to work (Howley, Theobald & Howley 2005:2). Rural school teachers should prepare to work in an environment where learners drop out of schools earlier than expected and should therefore be prepared to take meaningful measures to address this rural tendency (Arnold et al. 2005:5). This demands the ability of the teachers to counsel learners and explain how important it is to complete school (Arnold et al. 2005:10). This teacher intervention and understanding of learners’ circumstances is essential in fostering learner motivation to remain in school (Hardré & Sullivan 2008:472). 79 Studies on rural areas of Australia revealed that the teaching profession consist of mostly young teachers who are generally, inexperienced (Jarzabkowski 2003:139). These inexperienced teachers do not have the same opportunities for career growth and professional development as their urban counterparts, depriving them of guidance and mentoring (Holloway 2002:139). These Australian rural teachers’ work conditions include negative aspects such as too much work; poor pay system; poor infrastructure; inadequate housing; social, cultural and professional isolation, economically deficient communities and contract employment (Hudson & Hudson 2008:67; Malhoit 2005:12; Mitra et al. 2008:169). This reveals that working in rural areas is indeed characterised by adverse working conditions. Mitra et al. (2008:170) report that rural schools in India are made of bricks and mortar with cramped classrooms without electricity, proper lighting and ventilation. The author observed that rural schools are not adequately furnished in the sense of worn-out blackboards with no dusters and chalk and with chairs and tables for teachers and principals only with learners sitting on mats on the floor. Teachers working in rural schools are also subject to lack of good leadership (Arnold 2004:5; Malhoit 2005:12). School principals are more bureaucratic in administering school affairs, thereby wasting time in matters that do not contribute to school success. School administrators are equally reluctant to share leadership with colleagues, thereby increasing the administrative burden while making teachers feel excluded in administering school affairs. The remoteness as applied to rural areas affects negatively teachers’ efforts and commitment to their work. One survey in two Indian states found that regular rural government teachers were absent at least one day a week, which can be linked to remoteness and transportation from urban cities to rural areas (Adedejei & Olaniyan 2011:48; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:5; Zimba, Mufume, Likando & February 2013:173). The absence of teachers due to remoteness of rural schools compromises the quality of teaching and learning. As advanced by Moriarty, Danaher and Danaher (2003:133), teachers working in rural areas need to develop mechanisms for adapting to such working environments. One of the mechanism for adapting to working in rural areas is to develop resilience by 80 adjusting and adapting to the circumstances in the workplace and in the process increasing the required competencies to face such adverse working conditions (Bobek 2002:202; Jarzabkowski 2003:139). From a motivation perspective, Bobek (2002:202) regards unfavourable working conditions as motivators for teachers to develop resilient measures to enhance their productivity. Resilience can be enhanced by developing good relationships with colleagues. Working in rural areas therefore requires teachers to be resilient by accepting the rural context in order to be able to cope with the challenges in their rural working environment. Due to lack of resources, working in rural areas requires teachers to be multi-skilled in terms of implementing and managing the multi-grade system of teaching all learners of different grades in one class (Adedeji and Olaniyan 2011:47; Barley 2009:10; Monk 2007:156; section 3.5.1). This practice creates multiple area responsibilities for rural teachers in the face of unavailability of instructional resources and lack of professional support (Barley 2009:10; Beesley, Atwill, Blair & Barley 2010:2; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:11; McCoy 2006:749). Multi-grade teaching is relevant to rural environments where there is unavailability of sufficient learners to form a class of their own, as well as lack of infrastructures such as buildings and insufficient teachers to handle the available classes (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:47; Mitra et al. 2008:168). Being a rural teacher therefore requires ability in implementing and managing a multi-grade system as a condition typically impacting on rural teacher competency (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011: 6). Multi-grade schools in rural Africa show poor results (Jordaan & Joubert 2015:5) due to inadequate training to capacitate teachers in multi-grade teaching. With regard to the South African context, Jordaan and Joubert (2015:3) report that multi-grade education training does not exist. This creates a burden for teachers to implement and manage the system. Working in rural areas in sub-Saharan Africa is distinguished by high levels of informality, dominance of casual employment and high rates of self-employment (CTA 2012:1). According to the International Labour Organisation (2008:32), statistics 81 revealed that 76% of the working people in sub-Saharan Africa are involved in vulnerable employment while 56% live in extreme poverty. The vulnerability of rural employment is related to labour laws that are not enforced, resulting in rural workers being poorly organised and poorly paid (CTA 2008:1). Taking into consideration the statistics of the International Labour Organisation, employees working in rural areas cannot overcome poverty due to labour exploitation, contractual working and inability to enforce labour legislation. The prevalence of diseases in rural areas and the lack of medical facilities have made working in rural communities even less attractive to teachers (Smith & McDonagh 2003:35). Most teachers prefer to work in urban areas as working in rural schools is too demanding given the adverse working conditions (Bennel 2004:17; Lingam 2012:2). Working in rural schools in sub-Saharan Africa requires teachers to deal with learners who are less interested in attending schools due to the high opportunity cost and low returns. Parents in rural communities have a relatively low level of education and thus attach a low level of importance to education as well as being unable to help their children learn (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:2). In addition, homes in rural communities are often ill equipped to support learners’ education as they are often lacking facilities such as electricity. This results in high drop-out rates, low education participation and less attainment of education outcomes by learners. As is the case for all teachers around the world, Namibian teachers are expected to work in rural schools in order to improve learner performance in rural communities. Namibian teachers teach under difficult circumstances related to lack of classroom furniture, no electricity and water, limited teaching and learning materials and distance from medical and shopping facilities (UNICEF Report 2014:37). Teachers have problems communicating with parents of their learners, they are subjected to managing overcrowded classrooms, and they have heavy teaching and administrative loads that prevent them from effectively executing their teaching duties (Beesley, Atwill, Blair & Barley 2010:3; Barley 2009:10; Zimba et al. 2013:169). The Government of the Republic of Namibia (2011: 57) reports that labour force participation rate in rural areas is 56%t, lower than in an urban area which is 74%. In 82 terms of the urban and rural teacher designation, 74% of teachers taught in urban areas compared to the 26% of teachers teaching in rural areas for the 2012 school year (Zimba et al. 2013:176). This shows that working in rural communities in Namibia is not preferable as this has been confirmed by a large proportion of teachers who opted to work in urban schools rather than in rural areas. A general complaint from teachers teaching in Namibian rural areas is the lack of teaching and learning materials to enable them to teach effectively (Bennel 2004:16; Zimba et al. 2013:179). Although much emphasis is put on isolation experienced in rural areas, working in rural areas can be a rewarding experience. Rural areas are viewed as quiet, safe and pleasing experiences with nature and community members (Adie 2012:120). The cost of housing in rural areas is lower than in urban areas, which reflects the low monetary benefits for teachers in rural areas (Hull 2003:15). Beutel et al. (2011:379) argue that the negative perception of rural communities, interpreting rural areas as inferior places, is unjustified as contemporary studies with new teachers revealed satisfaction. A good image of rural communities can be developed by promoting positive aspects of rural communities to potential beginner teachers. This ensures that a positive perception is created among beginner teachers with the hope that they will develop the interest to work in rural schools. In summary, it is clear that living and working in rural schools is characterised by several challenges compared to urban schools. Living and working in rural environments depicts isolation from essential goods and services, working with learners who have no interest in education, inadequate physical facilities and being exposed to multi-grade teaching. Teachers in rural schools are faced by challenges related to poor teacher status, poor career advancement, neglect of teachers, unqualified teachers and difficulties in recruiting qualified teachers (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:57-61). Working with parents who have low educational expectations and therefore are not supportive towards the education of their children poses an additional challenge to teachers working in rural schools (Legotlo 2014:17; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:10). The discussions in the previous sections (3.4.1 and 3.4.2) reveal that living and working in rural areas comes with a set of challenges, especially to teachers. Since teachers living and working in rural schools are fundamentally informed by the 83 teaching and learning responsibilities, the next sections, 3.5 and 3.6, present an elaborate thematic discussion of the factors characterising teaching and learning in a rural setting. 3.5 TEACHING IN RURAL SCHOOLS Traditionally, it has been difficult attracting to and retaining teachers and other professionals in rural areas (Lock 2008:24; Miller 2012:2). Teaching at rural schools continues to deteriorate as the problem of attracting and retaining qualified teachers still remains (Heeralal 2014:1797; Owusu-Acheampong & Williams 2015:40). Rural school locations and socio-economic conditions serve as major barriers in attracting, retaining and supporting talented teachers (Elfers & Plecki 2006:13). The World Bank attributed poor learner performance at rural schools to the problem of low retention of high-quality teachers in rural schools (Aziz 2011:6). In addition to discussions in section 3.3, a high quality teacher is defined as a teacher with the ability to produce desired learner achievement (Mitra et al. 2008:168). Lack of talented and quality teachers culminates in poor quality teaching in rural schools as capable and professionally qualified teachers engenders quality teaching in schools (Aziz 2011:4; Hammer, Hughes, McClure, Reeves & Salgado 2005:8; Jimerson 2003:19). To understand how teaching happens at rural schools, a thematic discussion of the conditions underlying teaching at rural schools is discussed next. 3.5.1 Poor working conditions In order to deliver high quality education and realise optimal learning among learners regardless of their localities, schools must develop, attract and retain good teachers. As highlighted in sections 2.2.2 and 2.4.3, working conditions play an important role in enabling schools to deliver high quality education. According to Ali (2013:68) working conditions refer to working environment and all existing circumstances affecting the workers in the work place such working hours, facilities, legal rights, responsibilities, organisational climate and workload. 84 Working conditions are characterised as poor when the work environment and the circumstances under which teachers perform their work are not favourable for teachers to perform their work effectively. Noble (2003:352) emphasises the prevention of poor working conditions because, when employees have negative perceptions about their work environment, they get dissatisfied resulting in less productivity. Due to the impact of poor working conditions on employees’ productivity, and in light of the demand for constant improvement in a technologically driven work environment, poor working conditions is a subject of international debate among scholars (Ali et al. 2013:76; Dembélé & Miaro-II 2003:44; Mulkeen et al. 2007:51). Even though employees share the same teaching profession, their working conditions differ as determined by the work environment in which they are teaching. This creates injustices where some teachers enjoy good working conditions whereas some are subjected to poor working conditions. Poor working conditions are found to be less in developed countries due to the availability of resources to provide good working conditions, and severe in developing countries as there is lack of infrastructure and financial resources (Akyeampong & Bennel 2007:27; Pitsoe 2013:309). Teaching in developing countries of sub-Saharan Africa is defined by the struggle to cope with the absence of basic teaching and learning resources, overloaded with teaching and administrative duties, underfunding to schools and poor teacher salaries (Weber 2007:293; Thakrar & Zinn 2009:2). These difficult working conditions intensify the lack of capacity for schools to improve the working conditions of teachers (Adedeji &Olaniyan 2011:83). The difference in socio-economic status between urban and rural areas affects the standard of teaching significantly. There is a wide gap between the socio-economic status of urban and rural environments with regard to the material and financial resources which are the means of production (Adedeji 2011:59). Urban environments are inhabited by people who are often educated and employed with decent salaries and good working conditions (Legotlo 2014:17). The availability of essential goods and services in urban areas also means that schools in urban areas are well-established in terms of resources and facilities, which then attracts good quality teachers to urban schools due to good working conditions (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:2). Most teachers 85 therefore prefer to work in urban schools in order to enjoy the positive experiences associated with an urban environment, which widens the disparity between urban and rural schools (Marwan et al. 2012:172). The rural environment, on the other hand, is populated with people who are often poor, less educated and unemployed (Legotlo 2014:17; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:10; National Planning Commision 2015:51). Rural residents are deprived of basic services such as clean water, electricity, proper housing and roads infrastructure due to their location and inability to afford and maintain such services. The lack of basic services in the rural environment impacts on the limited resources of schools in rural areas, thereby affecting the potential to attract good teachers for good quality teaching in rural areas. Teachers shy away from schools in rural environments with their challenging working circumstances, resulting in a lack of good quality teachers with related good learner achievement. In Malaysian schools, poor working conditions is regarded as a factor of dissatisfaction which increased teacher turnover, with teachers leaving for urban schools where there is higher socio-economic status and better teaching support services (Aziz 2011:6; NCTAF 2002:34; Ramesh, Rao & Jani 2011:103). Apart from better teaching and learning resources, urban schools rely on an educated parent population that understands schooling and supports the education of their children, and they contribute financially for better funded school projects (Marwan et al. 2012:172). Working conditions in rural schools are also influenced by a bureaucratic style of management (Marwan et al. 2012:172). Bureaucracy as the system of governance ensures that the administration and management of affairs are conducted in compliance with legislation and relevant structures (Pont, Nusche & Moorman 2008:22). This governance approach delays progress at rural schools pertaining to the timely appointment of teachers, as appointing teachers is a fairly long process that involves different departments (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:52). Bureaucracy in urban areas is effective as urban schools are in cities where the different education departments are located which makes the process easy and quick. On the contrary, rural school principals have to travel long distances to educational 86 departments for administrative and appointments purposes which may take a number of days. This long process of administration involving teacher appointments is detrimental to rural schools because, while teachers are waiting for appointment at rural schools, they may get other appointments in urban schools in the meantime. In addition, the few teachers at rural schools who received no training in multi-grade teaching have to cope without having sufficient colleagues to work with and assist each other. This creates difficult working conditions for teachers at rural schools and makes teaching a difficult task to perform. Lack of reliable transport in rural areas compromises rural teachers’ mobility as some schools are only reachable by crossing rivers (Marwan et al. 2012:173; Monk 2007:155). This type of mobility demotivates teachers and detracts their attention from teaching at rural schools. In addition, teachers who drive long distances to school because of a lack of housing are more likely to leave their positions than teachers who live in or near the community where the school is located (Lowe 2006:9). As discussed in section 3.4.2, the multi-grade teaching create an unsupportive environment for quality teaching, resulting in teaching being less effective in rural schools that practice multi-class teaching as teachers lack the necessary pedagogic skills to accommodate the needs of all learners in the same class. Most rural schools also lack facilities for leisure and recreational activities (Towse et al. 2002:637). Together with poor infrastructure and roads, these conditions make teaching at rural schools unbearable to qualified teachers and this diminishes the quality of teaching at rural schools (Zvavahera 2012:1). While the introduction of a financial incentive in rural areas is a positive milestone in addressing education imbalances and promoting effective teaching, such incentive have failed to attract and retain qualified teachers to rural areas (Bush, Bell & Middlewood 2010:138; Glazerman, Mckie & Carey 2009:39, Milanowski, LongwellGrice, Saffold, Jones, Schomisch & Odden 2009:2; Vegas 2005:21 ). Rural school teachers regard the financial incentive they receive as minimal as it cannot justify the hard working conditions under which teachers perform their work in rural areas (Lavy 2009:1979). Locating in urban areas is more rewarding as teachers are exposed to opportunities to earn additional income from tutorials and offering classes to students 87 in town, which are limited in the rural environment due to widespread poverty in rural areas (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:58). It is clear that poor working conditions impact good quality teaching in rural schools. Although poor working conditions differ from one environment to another, the problem proves to be prominent in rural areas due to factors related to socio-economic circumstances, bureaucracy in administering educational affairs related to transport problems to urban areas where education department and offices are situated, the practice of multi-grade teaching and lack of educational facilities. The financial incentive provided to teachers at rural schools is deem not commensurate with the hardships rural teachers are facing. 3.5.2 Incompetence An important determinant for learners’ success in schools is the presence of competent teachers (Hammer et al. 2005:31). As discussed in section 3.3, competent teachers are distinguished by a set of professional characteristics that makes them suitable and competent for the teaching profession. Incompetence as the inability of the teacher to effectively demonstrate the pedagogic content knowledge of their subject results in learners not learning optimally as a result of poor quality teaching. The migration pattern of qualified teachers from rural to urban schools is inevitable as qualified teachers move to urban schools for a better teaching and living standard, resulting in a situation of unqualified teachers teaching at rural schools (Marwan et al. 2012:172; Ncube 2013:3). The lack of professional competencies among rural school teaching staff produces a poor standard of teaching as the success of teachers in addressing teaching challenges is determined by their professional preparation and competencies (Lingam 2012:2). Teacher training institutions do not provide specific training for teacher competence within rural school contexts. Teacher training curriculums are therefore inadequate with regard to equipping teachers for a teaching career in rural schools (Lingam 2012:1). Many teacher training institutions are located in urban areas and teaching practice for students often takes place at schools in urban localities (Heeralal 88 2014:1795). Some students do their teaching practice in rural communities as their community of origin (Lingam 2012:2). However, these students may not go back to their community of origin for work after graduating as they may regard their education as a means of social mobility to locate to urban areas (Mulkeen & Chen 2008:25; section 1.2.1.2). This cause a shortage of competencies in rural communities. As the content of the teacher training curriculum is not inclusive of the realities at rural schools (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:21), teachers’ suitability to rural areas can be attained by specifically improving teachers’ professional competencies for the circumstances experienced in rural areas (Hu 2007:7). Teachers need adequate professional preparation during their initial teacher training programme, which entails all content and contextual issues teachers will be facing at rural schools, such as isolation from essential goods and services, living and working with learners from poverty stricken families, insufficient instructional resources and lack of recreational facilities. It is the adequate preparation for all these content and contextual issues that can help improve teacher competence in rural areas, and promote effective teaching and increase learner performance (Moreno 2007:169; Robinson 2008:4). Due to the failure of the curriculum content to accommodate the specific issues revolving around rural environments, teachers deployed to rural schools become incompetent as they cannot cope with the hardships they experience. Lack of opportunities for in-service training to train teachers to specifically work in rural areas contribute significantly to incompetence among rural school teachers. These inservice training provisioning for rural school teachers are essential as they assist to increase teacher competence, increase the appeal of the rural teaching and provide an attractive long term teaching career (Darling-Hammond 2003:6; Lock, Green, Hastings, Cooper & White 2009:31). The geographical locations of rural schools deprive teachers of access to support services (Hammer et al. 2005:31), as these schools are difficult to reach resulting in teachers at rural schools being deprived of support services such as visits by advisory officials or school inspectors. The lack of monitoring in rural schools may also contribute to poor teacher performance and absenteeism (Mulkeen & Chen, 2008:23). A lack of opportunities for formal, workshop-based related professional developments 89 also contributes to incompetence at rural schools. In some instances, professional development is perceived as a personal ambition among teachers rather than an effort to improve rural schools (Aziz 2011:11). This perception results in minimised teacher competencies, capabilities and motivation for teaching at rural schools. Rural school teachers are often overloaded with both teaching and administrative work which can be in conflict with their professional development ambitions (Hudson & Hudson 2008:67). The result is then that rural school teachers do not have sufficient time to devote to their career development endeavours helping them to master improved teaching abilities. The cultural domains of the rural environment also pose as a challenge to beginner teachers (Aziz 2011:10; Lingam 2012:2). Newcomer teachers who teach in rural schools encounter cultural backgrounds of learners that are different to their own cultural backgrounds which necessitate multi-cultural studies in the teacher education programme. Urban schools are characterised by a collection of cultural identities to which it is easy for teachers to adapt. Unlike urban schools, schools in rural areas usually belong to a community with one culture which may be different from that of the teacher. This make is it difficult for the teacher to adapt if no multi-cultural training was provided during teacher training. It becomes clear that incompetence exists in rural schools with negative implications for the quality of teaching. Factors pertaining to incompetency include the migration pattern of qualified teachers to urban schools, training institutions not prepare teachers adequately for teaching careers in rural contexts, and a lack of in-service training to capacitate teachers in rural teaching. The geographical location of rural schools impinges the delivery of support services, whereas negative perceptions prevail towards professional development. These are complicated by the cultural backgrounds of learners in rural environments which in many instances are different to the cultural association of the newcomer teacher. 90 3.5.3 Isolation Through consultation and being close to those sharing similar ideals, best practices are shared and obstacles are overcomed (Giordano 2008:28). Isolation by being far from other areas and communities that could provide support services is a disadvantage in terms of teachers being prevented from gaining information about best educational practices and sharing teaching and learning resources. Such isolation has the risk of achieving a low standard of performance due to limited support services resulting in poor quality teaching. Because of these detrimental effects of isolation on education and their impact on the quality teaching, several countries have implemented measures to bring their educational institutions together. One of these measures is the implementation of a school cluster system (section 3.3.3). This system ensures that schools do not feel isolated and share resources with neighbouring schools. Despite the implementation of measures to bring together educational institutions, the problem of isolation still manifest itself among rural schools. Isolation is felt by teachers at rural schools with regard to professional development. Teachers in rural areas are less likely to have opportunities to engage in professional development activities due to the remoteness of their schools which are a distance away from main towns where opportunities for professional development are available. This makes teachers feel professionally isolated as career advancement and opportunities for further studies are often unavailable or very difficult to arrange in the rural areas (Shadreck 2012:772). Teachers therefore prefer to be posted in urban areas in order to have easy access to further education (Aziz 2011:4; Elfer & Plecki 2006:1; Mulkeen 2006:4). The physical remoteness of rural schools makes teachers feel isolated as they are distant from accessing economic infrastructures (Redding & Walberg 2012:4). To receive their salary teachers need to travel to urban areas to access financial institutions such as banks for their payments (Mulkeen 2006:21). The isolation of rural schools may involve the absence of teachers from schools for more than one day because, when teachers go to financial institutions to access their payment, they use 91 the opportunity to do their shopping before returning to rural areas (Holloway 2002:143). This arrangement impacts negatively on the quality of teaching in the sense of losing possible time needed for teaching lessons. Rural communities are also isolated from health facilities. Teachers have raised health concerns in accepting offers to teach in rural schools as most rural health service centres are not easily accessible. A visit to a doctor that might take a day in an urban area can involve an absence of three or four days in rural areas (Mulkeen 2006:22). This lengthy absence from work as a result of schools being isolated from essential health services negatively affects teaching at rural schools. As rural environments are often severely impoverished and are associated with an aging population, unemployment and low quality of life. Many teachers from urban backgrounds, are faced with challenges regarding recreation and socialising in rural areas, which adds to their job dissatisfaction (Monk 2007:167). The lack of opportunities to meet new friends and to socialise hampers teachers’ quality of life in rural areas. This study established that isolation that is associated with teaching in rural areas impacts negatively on professional development opportunities and the accessibility of financial, shopping and health care provisioning. Isolation as experienced in rural areas deprives teachers of socialising and meaningful leisure activities which impacts negatively on rural teachers’ sense of quality of life. 3.5.4 Inadequate rewards Hodgetts and Hegar (2005:39) maintain that the psychological drive that directs a person toward an objective is motivation as a set of processes that moves a person toward a goal. In order to perform well in their teaching activities, teachers need to be motivated. Rewards as the measures that organisations implement in order to motivate employees while improving organisational performance affect the motivation of teachers as employees (San, Theen & Heng 2012:211). 92 For increased productivity such as ensuring that high learner performance takes place, it is imperative that rewards for teachers be realistic and adequate to motivate teachers for improved performance. Inadequate rewards and compensation for teachers and adverse working conditions common to rural areas have detrimental effects on learner performance. Inadequate rewards are experienced in rural areas as relates mainly to remuneration and the lack of a financial incentive. Most teachers at rural schools are not well paid compared to their counterparts in other professions with comparable levels of education, experience and input towards their work (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:57; Jimerson 2003:8). Even though teachers are in general paid according to their qualifications regardless of where they are teaching, some teachers at rural schools are paid less due to the misconception that rural areas are cheaper places to live in compared to urban areas (Jimerson 2003:8). Salaries for teachers need to be competitive in order to recruit and retain highly qualified teachers regardless of the fact that in some instances teachers sustain their good performance irrespective of the salaries they are paid. Recruiting and retaining quality teachers can be achieved by increasing teacher rewards to a competitive level that will help address the status of the teaching profession and elevate teacher salaries to a point competitive with what other comparable professionals earn (Jimerson 2003:8). Adequate rewards in the form of competitive salaries serve to address teacher motivation and retention while also improving the status of the teaching profession (Shadreck 2014:770). Low salaries of teachers force many teachers to find additional income to supplement their earnings, which influence their overall teaching performance negatively (Alam & Farid 2011:298). For example, in Uganda, some teachers in rural schools spend fewer hours on classroom teaching in favour of their private work as a mean of supplementing their incomes which is reflected in poor learner performance by their learners (Mulkeen 2006:21). Opportunities for teachers to earn additional income from private coaching of learners and school based incentive, which are common in many urban areas, are limited in rural areas, mainly because of widespread poverty (Shadreck 2014:770). Osterholm et al. (2006:3) confirm that this situation of lack of opportunities to supplement low 93 salaries is common to rural areas in America, thereby functioning as a major obstacle for teacher recruitment and retention. This obstacle affects negatively the quality of teaching at rural schools. In Nigeria, rural school teachers in the mid-western states were over-utilised, with a teaching workload of 26 periods while their urban counterparts were under-utilised with a teaching load of 16 periods (Ibadin 2010:87). Yet, rural teachers do not get adequate rewards for being over-utilised. This demotivates teachers and leads to teacher turnover since the rewards they get in return for the work done is not realistic. Lowe (2006:28) and Osterholm et al. (2006:3) suggest offering incentive, bonuses and salary increases to teachers as a strategy for retaining them. However, the success of monetary benefits for improved teacher performance is a moot topic (section 2.4.3). It is clear that inadequate rewards and compensation is common to teachers working in rural areas relating to low salaries and a lack of opportunities to supplement these low salaries while having a huge workload as compared to their urban counterparts. In addition to insufficient remuneration, poor quality of teaching at rural schools is attributed to poor working conditions, teacher incompetence due to lack of opportunities for professional development, and isolation from essential facilities and services (UNICEF Report 2014:37). These obstacles challenge teacher retention in rural areas which are exacerbated by the fact that teacher rewards in rural areas are not reflective of teacher workloads. All these factors that influence teaching negatively need to be considered, with the aim to devise measures for improving teaching in rural areas. 3.6 LEARNING IN RURAL SCHOOLS Rural schools encounter many difficulties due to a lack of good teachers, and a widening knowledge gap between the urban and rural schools due to technology developments resulting in rural learners falling behind their urban counterparts (Lingam 2012:3). Poor learner performance at rural schools is intensified by high rates of learner absenteeism and their inability to read and write effectively (Adedeji & Bamidele 2003:15). The deficiency in teaching as expressed in section 3.5, shaped 94 the learner performance at rural schools, because learning is a result of teaching. Learning at rural schools is defined by the factors as discussed next. 3.6.1 Persistent poverty Rural teaching includes teaching impoverished and malnourished learners, which often leads to interrupted school attendance and learners’ academic needs not being met (Aziz 2011:9; Epply 2009:3). Impoverished and malnourished conditions of learners in rural environments are a result of poor families who are often unemployed and thus unable to provide basic necessities for their families. Teaching malnourished learners places an added challenge on already overworked rural teachers to ensure effective learning (Ibadin 2010:87; Monk 2007:156). When learners are malnourished, they do not have the energy to concentrate during lesson presentation and grasp the contents being taught. Learners are sleepy and less active during lessons and this places a mammoth task on teachers to keep them awake and make them learn what is being taught. This can reduce teacher motivation and morale since optimal learning cannot take place. As a result, malnourished learners coupled with unmotivated teaching staff eventually leads to poor masterly of learning outcomes in rural schools. Apart from the poor family background and learners’ characteristics as factors hampering learning in rural schools, Loeb, Darling-Hammond and Luczak (2005:44) indicates that poverty can also be expressed in terms of the school context, for having poor school infrastructure and offering low teacher salaries. The state of poverty of schools leads to massive teacher turnover which negatively affects learning at rural schools. Inadequate funding to schools contributes to rural schools’ inability to attract and retain qualified teachers (Howley et al. 2009:520). Public schools get funding from central government for the procurement of educational resources. The funds are not sufficient to acquire sufficient instructional materials for all learners enrolled at a school. In some cases, learners share instructional materials such as textbooks. Due to insufficient textbooks, teachers are forced to write summaries on chalkboards for learners to copy 95 into their summary books. The time used for writing and copying summaries infringes the explanations and assessment of subject contents. The inability of schools to provide enough learning materials because of shortages of funds has resulted in rural schools’ inability to attract competent teachers for improved learning outcomes. In addition, learning in critical subjects such as mathematics, science and special education is minimal as rural areas have difficulties in finding teachers specialising in these learning areas (Hammer et al. 2005:31; Paul 2005:456). The reason is that the supply of teachers of these critical subjects is scarce in general, which is exacerbated by conditions in rural areas that are encountered as challenging. It is clear that learning in rural school is hampered by poor families whose children attend school malnourished and who therefore are unable to learn successfully. In addition, parents’ poverty causes an inability to raise sufficient funds to supplement government under-funding to schools in order to ensure sufficient resources and the attraction of competent teachers for improved learning at rural schools. 3.6.2 Minimum parental involvement Most parents in rural areas are not willing to invest in the education of their children as they are not convinced of its quality (Shadreck 2012:768). The lack of quality education in rural schools influences parents to be reluctant to allow their children to attend after-school education programmes as such programmes are not necessarily successful in producing the desired results in terms of improved learner performance. For example, rural parents in India are not likely to support learners involvement in school programmes that take place in the evenings or on the weekends as that interferes with taking care of family responsibilities (Cross & Burney 2005:148). Parents do not want an opportunity cost where family responsibilities suffer in vain as after school programmes do not produce intended results. As most parents in rural areas are not well-educated and are not able to provide educational support to their children, they are embarrassed to discuss school work with children (Legotlo 2014:17; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:10; section 1.2.2). The result of parent indifference in many rural schools across the continent of Africa is low learners’ 96 enrolment and high drop-out rates among rural schools (Adedeji & Olaniyan 2011:24). The learners enrolled usually achieve poor performance as influenced by their parents’ understanding of the value of education. In addition, parents are unlikely to support what they do not understand or value which causes them to direct learners’ attention to their priority areas which pertains to household chores and work to help support the family, or work in family businesses (Legotlo 2014:17; Mulkeen & Chen 2008:10). Being engaged in these activities, limited time is available for learners to participate in opportunities designed to promote their learning endeavour, resulting in poor learner performance and a sustaining of limited opportunities for academic success (Cross & Burney 2005:148; Epply 2009:8; Howley et al. 2009:523). Despite their literacy level, parents have a moral obligation of providing emotional guidance and academic support to their children (Van der Merwe 2011:784), which should also apply to rural areas and where it should be utilised effectively. It is clear that learning in rural schools is hampered by minimum parental involvement intensified by parents’ mistrust of schooling due to the poor quality of provisioning. Parents’ mistrust is combined with their rating of an education as less important than household duties. Despite the low level of significance parents attach to education, scholars still emphasise the fact that parents have a moral obligation to support the learning process of their children. 3.6.3 Shortage of resources Most rural schools are poor and characterised by lack of resources, with regard to human resources, facilities and instructional materials (Ncube 2013:3). Efforts by the School Boards to provide resources to rural schools are not always effective due to low level of education and poverty among the rural parent population (Van der Merwe 2011:778) resulting in poor learner performance in rural areas due to disparities in school resources (Lingam 2012:2). The lack of human resources is caused by low retention of good teachers in rural schools (Aziz 2011:6), diminishing learning achievement as a direct effect of teacher quality (Bauch 2001:204; Carey 2004:3; Darling-Hammond 2003:6; Shadreck 2014:768). All initiatives in educational 97 development and provision rely on the availability of quality teachers with suitable pedagogical skills, knowledge and characteristics (Burnett and Lingam 2007:303). Exacerbating lack of human resources is the lack of school inspectors visiting rural schools for mentoring teachers and supervising their performance (Lingam 2012:2). This causes deficiencies in mentoring and supervision areas at rural schools. Apart from the lack of support from the educational department and due to their geographic isolation, teachers at rural schools do not have adequate access to professional development programmes (Hammer et al. 2005:35). Lack of human resources at rural schools is caused by high teacher turnover due to unfavourable working conditions in rural areas (section 3.4.1). This situation is worsened by qualified teachers who prefer to remain in urban areas upon completion of their teacher training programme, which results in a constant lack of qualified teaching staff at rural schools (Burnett & Lingam 2007:303). Many rural schools do not have sufficient buildings to accommodate learners of all grade levels which results in multi-grade teaching (section 3.5.1). Lack of qualified and skilled teachers and teachers qualified specifically for multi-grade teaching contributes to poor learner performance at rural schools (Lingam 2012:2; Narsey 2004:295). Adding to the state of poor learning at rural schools is the lack of proper understanding of the concept of learning as this learning is carried out and perceived on the basis of the economics of the rural environment (Ncube 2013:5). The implication is that learner achievements in rural schools, which are by implication poor schools, are situated in poverty, thereby compromising learner achievement and efforts to uplift learning at these schools. It is clear that learning in rural environments is hampered by insufficient resources pertaining to human resources and physical infrastructure which, to a large extent, is the result of persistent poverty. Factors such as malnourished learners accompanied by minimal parental involvement worsen the success with learning. Despite the influence of these factors, quality education at poorly-resourced rural schools can be achieved by the morality of the school staff in fostering strong relation with parents and mobilising adequate resources for teaching and learning (Van der Merwe 98 2011:771). Teachers have a moral obligation to educate the parent community on the importance of education and how education stakeholders can collaborate to acquire sufficient resources for effective learning at rural schools. 3.7 CONCLUSION Optimal learning as a mastering of the specified learning outcomes and skilfully applying what is learnt is contingent on competent teachers as the enablers of learning who teach in environments characterised by sufficient physical infrastructures and instructional resources. A good teacher manifests a combination of professional, personal and social characteristics. The Chapter’s focus on education within a rural context revealed challenges relating to difficult working conditions engendering a lack of qualified teaching personnel for the impoverished rural environment. Constructive measures are needed to attract and retain professionally qualified teachers at rural schools to improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning and ensuring optimal learning for each individual learner. The next Chapter presents the research design and methodology used for the empirical investigation. 99 CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 4.1 INTRODUCTION Chapter three discussed conditions influencing teaching and learning in rural schools and established the characteristics for good teaching. This Chapter discusses the empirical investigation, regarding research paradigm, research approach, research sample, data collection methods and analysis of the collected data. The Chapter ends with trustworthiness of the research findings as well as ethical considerations that surrounded the research. 4.2 RATIONALE FOR EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION As stated in section 1.6, the data for this study was collected by both a literature study and an empirical investigation. A detailed literature study was carried out in Chapter two and Chapter three. This alone was not substantive enough to generate a holistic understanding of the influence of a financial incentive on learner performance at rural schools. Multiple sources of data should be used to investigate the subject empirically, through scrutiny and critical questioning in search of subject clarity and better comprehension of the phenomenon under study (Johnson, Onwuegbuzie & Turner 2007:120). As the objective of the empirical investigation was to provide evidence about the subject being studied (Johnson & Christensen 2004:22), it was imperative for the investigation to follow a predetermined set of procedures for conducting an empirical investigation. Procedures for conducting empirical investigations as proposed by Marczyk, DeMatteo and Festinger (2005:6-7) include; posing significant questions that can be investigated empirically; linking the research to a relevant theory or conceptual framework; using methods that allow direct investigation of the research question; providing a coherent and explicit chain of reasoning; replicating the findings by extending them across studies and; disclosing the empirical research findings to prompt professional scrutiny and critique. 100 These procedures were all applied during this empirical investigation. Firstly, the researcher presented questions that were fit to be investigated empirically (section 1.4). Secondly, interpretivist research paradigm was adopted as a paradigmatic framework for conducting the investigation and treating results. Thirdly, interviews (section 1.6.3.1) and the document analysis method (section 1.6.3.2) that were administered were the ideal data collection methods the researcher could use to evaluate the financial incentive empirically. Fourth, collecting data from different participants ensured a variety of reasoning from different perspectives and experience. Fifth, the final research report provided sufficient contextual information about the research for establishing whether research findings can be applied in other contexts. Sixth, the findings of this empirical investigation will be published to give scholars an opportunity for scrutiny and critique. The empirical investigation was underpinned by the research objectives as outlined next. 4.3 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The empirical investigation sought to address the following objectives, namely to:  Explain the influence of a financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural schools.  Describe the characteristics of a good rural school teacher.  Suggest appropriate teacher motivation strategies for improved learner performance in rural schools. In addressing the above research objectives, the empirical investigation was premised on the philosophical underpinnings as explained next. 4.4 RESEARCH DESIGN Research design describes how the researcher sets out a road map for conducting the investigation as influenced by the purpose of the study, the available resource and 101 the researcher’s expertise in carrying out the investigation (Henning, Van Rensburg & Smit 2004:44; Van Rensburg & Smit 2004:1). An appropriate design ensures correlation between the various major components of the investigation such as the research questions, the collected data and the eventual conclusions that were drawn (Yin 2009:24). Maree (2010:70) states that research design is a strategy for undertaking the research and it flows from the underlying philosophical assumptions to the selection of participants, the data collection techniques and the data analysis methods to be used and the conclusions to be drawn. This view is supported by Lankshear and Knobel (2004:21) and Creswell (2006:39) who all view the research design as the plan for the s+tudy, providing the overall framework that informs the collection of data, outlining the detailed steps of the investigation and providing guidelines for systematic data collection. Other than the overall framework, Creswell (2005:51) regards research design as the specific procedures involved in the last three steps of the research process, which relates to data collection, data analysis and report writing. In view of the above explanations, Dash (2005:1) and Merriam (1998:44), summarise research design as a map used in finding answers to the research questions and planning the methods by which the answers will be obtained and how the results will be treated and reported. All scientific research designs are based on underlying philosophical assumptions about the choice of the research and the research methods that are deemed appropriate for the development of knowledge in a specific field of study. The research design for this study is explained next. 4.4.1 Research paradigm Researcher makes considerations about the nature of the problem and the available approaches that can be used in studying the problem and dealing with it to its logical conclusion. According to Creswell (2002:7), the most quoted definition of research paradigm is Thomas Kuhn’s (1970) exposition, which states that “a paradigm is the underlying assumptions and intellectual structure upon which research and development in a field of inquiry is based”. According to Kuhn (1970), a research 102 paradigm is a model or pattern, according to which researchers view the objects of research. The purpose of research and how research will be conducted are all influenced by the researcher’s paradigmatic beliefs. Kawulich (2012:1) states that every researcher has his/her own views of what constitutes truth and knowledge. These views form the basis of our reasoning and this basis of reasoning is what came to be known as a paradigm. Therefore, paradigms are frameworks which guide our thinking, our beliefs and value systems and direct our assumptions about ourselves and the society we live in as well as framing how we view the world around us (Schwandt 2001:183). A paradigm is thus a shared worldview that represents the thinking patterns, imagination, beliefs and values shared in a discipline and that guides how problems are solved within that specific discipline (Muhammad, Muhammad, Aijaz, Syeda & Kamal 2011:2083; Schwandt 2001:183-4; Tichapondwa 2013:105). The term ‘worldview’ implies a basic set of beliefs that guide an individual’s action (Guba 1990:17). Patton (2014: 91) states that a paradigm is expressed in terms of three philosophical aspects, namely, the nature of social reality (known as ontology – that is, what do we believe about the nature of reality?), ways of knowing (known as epistemology – that is, how do we know what we know?), and ethics and value systems (known as axiology – that is, what do we believe is true?). Hence, the choice of the research paradigm is influenced by a lot of philosophical assumptions a person holds about what is reality, its nature and its ability to be believed. Kawulich (2012: 1) asserts that paradigm paves the way for researchers to ask specific questions and use appropriate approaches and methods to systematic inquiry (known as methodology – that is, how should we study the world?). Hence, methodology becomes another important aspects. It is the formula to be used in finding answers to all questions people ask about reality. The presentation of the research findings as answers to the research questions also requires a specific format of presentation (known as rhetoric – that is, how should we present the findings?). Hence, rhetoric becomes another important philosophical aspect. 103 Research paradigm relates to a lot of beliefs advanced by researchers, as these beliefs relates to ontological, epistemological, axiological, methodological and rhetorical aspects that inform the way researchers conduct their investigations. The consideration of all these philosophical aspects informs researchers about the choice of the research paradigm and the particular direction their research should focus on. The following diagram depicts the philosophical factors that inform the choice of a research paradigm. Theoretical frameworks, literature & research practice (Methodology and rhetoric) Assumptions about the nature of reality & knowledge Value systems & ethical principles (Axiology) (Ontology and epistemology) Research Paradigm Figure 4.1: Philosophical factors influencing the choice of research paradigm Source: Kawulich 2012: 3 Figure 4.1 shows that a chosen research paradigm is a holistic overview of the world by the researcher. It is a result of various philosophical factors that have been put together in order to help understand a phenomena and find ways on how to deal with it in a particular environment. Comprehensively considered, the choice of the paradigm is influenced by the researcher’s own worldviews about different underpinnings characterising the environment in which the researcher lives. These worldviews are 104 shaped by the discipline area of the researcher, the beliefs of scholars in the researcher’s area of study and past research experiences. In considering research problems and attempting to find answers to them, researchers adhere to specific research paradigms underlying the phenomena and rationale of their research endeavours (Thomas 2010: 292). The following table illustrates the common research paradigms used by researchers as the philosophical basis for their investigations and reasoning. Table 4.1: Types of research paradigms Positivist/Post Constructivist/ Transformative/ Postcolonial/ positivist research Interpretative Emancipatory Indigenous paradigm research research paradigm research paradigm paradigm Reason for To discover laws To understand To destroy To challenge doing the that are and describe myths and deficit thinking research generalizable human nature empower people and and govern the to change pathological universe society radically descriptions of the former colonized and reconstruct a body of knowledge that carries hope and promotes transformation and social change among the historically oppressed Philosophical Informed mainly Informed by Informed by Informed by underpinnings by realism, hermeneutics critical theory, indigenous idealism and and postcolonial knowledge critical realism phenomenology discourses, systems, feminist critical theory, 105 theories, race- postcolonial specific theories discourses, and neo-Marxist feminist theories theories, critical race- 6 specific theories and neo-Marxist theories Ontological One reality, Multiple socially Multiple realties Socially assumptions knowable within constructed shaped by constructed probability realties social, political, multiple cultural, realities economic, race, shaped by the ethnic, gender set of multiple and disability connections values that human beings have with the environment, the cosmos, the living and the non-living Place of Science is value Values are an All science must All research values in the free, and values integral part of begin with a must be guided research have no place social life; no value position; by a relational process except when group’s values some positions accountability choosing a topic are wrong, only are right, some that promotes different are wrong. respectful representation, reciprocity and rights of the researched Nature of knowledge Objective Subjective; Dialectical Knowledge is idiographic understanding relational and aimed at critical is all the praxis indigenous 106 knowledge systems built on relations What counts Based on Truth is context It is informed by It is informed as truth precise dependent a theory that by the set of unveils illusions multiple observation and measurement relations that that is verifiable one has with the universe Methodology Quantitative; Qualitative; Combination of Participatory, correlational; phenomenology; quantitative and liberating, and quasi- ethnographic; qualitative action transformative experimental; symbolic research; research experimental; interaction; participatory approaches causal naturalistic research and comparative; methodologies survey that draw from indigenous knowledge systems Techniques of Mainly Mainly A combination of Techniques gathering data questionnaires, interviews, techniques in based on observations, participant the other two philosophic tests and observation, paradigms sagacity, ethno experiments pictures, philosophy, photographs, language diaries and frameworks, documents indigenous knowledge systems and talk stories and talk circles Source: Chilisa (2011: 40) Table 4.1 shows the research paradigms in terms of their definitions and underlying philosophical underpinning as pertains to ontological, epistemological, axiological and 107 methodological assumptions. These paradigms are explained below, and the applicability of each specific research paradigm to this study is explained at the end of the discussion of each research paradigm. 4.4.1.1 Positivism/Post-positivism research paradigm Positivism emphasises a strict empirical approach in which claims about knowledge are based directly on experience, facts and the observable causes of behaviour in a social environment (Bogdan & Biklen 2007:24). It holds the view that scientific methods and procedures used in the natural sciences offer the best epistemological framework for investigating the phenomena in the social world as they yield great objectivity and representation (Crotty 1998:40). Post-positivists hold the same view that knowledge is discovered through the use of scientific methods and that objects have existence and meanings independent of human thinking (Kawulich 2012:7). However, post-positivism postulates that scientific procedures may involve errors and that theories and procedures can be changed (Ponterotto 2005:130). The argument is that reality cannot be established in certain terms and therefore attracts critical analysis to verify the accuracy of scientific procedures and prove bias (Crotty 1998:40). In addition, scientific procedures are carried out by humans influenced by their individual philosophical underpinnings and theories, and therefore the possibility of human error and biases cannot be ruled out in positivism. Positivists and postpositivists are related in a way that they both believe in the independence of reality and the scientific discovery of knowledge using scientific methods. Post-positivists went further to critique the outcomes of scientific methods in order to safeguard objectivity and prevent human biases. Hence the two paradigms are usually treated as interrelated and one. The relevance of positivism/post-positivism research paradigm to this study manifests through critical realism and idealism as philosophical underpinnings. The realities of financial incentive were discovered by the researcher at the research sites by engaging with the participants. These realities were based on the personal feelings and accounts of the participants, and therefore the existence of the reality discovered was dependent on human consciousness and reasoning. Thus, despite an adopted 108 research paradigm of choice as will be discussed in section 4.4.1.5, this study cannot be detached entirely from a positivism/post-positivism research paradigm. The relevance of the positivism/post-positivism research paradigm also becomes relevant in view of the mixed-methods research approach as discussed in section 4.4.2.3. 4.4.1.2 Constructivist/Interpretivist research paradigm Constructivism and interpretivism are related concepts that emphasise the understanding of the world as others experience it. Its philosophical underpinnings are informed by the belief that reality is constructed by individuals based on their own experiences and interactions with one another and their interpretations of the world in which they live (Jonassen, Cernusca & Ionas 2007:130). Constructivists and interpretivists view reality as being constructed in a social environment and believe that there are multiple realities as experienced by different people in a social environment (McMillan & Schumacher 2010: 6). These multiple realities can be interpreted in order for them to be understood, hence the relationship and interdependence between constructivism and interpretivism. According to this paradigm, knowledge is subjective and truth is dependent upon the context in which research takes place. Interpretivism is the most appropriate research paradigm for this study as it underlies research studies whose aim is to understand and describe human nature (Table 4.1). The philosophical underpinnings of hermeneutics and phenomenology fit well with the intentions of this study (section 4.3). Hermeneutics is a branch of philosophy that deals with the interpretation of phenomena (Paul 2012: 287). The focus of hermeneutics is the capacity to interpret human understandings (Paul 2012:288). Similar to hermeneutics, is phenomenology which revolves around the human consciousness of the objects within the social environment, the experiences derived from the interaction and the explanation thereof (Gadamer 2004a:407). Hermeneutics and phenomenology applies to this research insofar as the research sought to interact with the participants about their consciousness in their own environment and interpret their expressions. 109 The ontological position of constructivism/interpretivism, being multiple reality construction, concurs well with the data collection section of this study (section 4.6). The use of this paradigm allowed the researcher to interact with various participants and collect a multiplicity of views from the participants. The ‘subjective’ epistemological framework of the constructivism/interpretivism research paradigm becomes relevant as reality for this research was established by engaging personal experiences and feelings of individual participants. The logical procedures and methods that were used to collect data are typically those aligned with a qualitative research approach linked to the constructivist/interpretivist research paradigm. Hence, a detailed discussion of the relevance of this research paradigm to this study will be explained in section 4.4.1.5. 4.4.1.3 Transformative/Emancipatory research paradigm Various researchers have argued that the positivism and interpretivism research paradigms were characterised by racial bias, and as a result, marginalised African communities (Mertler 2005:15; Neuman 2014:8; Neuman 2014:118; Shannon-Baker 2016:323). Researchers then advocated for an inclusive paradigm that seeks to address the flaws and imbalances as suspected in the earlier research paradigms, with a common motive of emancipating and transforming historically disadvantaged communities through group action (Mertens 2009:3). In Africa, Chilisa and Kawulich (2012: 11) noted that some scholars such as Chambers (1997), Escobar (1995), and Mshana (1992) were of the view that the dominant research paradigms, those of positivism and constructivism, have marginalised African communities’ ways of knowing their social environment, and have thus led to the design of research driven development projects that were irrelevant to the needs of the people, a sentiment echoed by indigenous scholars in the West (Mihesuah 2005:4). The developmental needs of the indigenous people were thus moved to the periphery as a result of alien dominant research paradigms. As a result of this research advocacy, a third paradigm in the name of transformative or emancipatory research paradigm, which includes critical social science research, participatory action research and feminist designs, and whose research aims were to 110 emancipate, was developed (Mertler 2005:15; Neuman 2014:8-118; Shannon-Baker 2016:323 ). This paradigms seeks to emancipate humans in various spheres of life such as empowering previously disadvantaged groups such as women and children (feminist theory), getting rid of racial inequalities (race-specific theories), addressing imbalances as a result of colonialism (post-colonial theories), examining and critiquing the status quo (critical theory) and using education to liberate oneself (Freirean theory). Broadly considered, the transformative paradigm was a response to the need for a framework that embodied researchers’ work toward social justice with marginalised groups, and address social inequities in order to promote positive social and individual changes for marginalised groups (Shannon-Baker 2016:323). Related to this study, the rationale for adopting the transformative/emancipatory research paradigm is informed by postcolonial discourses, and aims at destroying myths and empower people to change society radically (Table 4.1). This rationale fits well with the intentions of this study which seeks to suggest appropriate teacher motivation strategies for rural schools, in order to empower teachers at rural schools to live a dignified life in rural communities and change the negative image that has been painted of rural schools over eons. Teachers can be empowered only if they are emancipated from the current harsh working conditions they are enduring at schools located in rural communities. 4.4.1.4 Postcolonial/Indigenous research paradigm Chilisa (2005:562) defines the postcolonial/indigenous research paradigm as a worldview that focuses on the shared aspects of ontology, epistemology, axiology and research methodologies of disempowered or historically oppressed social groups. The paradigm seeks to decolonise indigenous minds by solidifying indigenous values and cultural practices and placing indigenous peoples and their issues into dominant, mainstream discourses. The postcolonial indigenous paradigm serves as a framework for hearing non-western voices and emancipating the voices of formerly oppressed generations from silence 111 imposed by colonisation (Denzin & Lincoln 2005:58). The postcolonial/indigenous research paradigm provides a means for valuing indigenous knowledge systems and philosophies (Chilisa 2011:174; Chilisa & Preece 2005:42). This paradigm does not fall far from the emancipatory research paradigm as it also endeavours to emancipate historically disadvantaged socially groups, but using a different model, a relational approach, which is more considerate, fundamental and determined to emancipate. Given the harsh living and working conditions that oppressed teachers in rural schools as explained in sections 3.4 and 3.5 respectively, the postcolonial/indigenous research paradigm becomes a point of reference. This is because the postcolonial/indigenous research paradigm seeks to promote the indigenous knowledge of the rural school teachers in terms of expressing collectively how they felt oppressed and what they think will work better for them while working and residing at rural schools. In the spirit of Ubuntu as a relational indigenous research paradigm in the African context, the researcher mobilised teachers for focus group interviewing to collectively assist each other in answering the questions pertaining to the financial incentive with a view to collectively making a positive contribution to their academic discourse in rural areas. As was evident from the discussions of the applicability of the different research paradigms to this study, the applicability of the interpretivist research paradigm for this study became prominent and is elaborated on next. 4.4.1.5 Interpretivism as the research paradigm of choice An interpretivist research paradigm is premised on the fact that knowledge is developed as a result of people’s subjective interpretations of their experiences about the social world (Thomas 2010:295). Interpretive researchers believe that there is no single correct path or a particular method to knowledge, but that knowledge and paths to improved knowledge are varied and relative. Accordingly, there are no correct or incorrect theories since human beings think and reflect differently, with the result that rigid scientific methods are less appropriate for the study of society (Tichapondwa 2013:106). 112 The emphasis of an interpretivist paradigm lies in the fact that access to reality, whether given or socially constructed, is only through social constructions by way of using language, consciousness and shared meanings (Myers 2009:20). Interpretive researches contradict objectivity, arguing that knowledge and meanings are the result of human interpretation, emphasising the relativity of objective knowledge as being not independent of thinking and human reasoning (Thomas 2010:295). Due to its social nature, an interpretive paradigm is underpinned by observation and questioning to collect information about events, as well as by interpretations to make meanings of that information, either by drawing conclusions or by judging the match between the information differently collected (Thomas 2010:296). An interpretivist research paradigm allows researchers to understand phenomena through the interpretations that specific people assign to these specific phenomena (section 1.6.1). In addition, interpretivists, by collecting richer, thicker data, typically are able to extract more meaning from their analysis than are statisticians (Onwuegbuzie, Jiao & Bostick 2004:184). Through an interpretivist research paradigm, this study provides an understanding of the influence of financial incentive on teacher motivation in rural schools from the participants’ own experiences and interpretations, which can possibly be applied to a wide population from which the sample was drawn. The interpretivist research paradigm has been criticised by positivists for not using scientific methods to establish reality, lacking objectivity and prone to investigator’s bias (Kawulich 2012:7; Ponterotto 2005:130). Despite these criticisms and in view of the nature of the study and research problem, an interpretive research paradigm remained the best paradigm to use for this study as it allowed the researcher to gain an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under study through critical inquiry. The types of beliefs held by individual researchers as paradigms often lead to embracing a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods research approach in carrying out their research (Creswell 2009: 24). The following section will explain the research approaches as applicable to this study. 113 4.4.2 Research approaches A research paradigm, as discussed earlier, is regarded as an integrated body of substantive concepts, variables and problems with corresponding methodological approaches and tools guiding the initiative of finding answers to a research problem (Huitt 2011:1). As a result, certain research paradigms are associated with certain research approaches and methods. Research approaches refers to the plans and procedures for the research and spans the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis and interpretation (Creswell 2014:31). The choice of the research approach is informed by the philosophical assumptions the researchers brings to the study, the procedures of inquiry (research designs) and the specific research methods of data collection, analysis and interpretation. The choice of the research approach is also based on the nature of the problem to be addressed, the researcher’s experience and participants for the study (Creswell 2014:31; Creswell 2009:35). There are three main research approaches, namely, qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods research approach. The following section explain the applicability of each research approach to this study. 4.4.2.1 Qualitative research approach This study relied mainly on a qualitative research approach in order to evaluate and interpret the realities surrounding the phenomenon for investigation for the sake of increased understanding (Leedy & Omrod 2005:134-5). A qualitative research approach is associated with constructivist/interpretivist research paradigm which are used to obtain an understanding of the world from a subjective, individual perspective, with a preference for presenting data in the form of words, rather than in numerical form as is the case with a positivist research paradigm (Green & Thorogood 2004:25; Snape & Spencer 2003:15). Both approaches reject a positivist viewpoint that knowledge is based upon observable and measurable variables that exist as a reality, but rather believe that human phenomena are socially constructed rather than objectively tested (Moriarty 2011:6). 114 According to Creswell (2006:39) and Johnson and Christensen (2004:30), qualitative research is a type of research in which the researcher relies on the views of the participants, asks broad, general questions, collects data consisting largely of narratives from participants and analyses these words for themes. The fundamental rationale for adopting the qualitative research approach in this study, lies in the fact that interviews were used to actively interact with the participants and that a great deal of the data collected was analysed and presented thematically, as well as interpreted and discussed narratively. Qualitative research approaches are preferred for their iterative nature. They have a high degree of flexibility, as designs and methods are continually refined during the course of the study for increased clarity and understanding of the subject of study (Habiba 2013:114). The researcher initially selects the methods based on the questions, however, the methodological issues may change without losing focus on research aims, as necessitated by the researcher’s understanding of the reality of the phenomenon being studied (Jane & Jane 2003:49). The flexibility with qualitative research approaches that allows methods to be adjusted and restricted on the basis of the acquired data, ensures continual refinement of the research methods to provide relevant data. Leedy and Omrod (2005:134-135) summarise the main benefits of using a qualitative research approach rather than a quantitative approach into four main categories, namely description, interpretation, verification and evaluation. Firstly, a qualitative research approach is descriptive as it can describe the nature of certain situations, processes and programmes. It allows an in-depth analysis of a programme through a multiplicity of information from participants’ perspectives, which may be rendered impossible by quantitative methods. Therefore, qualitative research methods reach the parts of the research that quantitative methods cannot reach, particularly in research looking at the influence between processes and outcomes (Moriarty 2011:3; Shaw 2003:57). This approach was thus relevant for this study which sought to explain the influence of financial incentive on teaching and learner performance at rural schools. 115 Secondly, because qualitative research approaches are interpretive in nature, they enable the researcher to gain new insights about a particular phenomenon and develop new concepts or theoretical perspectives about the phenomenon and discover the problems that exist within the phenomenon. This is made possible by the research questions that were not based on assumptions about the existence of a single reality but aimed to uncover a plurality of truths, thus making qualitative research methods more appropriate in offering multiple explanations to an influence (Fraser 2004:181). In addition, the analysis was open to emergent concepts and ideas which may produce detailed description and classification, identify patterns of association and explanations (Snape & Spencer 2003:5). Qualitative researchers are interested in the meanings of how people make sense of their lives, their experiences and their structuring of meaningful living in their world (Atieno 2009:14). Thirdly, a qualitative research approach serves the verification purpose of allowing the researcher to test the validity of certain assumptions, theories and generalisations within real-world contexts. As the interaction with the participants pertains to interviews, the researcher gains specific insights to verify the specific views held by different participants about the financial incentive that was investigated. Fourthly, qualitative researches serve an evaluative purpose as they provide a means through which a researcher can judge the influence of a particular policy, action, or programme. This study that evaluates the influence of financial incentive on learner performance warrants the qualitative research approach as the most appropriate approach in order to collect relevant data for evaluation purposes. This will help the researcher to understand why people behave as they do in particular situations, in response to interventions vested upon them (Moriarty 2011:3). Evaluation was arrived at as the researcher, with the use of interviews, interrogated participants on their perspectives on the influence of a financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural Namibian schools. Qualitative research methods are suitable for studies whose aim is to communicate findings, resulting in practitioners and policy makers understanding the phenomenon of study better (Green & Thorogood 2004:24: Mitchell, Lunt & Shaw 2010:7). A qualitative research approach helps policy makers to become more appreciative of 116 others’ viewpoints so as to accommodate these viewpoints for a more holistic understanding and functioning of the phenomenon of study within the specific context (Moriarty 2011:4). Engaging the views of teachers, school principals and education senior officials through interviews culminated in recommendations made to education policy makers through which they can get informed of the views of teachers on their motivation and how their motivation influences learner performance. Notwithstanding the above mentioned advantages of a qualitative research approach, a number of limitations have been identified as typical of qualitative research methods. While qualitative research methods can examine the social processes at work in a particular context in considerable depth, the collection and especially the analysis of data can be time-consuming and expensive (Choy 2014:101; Hancock 2002:2). Qualitative research methods of data collection and analysis of collected data incorporate a wide range of techniques and epistemological assumptions, emphasising the importance of carefully selecting the appropriate methods to use (Willig 2001:15). Qualitative research methods usually involve a relatively small number of participants and this can mean that it is less likely to be considered by other academic researchers and policy makers as its findings are not verified and objectively tested (Choy 2014:101). This may reduce the trustworthiness and credibility of the research findings by other people, as the knowledge produced might not be generalised to other people or other settings and the findings might be unique to the relatively few people included in the empirical study (Thomas 2010:311). However, for the specific context, the study contributes to a better understanding of the situation of those involved, as well as of the meaning they derived from their situation. The researcher adopted measures applicable to qualitative studies for enhancing the trustworthiness of the findings (section 4.8). Despite the limitations, the qualitative research approach was the best option for the study for the sake of a deep understanding, as learned from the perspectives of the participants who are actively involved in the specific situation. 117 The qualitative research approach was carried out through a case study investigation, as an empirical inquiry that investigated in-depth a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context (Thomas 2010:309; Yin 2003:13). A case study allows an exploration from multiple perspectives of the complexity and uniqueness of a particular project or programme of functioning in a real-life context (Simons 2009: 21). In case studies, the aim is to provide an explicit context of a phenomenon, out of which new insights can be developed (Moriarty 2011:16). Insights from the case study can then be transferred to other situations with similar conditions. The case study examines matter in detail over time by utilising different sources of data found in the particular context, which are gathered to arrive at the best possible response to the research questions (Thomas 2010:309). As a result, the researcher gains sufficient comprehension about the phenomenon and its implications. As informed by an interpretivist research paradigm and qualitative research approach, the case study design is suitable for being premised on the multiplicity of perspectives which are raised by participants in their social context (Jane & Jane 2003:54; Simons 2009:21). This allows for the interpretations of their experiences about the phenomenon of study by the people involved in the case. Even though a case study approach allows the researcher to gain an in-depth comprehension of the phenomenon being studied, the findings of case study approaches are usually limited as they are not aimed at generalisation. However, although each case is unique, the emphasis is on what lessons can be learned from a case study investigation (Thomas 2010:311). The lessons learned can be applied to settings with similar situations. Hence, case studies have a constructivist value of encouraging the development of new knowledge in a particular knowledge domain. In this regard, the underlying philosophy of case studies is not to ‘prove’ but to ‘improve’ the status quo of the phenomenon in a particular context (Stufflebeam, Madaus & Kellaghan 2000:283). The improvement of the status quo correlates well with the aim of this study which sought to improve teacher motivation strategies in order to improve learner performance in rural schools and sustain this performance, with teachers remaining motivated in their postings at rural schools. 118 4.4.2.2 Quantitative research approach Quantitative research is an approach that tests objective theories by examining the relationship between variables (Check & Schutt 2012:11). The variables can be measured on instruments and then the data is numbered and can be analysed statistically. Quantitative methods are most often used when the motives for doing the research are evaluation, exploration or description (Check & Schutt 2012:11; Johnson & Christensen 2004:31). The rationale for the quantitative approach is that it measures cause and effect relationships between independent and dependent variables. The quantitative approach studies behaviour under controlled conditions and collects data based on precise measurement using validated collection instruments to answer research questions or test hypotheses (Creswell 2006:6). Related to this study, quantitative research approach manifested itself when the researcher sought to find and analyse statistical information related to learner performance, number of qualified teachers, number of unqualified teachers and teacher turn over, by way of document analysis. Such types of data collected are quantitative in nature and therefore made a quantitative approach visible in the carrying out this research. This information was important in terms of evaluating the influence of financial incentive at rural schools in relation to teacher motivation and learner performance over the specified period of time. 4.4.2.3 Mixed-methods research approach Although the study relies mainly on a case study as a qualitative research design, the study essentially represents a mixed-methods research approach (section 1.6.1). The reason for this is the fact that the researcher made use of methods from both quantitative and qualitative approaches and integrates them into a single study (Wright & Losekoot 2012:417). The purpose of this integration is that qualitative and quantitative research approaches when combined provide a better understanding of a research problem and findings than either of the research approaches alone (Creswell 2009:31). The mixed-methods research approach was relevant for this study because evaluating the influence of the financial incentive on rural school performance was to 119 be better and more comprehensively understood by analysing and collecting data that could be both analysed thematically and quantified into frequencies and percentages. Data that was collected and linked to the quantitative approach relates to statistical figures of how learners performed in standardised national examinations after the implementation of the financial incentive for teachers to remain in rural schools. In addition, descriptions about teacher recruitment, retention and turnover in rural schools are better understood when presented as percentages. Having these quantitative data, the qualitative research approach was then used to explain the reasons underlying the percentages. Although some researchers are of the opinion that interpretivism is being antipathetic to positivism (Bryman & Bell 2007:17), current thinking suggests that the mixedmethods research approach can lead to a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under investigation (Gorard 2004:7). In the context of this study, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative research approaches was beneficial as the narratives obtained from interviews helped to validate the data that was quantified as obtained with document analysis. In addition, responses from interviews were substantiated by quantifiable data as collected through document analysis. As a result of this methodological connectedness between quantitative and qualitative research, and the fact that many scholars view qualitative and quantitative research methods as complementary rather than antithetical (Ary et al. 2010:55), a mixedmethods research approach was relevant as it resulted in an improved richness of understanding through confirmation of results differently collected, extending knowledge comprehensively and initiating new perspectives by approaching data collection in varied ways (Bazeley 2004:141; Jack & Raturi 2006:346). The mixed-methods research approach is a very broad and extensive approach to research and covers a wide range of designs. Different scholars have defined different types of mixed-methods research designs, giving these designs different names and explanations (Creswell 2002:19; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie 2004:14; Onwuegbuzie 2003b:72). According to these authors, the naming and classification of the mixedmethods research designs is determined by the degree of mixing that happens, as well as by the stage at which mixing happens. 120 Creswell (2002:19), advanced three types of mixed-method research designs, namely; triangulation design, which is a collection of both quantitative and qualitative data simultaneously; explanatory design, which involves collecting quantitative data first and then collecting qualitative data to facilitate the understanding of quantitative data; and the exploratory design, which involves collecting qualitative data first and then collecting quantitative data to facilitate understanding of the qualitative data. Of the three types of mixed-method research designs, the triangulation design is the type of mixed-methods research design applicable to this study. This choice of mixed-method research design is explained further in section 4.4.2.3. As seen in the three mixed-methods research designs above (Creswell 2002:19), mixed-methods research designs combines quantitative and qualitative research methods in different ways, with each approach adding something valuable to the understanding of the phenomenon (Ary et al. 2010:559). Onwuegbuzie (2003:7) and Creswell (2009:190) proposed that in combining, classifying and naming quantitative and qualitative approaches to yield mixed-methods research designs, scholars should consider three aspects, namely, the level of mixing, time orientation and the weighing of the approaches. On the basis of these aspects Onwuegbuzie (2003:316) has gone beyond the three mixed-method research designs (Creswell 2002:19), and outlined eight types of mixed-methods research designs as follow: a) Partially mixed concurrent equal status design: This design describes research studies involving two phases that occur concurrently such that the quantitative and qualitative phases have approximately equal weight. b) Partially mixed concurrent dominant status design: This design describes research studies with two phases that occur concurrently such that either the qualitative or quantitative phase has the greater emphasis over the other. c) Partially mixed sequential equal status desig: This design describes studies with two phases that occur sequentially, with the quantitative and qualitative phases having equal weight. d) Partially mixed sequential dominant status design: This design describes studies with two phases that occur sequentially, such that either the quantitative or qualitative phase has a great emphasis. 121 e) Fully mixed concurrent equal status design: This design describes studies mixing qualitative and quantitative research within one or more or across the three major research components in a single research study, with the quantitative and qualitative phases being mixed concurrently at one or more stages or across the three major research components, and with both elements being given approximate equal weight. f) Fully mixed concurrent dominant status design: This design describes studies that mix qualitative and quantitative phases concurrently at one or more stages or across the stages and with either the quantitative or qualitative phase being given more weight. g) Fully mixed sequential equal status design: This design describes studies that mix qualitative and quantitative research within one or more stages or across the three major research stages with the quantitative and qualitative phases occurring sequentially at one or more or across the three stages of the research process and being given approximately equal weight. h) Fully mixed sequential dominant status design: This design describes studies that mix qualitative and quantitative research within one or more of the stages or across the stages of the research process, with the quantitative and qualitative phases occurring sequentially at one or more stages or across the stages and with either the quantitative or qualitative phase being given more weight. Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2009:233) assert that these eight mixed-methods research designs are comprehensive enough to encompass any mixed-methods research designs. Any mixed method research design should have laid its assumptions on any of the eight designs. This study adopted a partially-mixed concurrent dominant status design as a mixedmethod research design. This design is applicable for research studies involving both qualitative and quantitative phases that occur concurrently such that either the qualitative or quantitative phase has the greater emphasis over the other. In terms of application, both qualitative and quantitative phases were employed concurrently during the study. 122 However, as informed by the research paradigm, the qualitative phase was more prevalent, thus having more weight and emphasis over the quantitative phase throughout the entire research process. In terms of the three major research stages, namely, the research objectives, the data collection and the data analysis (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie (2004:14), the degree of the emphasis and high prevalence of the qualitative phase was manifested in the fact that, at the research objective stage, the main research question and the research objectives were all stated such that the information being sought was to be addressed mainly by using a qualitative research approach. At the data collection stage, the data collection tools that were used as interviews and document analysis were tools that are classified as data collection tools for naturalistic, qualitative research studies (Leedy and Omrod 2005:144). The choice of the data collection tools used was informed by the research design, a case study, which is traditionally recognised as a qualitative research design (Leedy and Omrod 2005:135). Creswell (2009:191) emphasises that it is more manageable to collect both quantitative and qualitative data at roughly the same time, when the researcher is in the field collecting data, rather than to revisit the field multiple times for data collection. Hence, data that could be quantified were also collected with document analysis at the same time with the qualitative data. With regard to the data analysis stage, the thematic analysis method, which was used to analyse narrative data is a typical qualitative data analysis method (Braun & Clarke, 2006:79; Mojtaba, Jacqueline, Hannele & Sherrill 2016:106). The quantitative phase was applied during the data collection stage by collecting statistical data, as well as during the analysis stage through tabulation, graphic representations, frequencies and percentages. According to Onwuegbuzie and Teddlie (2003:352), mixed-methodological data analysis provides researchers with the opportunity to address the relative weaknesses of both quantitative and qualitative research by combining the strengths of data analysis techniques typically associated with both approaches. In addition mixedmethods research designs give the researcher a prerogative to utilise whatever tools are required to answer the research questions for their studies (Guth 2016:143). A mixed-methods research approach was therefore relevant and an ideal for this study insofar as the thematic analysis of interviews, tabulation of themes and categories, 123 and quantifying of data into frequencies and percentages served best in contributing to the pool of existing knowledge on teacher motivation and learner performance through the use of a financial incentive in rural schools. 4.5 RESEARCH POPULATION Polit and Hungler (1999:37) refer to the population as an aggregate of all the objects or members that conform to a set of research specifications. The Student Learning Centre (2013:1) of the Flinders University classifies research population into three groups, namely, the target group, the study population and the sample. The target population refers to the entire membership of research interest, but due to limitations, the entire memberships cannot be studied. The study population refers to the subsets of the target population that can be studied. A sample refers to the subsets of the study population that will be used in the empirical investigation because not every member of the study population can be used for the study owing to limitations and delimitations influencing the study (Ranjit 2011:177). The target population for this study consisted of all public rural schools (both primary and secondary schools) in Namibia where teachers receive a financial incentive as motivation to sustainably teach in schools located in desolated areas. Geographically, Namibia is a country that lies in sub-Saharan Africa, specifically located on the south west of Africa, with an estimated population of 2.2 million people. Namibia measures 825,615 km², and its home to fourteen geographical regions, namely, Erongo, Hardap, Karas, Kavango East, Kavango West, Khomas, Kunene, Ohangwena, Omaheke, Omusati, Oshana, Oshikoto, Otjozondjupa and Zambezi region. The head of the education directorate in each of the fourteen regions is the Director of Education. Each region manages its educational affairs as informed by legislative frameworks from central government. Omusati Region as one of the fourteen geographical regions in Namibia, served as the study population. Omusati Region represents one of the most densely populated rural areas in Namibia with schools located in severely desolated rural conditions (section 1.6.2). According to the Namibia Statistical Abstract Report 2014-2015, Omusati Region has 276 schools, as the 124 highest number of schools compared to other regions, of which eight schools are private schools and 268 are public schools (Namibia Statistics Agency 2015:9). The implication is that most of the learners in Omusati Region are attending school in rural areas where the need is significant to attract qualified teachers to locate and remain at rural schools in order to reverse poor learner performance which is observed at rural schools. On this basis, the empirical investigation was confined to Omusati Region as the most desolated region in Namibia with high population and many public schools in rural areas. 4.5.1 Sampling techniques Sampling is a process of selecting a sub-section from the population of interest, as a ‘sample’ (Chiromo 2009:16). A sample is thus a group of participants for the study who have been drawn from the population of interest (Ranjit 2011:177). The methods of sampling are classified into two major groups, namely, probability sampling and non-probability sampling (McMillan 2012:95; Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2012:130). Researchers such Leedy and Omrod (2005:199) as well as Saunders et al. (2012: 140-41) provide the distinction between the types of sampling and their methods. Probability sampling provides every member of the population of interests with an equal opportunity to be selected and become a participant in the study. Typical methods for probability sampling include simple random, stratified and cluster sampling. Non-probability sampling does not give every member of the population of interest an equal chance to be sampled and become a participant in the study; rather, the researcher retains the prerogative to judge the population and produce the sample. Typical methods for non-probability sampling include convenience sampling, purposive sampling and snowballing (Chiromo 2009:18). The researcher selected Tsandi Circuit as the education circuit in which schools performed most poorly in the standardised national examinations for the period 2013 to 2015 (section 1.6.2) in Omusati Region. From Tsandi Circuit, schools were sampled with indicators as pertains to learner performance that was very poor, teachers receiving the financial incentive and where geographic conditions were such that these teachers and schools were accessible with two-wheel drive vehicles. The sampling 125 techniques for this study were purposive sampling and snow ball sampling as nonprobability sampling methods. 4.5.1.1 Purposive sampling The choice of purposive sampling is based on the fact of selecting participants who best suit the specific purposes associated with answering the research questions (Teddlie & Yu 2007:77). Purposive sampling helped the researcher to focus on key informants who were particularly knowledgeable of the phenomenon for investigations, thus providing in-depth findings about the investigations (Anney 2014:278). All participants in the study were purposively sampled based on the expectation of them being typically knowledgeable and experienced about the financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural schools. Beyond purposive sampling which was based on the commonalities of all participants being typically affiliated and knowledgeable of the subject that was being investigated, it was imperative to supplement purposive sampling with snowball sampling. 4.5.1.2 Snowball sampling In addition to purposive sampling which purposively samples teachers, school principals, the Circuit Office official and the Regional Office official, snowball sampling was also applied. Snowball sampling is a type of non-probability technique where the sampled subjects indicate other subjects who could provide rich information for the study (Chiromo 2009:18). Despite the teachers, school principals, the Circuit Office official and the Regional Office official having been sampled purposively for being knowledgeable about the financial incentive, the researcher was not well-versed with the specific teachers at schools who could provide rich information, as well as the specific official at both the Circuit and Regional Offices who was knowledgeable about the subject of study. Hence, given the iterative nature of qualitative studies, the researcher considered snowball sampling to assist with the following key questions: 1. How do I know qualified teachers and unqualified teachers at schools? 2. How do I know teachers who are receiving the financial incentive and teachers who are not receiving the incentive? 126 3. How do I establish the period a teacher has been receiving the financial incentive? 4. How do I know teachers who are teaching grades that sit for standardised national examinations? 5. How do I know the education official who is knowledgeable about the subject of study at both the Circuit and Regional Offices? In view of the above questions, the researcher made use of the school principals, guided by salient criteria (section 1.6.2), to refer him to potential teachers at schools who could provide information useful for the study. Following the guiding criteria, principals were able to direct the researcher to information-rich participant teachers at their schools. Apart from teachers, at the Regional Office, the researcher was directed to an official who was regarded as having extensive experience and knowledge of the standard of education in the region. The Regional Office official was then sampled on the basis of his vast knowledge and experiences of education in the region. 4.5.2 Size of the sample As stated in section 1.6.2, the research sample was drawn from five rural schools in Tsandi Circuit as the most desolated and poorly performing education Circuit in the Omusati Region. The research sample consisted of rural school teachers from these five schools that were receiving the financial incentive, the school principals of these five schools where the financial incentive was commonly applied, the official from Tsandi Circuit, and the official from the Regional Office in Omusati Region. The participants for this study included then, the five school principals of the five research sites that were purposively selected, six teachers from each of the research sites that were sampled by snowballing, the Circuit Office official of Tsandi Circuit who was purposively sampled and the Regional Office official in the Omusati Region, who was sampled by snowballing. Two of the sampled teachers, from two different research sites, withdrew from participating in the empirical study prior to the focus group interviews. These teachers indicated that they were not willing to participate in the study after having read the research information sheet. 127 This resulted in three research sites having six teacher participants and one school principal participant each, and two research sites having five teacher participants with one school principal participant each. The Circuit Office and the Regional Education Office as research sites all have one participant. In total the research sample consisted of thirty-five participants comprising of twenty-eight teachers, five school principals, one Circuit Office official and one Regional Office official. With reference to indicators and criteria for selection of the sample members and research sites, the Tsandi Circuit of education in the Omusati Region was selected because it houses the schools that performed most poorly in standardised national examination despite the implementation of the financial incentive. The five schools were selected based on their significant and sustained low learner performance for the period 2013 to 2015. The Regional Office for the directorate of education for the Omusati Region was considered informative as it was the regional administrative focal point for the educational affairs of the region, and it was thought as having comprehensive knowledge on learner performance and teacher recruitments in the region. The official in this office was knowledgeable on how schools in their region performed prior to and after the implementation of the financial incentive for rural school teachers. In relation to the reasons for selecting the staff members and specific schools as research sites, the school principal participants were selected on the basis of their first-hand experience and knowledge of the effectiveness of the financial incentive at their schools situated in a desolated rural area (section 1.6.2). Their information-rich knowledge was based on them being school principals of schools where teachers were receiving the financial incentive for a period of at least three years prior to and after the implementation of the financial incentive, and where learners were subjected to standardised national examinations. These indicators placed school principals in a good position to have acquired sufficient knowledge of the performance of their teachers and how this performance has changed after the implementation of the financial incentive for teachers to teach in rural areas. The main criteria for selecting the teacher participants was firstly directed by the indicator that teachers should be qualified and in the possession of a three years 128 teaching diploma or four years teaching degree, which is the minimum professional qualification for a teaching career. The indicator of being qualified relates to the fact that the financial incentive for teachers was initiated as an initiative intended to attract qualified teachers to locate to rural schools. Teachers should have a minimum of three years teaching experience at a rural school prior to and after the implementation of the financial incentive. Selected teachers should be teaching grades that were subjected to standardised national examinations for the period 2013 to 2015. A three-year-period was considered sufficient for teachers to have established how learners performed in response to teachers receiving the financial incentive as a motivation. Comprehensively considered, the selected teachers and school principals were all recipients of the financial incentive which was anticipated as a motivator for locating and remaining in rural schools. The Circuit and Regional offices had an overarching function of managing education in the region. Hence, participants from all research sites were typically knowledgeable about what the influence of the financial incentive on school performance was as this school performance relates to teacher motivation and learner achievement. The following Figure 4.2 summarises the research population for the empirical investigation. 129 All public primary and secondary schools in Namibia, in all fourteen regions, located in rural areas, receiving the financial incentive Target Population All rural schools in Omusati region, in all ten circuits Study Population Receiving the financial incentive Five rural schools: 33 participants One Regional office: 1 participant One Circuit office: 1 participant Sample Total: 35 participants Figure 4.2: The research population for the case study on the influence of financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural Namibian schools Figure 4.2 shows the sample that was used to provide data as empirical evidence and the target and study population from where it was drawn. The empirical data for this study was collected using the data collection procedures as discussed in the next section. 4.6 DATA COLLECTION Research that relies mainly on a qualitative research approach utilises methods which involve close contact between the researcher and the research participants. These research methods are interactive and developmental in allowing emergent issues to be explored (Snape & Spencer 2003:5). The data was collected using semi-structured individual and focus group interviews (section 1.6.3.1). The researcher also gathered statistical data from an analysis of applicable documents (section 1.6.3.2). Semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with the school principals and the Circuit and Regional Office officials. The questions for the individual and focus 130 group interviews were different as the participants were at different levels of education management, supervision, teaching and learning. The questions for interviews with the Circuit Office officials and school principals were the same due to the relatedness of their mandates, pertaining to the overall performance of the schools as informed by teacher motivation, learner performance and administrative policies (Appendix C). During interviewing, the researcher asked the questions in the context of the mandate of the participant’s office who was interviewed. The questions for the individual interviews with the Regional Office official were set to elicit views on the standard of education at a Regional level (Appendix B). This was because part of the Regional Office’s role pertains to managing appropriate interventions to improve teaching and learning in rural schools in the region, the standard of teacher performance in schools and measures to enhance learner performance as this enhanced learner performance relates to promoting teacher motivation for enhanced teaching. The questions for the focus group interviews with teachers focused on teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of the financial incentive as this financial incentive relates to motivating them for sustained teaching in a rural setting (Appendix D). The interview guides for the different interviews ensured that discussions of the questions remained relevant and focused on what was important to clarify for the sake of understanding the influence of the phenomenon that was being studied (Hancock, Ockleford & Windridge 2009:17). The semi-structured nature of the interview questions allowed the researcher to generate data about the participants’ opinions and experiences with regard to the phenomenon under study (Moriarty 2011: 8) as the semi-structured format involved open-ended questions that prompted explanation (Hancock 2002: 9). The open-ended nature of the questions provided opportunities for both the researchers and participants to discuss certain topics in more detail. The implication was that when the participants have difficulties in answering questions or provide only a brief response, the researcher was able to prompt and encourage the interviewees to consider the question from a different perspective and to elaborate on responses for the sake of improved clarity. 131 4.6.1 Focus group interviews The researcher liaised with the respective school principals to arrange for a venue convenient for conducting the focus group interviews with participant teachers. The focus group interviews were conducted with six teachers per group at each selected school. The questions for the focus group interviews with teachers revolved around motivation for the teaching profession in general and motivation to teach in a rural school characterised by desolation and seclusion. Focus group interviews was a suitable tool for data collection from teachers because the participant teachers shared the same experience, namely, they were all receiving the financial incentive for their choice to teach in a rural school secluded from modern living. This same experience promoted spontaneity and synergy when teacher participants interacted in view of the questions asked during interviewing (Lewis 2006:290; Macnaghten & Myers 2009:65). The focus group interviews allowed for the collection of meaningful data due to the prompt of informal social interactions between participants and due to the value of checks and balances with group discussions. The focus group interview was an ideal approach for examining collective experiences, different points of view and mutual concerns held by individuals (Masadeh 2012:64). Focus group interviewing enabled the researcher to gain access to diverse understandings of the different nuances of financial incentive-based motivation to teach in secluded rural schools. It would have been difficult to collect the same kind of data by means of surveys involving structured questionnaires which would have yielded limited responses (Hancock 2002:10). In addition, focus group interviewing helped the researcher to confirm agreements on the same aspects relating to teaching in desolated rural areas as raised by participants. Since all rural school teachers have one factor in common, being recipients of a financial incentive, focus group interviewing was the best approach to use in collecting the views of teachers about the financial incentive programme in which all the rural teachers were involved. As focus group interviewing explores the views of diverse groups of people, the researcher was able to unpack different perspectives within the group in relation to the topic under discussion (Choy 2014:102). In addition, asking a group of people to respond jointly to common questions can yield varied and detailed data on the same topic (Dudwick, Kuehnast, Jones & Woolcock 2006:3). 132 The researcher obtained detailed information through probing the underlying beliefs and assumptions held by the group members about the phenomenon being studied (Yauch & Steudel 2003:472). As a qualitative research inquiry, the focus group interviews with teachers was structured in an open-ended manner to allow participants to raise applicable issues that matter most to them (Yauch & Steudel, 2003:472). Focus group interviewing is regarded as a relatively low-cost research method compared to some other research methods such as structured questionnaires dispatched to a large number of respondents over a wide area. However, focus group interviewing also requires preparations and arrangements with regard to question development, moderation of questions for ensuring clarity and relevance, accommodation of the researcher in the research site during the duration of the study, and arrangements with regard to the time and place for interviewing (Davies 2007:1). In addition, conducting the focus group interviewing and the transcription of recorded interviews demanded considerable time. Travel costs can be more costly than projected (Masadeh 2012:64). The researcher was aware of all these logistical arrangements for the empirical investigation and ensured that research was conducted within the projected time frame. This ensured successful focus group interviews, premised on the principles of permissiveness and a non-threatening atmosphere where participants felt comfortable to discuss their opinions and experiences without fear that they would be judged or ridiculed by others in the group (Hennink 2007:6). To ensure that all the views that transpired during interviewing were considered, all the focus group interviews were recorded as per informed consent by the respective participants. 4.6.2 Individual interviewing The individual interviews with the Regional Office official, Circuit Office official and school principals representing different levels of authority and supervision provided different views about the influence of the financial incentive on school performance. Each of these administrative authorities was interviewed at their respective offices. Unlike teachers, these administrators cannot assemble at a particular point due to the distance between their offices. The interviews with the school principals were 133 conducted in their offices at their respective schools. Conducting the interviews in the offices of the school principals helped the researcher to access documents at the schools for document analysis. To ensure that all the views that transpired during interviewing were considered, all the interviews were recorded as per informed consent by the respective participants. Individual interviews with school principals, Circuit Office official and Regional Office official provided an ideal opportunity for the respective participants to present their experiences about the financial incentive, teacher motivation and learner performance at their level of authority and administration of education. Individual interviewing enabled the researcher to understand individual experiences and expectations related to the phenomenon of study (Boyce & Neale 2006:3). Individuals expressed their perceptions on the successes and failures of the financial incentive without feeling intimidated by the presence of others. Such perceptions may not have been articulated fully within a collective environment as some participants may feel inhibited by talking openly on certain matters within a group arrangement. Individual interviewing enabled the researcher to establish individual opinions about the financial incentive as these individual opinions relate to the individual’s specific office. Individual interviewing allowed the researcher to listen carefully to what the participant was saying, engaging with the participant according to his or her personality without any interruptions as may be the case in group interviewing (Mack, Woodsong, MacQueen, Quest & Namey 2005:4). The researcher also encouraged the interviewee to talk more by probing for more answers and by asking follow up questions. Individual interviewing is the best approach for obtaining expert knowledge by asking experienced individuals within the field and with sufficient exposure to the phenomenon of study (Driscoll 2011:162). Despite the freedom to talk openly during individual interviewing, participants may be biased in their responses since there is no other participant to offer corrections or discuss the phenomenon as is the case with focus group interviews. Individual interviewing may not be suitable for individuals who prefer to share their opinions in the company of others. This stimulation by the group to share individual opinions can limit the amount of data the researcher can collect with individual interviewing. 134 Unlike focus group interviews, individual interviewing can be time consuming as the researcher has to meet with every interviewee at different times. Despite these limitations, a combination of focus group interviews and individual interviewing provided sufficient data useful for answering the research questions. Masadeh (2012:64) emphasises that researchers should employ multiple data collection tools to complement each other. Hence, the effectiveness of focus group and individual interviewing was enhanced by using these two research methods in conjunction with another data collection tool, namely, document analysis. 4.6.3 Document analysis Document analysis is the analysis of a wide range of applicable written materials. It provides useful additional information in order to understand operations in a setting (Hancock et al. 2009:19). Since relevant information is recorded in written form and the participants may not recall all the relevant information to answer the research questions appropriately, it was meaningful for the researcher to analyse applicable documents in order to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon being studied from what is documented on the topic. The understanding gained from document analysis complemented the responses from the participants. This enhanced the researcher’s effort of collecting sufficient and relevant data to address the formulated research aims and objectives. The researcher analysed relevant documents from each school pertaining to teacher motivation such as policy documents on teaching and learning, annual reports on school performance, teacher recruitment and turnover records, examination reports and statistics on standardised national examinations. The analysis of applicable documents was guided by the document analysis guide (Appendix E). The researcher noted the findings of the analysis of applicable documents in the space provided in the document analysis guide. Data collected from an analysis of applicable documents triangulated the responses from participants collected with focus group and individual interviews. At a data collection stage, the analysis of documents represented the quantitative part of the mixed-methods research approach adopted by this study. The data collected 135 from an analysis of applicable documents were considered quantitative data because of its statistical nature. The percentages established were jointly interpreted and discussed with the data from the focus group and individual interviews for the sake of a holistic understanding of the influence of the financial incentive on learner performance at rural schools. 4.7 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION Analysing data involves summarising the mass of data collected and presenting the results in a way that communicates the most important aspects of the research while simultaneously answering the postulated research questions (Carcary 2009:13; Hancock et al. 2009:15). Bassey (2002:85) emphasises that the aim of data analysis is to yield significant and valid answers to the research questions. This study generated both qualitative and quantitative data. The qualitative data was analysed by means of thematic analysis, as pertains to the analysis of data according to themes and emergent categories (Hancock et al. 2009:31; Jane & Jane 2003:220). Braun and Clarke (2006:79) explain thematic analysis as a method of dealing with qualitative data by identifying, analysing and reporting patterns (themes) within data. The authors further defined ‘theme’ as a word or phrase that captures something important about the data in relation to the research question and represents some level of patterned response or meanings within the data set. Thematic analysis involves various steps that set out the logical sequence for analysing qualitative data. The following steps were followed in analysing the data for this study (De Vos 2002:340; Henning et al. 2004:104-105; McMillan & Schumacher 2001:460): a) Obtaining data b) Organising data c) Reading and writing memos d) Coding data line by line e) Categorisation of themes 136 f) Interpretation of data The above steps were considered as discussed below: 4.7.1 Obtaining data As stated in section 4.5.2, the data was collected from a sample of 28 teachers, five school principals, one Circuit Office official and one Regional Office official. Data was collected from teachers by using focus group interviews. There were five focus groups altogether as each school has one focus group. Focus group interviews consisted of six teachers at three research sites and five teachers at the remaining two research sites (section 4.5.2). The focus group interviews were conducted at the research sites where the participants were working as teachers. The focus group interviews were recorded using two devices, namely, a PHILIP digital recorder and an Hp Laptop. The two devices were used for recording in order to improve the credibility of the data during retrieval and to counteract any defects pertaining to voice, tones or power defects. To ensure the relevance of the interviewing to the research topic, a focus group interview guide (Appendix D) was used. As motivated in section 1.6.3.1, the questions in the interview guide were semi-structured in order to elicit as much information from the participants without giving them limitations. In addition to the data collected from focus group interviews, another set of data was collected from the five principals, one Circuit Office official and one Regional Office official by using individual interviews which were also recorded. The interviews with the principals were conducted at their respective schools while the interview with the Circuit Office official was conducted at the Circuit Office. The Regional Office official was interviewed in a Hotel in another town where he was attending an educational conference. At schools where there were two classes of participants, the school principal and the teachers, the researcher arranged with the school principal to be interviewed first, after which teachers were to be interviewed later after they were done with their lesson presentation. In addition to the interviews, data was also collected with document analysis, where the researcher was granted the permission and 137 analysed the documents in the office of the principal, following a document analysis guide (Appendix E), and prior to interviewing the school principal. 4.7.2 Organising data After the data was obtained, the researcher started organising the data, bearing in mind the manner in which the data was collected. The data collected with document analysis was already in hard copy, accessible and ready to be analysed. The researcher transcribed the recorded audio into transcripts so that it became easier for the researcher to work with the data. Four versions of the transcripts were prepared, namely: transcripts for focus groups interviews with teachers, for school principals, for the Circuit Office official and for the Regional Office official. Altogether the data were organised into twelve transcripts, five for focus group interviews, five for school principals, one for the Circuit Office official and one for the Regional Office official. 4.7.3 Reading and writing memos The researcher started familiarising himself with the data by reading the data repeatedly. While reading the transcribed data, the researcher started making memos and summaries of the main issues raised during the interviews as pertains to the research questions and aims with research bearing the specific context in mind (De Vos 2002:340; Nieuwenhuis 2007:113). The researcher read the transcripts repeatedly in order to get the general ideas in the transcripts and noted down these ideas as memos. Where the researcher could not understand the idea being expressed at a particular section of the transcript, the researcher made use of the recorded audios and traced the particular part of the audio that was transcribed in order to comprehend the impressions of the participants and interpret their messages accurately. 4.7.4 Coding Reading and memoing serve as pre-conditions for successful coding. Coding implies that the researcher, after having read the data and established relative similarities and differences among the data, groups the data and allocates identification symbols to 138 these groups (Nieuwenhuis 2007:105). In order to successfully carry out the coding of themes, researchers follow the six phases of conducting thematic analysis, which relates to the following (Braun & Clarke 2006:82); becoming familiar with the data, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, generating initial codes and producing the report. As a result of extensive reading and familiarisation with the transcribed interviews and subsequent memoing of the transcripts, the researcher was able to indicate the similarities that emerged from the responses of the participants regarding specific questions and named suitable phrases as themes, which captured the holistic views of the participants’ responses to the questions in the transcripts. The themes were then allocated codes, as symbols for easy identification during the later stages of analysis, interpretation and discussion. 4.7.5 Categorisation of themes As stated in section 4.7, themes represent holistic views of participants about a particular question or phenomenon that was investigated. For the purpose of this study, categorisation of themes implies that the researcher made use of the transcripts and indicated all the categories that fall under a particular theme. 4.7.6 Interpretation of data As an outcome of the categorisation of themes, the various categories that emerged from the themes served as the basis of the research findings that were interpreted and discussed in order to find answers to the research questions. The researcher has tabulated all the themes next to their corresponding codes, besides their emergent categories (Table 5.1). The researcher interrogated the emerged categories as guided by the research aims and related literature. Reference to the literature was necessitated by the fact that data interpretation should seek to serve three purposes, firstly, making sense of data; secondly, corroboration of existing theories; and thirdly, enhancing or questioning existing theories (McMillian & Schumacher 2001:460). 139 A discussion of all the emerged categories has contributed to a justification of the main themes as the findings of the research. In discussing the themes as research findings, evidence for the emerged themes and categories were provided by applicable, direct quotations from the responses made by participants as obtained from the transcripts. As informed by related literature reviews and the key verbatim excerpts from interviewees as they appear in the transcripts, the analysed, interpreted and discussed data served as research findings answering the postulated research questions. As explained in section 1.6.4, the quantitative data that were collected by means of the analysis of applicable documents were analysed and the themes established were quantified as percentages. This was because aspects such as examination pass rates, qualified teachers in rural schools and teacher turnover rates were to be functionally understood when presented as percentages and then interpreted in tandem with the qualitative data for the purpose of triangulation. The comparison of quantitative data collected with document analysis tools with the qualitative data collected via interviewing generated a conclusive understanding of the influence of the financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance at schools in rural areas. 4.8 TRUSTWORTHINESS OF RESEARCH FINDINGS Trustworthiness pertains to the accuracy of the way the research was conducted as reflected in the correctness of the research findings (Jane & Jane 2003:273; Margaret 2014:26). Trustworthiness in qualitative research has been extensively criticised by positivists because their concepts of validity and reliability cannot be addressed in the same way as in qualitative research designs (Anney 2014:278). Positivists were therefore not convinced about the reliability and validity in qualitative research findings. In view of this criticism, scholars have demonstrated how qualitative studies can incorporate measures that seek to address issues of validity and reliability in their qualitative studies and their findings (Guba & Lincoln 1982:3-4). Many naturalistic investigators preferred to use different terminologies to distance themselves from the positivist paradigm. One such author is Guba, who proposes four criteria that should be considered by qualitative researchers in pursuit of establishing trustworthiness in their qualitative studies (Guba 1981:75). By addressing similar issues as in 140 quantitative studies, Guba’s constructs of trustworthiness correspond to the criteria employed by the positivist researchers, but using different terminologies as follow: a) Credibility in qualitative research (in preference to internal validity in quantitative research); b) Transferability in qualitative research (in preference to external validity/generalisability in quantitative research); c) Dependability in qualitative research (in preference to reliability in quantitative research); d) Confirmability in qualitative research (in preference to objectivity in quantitative research). This research relied mainly on a qualitative research approach (section 4.4.2.3). Therefore, Guba’s choice of terminologies in relation to the trustworthiness of qualitative research findings were chosen and applied as discussed below. 4.8.1 Credibility One of the key criteria addressed by positivist researchers in their studies is that of internal validity, in which they seek to ensure that their study measures or tests what is actually intended to be measured (Golafshani 2003:599). According to Merriam (1998:85) the qualitative investigator’s preferred concept of credibility seeks to establish the congruence of the findings to reality. Credibility establishes whether or not the research findings represent plausible information drawn from the participants’ original data and is a correct interpretation of the participants’ original views (Anney 2014:276). The following methods should be considered by researchers to ensure the credibility of their research findings (Shenton 2004:64): a) The adoption of well-established research methods b) Familiarisation with research sites c) Triangulation d) Ensuring honesty by participants during data collection e) Iterative questioning f) Member checking 141 The above methods of ensuring credibility of the study were applied as explained below: 4.8.1.1 Adoption of well-established research methods Correct methods ensure that the specific procedures employed will be operational in terms of being carried out and delivering data required in answering the research questions (Shenton 2004:64). The credibility of this research was firstly related to the fact that the interview questions were linked to the research aims in order to seek answers that represent the phenomenon that was studied. The open-ended questions that guided the individual interviews and focus group interviews sought to elicit the participants’ views about the financial incentive as they viewed it from their own perspectives and the questions were asked giving participants enough time to participate fully and express all that they intended to express. This provided enough time for the participants to provide the researcher with all the information they have about the phenomenon that was studied. The choice of the open-ended question was meant to counteract the weakness that comes with closed-ended questions in quantitative research designs. Presenting a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to a question does not provide rich information for a complete and holistic understanding of the participants’ opinions and also does not provide opportunities for analysis of themes which emerge from the participants’ opinions (Onwuegbuzie, Leech & Collins 2012:23). Furthermore, all interviews were recorded and transcribed in order to increase credibility of data and avoid bias and confusion that may result from the researcher trying to remember and memorise what transpired during the process of interviewing. To facilitate easy comprehension of the questions during investigations, the questions in the interview guides for both individual interviews and focus group interviews were written in clear and simple language which enhanced clear and easy understanding by participants. The researcher remained impartial, refrained from any gestures or interruptions that might have influenced the participants’ responses to the questions 142 that were asked. The researcher explained any question whose intentions were misunderstood by the participants in order to allow correct responses to the question asked. Interviews have been proved to be an appropriate data collection tool for helping qualitative researchers to obtain the information they are looking for through in-depth interactions with the participants in their own environment (Keith 2005:75; Nicholas 2005:61). The researcher’s supervisor then helped to ascertain the suitability of the questions for the specific study before they were administered. To enhance the credibility of the data collected from interviewing and prevent researcher’s bias and influence, the researcher played the audios for the recorded interviews. While the audios were playing, the researcher followed the transcribed version to establish accuracy of the transcription process. A set of data was also collected with document analysis which helped to corroborate qualitative data and increased its accuracy and correctness. 4.8.1.2 Familiarisation with research sites In order to keep the participants at ease during the process of research, the researcher familiarised himself with the research sites before the commencement of the data collection process. The researcher visited the research sites, introduced himself to the participants at the research sites and provided the participants with all the information pertaining to the research that was to be carried out in their social environment. Participants were also left with their own copies of the Research Information Sheets to familiarise themselves with the nature and intentions of the study so that they could make conscious and voluntary decisions whether to participate or not on the basis of the information available to them. The researcher familiarised himself with the research sites in order to establish a relationship of trust between the researcher and the participants. As a result of the researcher having introduced himself to the research sites prior to the empirical investigation, participants were willing to participate in the study and were open to interact with the researcher on the subject that was being investigated. Their willingness can be linked to them making a credible contribution to the study. 143 4.8.1.3 Triangulation Triangulation has been defined by scholars as the use of multiple methods of data collection in order to enable these methods to complement each other and to confirm that the data present common codes and themes (Creswell 2014:13, Kahn & Best 2006:269; Leedy & Omrod 2005:99; Onwuegbuzie & Leech 2007:239). According to Guba (1981:75) the use of different methods in a study compensates for their individual limitations and exploits their respective benefits. Where possible, supporting data may be obtained from documents to provide a background to the phenomena and to help explain the attitudes and behaviour of those in the group under scrutiny, as well as to verify particular details that participants have supplied. Triangulation helps the investigator to reduce bias and it cross-examines the integrity of participants’ responses (Anney 2014:277). There are various types of triangulation. The types used in this study are data triangulation and methodological triangulation. Data triangulation involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study (Creswell 2014:259). Methodological triangulation involves the use of multiple qualitative and quantitative methods to study the phenomenon (Creswell 2014:260). With regards to data triangulation, the researcher used a wide range of participants to undertake triangulation via data collection tools. This implies that individual viewpoints and experiences can be verified against others and as a result, a rich picture of the phenomenon under study may be constructed based on a range of participants’ perspectives (Kahn & Best 2006:269). Since there were different research sites for this study, data triangulations relates to the fact that the researcher could compare the results from the same methods used on different participants and the conclusions that were arrived at were broadly the same which confirms the credibility of the research findings. With regard to methodological triangulation, the researcher used three data collection methods in order to enable methods to augment each other. Using multiple data collection methods is beneficial insofar as one method off-sets the weaknesses of another method by providing the strengths another method could not provide, as a 144 means of improving the credibility of the research findings (Onwuegbuzie & Teddlie 2003:352). 4.8.1.4 Ensuring honesty by participants during data collection Participants should be given an opportunities to refuse to participate in the study or withdraw from the study to ensure that the data collection involve only those who are genuinely willing to take part and are prepared to offer data freely and willingly (Shenton 2004:66). Willing participants contribute ideas and present their experience without fear of losing credibility in view of their social setting. The researcher provided sufficient information about the research prior to interviewing. This was to ensure that participants were given sufficient information about the research in order to make a conscious and voluntary decision as to whether to participate or not to participate in the study. To ensure that teachers were willing to provide the required information without having any reservations about how their principal might think about them, the researcher involved the principal in the sampling of teachers. This tactic instilled courage in the participating teachers to really provide the information as honestly as they can, having met the sampling criteria and given the trust their principal was having in them. Two of the sampled teacher participants withdrew prior to the focus group interview. This assured the researcher that those participants who remained were willing to participate without fear and thus made a genuine and credible contribution to the study. 4.8.1.5 Iterative questioning While the researcher was presenting and analysing the data, the researcher noted specific issues that arose from the data and that needed clarity. The researcher followed up with the participants to clarify various aspects that needed clarification so that they were ready to be presented and discussed explicitly and coherently in the research report. Follow-up was made by designing specific questions on aspects that participants raised during the interviews regarding the subject that was investigated, and that the researcher felt needed further elaboration. This ensured that the content that was presented in the report was a true reflection of the views of the participants. 145 4.8.1.6 Member checking Member checking seeks to establish whether the participants agree with what the researcher has written about them (Ary et al. 2010:500). Member checking means the data and interpretations are continuously tested as they are derived from the participants (Guba 1981:85). The aim is for the researcher to solicit feedback and share his or her interpretations of the data with the participants in order to help clear up miscommunication, identify inaccuracies and help obtain additional useful data. Participants may be asked to read any transcripts from a discussion in which they have participated (Anney 2014:277). The emphasis is on whether the participants consider that their words match what they actually intended to present when the data was collected. A substantial amount of the data was collected using interviews that were recorded. The recorded interviews were transcribed. The researcher discussed the transcripts with the participants to verify whether the transcribed scripts capture their verbatim versions they have provided during the recorded interviews. This helped participants validate the authentic status of the transcribed interviews. Participants were then to make corrections on the transcriptions if it was found that what transpires in the transcription was not an accurate representation of what was said during interviewing. This was to ensure that the analysis and interpretation of the data that was collected from interviews was based purely on the original versions of the participants as recorded and transcribed, thereby increasing the credibility of the research findings. The participants served as a check throughout the analysis process and this ensured an ongoing dialogue regarding the interpretations of the informant’s reality and meanings which ensure the true value of the data (Creswell 2014:259). To ascertain the credibility of the data collected from document analysis, the data was discussed with the school principals of the specific research sites to ensure that the data had been captured and recorded accurately. This discussion allowed for the countering of data misinterpretation by the researcher and kept out error and bias. 4.8.2 Transferability 146 The research findings complied with transferability as the degree to which the findings can be transferred to other contexts with other participants (Bitsch 2005:77; Tobin & Begley 2004:389). The researcher provided a detailed description about the methodological aspects, known as ‘thick description’, and by using the purposive sampling technique to ensure that information-rich participants were selected (Bitsch 2005:85). Based on the thick description principle, the researcher explained (as appears in the different research report sections) all the contextual, philosophical, methodological and procedural aspects used in conducting the research. The final report is comprehensive in detailing the entire research processes, as from the research paradigms, research approaches and designs, population and sampling, data collection methods, methods of data presentation, analysis and interpretation, ethical considerations to the production of the final report (Anney 2014:278). Such thick description of the research process enables other researchers to judge by means of comparison how well this particular research context relates to other contexts with similar features for possible generalisation of findings (Li 2004:305). Purposive sampling increases transferability as the researcher focuses on key informants who are particularly knowledgeable of the issues for investigation (Chiromo 2009:18). Since purposive sampling allows researchers to select information rich participants, this enables the researcher to select those participants who can contribute functionally to meaningful data collection for a deep understanding of the phenomenon of study (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen & Razavieh 2010:272). Therefore, the use of purposive sampling enhances the transferability possibilities of qualitative research due to the selection of participants with a thorough knowledge about the topic that was studied (Annely 2014:278). 4.8.3 Dependability In addressing the issue of reliability, positivists employ techniques to show that, if the work were to be repeated in the same context with the same methods and with the same participants, similar results would be obtained (Ary et al. 2010:503). In order to address the dependability issue more directly, the processes within the study should 147 be reported in detail, thereby enabling a future researcher to repeat the work. Such indepth coverage also allows the reader to assess the extent to which proper research practices have been followed. The interpretation of both transferability and dependability sounds alike and related. In the context of this research, dependability is closely related to transferability, as they all seek an in-depth coverage of the entire research process. While transferability seeks an in-depth coverage of the entire research process for purposes of establishing whether the research findings can be generalised in other contexts with similar characteristics, dependability seeks an in-depth coverage of the entire research process for purposes of establishing whether the same processes used, once repeated, would yield the same findings. Simply put, transferability relates to the application of results to other contexts, whereas, dependability relates to obtaining the same findings once the process is repeated in the same context. In order to enhance the dependability of the research process and enable readers of the research report to develop a thorough understanding of the methods and their effectiveness, the research report should cover the following aspects (Shenton 2004:71): a) At strategic level, the research report should cover the research design and its implementation, describing what was planned and executed; b) At an operational level, the research report should cover the details of data gathering, addressing the details of what was done in the field; c) At a reflective appraisal level, the research report should cover the evaluation of the effectiveness of the research process that was undertaken. In order to ensure that the research findings were dependable, the above aspects were attended to in the research report as discussed below. At a strategic level, the researcher ensured that the research design used for the study was explicitly explained and how it was implemented. The underlying philosophical assumptions were clearly explained in terms of the relevant research paradigm and an explanation of its suitability was presented. This was to provide readers with a 148 comprehensive overview with regard to ontological, epistemological, axiological, methodological and rhetorical frameworks that underpinned the research study. At an operational level, the research design was explained and methods used to collect the data from the participants were indicated. The sample size was provided and the procedure followed in collecting the data were made available in the report. At a reflective appraisal level, the findings of the research are published as a research report and an article would be published in a peer-reviewed journal article. This is to make the findings available to researchers for them to get an opportunity to evaluate the effectiveness of the research that was conducted. 4.8.4 Confirmability The concept of confirmability is the qualitative researcher’s preference to objectivity. Confirmability requires that the steps must be taken to help ensure as far as possible that the research’s findings are the result of the experiences and ideas of the participants, and not the views and preferences of the researcher (Tobin & Begley: 2004:392). Such steps include keeping a reflexive journal which includes all events occurring during the field work, personal reflections in relation to the study and other issues that arise during the process of investigation (Anney 2014:279). The researcher kept all electronic records (audios) and non-electronic records (field notes and documentary materials) during the whole investigation. These records helped to crosscheck the data and writing of the final research report. Triangulation as the use of multiple methods, investigators, sources and theories to obtain corroborating evidence (Onwuegbuzie & Leech 2007:239) is important to reduce the effect of investigator bias and promote confirmability. Triangulation helps the investigator to reduce the systematic bias and cross-examine the integrity of participants’ responses. Triangulation, therefore is applicable to both credibility and confirmability, as it serves to confirm the authenticity of data (confirmability) by the participants, which then enhances the chances of the data to present intended findings (credibility) (Shenton 2004:66). Confirmability was established by means of data triangulation, whereby the data collection tools were applied to different participants and yielded corresponding information that all speaks to one conclusion. The data that 149 was obtained with a sample at one research site was confirmed by the participants at another site. 4.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Ethics refers to do what is morally and legally right in conducting the research. This requires researchers to be knowledgeable about what is being done, to use logical reasoning when making decisions, to be both intellectual and truthful in the research approach and reporting of the research findings and to ensure that the outcomes of the research outweighs any negatives that might occur throughout the course of the research process (Jacobs, Xie, Reilly, Hughes & Challis 2009:30; Jane & Jane 2003:69). As human beings were involved in the study, this research process complied with the research ethics by ensuring that the researcher carried out and complete the research process without causing harm, in any way, to the human beings involved in the empirical investigation. The following section presents how the researcher considered ethics in the research that was conducted. 4.9.1 Accessibility to research sites The researcher applied to the Education Director of the Omusati Region, seeking permission to conduct research in the region, and a written permission letter was issued granting the researcher permission to conduct research in Omusati Region at the identified research sites (Appendix A). Since the majority of the participants who were involved in the research were teachers (section 4.5.2), the permission to conduct the research was granted on condition that the research should not interfere with the normal operations of education at the research sites. In dealing with this condition, the researcher scheduled appointments to meet with teachers after 14h00, as that was the time when teaching stops for the day and sampled teachers could then participate in the focus group interviews. 150 4.9.2 Informed consent Informed consent relates to a detailed explanation of the study in order to brief participants on the scope of their participation in the study and enable participants to decide in a conscious and deliberate manner whether to participate or not (Jane & Jane 2003:76). Informed consent is the permission expressed by the participants who have made themselves available to take part in the research after they were provided with all the information pertaining to the research and have full knowledge of the possible consequences of their participation. The researcher compiled a document titled Research Information Sheet and all participants were provided with their own copies of this document (Appendix F). A discussion was held with all participants about the contents of the document and participants were given ample opportunities to ask questions related to the research. All the Research Information Sheets for different participants contained the same research information. However, the information was contextualised to speak to specific participants according to their titles such as teachers, principals and officials. Participants who voluntarily decided to participate in the study were required to sign an Informed Consent Form (Appendix G) as material evidence of their voluntary willingness to participate in the study. Both the researcher and the participants kept a copy of the signed Informed Consent Form to serve as proof of the informed consent given. The researcher emphasised to participants that they were welcome to withdraw from the study at any point in time without any negative consequences for them. Participants were assured of the confidentiality of their participation insofar as their identities would be protected and their responses would be used only for the purpose of this specific research study (Jane & Jane 2003:66; Moriarty 2011:25). 4.9.3 Confidentiality Research information needs to be kept confidential and only used for the purposes for which it was intended (McMillan 2007:52). It is significant for the researchers to know the characteristics of the participants and their context in order to make it easier for them to keep the contribution of the participants confidential (Babbie 2010:67; Cohen, 151 Manion & Morrison 2002:62; Gay & Arasian 2003:586). The data from interviews were recorded and it was essential to assure the participants of how their voices were going to be kept confidential. The researcher explained that the contributions of the participants were going to be used for the purpose of research and that they were going to be stored in a safer place where they would not be accessible to anyone else other than the researcher. Participants for individual interviews and for focus group interviews were made to sign Confidentiality Agreement forms (Appendix H) as testimony of their commitment to keep the research information confidential. Both the researcher and participants kept a copy of the signed Confidentiality Agreement as an individual proof of the confidentiality commitment made. 4.9.4 Anonymity Confidentiality pertains to the secrecy of the data and the identity of the participants. It is important for the researcher to ensure that the presentation of the data collected cannot be identified and linked to the identity of anyone in order to protect the person from whom the information was collected (Cohen et al. 2002:61; McMillan 2007:52). During data collection, both alphabetic and numeric codes were used to represent research sites and participants. School research sites were given codes as School A, School B, and so on and the office research sites were given codes as Office A and Office B. Principals were coded as Principal 1 (P1), Principal 2 (P2), and so on. Teachers were referred to as Teacher 1 (T1), Teacher 2 (T2), and so on. The official at the Circuit Office was referred to as C1 and the official for the Regional Office was referred to as R1. Participants were informed not to mention names of individuals during interviews. Teacher participants were informed not to mention names of individuals during focus group interviews or mention the names of any participant in the group they would wanted to refer to, but rather used the codes that were given prior to the commencement of the focus group interviews, and every teacher knew what his/her code was. Participants were informed that these were the codes that were going to be 152 used in the research report and that the information they provided was not going to be presented in a way that would be linked to their identity. 4.10 CONCLUSION The research adopted an interpretivist research paradigm, as this research paradigm pertains to the engagement and interpretation of the participants’ experiences about the phenomenon being studied in their social setting. Although a mixed-methods research approach was used, the study relied mainly on a qualitative research approach for the sake of utilising narratives and descriptions. The qualitative approach allowed the collection of data helpful in understanding the phenomenon of financial incentive-based teacher motivation in rural schools and how this motivation was understood from the perspectives of information-rich participants. The application of a qualitative research approach was carried out through a case study investigation seeing that an event was studied in depth for a defined period of time. The investigation purposively sampled key informants who were knowledgeable about the financial incentive-based teacher motivation in rural schools and whose experience was helpful in contributing significantly to the answering of the research questions through an empirical investigation. The next Chapter presents the research findings. 153 CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION 5.1 INTRODUCTION Chapter four outlined the methodological and research design aspects employed for this study. This Chapter presents the data that was collected through an empirical investigation. The data presented in this Chapter relates to the findings of the focus group discussions with teachers, the individual interviews with the Circuit Office official, the Regional Office official and school principals as well as the findings from the document analysis. Firstly, the collected data from interviews and document analysis are analysed and presented. Secondly, the finding are interpreted and discussed supported by data from the literature and by the key verbatim excerpts made by the participants. This Chapter therefore establish the influence of the financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural Namibian schools. 5.2 ANECDOTAL OVERVIEW OF THE EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION This section presents the overview of the sites that were sampled for the empirical investigation. The logistical arrangements ranging from gaining access to the research sites to the eventual commencement of data collection process are briefly treated again to inform the reader of the processes that were followed in ensuring a successful and procedural commissioning of the empirical investigation at the research sites. 5.2.1 Background information about the research sites The implementation of the financial incentive by the MoEAC in 2010 was aimed at attracting qualified teachers to rural schools in order to improve learner performance which was not satisfactory (section 1.1). The implementation of the financial incentive was destined for all rural schools only in all the fourteen regions of Namibia (section 4.5). The research was conducted in Omusati Region, situated in the northern part of Namibia. 154 Omusati Region measures an area of 26 551 km2 with a population of 242,900 inhabitants as per the Namibian 2011 Housing and Population Census (National Planning Commission 2012:5). Outapi is the administrative capital of Omusati Region. Omusati Region is home to 276 schools in total comprising both primary and secondary schools, with more than 80 percent of schools situated in rural areas (section 4.5). The schools in Omusati Region are grouped under ten Circuit Offices. These Circuits Offices are: Anamulenge, Elim, Etayi, Ogongo, Okahao, Okalongo, Onesi, Otamanzi, Outapi and Tsandi Circuit (section 4.5.1). The rural schools that formed part of the research sites were under the Tsandi Circuit. The schools are located in areas that are characterised by adverse environmental conditions that translate into harsh working conditions for rural school teachers. There are no proper road networks to schools and pathways heading to schools could not be easily mapped out by someone who is not familiar with the area. Roadways to school from the main road were marked with signposts but they were difficult to map out once deep into the bush, given emerging diverse roadways. In addition, roadways to schools pass through flood plains which then make accessing the schools during the rainy season difficulty for both teachers and learners. The parent population is mainly subsistence farmers depending on rearing animals and crop cultivation as a source of survival and livelihood. In addition to rearing animals and crop cultivation, some households are involved in small-scale businesses, having established small shops, selling groceries and home-made brews. The shops are built near roadways and patrons are helpful to visitors in providing directions to schools or any destination. Homesteads are in communal areas and are grouped into villages under the leadership of the Headman. Learners attend schools travelling a variety of long distances as some learners are from homesteads established in close proximity to schools whereas some learners come from homes established far from the schools. Teaching and learning at schools starts at 08h00 in the morning to 13h40 in the afternoon, with two break sessions in between; each break lasts for about 20 to 30 minutes, depending on the number of breaks an individual school has. Each lesson is presented for a duration of 40 minutes. From 14h00, learners attend a study session 155 until 15h30 after which the school day ends. After school, learners play a significant role in assisting their parents to look after animals and execute other household chores. The researcher stayed at the research sites for a period of two weeks, during which time one day was spent at the Circuit Office and another day at the Regional Office respectively. The remainder of the days were spent at rural schools. The Circuit Office is located in Tsandi settlement that is not yet proclaimed as a town, but the settlement has most of the basic services. The distance between the schools that served as research sites and the circuit offices ranges between 10 to 30 kilometres. The Circuit Office is 30kms away from the Regional Office in Outapi. The Regional Office is located in the heart of Outapi town, which is regarded as the capital city of Omusati Region. 5.2.2 Seeking permission and commencement of data collection The researcher was granted a written permission letter by the Director of Education for Omusati Region (Appendix A). The researcher then contacted the Regional Office, Circuit Office for Tsandi and school principals to schedule appointments and establish whether proposed dates were appropriate. The Regional Office was easily accessible and was not the priority research site to start with. The researcher firstly consulted the Circuit Office to access the school map for rural schools whose locations were unknown to the researcher. The researcher visited three schools in the first day and two schools the following day to meet with the participants and draw up an appointment schedule for collecting data. The researcher has followed the appointment schedule throughout the course of data collection. 5.3 ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS After the data was collected, recordings were transcribed and discussed with the participants for increased trustworthiness (section 4.7.2). The following steps guided the analysis of data (Schulze 2000:49): 156  Read through all transcripts several times to get a sense of the whole data set.  Select data set and think about the underlying meaning of the information.  Re-read the data several times and establish themes and categories.  Assign alphabetic codes next to the appropriate themes and categories.  Show interrelationships between categories.  Make the final decision on themes and categories to focus on.  Present the content for each theme and group together. The researcher read and re-read all twelve transcripts, looking for units of meanings such as phrases, sentences and nature of thinking that seemed to appear regularly and that were regarded as important in answering the research question (section 4.7). The findings of the analysis of the collected data are presented according to the three data collection methods used, namely individual interviews, focus group interviews and document analysis (section 4.6.1-4.6.3). 5.3.1 Individual interviews Individual interviews were conducted with five school principal participants, one Circuit Office official and one Regional Office official (section 4.6.2). During these interviews, five school principals were interviewed following an interview guide (Appendix C), which sought to inquire the respective principals’ views on the implementation of the financial incentive and its effectiveness on the learner performance, teaching and learning at their specific rural schools The individual interview with the Circuit Office official was guided by the same interview guide as that of the school principal for the rationale stated in section 4.6. However, in the context of the Circuit Office official, the questions were contextualised and sought to obtain the participant’s views on the implementation of the financial incentive and its effectiveness on teaching and learning at rural schools within the Circuit (section 4.5.1.2). The Regional education official was interviewed following an interview guide (Appendix B), which sought to obtain the participants’ views on the 157 implementation of the financial incentive and its influence on learner performance at rural schools in the region (section 4.5.1.2). As a result of thematic analysis (section 4.7), the researcher arrived at the following seven themes that emerged from the data collected with individual interviews: a) Teacher sufficiency at rural schools This theme refers to the adequacy of teachers at rural schools. Rural schools employ teachers with different attributes as a result of various situations facing the schools. The categories that emerged from this theme include: qualified teachers, unqualified teachers, temporary teachers and staff turnover. b) Perspectives on the financial incentive This theme captures the diverse views of the participants regarding the financial incentive at rural schools. The following categories were established: reception, scope of application, suspension, categorisation, insufficient amount and standard of education. c) Factors motivating rural school teachers This theme refers to the motivators that informed morale and enthusiasm among rural school teachers, and that shaped the execution of their teaching responsibilities. The categories that were identified include: promotional post, family background, leadership, environment, employment opportunities, support services and financial incentive. d) Capabilities for teaching at rural schools This theme details the specific personal abilities that a typical rural school teacher should possess in order to fit well within a rural school setting. Several teachers have been employed to rural schools and stayed for a short period of time, whereas other teachers have been employed to rural schools but stayed at these schools for a long 158 time. This theme establishes the specific traits that enable a teacher’s personality to fit well in a rural school setting. The following categories were derived: passion and adaptability. e) Conditions characterising rural schools This theme relates to the environmental circumstances that shape schools in rural communities. These circumstances have significant influences on the way education is conducted at rural schools and how learning outcomes are met. The following categories emerged: commuting, climate and rural school teaching, hygiene, facilities and services. f) Determinants of learner performance This theme sets out the factors that inform learner performance at rural schools. The learner performance which defines the overall school performance as an institution is a result of a number of factors combined and managed in a process to produce an output that can be referred to as learner performance. Whether the learner is satisfactory or unsatisfactory is subject to how well or deficient these factors are coordinated. The categories established are: the foundation and the teacher-learner ratio. g) Opportunities for improving education at rural schools This theme states the propositions in respect of improving learner performance at rural Namibian schools. The following categories stood out: working environment, revisiting financial incentive, budgetary allocation and vocational education. 5.3.2 Focus group interviews Teachers participated in the focus group interviews after 14h00, the time when lesson presentations for the day would have come to an end (section 4.9.1). The data collected from the focus group interviews triangulated the data from the individual interviews. The focus group interviews were an ideal approach for examining collective 159 experiences, different points of view and mutual concerns of individuals about a subject being studied (section 4.6.1). As teachers in totality, they were better positioned to collectively share their experiences about the financial incentive that they were all involved in. During focus group discussions, participants supported the ideas others have raised and some teachers were able to build their views on the basis of others’ contributions. To ensure that the researcher correctly understood the views of the participants, he reinforced the views by summarising what the participants had said, and confirmed accuracy with the participants. In addition, the researcher engaged all the participants in the group to avoid dominance and promote participation by, firstly, simplifying the question so that the intent of each question was clear to participants and, secondly, by prompting participants individually for responses. The analysis established that the themes and categories emerging from the focus group interviews were identical to those of the individual interviews, with a few additional categories having emerged from the focus group interview transcripts. These additional categories were determined and placed under their corresponding themes as numbered in section 5.3.1. b) Perspectives on financial incentive In respect of this theme as explained in section 5.3.1, urban schools emerged as an additional category. e) Conditions characterising rural schools In respect of this theme as explained in section 5.3.1, level of literacy emerged as an additional category. 160 f) Determinants of learner performance In respect of this theme as explained in section 5.3.1, the following additional categories emerged: language competencies, parental involvement, subject specialisation, working environment, group of learners and climatic changes. g) Opportunities for improving education at rural schools In respect of this theme as explained in section 5.3.1, the following additional categories emerged: cluster system and tax-free incentive. Altogether, the analysis of the data from the individual interviews and focus group interviews produced the following seven themes as tabulated in Table 5.1. Table 5.1: Themes as research findings from the individual and focus group interviews Code Name of Theme Name of Categories for the Name A B C Theme Teacher sufficiency at rural - Qualified teachers schools - Unqualified teachers - Temporary teachers - Staff turnover Perspectives on the financial - Reception incentive - Scope of application - Suspension - Categorisation - Insufficient amount - Standard of education Factors motivating rural school - Promotional post teachers - Family background - Leadership - Environment 161 D E - Employment opportunities - Support services - Financial incentive Capabilities for teaching at rural - Passion schools - Adaptability Conditions characterising rural - Commuting schools - Climate and rural school teaching F G - Hygiene - Facilities and services - Level of literacy Determinants of learner - The foundation performance - Teacher-learner ratio - Language competencies - Parental involvement - Subject specialisation - Working environment - Group of learners - Climatic changes Opportunities for improving - Working environment education at rural schools - Revisiting financial incentive - Development budget - Skills acquisitions - Cluster system Table 5.1 presents the themes and their emergent categories that were established from the interviews’ transcripts. In addition to the data from interviews, data that were collected via document analysis are discussed next. 162 5.3.3 Document analysis The analysis of applicable documents were carried out with reference to a document analysis guide (Appendix E). Document analysis was conducted the same day individual and focus group interviews were held at each specific research site. Sequentially, document analysis was carried out first, followed by the individual interviews with the school principals and then ending with the focus group interviews with sampled teachers. The choice of carrying out document analysis first was to find data in the documents, which may prompt further inquiry, and thus inform some of the follow-up questions the researcher was going to ask to the participants insofar as confirming, contrasting or justifying data in the documents was concerned (section 5.2.2). The document analysis tool was not extensive in terms of the scope of analysis, as this was dictated by the quantitative nature of the information that the tool sought to record, which informed the limited scope of its eventual findings. Hence, the findings of the document analysis were relatively minimal compared to the findings from the interviews. Document analysis contributed to the justification and corroboration of findings by having determined congruence and having detected contrasting views at each research site. Five themes related to document analysis were established, namely, learner performance, teacher profile, staff turnover, teachers receiving the financial incentive and teachers not receiving the financial incentive. a) Learner performance This theme shows how learners at sampled rural schools have performed in the last three years’ national examinations (2014-2016). b) Teacher profile This theme represents the proportion of qualified and unqualified teachers at sampled rural schools. 163 c) Staff turnover This theme represents the frequency of teachers’ replacements at sampled rural schools. d) Teachers receiving the financial incentive This theme represents the proportion of teachers receiving the financial incentive at sampled rural schools. e) Teachers not receiving the financial incentive This theme represents the proportion of teachers not receiving the financial incentive at sampled rural schools. The above themes are schematically explained as percentages by the figures that follow. 5.3.3.1 Learner performance The performance of schools in the national examination is indicated by the following Percentages figure. 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 School A School B School C School D School E 2014 2015 2016 Years Figure 5.1: School performance in the national examinations for the period 2014-2016 164 Figure 5.1 shows that there has been an increase in learner performance in most of the sampled rural schools. School A, B, C and E performed below average (50%) in 2014 national examination; only School D performed above average in the 2014 standardised national examination. However, in 2015 to 2016 national examinations, no school recorded learner performance below average (50%). 5.3.3.2 Teacher profile The following Figure 5.2 represents the percentages of qualified teachers at the Percentages selected rural schools. 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 School A School B School C School D School E 2015 2016 2017 Years Figure 5.2: Qualified teachers at sampled rural schools for the period 2015 to 2017 Figure 5.2 shows that all rural schools that participated in the study had a satisfactory number of qualified teachers. It can be seen that there is an increase in the number of qualified teachers in rural schools, especially for Schools A, B, D and E. Most of these schools, their percentages for qualified teachers were below 80% especially for the years 2015 and 2016. However, it is evident that the percentage of qualified teachers has now increased above 80% as of the year 2017. As can be seen in Figure 5.2, only School C had 100% qualified teachers in 2015 only. The fact that schools do not have a 100% staff complement of qualified teachers as from 2015 reveals that rural schools were still short of qualified teachers. Hence, 165 Figure 5.3 below indicates the percentage for the shortages of qualified teachers at the sampled rural schools. 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Percentages School A School B School C School D School E 2015 2016 2017 Years Figure 5.3: Shortage of qualified teachers at sampled rural schools for the period 2015-2017 Figure 5.3 reveals that there is a shortage of qualified teachers at rural schools, caused by, notably, the transfer of teachers from one school to another (Figure 5.7). Only School C, which did not have a shortage of qualified teachers in the year 2015, revealing that teachers were all qualified for that particular year (Figure 5.2). Figure 5.3 reveals that the shortages of qualified teachers has been fluctuating from the year 2015 to 2016 within the region of 30%. It is evident though that the shortage of qualified teachers has decreased as of 2017. The decrease in teacher shortages at rural schools implies that qualified teachers were employed at rural schools and were staying longer at these schools. This can be attributed to the motivation strategies vested upon them, one of which is the financial incentive. Whether the retention of teachers at rural schools can be solely attributed to the financial incentive is established at the interpretation and discussion of research findings in section 5.4. Apart from the shortages of teachers caused by transfers, participants also expressed the shortages of teachers specifically for critical subject areas such as Mathematics, Physical Science and English (section 3.6.1; section 5.4.1.3). Hence, the following 166 Figures (5.4-5.6) indicate the percentage of teacher shortage for these specific Percentages subjects at the sampled rural schools. 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 School A School B School C School E 2015 2016 2017 Years Figure 5.4: Shortages of Mathematics teachers at sampled schools for the period 2015 – 2017 Figure 5.4 shows that only Schools A, B, C and E have shortages of Mathematics teachers, while School D has not experience a shortage of Mathematics teachers since 2015 to 2017. The shortages of Mathematic teachers was less experienced in Schools A, B and E, but was more prevalent with School C which has been struggling to employ the required number of qualified teachers for Mathematics since 2015 up to 2017. Another critical subject that experiences teacher shortages is Physical Science, whose percentage is indicated by the following Figure 5.5. 100 Percentages 80 School A School B School C School E 60 40 20 0 2015 2016 2017 Years Figure 5.5: Shortages of Physical Science teachers at sampled schools for the period 2015 – 2017 167 Figure 5.5 shows that the shortages of Physical Science teachers has not been frequent among all rural schools for the period 2015-2017. Only School B had a shortage of 33% in 2015, and no shortages of Physical Science teachers were experienced in the year 2016 among all sampled rural schools. However, in 2017, Schools A, C and E recorded shortages in Physical Science teachers. School D did not record any shortages of Physical Science teachers for the period 2015-2017. Participants also expressed shortages in English teachers, whose percentages are Percentages presented below. 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 School A School B School C School D School E 2015 2016 2017 Years Figure 5.6: Shortages of English teachers at sampled schools for the period 2015 – 2017 Figure 5.6 reveals that of all the critical subject areas (Mathematics, Physical Science and English), the shortage of English teachers is more frequent at the selected rural schools than the shortages of the other two subjects at the same schools. All selected rural schools had between 30-50% of English teacher shortages in the year 2015. While Schools D and E did not experience teacher shortages in 2016. School C had a 100% shortage of qualified teachers for English in 2016. The shortage of English teachers is still prevalent in the year 2017 with the exception of School D, which does not have a shortage of English teachers in that particular year. It is evident that of all the critical subject areas, employing the required number of English teachers remains a challenge at the selected rural schools. 168 5.3.3.3 Staff turnover Document analysis confirmed that transfer was the common attribution for teachers leaving rural schools. Promotion and resignation have not been recorded at the sampled rural schools for the period 2015-2017. The following Figure 5.7 indicates the Percentages percentages of teacher transfers at the selected rural schools. 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 School A School B School C School D School E 2015 2016 2017 Years Figure 5.7: Teacher transfer at sampled rural schools for the period 2015-2017 Figure 5.7 shows that teacher transfer was common to all sampled rural schools for the period of 2015-2017. The percentages of teacher transfer was high, between 1044% for the years 2015-2016. However, for the year 2017, the transfer of teachers among schools decreased to less than 12%, with School E having recorded no teacher transferred in that particular year. 5.3.3.4 Payment of the financial incentive The percentages of teachers who are receiving the financial incentive at the selected schools are indicated in the following Figure 5.8. 169 Percentages 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 School A School B School C School D School E 2015 2016 2017 Years Figure 5.8: Teachers receiving the financial incentive for the period 2015 – 2017 Figure 5.8 shows that the percentages of teachers receiving the financial incentive at the selected rural schools is very high. Almost all teachers at Schools C and D have consistently received the financial incentive since the year 2015. Even though the percentages of teachers receiving the financial incentive at Schools A, B and E were below 80% in 2015, they have gained momentum and now stand above 90% as of the year 2017. The fact that selected schools do not have 100% of teachers receiving the financial incentive implies that some teachers were not receiving the financial incentive due to a variety of reasons such as temporary appointment and recent recruitments. The percentage of teachers who were not receiving the financial incentive at selected schools is presented by the following Figure 5.9. 100 90 80 Percentages 70 60 School A 50 School B 40 School C 30 School E 20 10 0 2015 2016 2017 Years Figure 5.9: Teachers not receiving financial incentive for the period 2015 - 2017 170 Figure 5.9 shows that most selected rural schools have teachers who are not receiving the financial incentive, with the exception of School D. Teachers who were not receiving the financial incentive were mostly temporary teachers who were assisting with teaching pending the appointment of permanent qualified teachers. With regard to School A recording 40% of teachers not receiving the financial incentive in 2017, the percentages were attributed to the fact that two unqualified teachers were still in the process of receiving their financial incentive and four teachers were recently appointed at the school and they were still in the process of receiving their salary. Given the fact that newly appointed teachers may wait up to four months without receiving their salaries, it was thus impossible for the school principal to establish whether they were receiving the financial incentive or not in the absence of objective payment records. The comprehensive interpretation and discussion of the findings from document analysis and interviews is presented next. 5.4 INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS The questions that guided the study and that have informed data collection are (section 1.4): Main research question:  What is the influence of the financial incentive on learner performance in rural schools? The relating sub-questions are:  What motivates teachers to teach at rural schools?  How is the performance of learners after the implementation of the financial incentive?  What are the working conditions at rural schools and their influence on teaching and learning activities? 171  What are the attributes of a typical rural school teacher?  What recommendations can be made to improve teaching and learning at rural schools? The following themes represent answers to the postulated research questions (Table 5.1).  Teacher sufficiency at rural schools  Perspectives on the financial incentive  Factors motivating rural school teachers  Capabilities for teaching at rural schools  Conditions characterising rural schools  Determinants of learner performance  Opportunities for improving education at rural schools These themes are interpreted and discussed in the next sections. In this discussion, the school principal participants are referred to as Principal 1 (P1), Principal 2 (P2), and so on, the teacher participants are referred to as Teacher 1 (T1), Teacher 2 (T2), and so on, whereas the Circuit Office official is referred to as participant C1 and the Regional Office official is referred to as participant R1 (section 4.9.4). 5.4.1 Teacher sufficiency at rural schools The sufficiency of teachers at rural schools in Namibia pertains to aspects relating to being qualified or not, being temporary and being exposed to staff turnover. 5.4.1.1 Qualified teachers The complement of qualified teachers at the selected rural schools was remarkable. In the context of this study, qualified teachers refer to teachers who are employed on a permanent basis and hold at least the minimum professional qualifications required for the appointment of a teacher. The minimum professional qualification is a three year Basic Education Teaching Diploma (BETD) or a four year Bachelor of Education 172 Degree (B.Ed). The Circuit Office official and school principal participants revealed that most of the rural schools have almost one hundred percent qualified teachers. Teacher participants confirmed this revelation. It is clear that most rural schools have made remarkable strides in attracting qualified teachers to locate to schools in rural communities. Relating to the availability of qualified teachers at rural schools, T4 observed that: … most teachers have moved away from their homes to go and teach in rural areas and this move was beneficial as it have positively distributed qualified teachers countrywide… It appears that rural schools have been deprived of qualified teachers in the past, but that good progress has been made in ensuring that the population of qualified teachers at schools located in rural communities was at a satisfactory level. Supporting this move, P3 narrated that: …I can start with the influx of teachers to rural areas. In the past, the number of qualified teachers in the rural areas was low, but if we are to compare now these years, there is a significant improvement, it is increasing. With reference to the influx of qualified teachers to rural areas and their retention at those schools, it was clear that teachers are now qualified and that they choose to remain at the schools in the rural areas. This was confirmed by school principal participants: At least 99% of our staff members are qualified teachers and I do not notice any sign of teachers planning to leave the school. They have been at this school for a long time now, and I hope they will stay for longer (P3). Almost everybody is now qualified, only one teacher is unqualified but is improving and the other teacher is almost done. It is also 173 interesting to have noted that most of the teachers have been here for so long (P4). Our school has ten teachers, only one teacher is unqualified and employed on a temporary basis to replace one teacher who got transferred to another school and we did not manage to employ a qualified teacher (P5). The trend of rural school teachers that are now qualified and willing to remain at schools in desolated rural areas was also confirmed by the Circuit Office participant who proclaimed as follows: Most qualified teachers have been applying and are still applying to rural schools and they are continuously getting employed there. This move was not the case in the past, but as we are speaking now, we have many qualified teachers at our rural schools, and most of these teachers stay there, at rural schools for long periods of time, unless they are transferred or promoted (C1). It became clear that the composition of qualified teachers at rural schools is well established. This composition is corroborated by Figure 5.1, indicating that almost all schools have a sufficient teaching staff comprising of qualified teachers that are willing to remain in their posts at schools in rural areas. The implication is that learners at rural schools are taught by teachers who are certified competent and are well conversant with the pedagogical content knowledge of their subjects. 5.4.1.2 Unqualified teachers Despite the fact that the largest proportion of the teaching staff consisted of qualified teachers, there were isolated cases where one or two teachers were not qualified at some sampled rural schools (Figure 5.2). In the context of this research, ‘unqualified teacher’ describe a teacher who is employed on a permanent basis, but the teacher does not have the minimum required professional qualification. It was established that unqualified teachers existed at rural schools and that arrangements were in progress 174 to make unqualified teachers qualified. These unqualified teachers comprised of less than one percent of teaching staff members at the respective rural schools, as confirmed by participants: … only one staff member who is not qualified but have enrolled with the programme offered by the MoEAC, to improve the qualification… (P3). …only one teacher who is unqualified, but is improving and the one teacher is almost done (P4). At the moment, we have fifteen teachers, whereby thirteen are qualified teachers and two are unqualified teachers but still furthering their studies (P1). When asked about the proportion of qualified to unqualified teachers in the circuit, the Circuit Office participant confirmed the sufficiency of qualified teachers, but admitted shortages are still experienced with regard to qualified teachers for the junior primary phase: Mostly, we have enough qualified teachers at rural schools. The only phase that we have few unqualified teachers in the Circuit is the junior primary phase. Currently, we have a programme with the University of Namibia (UNAM), where these teachers are enrolled and are studying by attending classes during holidays. At least they are also being encouraged to further their studies. But for now I could say, we really have more qualified teachers as compared to unqualified teachers (C1). It was clear that although some teachers were still unqualified, the composition of unqualified teachers at rural schools is kept at a minimum as shown in Figure 5.2. Moreover, educational stakeholders have made concerted efforts to assist unqualified teachers to upgrade their qualifications through distance educational programmes. 175 5.4.1.3 Temporary teachers The appointment of temporary teachers is determined by the following two factors, either the temporary teacher does not have the minimum qualifications required for permanent appointment, and is only appointed temporarily pending a permanent appointment, or the temporary teacher has the minimum qualifications but is appointed to serve in the position of a permanent staff member who is off the duties at the specific time due to circumstances such as study or sick leave. Three of the sampled schools had one temporary teacher each who were all employed while the schools were in the process of finalising the appointment of permanent qualified teachers. P5 confirmed the presence of temporary teachers at his school to cope with the struggle of employing teachers in English language posts: …only one teacher is unqualified and employed on a temporary basis to replace one teacher who got transferred to another school and we did not manage to employ a qualified teacher. …we are struggling to fill language posts for three years now, because language teachers are very scarce… The scarcity of teachers for particular subjects such as English corroborates with literature findings (section 3.6.1) that teaching and learning in some subject areas such as Mathematics, Science and Special Education is rendered ineffective by the nonavailability of specialised teachers. The reason is that the supply of teachers of these critical subjects is scarce in general, which is exacerbated by conditions in rural areas that are encountered as challenging. This leads to the appointment of temporary teachers. While the scarcity of teachers is detected in Mathematics, Science and Special Education in other parts of the world, the results of the empirical investigation for this study corroborates this scarcity but with inclusion of English as second language and Oshindonga as first language. 176 5.4.1.4 Staff turnover This category relates to the movement of teachers from rural schools due to transfer to other schools, promotion or resignations. The data reveals that staff turnover is very low at rural schools. This implies that rural school teachers are likely to stay at rural schools for a long period of time. Staff retention at rural schools has been confirmed by participant C1: …we have many qualified teachers at our rural schools, and most of these teachers stay there, at rural schools for long periods of time, unless they are transferred or promoted. The views of the participants that teachers were remaining at their rural schools for long periods of time was confirmed by the document analysis findings as presented in Figure 5.3. 5.4.2 Perspectives on the financial incentive The views of participants on the financial incentive to retain teachers at rural schools transpired into the issues relating to reception, scope of application, suspension, categorisation, insufficient amount and standard of education. 5.4.2.1 Reception As informed by interpretivism as the research paradigm for this study (section 4.4.1.5), the feelings and personal views of the participants on the influence of the financial incentive to retain teachers in desolated rural areas were considered. It was clear from the interviews with participants that the implementation of the financial incentive was welcomed to improve learner performance in rural areas. With regard to the question on participants’ views about the implementation of the financial incentive for teachers, participants emphasised the virtues of retaining qualified staff, which could be improved with an increased financial incentive amount and with a classification of schools according to the degree of hardships: 177 …it was something good and it brought some good changes to rural schools because it helps to keep qualified teachers at rural schools, although there are some challenges. Generally, it was something good (P5). It is a very good initiative, I know that it is applauded and appreciated by the majority of teachers especially at rural schools. We are getting our financial incentive although it is not enough one can say. But there are a few things that needs attention when comes to the implementation of the financial incentive, especially when comes to the classification of schools (P3). The implementation of financial incentive was a very good move by the government but the incentive is not enough (T21). The implementation of the financial incentive was a positive move by the government of the Republic of Namibia in its efforts to improve the quality of education at rural schools. Participants welcomed this gesture and rated it as motivation to remain in rural areas and to teach as dedicatedly as possible: The implementation of financial incentive so far is good and really motivating teachers to apply for teaching posts at rural schools and to work hard (C1). With emphasis on attraction of qualified teachers to rural schools the view was raised that the incentive should also include housing in addition to financial assistance as proper housing for teaching staff in rural areas is not adequate: The implementation of the financial incentive was a good move, but I think the government needs to do more to attract teachers to rural schools. They need to build better facilities such as housing (T3). 178 The shortfall with regard to the financial incentive that relates to a lack of proper housing also includes aspects such as urban life attractiveness and the desolation of rural remoteness. I do not think the implementation of the financial incentive was a positive move because there are still a lot of unqualified teachers at rural schools due to rural desolation (T18). I believe that the implementation of financial incentive did not make an impact as most of the teachers are still interested in working in urban schools. They only resort to rural schools in most cases when they cannot find a job in town (T6). As expressed by the participants, the implementation of the financial incentive was a positive move by the Government of the Republic of Namibia. However, it was characterised by shortfalls which influenced its effectiveness in achieving outcomes relating to the retention of qualified teachers in rural areas. The implementation of the financial incentive was well-received with reservations by the participants relating to proper housing for rural school teachers, rural life attractiveness, desolation of rural remoteness, increasing the financial incentive amount and classification of schools. 5.4.2.2 Scope of application This category reports on the various classes of staff members who qualify for financial incentive. At the inception stage, the financial incentive was designed as a motivational strategy to attract qualified teachers to locate and remain at rural schools, while improving the performance of learners at these schools (section 1.2.2). On the basis of this intent, the financial incentive was intended for qualified teachers only. From the interviews with participants, it became clear that the earlier implementation model of giving the financial incentive exclusively to qualified teachers only was altered to be inclusive in implementation. The latter model of implementation is designed in such a way that all teachers at rural schools, regardless of whether they are qualified or not, should receive the financial incentive as per the category of their school. In 179 addition to the qualification, the post held by the teacher was also not taken into account. This inclusive application was in effect at the time of data collection, the percentages of which are indicated in Figure 5.5, which reveals that almost all teachers at every school sampled received the financial incentive with a few exemptions of those who were employed on a temporary basis or recently employed. The inclusive implementation of the financial incentive was testified to have changed from a financial incentive motivating qualified teachers to locate to rural areas to a financial incentive convincing all teachers to remain in the desolated areas: Initially, financial incentive was only meant for qualified teachers to be attracted to rural schools and improve performance there. But now it has been changed and everyone at school is receiving it, making it a universal benefit (T6). Some staff members at school who were not receiving financial incentive felt victimised, such as unqualified teachers and nonteaching staff. NANTU as a union for teachers and NAPWU is a union for non-teaching staff got involved, and after rigorous negotiations, all staff members at schools are now receiving financial incentive because we are suffering the same hardships (P5). The implementation of the financial incentive has been changed to include all different classes of employees, such as qualified teachers, unqualified teachers and nonteaching staff members. The decision to change the financial incentive to an allinclusive endeavour for teaching and non-teaching staff was motivated by a fairness engendering motivated input especially as this fairness and input relates to unqualified teachers. Participants motivated the all-inclusive financial incentive as follow: It is quite unfair to give only financial incentive to qualified teachers, because when a person joins the staff, they need to receive financial incentive. But I think it was only like that for few 180 years, but all teachers are receiving now. Even non-teaching staff members are also receiving now (P4). It is good for unqualified teachers to get the financial incentive because they are doing the same job as qualified teachers. Apart from ensuring fairness, it is essential in helping unqualified teachers to come and help the schools in rural communities for the sake of increased performance (P2). Providing unqualified teachers with financial incentive encourage them to work hard (P3). Most of the participants agreed that it was essential to provide unqualified teachers with the financial incentive as they were doing the same work as the qualified teachers relating to teaching and learning actions. Because both qualified and unqualified teachers were involved in teaching, they were entitled to the same benefits relating to the financial incentive. Considering this view on fairness, the question on teaching effectiveness can be raised. Both qualified and unqualified teachers are involved in teaching but are their outcomes the same as these outcomes pertain to the influence of teacher training on learner performance? ‘Surface teaching’ by both qualified and unqualified teachers cannot be used to justify the fact that both qualified and unqualified teachers should receive the financial incentive, because ‘surface teaching’ must be replaced by ‘deep teaching’, a competency gained through intensive professional training. With the above rationale in mind, the researcher prompted participants on the efficiency of granting the financial incentive to qualified teachers only in order to motivate unqualified teachers to improve their qualifications. Responses from participants varied from being positive about the motivational impact of such a gesture on qualification improvement to debilitated nihilism relating to not being qualified now or in the future: 181 Yes, unqualified teachers were going to take that move as courage to upgrade their qualifications to become qualified and receive financial incentive (P3). On one side unqualified teachers will be encouraged to upgrade their qualifications. On the other side, together with the non- teaching staff, they were going to be demotivated because they are the one receiving low payment and again omitted by the financial incentive (P5). Some participants were of the opinion that even if unqualified teachers were not given the financial incentive that would have motivated them to upgrade their qualifications to be considered for the financial incentive. P4 explained as follows: Exactly, there is always pros and cons. If unqualified teachers were not given financial incentive, it was going to be unfair, but at the same time it was going to be a motivation for them to improve their qualifications so that they can get financial incentive as qualified teachers themselves. The fact that unqualified teachers are receiving the financial incentive resulted in less motivation for them to upgrade their qualifications, jeopardising the main reason underpinning the original idea with the financial incentive, namely, to attract and retain qualified teachers to rural schools. Embedded in this rationale was the assumption that unqualified teachers will be motivated by the fact that they were not receiving the financial incentive to obtain their qualifications to receive the financial incentive like their qualified counterparts. The ultimate goal with the financial incentive was to have a well-established qualified teaching staff at rural schools. The offering of a financial incentive to unqualified teachers has therefore defeated the original intention with financial incentive, namely to ensure proper provisioning of qualified teachers at desolated rural schools. 5.4.2.3 Suspension 182 Participants indicated that after the financial incentive was implemented and run for a period of time, it was stopped and teachers were not receiving it. There were different views from the participants regarding the rationale for the suspension of the incentive, but the majority agreed that it pertained to ineffective application as explained by T26: …the financial incentive was not awarded fairly to schools which brought much commotions and contradictions. Unions got involved and there was a stoppage in the paying of financial incentive. Participants explained that there were disparities in the way the financial incentive were paid to teachers. These disparities leading to disagreement between stakeholders necessitated the financial incentive to be stopped for a while to rectify the disparities. Some participants were of the opinion that the suspension of the financial incentive did not have an influence on teacher retention or learner performance at rural schools. Participant R1 proclaimed: …there was a time may be two years back when the financial incentive were cut-off and teachers were not receiving financial incentive for a period of time but there was no difference in teachers locating to rural schools and learner performance. It seemed that the financial incentive that was suspended for a period of time did not deter teachers from locating to rural areas and maintaining their standard of teaching. Perhaps teachers were aware that disparities were being corrected. Operations at rural schools continued as usual, the same way they had been progressing before and during the implementation of the financial incentive. 5.4.2.4 Categorisation Schools are classified into categories to determine the amount of financial incentive to be allocated to each category of school (section 1.1). While participants welcomed the implementation of the financial incentive to rural schools, participants were of the view that the schools were not properly categorised. The feeling prevailed that teachers at 183 the selected rural schools did not receive the correct amount of financial incentive due to skewed categorisation. Participants explained as follows: I think we were supposed to be in a different category, because we are far from the main town. The place that they have considered close to us has just been proclaimed as a settlement and not a town yet. So we still have to travel to town to access services (P4). …there are a few things that needs attention when comes to the implementation of financial incentive, especially when comes to the classification of schools in categories. The issue of hardships was not fairly looked at, as you will find one school close to the road and one school is far, yet these schools are grouped in one category and receiving the same amount of financial incentive. It is something that needs to be reviewed (P3). The classification of schools into categories was supposed to be done according to the criteria of remoteness, namely, how far away the school was from the nearest town and the availability of basic services and facilities (section 1.1). Participants emphasised that these criteria were not applied appropriately to justify hardships in real terms. Categories needed to be reviewed to ensure schools are placed in their rightful categories with teachers receiving their realistic financial incentive amount. The main problem with wrong categorising seemed to be of a human nature due to the lack of objective application of the criteria for categorising schools. There was a feeling among participants that certain education offices were more involved in categorising schools as they saw fit, rather than complying with the stipulated criteria for school classification. T1 explained as follows: …there is an element of subjectivity involved in the way the schools were categorised. Categorising was not really based on national guidelines but sometimes it is the Circuit Office which decide which school should get which category. This negatively 184 influence the motivation of the teachers in addition to lack of facilities. It was clear that the categorising of schools according to distance from locations for resource access causes ambiguous interpretation. A main point of confusion related to the misinterpretation of the Circuit Office as a location for resource replenishment. Several participants complained about this misinterpretation: I think schools were not appropriately categorised, because some schools were categorised on the distance between the school and the Circuit Office. But the Circuit Office has nothing to offer in terms of basic needs and essential services required for human existence (T25). Schools were unfairly categorised as they were categorised on basis of the distance between the school and the Circuit Office, which is already in the rural area. Categorising schools should consider the geographical location of the school and the distance between the school and the main town and not from a settlement as there are no basic services (T27). Misinterpretation of category specifications was also experienced with regard to school locality to road networks. Schools were categorised based on the distance between the school and the road network. Participants described the road network as a mere road passing by a point close to the school with that point not having anything to offer in terms of services and basic needs. Equally experienced as a misinterpretation was the categorising of schools on the basis of the distance between the school and the nearby settlement. Participants emphasised that settlements do not provide essential services required by teachers and teachers were still required to travel long distances to the main town to access essential services and goods. Settlements and proximity to road networks were not regarded as justifiable benchmarks for school classification. Participants agreed that the distance between the school and the main town or places that provide essential goods and services sufficiently be considered as the main determinant for categorising schools. 185 The improper categorisation of schools had an influence on teacher provisioning and the kind of provisioning at schools in rural areas (Figure 5.3). Teachers who were appointed to rural schools or who were considering to be transferred between rural schools have considered the category of the school to make their final decision. The implication was that wrong categorisation caused teacher shortages in terms of numbers and competency. Participants explained as follows: In terms of attracting teachers to rural areas, this year we were having many vacant posts and two teachers declined because the category of incentive for the school is not inviting. This negatively affects learning as learners would go for a long period of time without a teacher (T12). …teachers did not get motivated because the schools are not categorised appropriately, seeing that some schools that are close to towns are placed in one category with schools that are far from town. Due to this improper categorisation of schools, teachers especially those with high qualification were not attracted to rural schools and mostly only teachers with low qualifications were moving to rural schools (T15). Participants also raised concerns about school categorisation that did not consider teacher efforts with learner performance in standardised national school examinations. T7 explained skewed classification due to not considering teacher effort with learner preparation for national examinations and the influence of this skewed classification on teacher motivation that: …the schools that are placed in encouraging categories are in minority, very few. What is discouraging is the fact that most of those schools that are in the categories for the highest amount of financial incentive, are just primary schools, having grade 1-4, and not schools whose learners sit for national examinations. In other words, schools who receive the highest amount of financial 186 incentive are not schools whose performance is measured by national examinations, whereas for those schools whose performance is measured by national examinations, teachers get low financial incentive amount and you are not motivated. The fact that the performance of schools is usually evaluated in terms of their performances in national examinations, teachers teaching learners who write national examinations experience excessive stress due to media exposure. When learner performance is not adequate, teachers are blamed without considering the circumstance under which teaching happens. For this reason, the fact that schools receiving the highest amount of financial incentive were mostly primary schools whose learner performances were not measured by standardised national examinations was considered unjust and unfair. Teachers teaching learners who write the standardised national examination had to work hard with little resources available to them to ensure good learner performance. The fact that teachers were not receiving an adequate financial incentive was considered unfair, influencing teacher motivation negatively. 5.4.2.5 Insufficient amount In addition to skewed categorisation, participants felt that the financial incentive amount allocated to them was inadequate in relation to the challenges they experience by teaching in a desolated area. It was clear that a main challenge related to ensuring proper housing as expressed by participants: The implementation of the financial incentive was a good move by government but the incentive is not enough and thus not attracting a lot of qualified teachers to come to rural areas due to poor working conditions (T21). …the amount of financial incentive is not convincing… and qualified teachers would not want to remain in poor working conditions where there are not even teachers’ houses (T20). 187 Apart from pointing out that assistance was needed with proper housing, participants also quantified bad road conditions and a lack of electricity and proper recreational facilities as desolated rural-area-challenges for which a substantial financial incentive could have compensated. Participants asserted as follows: One of the problems is that if a teacher buys a car, the car usually develops mechanical problems due to poor road infrastructure and long distance. Unfortunately, the amount of money that we receive as financial incentive is not enough to service the car (T25). …I have also observed that most of the young graduating teachers prefer to work in urban schools where there is electricity and sports facilities available, as rural living is harsh with coupled with little financial incentive (P1). Whatever the challenges, it was clear that participants considered the amount received as financial incentive as significantly insufficient and not encouraging them to remain in a rural area. T7 proclaimed as follows: The implementation of the financial incentive was a good idea to motivate qualified teachers to come and teach at schools located in rural areas, but still the money is not enough. The money that we are receiving is peanuts and this is discouraging us. Some of us are still planning to move to urban areas because the money does not really motivate us, it is not enough. The above view concurs with literature findings in section 3.4.2 that most teachers prefer to work in urban areas as working in rural schools is too demanding given the adverse working conditions. Although many participants rated the financial incentive as insufficient, others experienced it as positive in the sense that “the money is not enough, but it is better because if you receive one, it replaces zero” (T12). The fact that the participants regarded the financial incentive as peanuts evidenced the paucity of the financial incentive on their lives and their preparedness to locate to urban areas if and when possible. 188 With regard to the link between the financial incentive, teacher motivation and satisfactory learner performance, T20 pointed out that “the performance that exists has been there before financial incentive were introduced, due to self-motivation” and not because of the extrinsic motivation of financial incentive, because “the money that we are getting as financial incentive is not enough to cater for our needs”. Participant teachers agreed that despite their level of performance, the reward they are receiving as a financial incentive was not motivating them as the amount was little compared to the performance they were achieving and the challenges they were facing at rural schools. The inadequacy of the financial incentive amount resulted in teachers leaving schools in desolated rural areas to locate to other schools, where the working environment in terms of proper housing and better road networks are better. With regard to the influence of insufficient financial incentive on learner performance, participants emphasised the acute shortages of teaching staff at their schools. Rural schools encounter considerable staff shortages for lengthy periods of time without being able to appoint qualified teachers to attend to learners’ urgent learning needs. T7 asserted as follows: Teachers decline to teach at rural schools, this means that the school has to stay for some months or terms without a teacher and learners continue suffering, and we should not expect good performance. So, may be if they can increase the incentive then may be schools can expect good learner performance. It was clear from the interviews with participants that financial incentive did not have any positive influence on improved learner performance. This was due to an already existing and sustained performance standard regardless of the financial incentive. The financial incentive granted to teachers willing to teach in desolated areas was not adequate to convince a sufficient number of teachers to locate to rural living and improve performance significantly, as confirmed by principal P1: ...this low amount does not encourage qualified teachers to apply at our schools. As a result, the performance of the learners has 189 always been affected because even when schools have vacant posts, qualified teachers did not apply for these posts and this left schools with the option of appointing temporary teachers, who cannot carry out teaching effectively since they are not qualified to teach effectively. Participants emphasised the devaluation of their financial incentive amount as the financial incentive did not appear as a separate package in addition to teachers’ existing monthly salaries, but formed part of teachers’ gross salaries. As a result, teachers were prone to an increased tax deduction as explained by participants: This financial incentive did not make an impact as teachers only opt for rural schools when they cannot find a job in town. By adding this financial incentive to a person’s salary, it might move a teacher to the next tax bracket, which will make a teacher pay more tax and left with less money than a teacher who do not receive financial incentive (T6). The financial incentive can make a tax difference especially to the salaries of teachers whose schools were placed in the high category of financial incentive. These teachers may add up being taxed heavily (R1). It is clear that teachers are exposed to double negative effects of the financial incentive in rural areas, namely, wrong categorising of schools and increased tax deduction. The wrong categorising of schools deprived teachers of receiving their realistic amount for the financial incentive. In addition, the increased tax deduction did not make teachers feel any addition on top of their usual salaries and thus did not leave them with an extra amount to help deal with the challenges teachers are facing at rural schools. Hence, the financial incentive appears not to have positively influenced the motivation of teachers at rural schools in as much as schools were not properly categorised and the financial incentive amount was little and was subjected to taxation. The amount of the financial incentive was not enough to make a significant difference to the life conditions of teachers teaching at schools in desolated areas. They were therefore not convinced to locate and remain at rural schools. For the teachers who 190 received the highest amount of financial incentive, a gridlock situation developed in that their increased salary resulted in an increased tax deduction. These negativities associated with the financial incentive for teachers, considered with the challenges related to rural school teaching, caused a sustainment of teachers’ preference to teach in urban areas. The result was a sustainment of acute teacher shortages in rural schools especially in critical subject areas (Figures 5.4; 5.5; 5.6). 5.4.2.6 Standard of education With regard to the influence of the financial incentive on learner performance, participants indicated that learner performance has improved (Figure 5.1). remained the same regardless of the financial incentive to encourage and motivate teachers to teach in rural areas. Some participants admitted a slight improvement in learner performance; however, considered comprehensively this improvement is negligible. Participants explained as follows: There is only a slight improvement. Our learners are still performing poorly when it comes to academic performance. Some learners are dropping out of school. Financial incentive does not add any positive change according to my observation (P3). Learner performance has improved slightly. Before financial incentive was introduced, we have been teaching in the rural areas and the performance has been the same (T7). Learners are still failing and promotional rates are low. May be there is little improvement at secondary level but at lower and primary level learners are still performing poorly despite teachers receiving the financial incentive (P2). Participants related the slight improvement in learner performance to secondary school grades. In Namibia, secondary school phases entail a junior secondary phase including grades 8 to 10, and a senior secondary phase, extending from grade 11 to 12. This study pertains to the junior secondary phase, as this is the phase in rural 191 communities where learner performance is determined by a national examination for grade 10 learners. Participants’ opinion on the slight improvement in learner performance was based on the outcomes of this national examination for grade 10s in the junior Secondary phase of schooling. It was difficult to determine objectively the performance of learners in the junior primary phase as the progression of learners from one phase to another was not subjected to national examinations. In the absence of a national examination for primary phases, Circuit and Regional examinations were used for summative assessment of learners in the primary phases. In addition, some grades such as grade one and two were usually assessed by continuous assessment that individual teachers were carrying out and were therefore not subjected to examinations. Participants have observed that the performance of learners at primary level as determined by continuous assessment methods, and Circuit and Regional examinations was low compared to the slight improvement in learner performances in the junior secondary phase. Although the majority of participants emphasised that the performance of their learners has remained poor regardless of a financial incentive, some acknowledged a noticeable improvement, which was attributed to the presence of young teachers who had recently graduated from university. P2 stated: There is a change in learner performance. In the past our school uses to fall under the ‘schools of concern’. But ever since the school received young graduates, the school performance improved. P2 quantified this improvement in learner performance as pertaining to the subjects taught by the young graduates. She confirmed as follows: This performance is attributed to the young graduates coming to our school. If you look at the statistics, the subjects that performed well to uplift the school performance are subjects for those teachers, the young graduates (P2). 192 It was clear that, because these young teachers recently graduated from teacher training institutions, they were better equipped to teach effectively and help improve learner performance. Participants pointed out, however, that the improvement in learner performance still excluded crucial subjects because “even though qualified teachers have taken up teaching posts at rural schools, the challenge remains that the performance has not improved significantly as anticipated, especially in subjects like English, Mathematics and Physical Science (T15; Figures 5.4-5.6). Apart from the positive influence of young graduates on learner performance, participants admitted that the financial incentive has functioned as a push factor to a certain extent to encourage some teachers from urban areas to move to rural areas. T14 explained as follows: Financial incentive served as a push factor for teachers to locate from urban schools to rural schools. In terms of performance, it is improving because teachers from urban areas bring innovation and creativity to rural schools. Considering the attractiveness of urban living, no problem was foreseen in jeopardising teacher capacity in urban areas as “urban schools will always be filled by qualified teachers” (T14). The reason for this security of teacher availability in urban areas related, again, to comfortable urban living conditions compared to the harshness of rural survival, which, in the face of insufficient financial incentive, discouraged teachers from remaining in rural areas. T15 proclaimed: Urban schools will always remain with qualified teachers because once qualified teachers were located to rural areas where there are no accommodations comparing to the good accommodations and facilities they were having access to at schools in urban areas, and the fact that the financial incentive that they are receiving is not enough, teachers usually go back to schools in urban areas. It was clear that participants differ with regard to the influence of financial incentive on learner performance. While some participants acknowledged only a slight 193 improvement in learner performance, others were most positive that the implementation of financial incentive to encourage qualified teachers to relocate to rural areas have yielded the required fruit of improved learner performance. Participants acknowledged the positive influence of the financial incentive on learner performance as follows: The learners’ performance has really changed. There is a significant difference between the percentages of how schools were performing those years, and how they are performing now. This performance is because of the qualified teachers that are teaching those learners and most of these teachers were employed since the era of financial incentive (C1). …although there are some challenges, financial incentive had make a difference because qualified teachers can stay at rural schools, and if you look at the performance it has also changed for the better… performance has been picking up (P5). P5 also emphasised the changed scenario of qualified teachers now considering employment in rural areas due to the possibility of a financial incentive and the influence this has had on a decrease in unqualified teachers at rural schools. P5 asserted this snowball effect as follows: In the past teachers can only come here (at rural school) while they were looking for teaching vacancies elsewhere, and schools were forced to employ unqualified teachers. Because of the financial incentive, qualified teachers could now remain at rural schools. I can say financial incentive helped us to retain qualified teachers at schools and the longer the teachers stay, they more the experience they gain and the better the teaching and learner performance. It was clear that once qualified teachers were retained at rural schools they helped improving the performance of the school. It was also clear that the financial incentive 194 assisted in retaining staff who were already appointed at rural schools, but who were considering a transfer to an urban area. I observed that teachers who were at rural schools were trying to get transfers, but now because of financial incentive, they were motivated to remain at rural schools, because they want the money although the feeling from the bottom of their heart is that they really want to go elsewhere (T26). While one group of participants acknowledge a significant improvement in learner performance, another group indicated only a slight improvement in learner performance, with another group of participants having denied any change in learner performance with the implementation of the financial incentive. These participants proclaimed as follows: The performance of our learners has just been fluctuating, both before and after the implementation of financial incentive (T12). There are schools which have been with the same qualified teachers, same principals, receiving financial incentive but still these schools are performing poorly (T17). Financial incentive did not encourage teachers to work at rural schools and therefore financial incentive did not serve what it was meant to serve, the improvement of learner performance at rural schools in the country (P1). It was clear that the third group of participants believed good learner performance in rural schools to have been in existence before the implementation of the financial incentive. Attributing school performance to the financial incentive was therefore not acknowledging other factors such as target setting, teachers’ intrinsic motivation, leadership and support services that might have influenced learner performance positively. These participants felt that teachers are motivated to teach, or are not motivated for their teaching task, regardless of the presence of a financial incentive. 195 In conclusion, it became evident that an improvement in learner performance was recorded with the implementation of a financial incentive for teachers to teach at schools in rural areas. However, the improvement was not as significant as was anticipated. Learner performance at sampled schools has improved, regardless of the implementation of the financial incentive. Where an improvement in learner performance was experienced, this improvement could not be attributed to the financial incentive alone, but also to factors relating to teachers’ intrinsic motivation, leadership and support services. It was clear that the influence of the financial incentive on learner performance in rural areas was minimal. This view concurs with literature findings that the financial incentive have failed to attract and retain qualified teachers in rural areas (section 3.5.1). Considering the fact that the financial incentive is not an all-inclusive strategy for teacher motivation, the factors that motivate teachers to teach at rural schools are elicited next. 5.4.3 Factors motivating rural school teachers The factors that motivate teachers to locate and remain at schools in rural areas relate to aspects pertaining to promotional posts, family background, leadership, environment, employment opportunities, support services and financial incentive. 5.4.3.1 Promotional post The two common promotional posts available to rural school teachers are the Head of Department and School Principal posts. Promotion could further progress to the positions of Inspector of Education, Education Officer and Director of Education. Participants determined the availability of promotional posts at schools in rural areas as an important factor to locate and remain at rural schools. Apart from prestige and self-esteem, management posts also implied increased salaries and allowances resulting in “teachers going to rural areas because of opportunities such as promotional posts” (R1). 196 Considering the benefits of these promotional positions, holders were likely to remain in rural areas regardless of geographically-related challenging conditions. Based on the same argument, teachers are not motivated to locate to rural schools if opportunities for career growth, such as promotional posts, are not available, or benefits accompanying promotional posts are not adequate. 197 5.4.3.2 Family background Some teachers originate from rural areas with their homes and families still located there. As they have grown up in a rural environment and are used to rural conditions, they prefer to remain with their families and render assistance to their families. Participants explained this motivation for teachers to remain in rural areas because of familiarity with the environment and closeness to family as follows: Teachers have their families to look after, they really want to remain at rural areas (T26). Teachers are there at rural areas because they are happy with the environment (R1). As discussed in section 3.4.2, living and working in a rural area can be rewarding as rural areas are safe and a pleasing experience with nature and community members. Teachers who originated from rural areas do not feel isolated, but content in their rural comfort zones. In addition to familiarity with the environment, the cost of living in rural areas is less demanding than in urban areas, especially when residing with family, which is common in rural areas. 5.4.3.3 Leadership The commonly known statement by John Maxwell that “everything rises and falls with leadership” implies that leaders need to motivate their employees for them to feel valued and part of the team. From the interviews with participants it was clear that they attributed teachers’ decisions to remain at schools in the rural environment to effective and humane school leadership. The kind of leadership required is explained by participants as follows: As a supervisor, I always try to lead my teachers by example. In other word, the teachers are motivated by my actions (P3). 198 The motivation level of our teachers is very high. So, when I came here, teachers were not really on task, but now once the bell has ring, everyone is heading to the class. I think they are very much self-motivated now as a result of me practising what I preach (P4). Teachers are motivated by the type of school principals they are having at the rural schools. The manner in which they are influenced, such as the leader leading by example, is what motivates teachers to remain committed to rural schools and execute their responsibilities to the best of their abilities. The example set by their principal as a leader is inspiring them to be self-starters and self-driven teachers. The positive influence of the school principal on teacher motivation results in good learner performance which in turn serves to raise motivation levels amongst teachers: Teachers have high motivation levels due to good results the school enjoys in national examinations. We always set targets and that is what is motivating teachers to push hard (P5). The visionary leadership of the school ensures that a target is set to be achieved, and that everyone is geared to pro-actively function towards the realisation of the set target. The leader’s responsibility relates to ensuring that teachers are energised to achieve the targets that are set. With regard to this visionary leadership experienced in rural schools, satisfactory learner performance is achieved, regardless of the presence or absence of a financial incentive. R1 confirmed the inevitability of improved learner performance because of effective leadership: The improvement in the performance of schools is a result of leadership. When financial incentive was introduced, good school performance has already been there as a result of our strategic plan and targets on what we should do and these strategies started in 2005, way back before the implementation of financial incentive in 2010. It was clear that regional leadership influenced school leadership, enabling school principals to influence teachers in pursuing set targets. This practice prevailed before 199 the implementation of the financial incentive. Teachers have always been motivated by setting their own targets and getting support from leadership to achieve these targets. Teachers’ good performance can therefore not be entirely linked to the financial incentive. With regard to the important role of effective leadership to ensure acceptable learner performance, R1 confirmed that: …when we set strategies to improve learner performance, we rarely look at incentive, but the focus is good leadership and selfdriven teachers. Apart from leadership, shared leadership existed in the regional structures that serves as motivation for teachers. Educational leaders share the responsibilities of motivating teachers as Directors and Inspectors visit rural schools to interact with teachers. The moral support teachers enjoying with this gesture motivated teachers to strive for high ideals while they continue teaching in rural schools. 5.4.3.4 Environment Teachers are motivated by an environment that is both physically and psycho-socially conducive for them to execute their teaching responsibilities successfully. Every participant has made reference to accommodation as a motivating factor for teachers to locate and remain at rural schools. It was clear that teachers experienced an acute shortage of housing in the desolated rural areas. P5 explained as follows: There is a problem of accommodation at rural schools. Teachers can come and teach here but they have to commute from towns because accommodation is really a factor that challenges teachers to leave for other schools with accommodation and where they will feel comfortable and motivated. Participants emphasised that the financial incentive defeats its purpose if it is not accompanied by accommodation for teachers at rural schools. Teachers want to teach 200 at rural schools and they “go to schools in rural areas due to passion and the financial incentive, but they leave these schools again due to a lack of accommodation” (R1). The lack of accommodation in the rural environment has forced many teachers to leave rural schools to schools where accommodation is provided, despite these teachers’ passion to teach at rural schools. For some teachers, their passion for rural school teaching compelled them to settle for accommodation relating to temporary structures typical of informal settlement constructions. These constructions are not comfortable and do not provide proper safekeeping against crime. C1 admitted that “some of the teachers at rural schools have constructed their kabashus (shack dwellings), but these kabashus are not safe especially during holidays when they [teachers] have to leave, their properties might be stolen”. Proper accommodation in the sense of basic housing constructed with bricks would motivate teachers to stay at rural schools. Apart from not being safe, the temperature change in an informal housing structure (shack) is unbearable in winter when it is very cold and in summer when it is very hot resulting in inhabitants not being able to acquire sufficient rest. T6 emphasised that: If the teacher sleeps in a makeshift structure and do not get enough rest, you cannot expect this teacher to perform in the class the next day. The challenging conditions in which teachers reside at schools in desolated rural areas include a lack of electricity, running water and bathroom facilities. Participants emphasised that teachers are truly motivated to teach even at schools in rural areas. However, the housing conditions for teachers impact negatively on their teaching performance. P2 voiced these difficult living conditions which forced teachers to relocate to more comfortable environments as follows: Teachers are really suffering. If you can see there, those are the shacks for teachers. No electricity, no water, no sanitation, a lot of things are missing. There are even no toilets, they must go to the 201 nearby bushes to relieve themselves. This forced teachers to transfer. The harshness of living conditions in rural areas had also a demotivating effect on teachers who were not sufficiently qualified because “even unqualified teachers are not happy with the environment” (P1). This dissatisfaction with housing conditions was experienced to such an extent that the granting of a financial incentive could not convince unqualified teachers to further their studies because “the environment where they are working is just not conducive” (P1). Participants pointed out that government’s attempt to provide accommodation for teachers was not adequate to accommodate all teachers in need of housing. “Government only constructs a house that can accommodate two teachers” (T4) resulting in teachers having to share facilities such as “sharing a room three of us [them]” (T4) and having “one bachelor flat only that accommodates those teachers from far” (P5) while the rest of the teachers have to commute. The insufficiency of accommodation at rural schools causes tension between staff members about whom to accommodate as many teachers are hailing from far distances. The result is the jeopardising of good relationships between staff members. The lack of accommodation for teachers at schools in remote areas relates to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (section 2.2.1), where if teachers’ basic needs are not met, it negatively influence their motivation to teach at schools in rural areas. Participants confirmed that the fact that they did not feel safe and comfortable on a basic level, was a challenge to work hard to experience self-realisation at schools situated in rural areas. In addition to housing provision, teachers are also motivated by the available resources and facilities. Physical facilities within the teaching context pertain to classrooms, laboratories, libraries and staffrooms, whereas outside the school setting it includes establishments such as hospitals and police stations. The presence or absence of physical facilities and instructional materials determine the motivational levels of teachers. From the interviews with participants, the poor state of rural schools’ infrastructure became clear: 202 Some of the classrooms are very old. It is not really safe for the teachers to be in those classrooms. Some classrooms have holes and some classrooms have cracks (C1). Apart from the need for physical facilities to be of good standard for teachers to feel safe while teaching, classrooms need to be available in the right quantities so that each teacher has his or her own classroom. Presenting lessons in the open demotivates teachers and causes low morale because “presenting lessons under the tree really demotivates teachers as they would also like to work in a conducive environment (T4). Presenting a lesson under a tree implies exposure to weather patterns resulting in difficulties for teachers to present lessons during rainy seasons as learners and teachers have to seek shelter until rain stops. This negatively affects time management and curriculum coverage with learners not mastering all the stipulated learning outcomes. Lesson presentation for subjects like Physics and Chemistry comprises both a theoretical and practical component. Theoretical knowledge needs to be linked with practical application in laboratories. In rural environments teachers are demotivated by the lack of well-equipped laboratories to facilitate knowledge acquisition as “at some schools, when laboratories are there, there are no materials for carrying out experiments (R1). Participants emphasised the demotivating effect of misconceptions relating to assumptions that competent teachers can improvise in the face of facilities and teaching aid shortages. Although valid to a certain extent, participants emphasised that proper teaching for the sake of successful learning requires applicable facilities with related teaching equipments. Participants proclaimed as follows: In terms of facilities and teaching aids, there is a misconception out there, that when a teacher is qualified and have subject knowledge, then people expect learners to pass exceptionally. No, you can only perform if you do have certain resources at your disposal such as textbooks and other teaching media. That is the only way through which the teacher can improve learner 203 performance. Hence, these are some of the factors that demotivate teachers because they feel that they are not supported even though they are qualified (T6). We need modern teaching aids in order to keep up to date with the world of technology. Every time, it is just chalkboards while others are using Overhead Projectors. The chalk whitens us all over and this is not encouraging (T19). It appeared that the challenges characterising rural schools in other parts of the world (section 3.5) resemble the challenges rural schools in Namibia are facing. While other scholars observe some schools having only chairs for teachers and school principals (section 3.4.2), the researcher observed that learners at the selected rural schools in Namibia were sitting on chairs while they were taught under trees in the school premises. Apart from a lack of laboratories for Physical science subject, participants pointed to the libraries at their schools that do not have sufficient and recent books. The lack of sufficient library resources included the absence of a competent librarian to assist learners in their literature searches. Participants confirmed as follows: Our library needs to be stocked with current books as most of the books currently on the shelves are outdated (T12). Some schools have libraries but there are no Library Assistants employed to assist library users. It is teachers again to assist learners or anyone who is willing to use the library, and teachers are usually busy (T10). In addition to the lack of libraries and laboratories, participants expressed dismay about not having staffrooms for teachers, resulting in a situation such as “when teachers have free lessons, they stay in the outside waiting for the next lesson’’ (T9). Teachers involved in class teaching usually remain in their classrooms during breaks, with their classes serving as a staffroom. Teachers involved in subject teaching, have 204 nowhere to retreat to during breaks or free periods resulting in a condition not convenient for effective teaching. The financial incentive cannot compensate for a debilitating environment, as T1 confirmed that “financial incentive may motivate teachers but the environment says much too”. With reference to the vast distances between rural schools and major towns, essential services such as police services and medical facilities served as important factors influencing teacher decisions to locate to rural schools. Considering the fact that their working conditions are usually poor and makes them prone to possible ill health, teachers need clinics in rural areas for medical help. Teachers also need increased safety and protection as provided by the presence of police services. It was clear that even the most generous financial incentive could not compensate for the harsh realities of rural life associated with a lack of proper housing, electricity, medical care and policing. For that reason, and as stated by T6, “if the government could improve facilities at rural areas, teachers will be motivated to stay even if the financial incentive is low” because proper facilities and essential services in the work environment is important in ensuring a motivated teaching team. 5.4.3.5 Employment opportunities In the face of high rates of unemployment in developing countries, being employed underpins teacher motivation to teach at rural schools. As employment opportunities in urban areas are scarce, teachers have to seek employment opportunities at rural schools where there are more vacancies available. For that reason, “teachers go to rural areas not because there is financial incentive but because there are employment opportunities (R1). The need to be employed is more prominent than the financial incentive because even when the financial incentive was stopped for a long period of time at rural schools in Namibia, “there was no difference, no teacher said ‘I will not go to rural areas because there is no financial incentive’, teachers were still getting employed there” (R1). It was clear that “financial incentive was not the motivating factor; teachers go to rural schools because they need to be employed, especially new graduates” (R1). 205 5.4.3.6 Support services Despite the fact that teachers are qualified and possess subject knowledge, they need to be supported in their duties. Without support structures, teachers lose morale because of the magnitude of challenges with which they have to cope on their own. The support that teachers need relates to opportunities for professional development such as “people with whom to share our subjected-related problems with” (T23). In this regard, it was stressed that workshops should be organised for teachers to discuss their subject related problems with one another and to share skills on content delivery. The lack of professional development support was illustrated by the fact that workshopping is not part of the reference framework of young teachers as stated by T23: Like these young ones, they do not know how a workshop setting looks like. They have never attended a workshop since they were employed here. Congruent with findings by other scholars (section 3.5.2), a lack of opportunities for workshop-based professional development contributes to incompetence at rural schools resulting in poor learner performance. An important factor for professional development is the availability of assistance accompanied by expert knowledge from regional educational offices. This assistance demands that “support services personnel should come down to teachers at rural schools” (T15), to acquire first-hand knowledge of school-related problems. P1 stressed that “the Education Officers are needed to come down to schools so that we [schools] can tell them our problems, rather than sending circulars which do not speak for themselves. Participants felt strongly that regardless of the geographical location of rural schools which makes it difficult to reach these schools, diverse efforts should be exploited to ensure that teachers receive the support they require. A positive action with regard to teachers’ professional development is the Personal Development Plan (PDP) for each teacher. Teachers compile their own plans after they have evaluated themselves by means of a SWOT analysis. Once teachers have produced their PDP, they are able to determine weaknesses and explore opportunities 206 for further growth. This enables principals of rural schools to determine what assistance is needed for specific teachers. Participants revealed that the compilation of this PDP assisted teachers to understand their competencies better, as proclaimed by C1: Teachers are motivated by the support we give them such as with the PDP arrangement. We ask our teachers to produce their PDPs so that it becomes easier to detect areas where support is needed. A crucial part of teacher support motivating them to persevere with their teaching endeavours is meticulous and timely remuneration. In this regard, teachers receive little support from the Human Resource Division of the MoEAC with the timely processing and payment of their salaries, especially new appointees. Apart from a demotivating effect on the psyche of teachers who are not paid on time, they are also affected physically in the sense of “no teacher can teach effectively on an empty stomach (T3). This affects proper teaching which is further jeopardised by teachers who are forced to leave their classes to visit the Human Resource section of the Directorate of Education about their outstanding salaries. T6 explained as follows: New appointees are not paid their salaries well on time. These teachers struggle for three to four months without getting paid, they are forced on a regular basis to travel in order to make inquiries at Human Resource offices, to find out when they will be paid. The snowball effect of decreased learner performance because of lost teaching time spent on approaching the Directorate of Education for outstanding teacher salaries implies the Directorate of Education is an accomplice in jeopardised learner performance. T6 proclaimed as follows: The poor learner performance should not be blamed squarely on the teachers alone, but also on the appointing authority for the delay they are causing in the system which have a detrimental effect on teachers’ performance. 207 When teachers are unjustifiably blamed for poor learner performance, they are demotivated which can be recovered with the Directorate of Education discharging responsibility for their part of good learner performance, namely timeous remuneration of teachers. 5.4.3.7 Financial incentive An effective reward system retains the high performers in the organisation with these rewards related to employee productivity (section 2.4.2). In the context of this study, the reward system that was implemented to motivate teachers was the financial incentive (Figure 5.5). Even though the majority of participants were of the view that many factors motivate teachers to locate and remain at rural schools, the importance of the financial incentive was acknowledged. It motivated teachers to apply for teaching posts at rural schools because many teachers, before accepting vacant positions at rural schools, “they contact the Circuit Office to enquire where the school is located and the category of the financial incentive for the school” (C1). In many instances, these teachers enquiring about the financial incentive are already employed, but “financial incentive attract teachers to rural schools as they were not attracted before (T13). It was clear from the interviews with participants that the implementation of financial incentive has encouraged teachers to teach at rural schools to a certain extent, which has contributed to an increase in the proportion of qualified teachers at rural schools (section 5.4.2.1). In addition to the characteristics of a good teacher (section 3.3), the empirical investigation also focused on attributes specific to a rural school teacher, which are discussed next. 5.4.4 Capabilities for teaching at rural schools The personality traits of a teacher significantly influence classroom climate and have major implications for learners’ motivation and attitude towards learning (section 3.3.2). Professional qualifications and years of teaching experience alone do not define a good teacher or predict good learner performance. Equally important are the 208 personality attributes distinguishing teachers as competent and effective. From the interviews with participants, the attributes of passion and adaptability are determined as crucial to competent teaching in a rural setting. 5.4.4.1 Passion Participants indicated that a rural school teacher must have the passion to teach, regardless of the kind of child or environment. Participants concur with what was discussed in section 3.3 that a good teachers should have a passion for teaching and learning. Passion as the keen desire to be involved in the execution of a task to provide required services at own will implies that teachers will teach without hesitation and regardless of challenging environments. When asked to determine the typical characteristics that a rural school teacher should possess, participants identified a passion for what is best for the learner as most important: …a rural teacher should have the interest of the learners at heart, who is committed with a clear understanding of why one chose to become a teacher (P1). This focus on what is best for the learner implies taking care of the specific learning needs of learners at rural schools. Considering that many learners in rural areas do not receive proper physical, emotional and cognitive care from their families (section 3.4.2), a rural school teacher should be someone who is willing to provide the full extent of parental care to learners so that they can learn. Participants explained as follows: …in most cases our learners are not really cared for. A rural school teacher should be willing to fully execute his or her role of in loco parentis (P3). Above all, someone who is fit to be a rural school teacher, should regard teaching as a care calling (P4). 209 Participants agreed that teachers who are passionate about educating learners and who have a keen interest in the well-being of learners pursue ways of countering environmental conditions. For these teachers, passion is then linked to their work of caring for their learners while teaching them, motivating teachers to remain in their rural school teaching posts. 5.4.4.2 Adaptability In addition to a teacher being passionate about the interests of the learners at rural schools, participants felt that complementing passion was the ability of the teacher to adapt to a rural school environment. Adaptability refers to the ability of teachers to relate well with the conditions of the environment in which they find themselves. Adaptability as raised by participants pertains to the teacher’s ability to function in the rural area as a specific social group and take on the social responsibility of a teacher in a rural environment, namely that of ensuring learners’ social welfare. Participants pointed out that this responsibility implied that the teacher treats learners equally, listens and cares about learners’ problems and gets to know each learner as an individual. As pointed out by other scholars, social responsibility results in good relationships between teachers and learners, which enhances learner motivation for good lesson engagement resulting in good learner performance (section 3.3.3). The necessity for adaptability understood as social responsibility to fit into the rural area as a social unit was emphasised by various participants: Rural school teachers possess the ability to make an environmental analysis in order to establish their adaptation pattern in the environment (P2). Rural teachers believe in themselves and associate themselves with the community and environment where they find themselves... they are having the ability to adapt into the environment in view of the challenges available (P1). 210 By conducting an environmental analysis, teachers become familiar with the rural environment and associate themselves with the conditions of the environment. This enables them to adapt functionally to the environment in the sense of being prepared for the specific challenges, such as housing in the rural environment. One participant explained as follows: A rural school teacher is strong enough to cope with harsh working conditions at rural schools. Ability to cope with learners of different backgrounds and preparedness to counter challenges such as erecting shacks in response to lack of accommodation makes a good rural school teacher (P5). Participants confirmed that rural teaching includes teaching impoverished and malnourished learners, which often leads to interrupted school attendance and learners’ academic needs not being met, a finding that concurred with the discussion in section 3.6.1. Impoverished and malnourished conditions of learners in rural environments are a result of poor families who are often unemployed and thus unable to provide basic necessities for their children, resulting in rural school teachers having to see how best to help these children. Typical rural school teachers are therefore passionate about teaching learners in rural schools, and they are able to adapt to the harsh conditions of rural school living. 5.4.5 Conditions characterising rural schools It is important to understand the circumstances prevailing at rural schools for an indepth comprehension of the challenges facing teaching and learning at rural schools. Informed teachers are better able to determine the extent to which they fit into rural environment teaching. 5.4.5.1 Commuting Teachers at rural schools have to commute far distances on a daily basis to work, because they do not reside in villages close to their schools. Within a third world rural context, commuting implies teachers making use of the limited public transport 211 available, or travelling by foot or with their own car. Participants emphasised the nature and strenuousness of this daily commuting and the influence thereof on teachers’ work performance: Commuting from town and other far places to come to school and go back tires teachers (P3). Teachers are frustrated as they have to come to school from town and still go back, and this makes them tired and not having enough time to prepare their lessons (P1). The distance exhaust teachers and when they arrive at school they are tired and not in the mood to teach (T22). A teacher may get a hike from town and get dropped at the roadside. If the teacher did not get a transport heading to the direction of the school, the teacher will have to walk at least ten kilometres arriving late and tired. This is a very big challenge especially during the rainy season (T24). The impact of the rainy season on harsh commuting arrangements, and the fact that rural teaching in a third world context did not necessarily imply ownership of one’s own car, was illustrated as follows: There are no hikes and we are not paid enough money to buy cars. You have to walk at least thirteen kilometres from the main road to the school. During the rainy season, teachers with cars have to leave them here at school and walk through the water to the road (T11). It was clear from the interviews with participants that regardless of financial incentive, rural living circumstances in a third world context included many challenges. Erecting informal structure houses consisting of corrugated iron sheets (zinc shacks) at schools to reduce distance and commuting costs posed many challenges. Apart from being 212 too hot in summer and too cold in winter (section 5.4.3.4), teachers suffer during the rainy season as they cannot cook their food because of a lack of electricity in the first place and wet wood not suited for combustion. Commuting to school was made more difficult by extreme weather conditions such as floods when both teachers and learners were not able to reach school. The implication was that during the rainy season with its many floods commuting teachers are not able to reach school which has a negative influence on lesson presentation and covering the complete curriculum. It was clear that commuting to schools in rural areas included severe challenges influencing teaching and learning negatively and causing many frustrations for all stakeholders. 5.4.5.2 Climate and rural school teaching Climate as referring to extreme occurrences such as floods and droughts is experienced more heavily at rural schools due to poor housing and commuting conditions. During the rainy season, for example, when the area is flooded “even the school principal camps at school because cars get stuck oftenly” (T12). During focus group interviews, the researcher was introduced to a video on a most recent flood where teachers and learners were walking through flood water above their knees. As a result of the floods, school attendance was suspended until the water level had subsidised resulting in learners who “stayed at home for a month as they could not go through the water and this affects their performance (T10). Floods affect teachers who are forced to reside at school because “during floods our teachers cannot move anywhere, they are forced to stay at schools due to poor road infrastructure that is worsened by the floods” (C1). During such periods and due to scarce accommodation options, “some teachers share the shack with learners” (P2). It was clear that climate served as an important factor challenging effective teaching and learning and teacher motivation to remain at rural schools. 213 5.4.5.3 Hygiene Hygiene in terms of sanitary arrangements posed a major challenge at rural schools. Participants explained as follows: A major challenge is hygiene. The use of a pit latrine is not healthy and snakes can also hide there as these latrines are poorly constructed (T22). As there are no toilets, teachers go to the nearby bushes to relieve themselves (P2). Correlating with literature, it was clear that conditions at the selected schools consisted of typical rural environment circumstances such as excessively populated areas of poor people that are uneducated and unemployed (section 3.5.1). As a result, rural inhabitants lack basic services such as clean water, electricity, proper housing and road infrastructures. The sampled rural schools were without flushing toilets, but were situated in areas of dense bushes for relieving purposes. Participants experienced this situation as undignified for qualified personnel and for that reason “the government needs to recruit unqualified teachers because they are the ones who can tolerate working under harsh conditions, but I cannot come from the university only to use the bushes” (T22). These undignified harsh sanitary arrangements result in poor retention of qualified teachers at rural schools: If you get qualified teachers at rural school, they only stayed for a short period of time and then get a transfer. This causes a gap already, making the school to appoint a new teacher every year (P5). It was clear that sanitary arrangements at rural schools served as a major factor influencing the retention of qualified teachers negatively. This low standard of hygiene 214 at rural schools impacting negatively on qualified teacher retention influenced learner performance at rural schools adversely. 5.4.5.4 Facilities and services This category interprets the presence and standard of facilities as these facilities pertain to school buildings, road infrastructure, teaching resources and essential services such as hospitals. As was discussed in previous sections, participants all emphasised inadequate housing facilities for teachers at rural schools (section 5.4.2.5; section 5.4.3.4). Apart from proper housing for teachers, rural schools also “lack facilities such as classrooms, staffrooms, libraries and laboratories” (R1), which correlate with literature findings on facility and instructional material shortages in rural schools (section 3.6.3). A shortage or complete lack of facilities inhibit proper learning. Classrooms are essential for lesson presentation, staffrooms for teacher interaction and lesson preparation, libraries for accessing learning resources and laboratories for supplementing theoretical knowledge with practical skills (section 5.4.3.4). External to school settings, facilities such as transportation, protection, medication and banking services are required for basic sufficiency. Road networks as the backbone of economic functioning are experienced as significantly hampering teaching and learning at the selected rural schools: Roads infrastructure really affects learning because sometimes teachers need to travel long distances to town to collect materials for experiments. The teacher may take long because the road infrastructures and networks are poor and distances are long (T4). Transport challenges in rural areas compromises teacher mobility demotivating teachers and discouraging them from being retained in rural school teaching. Poor road networks effected the health and safety of both teachers and learners as the poor condition of roads hampered speedy access to medication and police services in town. T5 explained that: 215 Lack of clinics and hospitals and police stations in rural areas put the health and safety of the teachers and learners at risk, given poor road infrastructure and long distance they need to travel to access medical facilities and police assistance at towns. In addition to the absence of medical facilities in rural areas, participants also expressed dissatisfaction with the unavailability of banking institutions. To access their salaries, teachers travel to urban areas for financial institutions. These actions may result in the absence of teachers from schools for more than one day because when teachers go to financial institutions to access their payment, they use the opportunity to do their shopping before returning to the rural areas (section 3.5.3). Due to the absence of physical banking facilities at the selected schools, participants envisioned accessing financial institutions via the internet. However, limited internet access caused online banking to be difficult to achieve. The gridlock situation of a lack of basic facilities, the time frames with facility access, improper road networks and limited internet access were voiced by T2 as follows: In terms of accessing financial institutions, we cannot go to town due to long distance, and again we cannot use services such as internet banking due to poor network coverage. Teachers may only have to visit banks on weekends. Unfortunately, banks close early on weekends and teachers may not get helped given the distance they have to travel, and sometimes lack of transport from rural areas to town. Limited internet access also affects teaching and learning because internet connectivity is important “to assist teachers to browse online content to facilitate teaching and learning” (T1). Considering the large proportion of young graduates at rural schools, participants emphasised the lack of sport facilities at rural schools as a major factor hindering the quality of life of especially young graduates impacting negatively on opportunities for social interaction, a recreational need that was also expressed in section 3.5.1. 216 5.4.5.5 Level of literacy Participants revealed that most of the parent population in the rural areas have achieved very low levels of literacy. As a result, most parents do not attach much significance to education and therefore “do not assist their children academically as most parents do not read properly, thus lacking an understanding of what learners are doing at schools” (T25). Due to lack of understanding the importance of education and their role in assisting their children with proper learning, parents hinder their children’s progress with school work by engaging them in excessive home chores. T24 proclaimed that: “parents prioritise learners to fulfil household chores first to school work”. From the interviews, it was clear that participants were aware that to teach at a rural school implied a parent population with low levels of education impacting negatively on learner performance as parents either do not assist their children with their schoolwork, or blatantly hinder their children to be properly engaged in school work. 5.4.6 Determinants of learner performance Since the essence of this study comprised teacher motivation with its related learner performance, it was important to determine the factors responsible for achieving good learner performance at rural schools. The factors determined as engendering good learner performance at rural schools as expressed by participants related to the foundation for learning, teacher-learner ratio, language competencies, parental involvement, subject specialisation, working environment, group of learners and the influence of climate on teaching and learning. 5.4.6.1 The foundation for learning According to participants, the foundation upon which learners build further knowledge should be well established. If a solid foundation with initial learning is not built, learners struggle to cope as they proceed with further grades. Participants pointed out that in many cases this solid foundation is not established resulting in poor learner performance as opined by P3: 217 The major problem is that our learners have a weak background knowledge in most of the subjects. Learners do not have a strong foundation from the lower grades. The reason for this lack of an initially solid foundation for further learning related to teachers not being qualified sufficiently for junior primary teaching which is accompanied by insufficient assessment of learning outcomes. In this regard, participants determined as a major problem the emphasis on final school year assessment without ensuring that benchmarks are reached in preceding grades. Participants also pointed to the problem experienced with English as language of teaching and learning, as English is the second language for both teachers and learners. Participants explained as follows: The foundation at primary school needs to be strengthened. What I can see, we only value grade ten as being important in measuring learner performance. But at grade four, there is no benchmark. It will be irrational to expect learners to perform well at exit level, such as at grade ten when they cannot make it at primary grades (P4). Junior primary and senior primary learners need strong foundation. The learners lack basic English language competencies from the primary level… teachers at primary levels should be empowered to groom these learners and have them prepared for junior secondary phase (T26). It was clear that the fight against all social and economic challenges, as also experienced at the selected rural schools, is the endeavour to provide adequate education and training for human capital development relevant to the rural environment. A further reason responsible for the poor learning foundation of primary school learners is the lack of continuation of the subjects taught at primary school level. It is anticipated that the content of subjects started in the primary phase relates to what is built on in the secondary phase. According to participants, this linkage needs refinement for the sake of more successful learning at rural schools. 218 5.4.6.2 Teacher-learner ratio Participants indicated that the teacher-learner ratio for the primary phase (grades 1-7) as idealised by government was 35:1, for the junior secondary phase 30:1 and for the senior secondary phase 30:1. In real terms, the teacher-learner ratio differed significantly from the idealised suggestion. Participants emphasised that the real teacher-learner ratio that they are working with was not favourable for effective teaching and learning. T2 explained as follows: The teacher-learner ratio of 50 to 60 learners in a class is not appropriate. It is difficult for teachers to pay attention to each and every learner’s learning needs given the length of the lesson, which is forty minutes. Teachers were teaching in overcrowded classrooms which is the result of financial constraint to accommodate vast population growth accompanied by poor economic growth. Vast numbers of learners in the same classroom for a limited period of time hinders individual attention resulting in hampered learner performance. T1 confirmed that: Teacher-learner ratio is hampering progress in most schools. Teachers are teaching a lot of learners within a limited period of time. The forty minutes lesson is not enough for the teacher to attend to every learner’s learning needs. Apart from a lack of sufficient numbers of teachers and classrooms, overcrowded classrooms also imply insufficient didactic materials with teachers struggling to manage sharing arrangements among learners: There are not enough teaching resources, given the teacherlearner ratio that teachers have to cope with. For example, a teacher teaches at least fifty learners in a class, yet the government only provides one textbook. What type of miracle can 219 one make to ensure that each learner make use of this textbook during the lesson presentation? (T20) It was clear from the interviews with participants that the teacher-learner ratio of more than 50 learners per teacher influenced negatively the performance of learners at rural schools. A correct number of learners that is manageable within the lesson presentation time can ensure a good learner performance in rural schools. 5.4.6.3 Language competencies At the selected rural schools, the language of teaching and learning for the junior primary phase is the vernacular language, namely Oshindonga. From the senior primary phase onwards, the language of teaching and learning is English, which is both learners and teachers’ second language. Participants emphasised that neither teachers nor learners were fully conversant in English, posing threats for the clear facilitation and profound mastering of subject content: The problem lies with us and our learners for having language barriers, specifically English. Our learners cannot communicate easily and effectively in English and this mostly affect their performances (T25). When learners are not able to express themselves eloquently, it is difficult to ask clear questions on subject content. Learners therefore encounter difficulty to interact with their teachers in English in order to get clarity on subject content. Assessment in English posed a further threat to learners, namely, the struggle of presenting their thoughts coherently by means of English. T25 explained this predicament as follows: Learner performance is influenced by English language barriers. Our learners are really struggling with expressing themselves and their ideas in English. As learners in rural areas are rarely exposed to English, unlike their counterparts in urban areas, learners in rural areas present their answers confusingly making it difficult 220 for teachers to assess the extent to which learners have reached anticipated outcomes in real terms. P5 confirmed that “learners at rural schools have English language barriers unlike learners at schools located in urban areas”. Part of the lack of continuity with what is taught in the junior and senior phases of schooling relates then specifically to the discontinuing of mother tongue as the language of teaching and learning. The result is that “junior and senior primary learners do not have a strong foundation in English language skills because they lack the basic language competencies from the primary level (T25). It was clear from the interviews with participants that a lack of English proficiency because of vernacular teaching and learning during the first four years of schooling contributed to weak learner performance in the senior phases of schooling. Considering the value of mother tongue instruction for proper understanding, the importance of English as a global language is equally important, and participants agreed that the earlier learners are exposed to English as a language of teaching and learning, the sooner they will become proficient in English and be able to master content successfully by means of English. 5.4.6.4 Parental involvement Constructive parent involvement contributes to improved learner performance (section 3.5.1). Participants expressed that parents were not supportive to the teachers’ efforts at school because teachers try their best at school, but once learners go home, they are influenced by indifferent parents because “parents do not read properly, thus lacking an understanding of what learners are doing at school” (T25). The situation is worsened by school holidays when learners are exposed to a non-schooling environment for a long period of time with parents not encouraging their children “to stay in touch with their books due to their [parents] low level of literacy” (T26). The result is that teachers first have to revise after school holidays which impact negatively on available instruction time to cover the complete syllabus. Apart from parents being indifferent to the education of their children, parents are also guilty of not providing the required physical and emotional support to their children. The result is that “the home backgrounds of the learners pose threats to good 221 performance due to factors like alcohol and lack of food at home as parents are often at cuca shops (shebeens)” (T28). Participants emphasised that parents who understand the value of education are supposed to excuse their children from house chores and ensure sufficient time and nutritional food for their children to perform optimally at school. Such a scenario is not relevant at the selected rural schools as parents do not ensure sufficient food for their children and they blatantly hinder their children from attending school regularly. Participants confirmed as follows: I call upon the government to make the school feeding programme available to all school grades, catering for all learners to ensure that no learner is taught on an empty stomach (T28). Our learners assist their parents with house responsibilities and sometimes these responsibilities compromise teaching and learning, resulting in poor learner performance (T24). A learner is sometimes absent from school for three days. When that learner comes back to school, he will indicate that his parents instructed him to take the cattle to the cattle post for better grazing (P1). The tendency of parents using learners to cater for household chores at the expense of their education is well documented and relates to parents’ attitude of not being convinced of the value of education (section 3.6.2). Such an attitude interferes with teachers’ endeavours to improve the performance of their children. Learners who are regularly absent from school for three days and more, are not able to compete with learners who are attending school on a daily basis and who are enjoying the essential physical and psychological support from their parents. 222 5.4.6.5 Subject specialisation Participants revealed that teachers are teaching a combination of subjects, comprising of subjects that they were trained to teach as well as subjects for which they did not receive any training. This resulted in work overload as teachers had to prepare more extensively for the subjects not known to them. Overloading teachers with subjects they are not qualified to teach “affects the motivation of the teachers and the learner performance” (T6). Considered against the background of challenging accommodation arrangements and insufficient teaching facilities and materials, overloading teachers “with lessons for which they are not qualified to teach decreases teacher morale and in the end teachers may not perform to expectations” (T6). Not performing to expectation as a result of being required to teach subjects in which teachers did not receive initial training was understood by participants to be unreasonably unfair because “when these learners go to the next grade and failing to perform, the previous teacher was always to blame” (T1), regardless of the fact that that ‘previous teacher’ had to teach subjects for which he/she had not been trained. Participants emphasised that being professionally trained as a teacher does not imply being an expert in all subjects. Apart from specialised subject content, different subjects have different teaching methods and pedagogies which require specialised training. The allocation of teachers to subjects for which they have not received training is necessitated by teacher workload that relates to the number of lessons per week per teacher. School principal participants explained that for a five day teaching cycle teachers must conduct 40 lessons and for a seven day cycle 52 lessons. With regard to class teaching per grade, teachers must conduct 40 lessons per week for grades 4 to 7 and 41 lessons per week for grades 8 to 10. As a result of many teachers not meeting this required number of lessons per cycle or per week with their subjects of specialisation, they are obliged to teach additional subjects for which they are not qualified. 223 5.4.6.6 Working environment As stated in section 5.4.3.4, accommodation for teachers at rural schools is not sufficient and comfortable resulting in exhausted teachers. In this regard, T6 emphasised that “if the teacher sleeps in a makeshift structure and do not get enough rest, then you do not expect this teacher to perform in the class the next day”. Apart from challenges with accommodation, the lack of classrooms forcing teachers to present their classes under trees is not conducive for optimal learning. Trees serving as ‘classrooms’ pose their own challenges that relate to rain and wind storms. During times of strong wind, it was difficult for teachers to deliver their lessons effectively as their voice projection was compromised by the movement of the wind. During a rain storm, teachers and learners seek shelter where possible, but mostly in occupied classrooms and, if the rain continues throughout the day, lesson presentation for that day is hindered. Rain storms do not only disturb learners who are taught under a tree, but also learners whose classrooms get occupied for shelter. In addition to a realistic financial incentive and adequate housing, participants valued sufficient and proper facilities on the school premises as motivating factors to remain at rural schools. Participants pointed out that learners are also motivated by enough and proper learning facilities and didactic materials. Teaching some learners under the trees while others are being taught in the classroom was considered unfair and humiliating. With regard to didactic materials, participants emphasised the importance of technological-related equipment because “modern teaching aids are needed in order to keep up with the world of work-related technology (T19), such as computers and projectors for PowerPoint presentations by teachers. 5.4.6.7 Group of learners Relying on the years of their teaching experience, teacher participants noticed the correlation between school performance and specific groups of learners admitted for a specific grade and year at a school. Linking financial incentive with learner performance, participants acknowledged fluctuating learner performance, differing 224 from year to year, regardless of the payment of the financial incentive or not. Participants explained as follows: Regarding the performance of learners, this depends on the group of learners admitted in a particular year (T25). We have cases whereby one year you have a group of learners that performs well and the other year you have a group of learners that performs poorly, regardless whether you receive financial incentive or not (T27). Performance wise, financial incentive is not reaching its intended purpose, because learner performance is usually fluctuating. The school may have a group of learners who are talented coming in that year or a group of leaners with mixed-abilities (T26). Maybe financial incentive has succeeded in attracting and retaining qualified teachers at rural schools, but it is struggling to improve learner performance, as this is determined by the group of learners a teacher is having for a particular year (T24). Participants were convinced that financial incentive does not influence learner performance, as learner performance is the result of academic potential as determined by genes that correlate with a specific home environment. The quality of input from teachers remains the same. However, due to hereditary factors differing from year to year, the same kind of teaching efforts results in differing learner performance. 5.4.6.8 The influence of climate on teaching and learning As discussed in section 5.4.5.2, teaching and learning at rural schools are inhibited by weather patterns. Floods cause damaged roads with schools having to close for many weeks. Since ploughing activities take place during the rainy season, many learners are involved in farming activities at home while school is suspended because of floods. Some parents take advantage of having their children at home to continue with farming 225 activities while parents enjoy extra leisure time at the shebeens (section 5.4.6.4). Eventually continuing with school implies backlogs too large to catch up on resulting in teaching and learning outcomes not being reached optimally. 5.4.7 Opportunities for improving education at rural schools One of the objectives of this study was to determine strategies for improving the quality of education provided at rural schools. Informed by the views of the participants, strategies that are determined relate to enhancing the work environment, revisiting the financial incentive, budget allocations, vocational education and a school cluster system for educational provisioning. 5.4.7.1 Working environment The working environment as the setting where teaching and learning takes place comprises issues relating to physical facilities, surrounding infrastructure and teaching and learning resources. With regard to physical facilities, proper accommodation for teachers is important, the absence of which forces teachers to commute or to be transferred to other schools. Participants pointed out that government must provide adequate and proper housing for teachers so that they could use their financial incentive for something else instead of spending all their money on commuting and renting costs. If housing is provided adequately, “more teachers will be attracted to rural schools and their motivational levels will be much higher than what they are now” (P5). Making the school environment conducive for teaching and learning firstly implies “teachers’ housing to reduce commuting” (P3). Another aspect related to facilities that are important for teacher motivation, and the improvement of the quality of education at rural schools through sufficiency of classrooms to counter teaching and learning actions under trees with its exposure to weather conditions. Related to sufficient classrooms is the need for reasonable teacher-learner ratios that “do not compromise the quality of teaching” (P5). Linked to classrooms and reasonable class sizes are sufficient laboratories and libraries. “Rural schools must have laboratories for experiments to help learners understand Physical Science better” (T23). 226 Libraries stocked with contemporary publications and resources “and library assistants to help learners use the library” (T10), may contribute to levelling learners’ knowledge with global demands. Related to libraries is well-equipped resource centres to enhance learners’ access to knowledge, and for young graduate teachers to have access to resources for professional development. Young graduates are demotivated to remain at rural schools without any resource centres because the absence of resource centres intensifies teachers’ feelings of professional isolation in rural areas. Professional growth necessitates resource centres at rural schools in order for teachers to facilitate relevant information competently to learners. Participants suggested a resource centre to be built at one of the schools that is comfortably accessible to most of the schools in the area enabling teachers of surrounding schools easy access. Linked to proper housing for teachers and the availability of laboratories and libraries to enhance teaching and learning is the need for hostels for learners at schools in desolated rural areas. These hostels are needed in order “to groom our own learners because if we could have our own hostels and take on our learners throughout their whole school life, they may continue performing well throughout, as we know their learning styles and how best to help them to learn better” (T11). Participants felt hostel facilities for learners to be important in ensuring a consistent focus on school work countering distractions relating to excessive home chores with learners’ families. Consistency with learning is also enhanced by hostel facilities for learners in that continuity of assistance with specific learning styles is possible with learners being retained at the same school for their whole school life. Linked to classrooms, laboratories, libraries and a central resource centre, participants emphasised the need for sports facilities to attract young graduates and to ensure a more holistic development of learners by providing them with a basic extra-curricular programme. Participants also emphasised the crucial need for regular visits by subject specialists from the Regional Office to capacitate teachers who are teaching subjects for which they are not trained. 227 With regard to infrastructure needs to ensure teachers are retained at rural schools, participants emphasised the upgrading of road networks, “especially the roads in the villages because during rainy seasons teachers drive their cars through the water” (T6). If tarred roads are too expensive to construct, participants anticipated wellmaintained gravel roads which “will motivate teachers to stay at rural schools even if the financial incentive is low (T6). It was clear that regardless of the financial incentive, teachers needed certain facilities and a road infrastructure basic to normal functioning and acceptable learner performance. 5.4.7.2 Revisiting financial incentive Participants emphasised the revisiting of the financial incentive for improved implementation. A first action of the suggested revisiting is increased amounts for teachers to ensure that the financial incentive amount is on par with the challenges teachers in rural areas are facing. Participants suggested that the financial incentive be increased to a thousand Namibian dollars per month, “because 750 Namibian dollar is not enough compared to the challenges that teachers are facing” (P5). Such an increase will serve as a motivating factor “because the current amount is too little to make an impact on the lives of teachers” (P1). Not making an impact on quality living pertained to the financial incentive not being enough for car repairs due to mechanical breakdowns caused by a poor road infrastructure, or for the cost of renting. For that reason: The government should increase financial incentive amount in order to attract qualified teachers to schools in rural areas as they [teachers] will then rest assured that the money they will receive is enough for them to cater for their needs (T13). The second action with regard to revisiting the financial incentive relates to a fair categorisation of schools. Participants felt that their schools are not placed in the category they deserve. The result is that teachers are receiving a financial incentive 228 amount that is not realistic considering the challenges they are facing. Participant P3 explained as follows: Another aspect required is the fairness of categories. There is no way you can give the same amount to a school that is 50km away from the main road and the school that is 15km away from the main road. It is not fair. The imbalances in the categorisation of schools should be rectified! It was clear that the guidelines provided for placing schools into categories as discussed in section 1.1, are in order, but that these guidelines are not properly followed. The revisiting endeavour therefore relates to ensuring that the guidelines are meticulously and fairly applied in categorising schools. As the financial incentive was suspended for a period of time, participants anticipated the suspension to have related to fair categorisation with re-implementation. However, after the financial incentive resumed, some schools still concluded that they were not properly categorised. The third action required from a revisiting of the financial incentive relates to the implementation of a financial incentive for notable performance in addition to the existing financial incentive amount. Such an incentive is needed to motivate teacher dedication especially with regard to schooling exit levels such as grades 10 and 12. Participants voiced this additional financial incentive as follows: There is a need to put some strategies in place to motivate teachers to improve academic performance by way of using financial incentive (P4). In addition to the default financial incentive amount, those teachers with improved results should be given additional financial incentive amounts to motivate them (P1). The MoEAC should link the financial incentive to the performance of the learners, especially at grade ten and grade twelve performances. If a teacher’s subject improved by a certain 229 percentage, that teacher should receive a certain amount, in addition to the common basic amount given to everybody (T21). The financial incentive was initially paid to qualified teachers only for them to locate and remain in rural schools to improve learner performance. However, the mode of implementation changed to include all staff members in the financial incentive allocations. However, participants stressed the importance of a financial incentive exclusively paid to good performing teachers in order to improve learner performance in desolated rural schools. Considering the current socialistic approach of allocating financial incentive to teaching and non-teaching staff regardless of performance, there is no motivation for qualified teachers to excel in their teaching careers. Linked to the financial incentive allocated to good performance only, participants stressed the importance of an additional financial incentive as motivation for highly qualified teachers to locate to rural areas. P4 suggested that: Highly qualified teachers can be attracted by giving them additional financial incentive on the basis of their qualifications to vacate urban areas knowing they will be employed where there are better benefits. An additional financial incentive should therefore be used to attract highly qualified teachers to rural schools, with the sustaining of that financial incentive dependent on persistent good performance as measured by learner performance in grades 10 and 12. A fourth action needed for improved functioning of the financial incentive relates to the taxation of the financial incentive amount resulting in participants not really having additional remuneration due to an increased taxable amount. Treasury rules require that any taxable income disbursed by the state should be subjected to taxation. The financial incentive was therefore not an exemption to treasury rules as the financial incentive is paid by the state. T1 suggested the following approach to avoid the financial incentive being taxed: 230 Perhaps what they should do is to say, look, this is your salary and this is your tax amount from your salary. After deducting the tax from the salary, they can now add the financial incentive amount. Otherwise, if financial incentive amount is made part of the gross salary and get deducted, teachers do not get anything, especially if their tax bracket shifts to the next level of taxation. Teachers will only be satisfied if financial incentive is tax-free. Participants agreed that the financial incentive be exempted from tax deduction. Alternatively, the financial incentive amount should be increased to such a level that even if the amount is subjected to taxation, teachers still enjoy an improvement in their payment. 5.4.7.3 Budget allocations Changes are required in national budgetary allocations in order to meet the demands of education at rural schools. The amount of money allocated to every school’s development budget is not enough to fulfil the needs of rural schools. C1 confirmed that: The budget for capital projects needs to be revisited and increased to cater for the materials required at rural schools. For example, right now we need more than 200 classrooms in Omusati Region, but we only get a budget enough to construct about 10 classrooms. The view of participant C1 concurs with the findings in section 3.6.1, about inadequate government funding which disables schools to secure sufficient instructional materials and facilities for all learners enrolled at their schools. In 2017, the budget allocation for the education directorate of Omusati Region decreased as a result of budget cuts to national budget because due to adverse economic climate conditions. The directorate's operational budget decreased by 47.7%, while the development budget decreased by 41.9% in 2017 (Hilukilwa 2017:1). 231 The shrinking national budget allocation implied challenges with developmental projects at rural schools to such an extent that planned capital projects could not take off. Since budget cuts were necessitated by an adverse economic climate, once the economy stabilises again, regional budget allocations should increase to address matters such as “dignified housing for staff” (C1) and “financial support to take learners on excursions” (T10). Participant T10 pointed out that when they take learners on excursions at their school, “it is our own cars, our own fuel and our own food that we make available to learners”. In 2017, the shrinking budgets also resulted in a grounding of government vehicles in the Omusati Education Directorate making it difficult for subject advisors to travel to schools in rural areas to provide assistance to teachers, especially for the subject areas they are not trained. It was clear that participants were under the influence of harsh economic realities and the debilitating effect thereof on operational and development budget allocations. However, the approach of doing what is possible with what is available within the specific context, applies to rural school teaching ensuring that teaching and learning occurs according to acceptable standards. 5.4.7.4 Vocational education Participants felt that many learners’ potential is not developed due to the focus on academic schooling. Learners are all compelled to take academic subjects regardless of the fact that they are more practically inclined. As a result, many learners do not succeed in passing academic subjects, and because their practically-inclined aptitudes are not catered for, these learners are eventually prone to unemployment living unproductive lives in society. R1 emphasised the need to foster the acquisition of vocational skills alongside academic subjects: The kind of education that we are giving to the nation does not address the needs of the nation’s market demands. We are having graduates sitting at home because their qualifications do not address the market demands. 232 It was clear from the interviews with participants that there is a need to introduce learners to a vocational education from the early grades of schooling. Learners who are not able to succeed with academic subjects will then be catered for by providing them with vocationally-related skills ensuring an independent adult life. All-rounders succeeding in both vocational and academic subjects will enjoy a more holistic education preparing them for professional careers such as doctors, engineers, actuaries and artisans. It was acknowledged, however, that schools need to be provided with enough resources to cater for the provision of both vocational and academic subjects. 5.4.7.5 School cluster system for education provisioning Participants emphasised the need for a well-functioning school cluster system at rural schools to share resources. Grouping rural schools together that are geographically close in order to share facilities, instructional materials and cooperative learning practices will improve learner performance. By sharing educational resources and teaching methodologies, and ensuring that available human capital is exploited to the advantage of all members of the cluster population (section 3.5.3), rural schools in Namibia are able to ensure proper teaching and learning. Although a cluster system for educational provisioning was introduced in Namibia in 1996, it was not successful as school principals who were leading the implementation of the cluster system in their Circuits felt that they were exploited as they were not remunerated for the extra work they were doing. In this regard, T26 confirmed that although a school cluster system was implemented at rural schools in Namibia for the constructive sharing of available services, “they have now abolished the cluster system, because principals were doing works without pay”. Participants emphasised, however, that a school cluster system is essential for schools in rural communities with limited resources to share resources in order to improve their learner performance. While the implementation of a school cluster system in Namibian rural areas was a positive move for education decentralisation and learner performance, successful implementation failed as the system did not have 233 a legal policy framework and there were no resources made available to schools for the implementation and management of school cluster activities (Shikalepo 2012: 69). Operations of the school cluster system were dependent on the budget of the school which was regarded as the cluster centre, rendering the school cluster system ineffective. In addition to have been school principals appointed for their own schools, some school principals had to perform duties as cluster centre principals and they also had to act as Circuit Inspectors. However, school principals were not paid for these additional responsibilities due to the lack of a legal basis for the cluster system functioning. Circuit Offices have stopped using the school cluster system due to its perceived exploitative nature. However, participants agreed that the school cluster system for educational provisioning must be reinstated. This implies that government must revisit shortfalls and consider recommendations to ensure proper functioning for the sake of optimal educational provisioning in rural areas resulting in improved learner performance. 5.5 SUMMARY This Chapter provided findings on the influence of a financial incentive on education at schools located in Namibian rural communities. The interpreted data was collected by using individual interviews, focus group interviews and document analysis. The findings revealed that Namibian schools located in rural communities have enough qualified teachers and that the implementation of the financial incentive as a motivation strategy for teachers to locate and remain at schools in rural areas was well-received, however with reservations. The reservations pertained to the schools that are not properly categorised and the little amount of the financial incentive. The findings also revealed that in addition to the financial incentive, other factors influence learner performance and teacher motivation at rural schools. Amongst these factors are scant housing and school facilities, and insufficient road networks that inhibit teacher motivation while learner performance is hampered by English as language of teaching and learning and a lack of continuity between primary and secondary schooling. 234 Strategies for improving teaching and learning in rural areas were determined to relate to the implementation of a well-functioning cluster system for education provisioning in the face of decreasing operational and development budgets. The implementation of financial incentive contributes little to improved learner performance in the face of other factors influencing teacher motivation and the learning outcomes that learners obtain. Amongst others, these factors relates to language competencies, parental involvement and group of learners. The next Chapter presents the summary, conclusions and recommendation for this study. 235 CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 INTRODUCTION This Chapter provides an overview of the study conducted. This is done firstly by providing a summary of each Chapter of the thesis, highlighting the main issues treated in each Chapter. Secondly, conclusions are drawn from the findings of the literature study in Chapter two and Chapter three, as well as from the findings of the empirical investigation from Chapter five. The writing of the conclusions was guided by the research questions that the study sought to answer. In view of these conclusions, recommendations on the improvement of learner performance at rural schools are made for possible consideration and implementation by education stakeholders. This study used a partially-mixed concurrent dominant status design, as a mixedmethod research design that relied mainly on the qualitative research approach for the sake of answering research questions and addressing research aims using narratives. In answering the formulated research questions (section 1.4), individual interviews, focus group interviews and document analysis were used as methods of data collection (section 4.6.1-4.6.3). Individual interviews were conducted with school principals and education officials, while focus group interviews were conducted with teachers. The document analysis was conducted by the researcher in the offices of the school principals. The data as collected with the different data collection methods yielded seven themes as research findings (Table 5.1). The use of different data collection methods helped the researcher to triangulate the trustworthiness of the data. 6.2 SUMMARY OF THE STUDY The rural environment in which teachers have to work and learners have to learn are often not conducive for optimal learning as discussed in section 3.2. Some issues characterising the rural environment can be addressed directly by teachers and the parent community, but a considerable level of government commitment is required in order to make schools in rural areas better and attractive places for qualified teachers 236 to work. This study argues that rural areas consist of a vast learner population, yet these areas are neglected in terms of services provision to render teaching and learning effective to these learners. The provision of essential services and facilities is lacking at rural schools to motivate teachers to improve teaching and learning. Therefore, appropriate teacher motivation strategies for rural school teachers should culminate in both teacher motivation and improved learner performance at rural schools. The study sought to address the following objectives:  Explain the factors that influence teacher motivation at rural schools.  Describe the process of teaching and learning at rural schools.  Outline the characteristics of a good teacher.  Suggest strategies for improving learner performance at rural schools. The following sections (section 6.2.1-6.2.6) deal with the summary of each Chapter of the thesis, thereby revealing how the research objectives were addressed. 6.2.1 Chapter 1: Orientation Chapter one presented an outline of the thesis and a brief background of the literature review on the phenomenon of financial incentive as a motivation strategy for qualified teachers to improve learner performance in rural schools. The background focused on the overview of the implementation of financial incentive in both developed and developing countries. This overview revealed that the results of implementing financial incentive is not convincing and created mixed feelings about its effectiveness (section 1.1). Chapter one also focused on the overview of the theoretical frameworks on employee motivation with specific emphasis on teachers as employees (section 1.2.1.1). The theories were explained and suggestions provided on how employers can use these theories to motivate their employees such as teachers. The motivation of this study lies in the fact that the researcher was once involved in the teaching activities at both a rural school as well as at an urban school. As a result 237 of exposure and experience, the researcher observed that the performance of learners have been the same prior and after the implementation of the financial incentive (section 1.3). This observation prompted the researcher to embark upon an inquiry to establish whether financial incentive has any influence on learner performance in rural schools. The significance of the study lies in the fact that the outcomes of the study might assist governments and stakeholder across education sectors to revisit implemented motivation measures in order to ensure that appropriate teacher motivation strategies are implemented and sustained, and that these strategies result in improved learner performance in rural schools. The research background indicated how a wellmotivated teaching staff can play a role in improving the performance of learners in rural schools (section 1.2.1.2). The problem statement that underlies the study is expressed and research questions are formulated that guided the entire research process (section 1.4). Informed by the research questions, the researcher strived to address the specific research objectives (section 1.5). An outline of the qualitative research methodology (section 1.6.1) highlighted the research design and methods used in this study. The qualitative research methodology enabled the researcher to understand the phenomenon of financial incentive from the participants’ own perspectives in their own social environment by using a case study design. The delimitations of the study is outlined in section 1.7, pertaining to the motivation of qualified teachers in rural schools. Important concepts related to the study are listed and explained in section 1.8. This thesis contains six Chapters in total. Hence, section 1.9 provided the outline of the study by highlighting the contents captured in every Chapter of the thesis. The Chapter ended by indicating that the study sought to evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation of financial incentive in Namibia, given the fact that the available evidence on the success of financial incentive in literature, were mixed and not convincing (section 1.1). 6.2.2 Chapter 2: Theoretical frameworks and teacher motivation 238 Chapter two started with an elaborate discussion of the theoretical frameworks underlying the study and as applicable to teachers as employees (section 2.2). The theoretical frameworks enabled the researcher to build a foundation for the study and keep in mind the context within which the study should revolve. The theories all concluded that a well-motivated teaching team is essentially for good teaching and good learner performance, especially in rural schools where there are adverse working conditions and low learner performance. In view of this reasoning, Chapter two also discussed the factors that influenced teacher motivation as reported in the literature (section 2.4). As a result of analysing these factors on teacher motivation and their influences, the researcher established a conceptual framework for the study (section 2.5). This conceptual framework indicated the relationship between the factors that are generally regarded as motivators for increased teacher motivation, as well as the eventual desired learner performance as an ultimate aim of motivating teachers in the context of this study. The Chapter ended by establishing that motivation theories apply to teacher motivation and that motivating teachers requires school leaders to fulfil crucial work-related needs which are both intrinsic and extrinsic in nature (section 2.6). 6.2.3 Chapter 3: Teaching and learning at rural schools Chapter three started by defining the concept of optimal learning as an overall aim of quality teaching. Optimal learning implies the practice by which learners master the learning outcomes in schools and be able to demonstrate the mastered learning outcomes well after completing their schooling, all for the sake of self-realisation while simultaneously contributing to national development (section 3.2). This study argues that optimal learning is made possible by the presence of a good teacher in every classroom (section 3.3). Hence, the Chapter further discussed the characteristics that are associated with a good teachers (section 3.3.1 - 3.3.3). All the established characteristics revealed that a good teacher is someone with a blend of essential professional, personal and social characteristics that are required to function optimally within a school environment. 239 Given the rural context of the study, Chapter two also discussed living and working in a rural area, with specific reference to Namibia. This discussion concluded that living and working in rural areas is characterised by adverse working conditions (section 3.4.1; section 3.4.2). The Chapter then established how these adverse conditions at rural areas affect, specifically, the teaching and learning processes (section 3.5; section 3.6), all which determine learner performance. It was established that the standard of teaching and learning at rural schools was not satisfactory, owing to the variety of adverse conditions under which teaching and learning activities were taking place. The Chapter ends by concluding that meaningful motivation strategies are needed to attract and retain professionally qualified teachers at rural schools to improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning and ensure optimal learning for each individual learner (section 3.7). 6.2.4 Chapter 4: Research design and methodology Chapter four discussed the methodological and research design processes as applied during the empirical investigation for this study. The Chapter started with motivating the need for an empirical inquiry on the financial incentive (section 4.2). The rationale for an empirical investigation lies in the fact that, given the qualitative research approach that was adopted, a literature study alone was not substantive and conclusive to generate a holistic understanding of the influence of the financial incentive on learner performance at rural schools. In order to generate a better understanding of the influence of financial incentive, multiple sources of data were used to investigate the subject empirically, through scrutiny and critical questioning in search of subject clarity and better comprehension of the phenomena under study (section 4.2). Hence, it was justifiable to use multiple sources of data to investigate financial incentive empirically, by involving participants to scrutinise the implementation of the financial incentive and its influence on learner performance at rural schools. Although various research paradigms are applicable to this study (section 4.4.1.14.4.1.4), the empirical investigation adopted an interpretivist research paradigm as the most appropriate research paradigm. The interpretivist research paradigm enabled the 240 researcher to interact with the participants and learn from their feelings and personal perspectives about the influence of financial incentive, as related to teacher motivation and learner performance at rural schools (section 4.4.1.5). Even though this study adopted a partially-mixed concurrent dominant status design as a mixed-methods research design (section 4.4.2.3), the research relied mainly on the choice of the qualitative research approach (section 4.4.2.1). The choice of a qualitative research approach was carried out by means of a case study design, seeing that the phenomenon of financial incentive was studied in its social setting for a considerable period of time (section 4.4.2.1). Participants for the study were sampled by using purposive and snowball sampling as methods of non-probability sampling (section 4.5.1.1; section 4.5.1.2). The two sampling methods were essential given the fact that the researcher wanted to involve participants who were knowledgeable about the phenomenon that was studied in order to provide rich information useful for answering the formulated research questions. Data was collected using individual interviews (section 4.6.1), focus group interviews (section 4.6.2) and document analysis (section 4.6.3). The interviews were recorded and transcribed by the researcher, and the data for the document analysis tools were noted in a document analysis tool. The use of multiple data collection tools ensured the provision of rich data collected as well as serving as a measure for the trustworthiness of the research findings through triangulation (section 4.8.1.3). Organising, reading and writing memos, establishing themes, categories and percentages, as well as discussing the research findings in terms of the categories that emerged and the percentages established, were parts of the data analysis and interpretation (section 4.7; section 4.8). The measures that were complied with to ensure trustworthiness of the research findings, pertains to credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability (section 4.9). These measures were informed by the qualitative nature of this study. The ethical standards that were considered for the study include accessibility to research sites, informed consent, confidentiality and anonymity (section 4.10). The Chapter ends by justifying the case study investigation as an appropriate qualitative research design for the study (section 4.10). 241 6.2.5 Chapter 5: Research findings and interpretation Chapter five analysed the data as collected by using the interviews and document analysis methods (section 4.6). The thematic analysis method informed the analysis of the data for this study. The analysis provided the themes as the main findings of the research, which were interpreted and discussed in order to generate the answers to the postulated research questions. The interpretation and discussion of the themes were conducted according to the categories that emerged (Table 5.1). It became clear that the learner performance in rural schools was satisfactory for the last three years (2014-2016) (Figure 5.1). The satisfactory learner performance can be related to the fact that most rural schools have more qualified teachers (Figure 5.2). Despite the presence of more qualified teachers among rural schools, there were schools that were still having shortages of qualified teachers. However, the shortages of qualified teachers at the selected rural schools were kept at a minimum (Figure 5.3). The shortage of qualified teachers were minimal because qualified teachers stay for long periods at rural schools, as only a few cases of teacher transfer were recorded (Figure 5.7). Unqualified teachers who were at the schools that formed part of the case study were all enrolled in professional development programmes to upgrade their qualifications (section 5.4.1.2). Given the presence of more qualified teachers at rural schools, it was obvious that learners at rural schools were taught by teachers who were well conversant with pedagogic content knowledge and this could positively affect their academic performance. Even though qualified teachers represented the largest proportion of teachers at the selected rural schools, teaching and learning in some subject areas was rendered ineffective due to the unavailability of specialised teachers for these subjects. The selected rural schools experienced shortages of qualified teachers in the subject areas of Mathematics (Figure 5.4), Physical Science (Figure 5.5) and English (Figure 5.6). The study established that the implementation of the financial incentive was wellreceived by teachers at rural schools (section 5.4.2.1). Even though the financial incentive was initially meant to be given to qualified teachers, all teachers at rural 242 schools, are now receiving it regardless of whether they are qualified or not (section 5.4.2.2). The payment of financial incentive has also been extended to include nonteaching staff members. The trend of teachers receiving the financial incentive at rural schools, regardless of their qualifications, has been gaining momentum for the period 2015-2017 (Figure 5.8). This implies that only a few teachers did not receive the incentive at selected schools due to being temporary or recently appointed (Figure 5.9). While teachers regarded the implementation of the financial incentive as a positive move towards the motivation of teachers at rural schools, teachers were not happy with the way the financial incentive was paid to them. Firstly, schools were not properly categorised, which caused teachers to receive a financial incentive amount not realistically related to their real circumstances (section 5.4.2.4). Secondly, the financial incentive amount for the different categories was too little to contain the challenges that teachers were faced with at rural schools (section 5.4.2.5). As a result of these disparities, teachers indicated that their motivation at rural schools and the performance of their learners cannot be attributed to the financial incentive. The corresponding evidence in literature (section 3.5.1), triangulates this fact that while the implementation of the financial incentive to schools located in rural areas is a positive milestone in addressing education imbalances, such incentive has failed to attract and retain qualified teachers in rural areas to improve learner performance. Linked to Expectancy theory (section 2.2.4), which emphasise positive rewards for good performance, teachers felt that despite their level of performance (Figure 5.1), the rewards they were receiving as a financial incentive was not positive as the amount was little compared to the learner performance they were achieving and the challenges they are facing at rural schools. It became clear that there are many factors that motivate teachers to locate and remain at schools located in rural communities. Teachers were motivated to locate to rural communities due to employment opportunities (section 5.4.3.1; section 5.4.3.5). Some teachers grew up in a rural environment and were happy to work in rural areas as that was the environment they were used to (section 5.4.3.2). This concurs with the findings in section 3.4.2 that although much of the emphasis in literature is on the 243 isolation experienced in rural areas, living and working there can be a rewarding experience, as rural areas are viewed as quiet, safe and pleasing experiences with community members and nature. In addition, the cost of housing in rural areas is lower than in urban areas, as residing in urban areas would attract renting fees, municipal charges and taxes and the cost of travelling to schools (section 3.4.2). Sound leadership that existed at rural schools also motivated teachers to remain working at rural schools (section 5.4.3.3). This scenario contradicts the findings in literature (section 2.2.2) where teachers were demotivated by factors such as unconstructive leadership styles, poor interpersonal relations with learners and teachers and ineffective school policies and administrative practices at rural schools. This reporting of unconstructive leadership styles was not applicable to the schools that participated in the study as teachers were motivated by their school leadership. Therefore, the type of leadership informed the motivation of the teachers and their eventual performance at the sampled rural schools. Given the diverse circumstance under which rural teachers operate, teachers were motivated by the support services that was rendered to them to execute their duties optimally (section 5.4.3.6). In addition to the characteristics of a good teacher as discussed in section 3.3, characteristics that pertain specifically to rural school teachers relates to having passion for teaching and learning regardless of the environments and the learners that the teacher have to work with (section 5.4.4.1). Linked to this passion is the ability to adapt to adverse working conditions so that these conditions do not become a burden to good learner performance (section 5.4.4.2). Working and living in rural schools is characterised by adverse working conditions. It was clear that teachers working in rural schools were commuting on a daily basis (section 5.4.5.1). Due to the remoteness of rural schools, weather patterns resulting in regular floods negatively influenced education at rural schools as teachers and learners were all commuting (section 5.4.5.2). Commuting was necessitated by lack of sufficient accommodation facilities at rural schools. Insufficient accommodation facilities were accompanied by lack of proper sanitation among rural schools (section 244 5.4.5.3). The lack of facilities also pertained to insufficient classrooms and instructional materials to render teaching and learning effective (section 5.4.5.4). These conditions are consistent with what is reported in section 3.6.3, that many rural schools lack sufficient classrooms and teaching resources. This was evident at the selected schools as some teachers were presenting their lessons under trees. Effective teaching and learning is not readily achieved at rural schools, owing to low literacy level among the parent community, and thus not supporting the education of their children (section 5.4.5.5.). The study established that the learner performance is determined by the subject knowledge base learners have gained during their elementary grades (section 5.4.6.1). The number of learners allocated to a teacher per subject determines how effective the teacher attends to learners to assist learners individually with their learning needs (section 5.4.6.2). The mastery of English as a language of teaching and learning by both teachers and learners served as an indicator for learner performance (section 5.4.6.3). The extent to which parents fulfil their responsibility of being supportive to the education of their children shaped the mastery of learning outcomes by learners (section 5.4.6.4). The subject specialisation of a teacher determines pedagogic content knowledge to impart content to the learners (section 5.4.6.5.). A conducive teaching and learning environment plays a significant role in shaping learner performance (section 5.4.6.6). School principals as leaders ensure that teachers are energised to achieve the target they were made to set. Target setting as raised by the participants resembled the Goal-Setting theory of emphasising the importance of organisations in setting goals that lead to high performance and motivated employees (section 2.2.6). Hereditary factors as related to specific family backgrounds can determines the performance of the learners in schools (section 5.4.6.7). For the improvement of education at rural schools, the working environment needs to be improved and made conducive by providing proper housing for teachers, providing enough physical facilities such as classrooms, as well as providing enough instructional materials to render teaching and learning effective (section 5.4.7). The fact that the accommodation needs of the teachers was not fulfilled meant that such a 245 need was still compelling and teachers could not progress to the next categories of working hard for achievements. The empirical investigation thus proved the reality of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (section 2.2.1) This is a counter argument to the criticism advanced towards Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (section 2.2.1) that there is a lack of empirical evidence to support the theory. The participants confirmed that they were unable to feel safe and work hard for achievement to realise their potential if their basic needs such as accommodation were not met. This emphasised the need for educational leaders to adopt a conceptual framework relating to the motivating factors for teachers, enabling the education system to improve teacher motivation and learner achievement (Figure 2.4; section 2.5). To improve learner performance at rural school as a function of teacher motivation, there is a need to revisit the implementation of the financial incentive in order to eliminate the shortcomings relating to its implementation (section 5.4.7.2). There is also a need for an improvement in budgetary allocations to engender operational and capital developments among rural schools (section 5.4.7.3). School curriculum should also focus on the vocational education to enhance practical skills development of learners in addition to academic competencies (section 5.4.7.4). The revitalisation of the school cluster systems to enable the sharing of resources will counter the limited resources experienced at rural schools (section 5.4.7.5). Chapter five provided an answer to the main research question, namely, financial incentive has little influence on the motivation of teachers and related performance of learners in rural schools. Chapters two, three and five highlighted how the first, second and third research objectives were addressed by analysing and interpreting data as obtained from literature and from interviews and document analysis. Identified themes helped the researcher to address the research objectives. Regarding the first objective, the factors that motivated teachers at rural schools were explained in section 2.4 and section 5.4.3. Regarding the second research objective, the process of teaching and learning as happening at rural schools, were described in section 3.4 and section 5.4.5. In addressing the third research objective, the characteristics of a good teacher were outlined in section 3.3 and section 5.4.4. In addressing the fourth research objective, strategies for improving education at rural schools were suggested in section 5.4.7 and are presented as recommendations in section 6.4. 246 6.2.6 Chapter 6: Summary, conclusions and recommendations Chapter six, this Chapter, presents the conclusions, guided by the research questions as outlined in section 1.4 and section 5.4. Subsequently, recommendations on improving the motivation of teachers and learner performance at rural schools are presented (section 6.4). Possible areas for further study are presented in section 6.5. 6.3 CONCLUSIONS The research conclusions stated in section 6.3.1 to 6.3.6 serve as answers to the research questions. The researcher first addresses the sub-research questions that served as the building blocks for the main research question, and then addresses the main research question. 6.3.1 Conclusions relating to the research question: What motivates teachers to teach at rural schools? Teachers are employed at rural schools because that is where employment opportunities exist (section 5.4.3.1; section 5.4.3.5). These employment opportunities are either for entry posts, such as teaching, or for promotional posts such as Head of Department or School Principals. Teachers feel they have an obligation to locate to rural communities to help their families (section 5.4.3.2). Teachers remain at rural schools because they are happy with the rural school leadership (section 5.4.3.3). Some teachers are attracted to rural environments because that is the environment where they grew up and where their families live (section 5.4.3.4). Given the adverse working conditions and lack of facilities, teachers are motivated by the support services that are provided to rural schools (section 5.4.3.6). Although teachers indicated that the financial incentive could serve as a motivating factor if realistically applied (section 5.4.3.7), the majority of factors that motivate teachers to teach at schools in rural areas do not relate to monetary benefits. 247 6.3.2 Conclusions relating to the research question: How is the performance of the learners after the implementation of the financial incentive? The literature study revealed that the implementation of a financial incentive as a motivation strategy for teachers did not improve learner performance (section 1.1). The results achieved after implementing the financial incentive was not convincing, which resulted in mixed feelings by educational stakeholders as to whether financial incentive are effective with regard to teacher motivation and learner performance. Similarly, the findings of the empirical investigation concurred with the literature findings, namely, that the implementation of the financial incentive as a motivation strategy contributes little to the improvement of learner performance at rural schools (section 5.4.2.6). While teachers regard the implementation of the financial incentive as a positive move in improving the quality of education at rural schools, teachers have reservations about the manner in which their schools are categorised and the amount of money they are receiving (section 5.4.2.4). Schools are not properly categorised resulting in teachers not receiving an applicable financial incentive amount. In addition, the amount of money that is allocated per each category of financial incentive is not enough to contain the challenges teachers face at rural schools (section 5.4.2.5). Teachers are therefore not motivated by the financial incentive, implying that the financial incentive for teachers does not necessarily contribute to increased teacher motivation and improved learner performance. There are many factors that, firstly, influence the motivation of teachers (section 5.4.3) and, secondly, that influence the performance of learners at rural schools (section 5.4.6). The main factors that influence the motivation of teachers are employment opportunities and a conducive environment. Learner performance is influenced by factors relating to their foundation of learning and language competencies. 248 6.3.3 Conclusions relating to the research question: What are the working conditions at rural schools and their influences on teaching and learning activities? Literature reveals that rural areas are areas that are generally characterised by adverse working conditions (section 3.4). These adverse conditions were confirmed by the findings of the empirical investigation (section 5.4.5). Working in a rural area is typified by commuting on a daily basis because of a lack of adequate and proper housing facilities for teachers, which exhausts teachers and compromises their time management (section 5.4.5.1). Exhausted teachers due to challenging travelling arrangements do not have enough time and energy to prepare and present their lessons adequately. This compromises optimal teaching and learning resulting in learners not performing satisfactorily. The location of the rural areas characterised by flood pans and bushy areas involves having to cross rivers to access schools (section 3.5.1). Apart from crossing large pans of water, school attendance is often suspended until water levels have subsidised (section 5.4.5.2), resulting in precious teaching and learning time lost. Eventually, the limited time remaining to complete the curriculum may cause important subject content not to be addressed, resulting in a poor mastery of learning outcomes. A poor level of hygiene at rural schools (section 5.4.5.3), caused by a lack of proper housing facilities with proper ablution and sanitation facilities results in qualified teachers seeking transfers to schools with hygiene conditions (Figure 5.7). The transfers of teachers leaves learners unattended for considerable periods of time with a consequent lack of content facilitation. When temporary teachers are appointed who are not fully qualified, the possibility of inadequate content facilitation is increased hampering learners’ chances for optimal development. Rural schools lack laboratories and libraries influencing learners’ exposure to practical lessons and experiments in laboratories negatively, thereby diminishing learning outcomes (section 5.4.3.4). Given the absence of instructional resources at rural schools, libraries are instrumental for teachers and learners to facilitate teaching and learning activities. The lack of sufficient classrooms resulting in teachers presenting 249 lessons under trees influences teacher and learner morale negatively, especially when lessons presented under trees are affected by environmental barriers such as wind and rain (section 5.2.1). In general, parents in rural communities have low levels of education resulting in them not valuing education, and not supporting the education of their children (section 3.6.3; section 5.4.5.5). Teachers working in rural areas are faced with the challenges of educating learners without the support of parents who distract their children from doing school work by forcing them to attend to house chores (section 5.4.5.5). The result is poor learner performance at rural schools. 6.3.4 Conclusion relating to the research question: What are the attributes of a typical rural school teacher? Literature revealed that a good teacher comprises a blend of professional, personality and social characteristics (section 3.3). In the context of a rural environment, a good teacher is someone with the passion to educate children regardless of their backgrounds and the environment in which teaching takes place (section 5.4.4.1). In addition, a good rural school teacher is resilient enough to adapt to challenging environmental conditions prevailing at rural schools, ensuring that teaching and learning occur optimally regardless of hampering environmental conditions (section 3.4.2; section 5.4.4.2). 6.3.5 Conclusions relating to the research question: What recommendations can be made to improve learner performance at rural schools? Learner performance at rural schools can be improved when the working environment is conducive for both teachers and learners to work in (section 5.4.7.1). Conducive working environments relate to proper housing facilities for teachers, the availability of laboratories and libraries, sufficient instructional material and adequate classroom facilities to accommodate the vast numbers of learners admitted to rural schools. With regard to financial incentive, fair application contributes to increased learner 250 performance with this fair application relating to the proper categorising of schools to engender realistic financial incentive amounts. Since many learners at rural schools are not talented academically, vocational education is needed to prepare these learners suitably for responsible adulthood (section 5.4.7.4). Increased educational budgetary allocations can address the need for providing both academic and vocational subjects. Revitalising the school cluster system to share educational resources among rural schools will contribute positively to good quality teaching and learning in rural schools (section 5.4.7.5). 6.3.6 Conclusions relating to the main research question: What is the influence of the financial incentive on learner performance at rural schools? The findings from the literature and empirical investigation revealed that the financial incentive has little influence on the learner performance in rural schools (section 1.1 section 5.4.2.6). Teachers are not motivated by the financial incentive because the amount is little compared to the challenges teachers face at rural schools. Rural schools are not properly categorised resulting in teachers not receiving financial incentive amounts realistic to their specific environmental conditions. Mastery of learning content is dependent on the motivational levels of teachers (section 2.3; section 3.3), which is not enhanced by the current financial incentive. The result is that learner performance is not influenced positively by teachers’ financial incentive, but by other factors relating to the foundation of learning, language competencies and parental involvement (section 5.4.3). A main conclusion of this study is that the financial incentive has little influence on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural schools. Teachers are motivated by a variety of factors (section 5.4.3), and learner performance is determined by a variety of factors (section 5.4.6), all of which needs to be considered for quality teaching and learning. 251 6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS The recommendations are based on what this study regards as critical areas for improving learner performance at rural schools as discussed in section 5.4.7. These areas relate to financial incentive, working environment, professional development, services provision, curriculum reform and budgetary allocations. 6.4.1 Recommendations: Financial incentive as a motivator for rural school teachers The implementation of a financial incentive has been welcomed as a positive measure for motivating teachers especially at rural schools which are characterised by adverse working conditions (section 3.4). However, the success record as a result of this implementation has never been satisfactory (section 1.1; section 5.4.2.6). To enhance the success of a financial incentive as a motivator for teachers to locate and remain at schools in rural areas, the following recommendations apply: 1. For teachers to be motivated by a financial incentive, categorise their rural schools properly according to criteria relating to how far away the school is from the nearest town, and the availability of basic services and facilities (section 1.1). This will ensure that teachers receive a realistic financial incentive amount corresponding with the degree of hardships they are experiencing at their rural schools. In addition, the amount of the financial incentive should be increased to an amount significantly noticeable as an improvement in remuneration (section 5.4.7.2). This increment is relevant because the financial incentive amount is subjected to taxation resulting in teachers not experiencing any improvement in their real financial positions. Alternatively, legislation should be changed to arrange for the financial incentive not to be taxable. 2. As financial incentive is a default payment to all staff members at rural schools including non-teaching staff members, it is recommended that an additional performance-based financial incentive specifically for teaching staff is implemented (section 5.4.7.2). The current inclusive payment to all 252 staff members at rural schools does not make the financial incentive as specific to teachers and their teaching performance. In order to encourage improved teaching for the sake of successful learning, a financial incentive restricted to performance-based teaching is applicable. 6.4.2 Recommendations: Improvement of the working environment The working environment at rural schools is not conducive for optimal teaching and learning (section 3.4; section 5.4.5). In order to enhance the rural school environment to be conducive for teaching and learning, the following recommendations are made: 1. Mobilise resources for the sufficient provisioning of proper accommodation facilities for teachers at rural schools. This will reduce commuting while enhancing motivated and sustained teaching for improved learner performance. 2. Provide an adequate number of classrooms to avoid learners being taught under trees. Provide laboratories for Physical Science experiments and libraries for additional teaching and learning resources for teachers and learners. Provide sufficient instructional resources such as textbooks and recommended books for enriched learning. To prevent ending the beneficial learning relationship between teachers and learners, provide hostel facilities for learners to complete their schooling at the same rural school. The provision of these resources will contribute to optimal learning within the context of desolated rural schools. 6.4.3 Recommendations: Professional development opportunities Teachers working at rural schools are subjected to professional isolation, due to the remoteness of the rural environment (section 3.4.2; section 3.5.3). In order to enhance the professional development of rural school teachers, the following recommendations are made: 253 1. Establish resource centres in rural areas in order to enable rural school teachers to access resources for their teaching responsibilities and for their further education endeavours. 2. As rural schools are far from each other and because their instructional materials are limited, support services staff such as education officers must visit these schools regularly to provide the required specialised services. The services pertain to assistance with curriculum facilitation, identifying the professional and training needs of rural school teachers, and developing measures to assist with these needs. 3. Education authorities must revitalise the school cluster system in order to promote networking between schools in rural areas. This networking will ensure that the available human capital and instructional resources are equally shared to benefit everyone in the same cluster. 6.4.4 Recommendations: Service provisions The remoteness of the rural community deprives residents of rural areas, including teachers, of opportunities to access diverse services (section 3.5.3). To ensure that rural residents have access to services, the following recommendations are made: 1. Health institutions such as clinics and hospitals should be constructed in rural communities to provide health care as needed. Although rural areas are safe places to work in, protection services such as police stations should be noticeably present within rural communities for the increased safety of rural residents. The presence of both safety and health institutions will promote the well-being of rural residents including teachers willing to locate and remain at schools in rural areas (section 5.4.5.3). 2. The road infrastructures connecting rural schools to main road networks should be upgraded and well maintained. This will ensure easy access to towns for banking services and shopping by rural school teachers. To capitalise on technological innovation, network coverage for rural schools 254 should be enhanced so that teachers can access online teaching and learning resources as well as online banking and shopping. 6.4.5 Recommendations: Curriculum reform School curriculums do not adequately provide for the development of vocational skills in order to cater for learners who are not gifted academically (section 5.4.7.4). To ensure holistic mental development for all learners, the following recommendations are made: 1. The school curriculum must include vocational subjects to ensure that learners who do not excel in academic subjects are adequately catered for with the offering of vocational subjects equipping them with vocationalrelated skills for their careers and livelihood. 2. To counteract the challenges experienced by second language speakers, English as language of teaching and learning must start from the elementary grades. This will ensure improved English language competencies among all learners as this is the language learners will use throughout their schooling career and as adults participating in the labour market of a global economy. In addition, the content of subjects at elementary and senior grades must be aligned in order for students to relate contents from one phase to another phase. Furthermore, subjects must be taught by teachers with formal training in those subjects to ensure applicable subject content is facilitated based on expertise, pedagogic knowledge and skills. 3. Parents must be encouraged to play their educative role by supporting teachers to educate their children holistically. Parents must consult with teachers on the learning needs of their children to determine how best to provide for the learners’ academically-oriented and vocationally-oriented needs. In addition, parents should ensure that their children have enough time to study while at home by minimising the time children spend on house chores. 255 6.4.6 Recommendations: Budgetary allocations The provision of services and facilities required at rural schools are dependent on the availability of financial resources which are limited due to financial constraints and budget cuts. To ensure the execution of development projects among rural schools, the following recommendation is made: 1. Government should increase the annual budget allocation for education to enable the MoEAC to carry out development projects at rural schools. Given the diverse challenges in rural communities, the annual budget for education should be increased significantly. Annual budget allocations for education must not be subject to decreasing tendencies because education is the backbone of any country’s economic progress delivering future citizens who contribute to societal development. 6.5 RECOMMENDED AREAS FOR FURTHER STUDIES This study focused on the financial incentive as a motivation strategy for rural school teachers to remain teaching in rural areas. The literature and empirical investigation revealed the importance of teacher motivation for improved learner performance at rural schools. Possible areas for further research have been identified during the course of this study and are presented below. 1. Since the empirical investigation for this study was confined to rural schools in Omusati Region, it is recommended that similar investigations be extended to rural schools in other regions of Namibia for a more comprehensive understanding of the influence of financial incentive as a motivator for teachers teaching in rural schools. 2. This study established that, apart from the shortages of qualified teaching staff in general at rural schools, a lack of qualified teachers was observed in the critical subject areas such as Mathematics, Physical Science and English. Of all the three subject areas, the shortage of qualified teachers was prevalent with English as a second language in all sampled rural schools. It 256 is recommended that further research be conducted to establish measures for recruiting and retaining qualified English teachers at rural schools. 3. The study identified parental involvement and the provision of support to their children’s schooling as not adequate in rural communities. A study should be conducted in rural areas to assess parents’ understanding of their role regarding the education of their children, and how best they can be helped to support the education of their children. 6.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY This study focused on the motivation of teachers teaching at schools in rural communities. Given the rural context of the research, the researcher encountered challenges caused by weather conditions, as data collection was planned for the first school semester of the 2017 school year. However, during the first school semester, the research sites were flooded and class attendance was suspended. The classes resumed only towards the end of the first semester when the water level subsidised. Too little time was left for teachers to cover all the content they were meant to have covered by the end of the first semester. When schools re-opened for the second semester, teachers were burdened with an extensive teaching and administrative load. The result was that some teachers withdrew from participating in the study owing to an extensive workload relating to outstanding lesson preparations. The withdrawal of some of the initially selected participants may have had a hampering influence on the completeness and authenticity of the data collected. The permission to conduct research was granted on condition that the research should not interfere with the normal operations at the research sites. As a result, all focus group interviews were conducted after 14h00 when the school day had ended. The limitation related to this arrangement pertains to participants who were exhausted due to their teaching loads. The researcher observed that some participants were exhausted when they entered the focus group interview venue. This exhaustion might have had an influence on the quality of the data provided by the participants during the inquiry. 257 6.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of financial incentive on the motivation of qualified teachers at rural schools, as this motivation influences learner performance. The most important challenge that all educational systems across the world face is ensuring optimal learning, as demonstrated by fostering knowledge and skills among learners so that they are prepared to participate in a knowledge-based economy. The mastery of required skills and knowledge by learners is dependent on teacher motivation. Motivating qualified teachers at rural schools remains a mammoth task for all educational systems across the world, given the remoteness of the rural areas and the adverse working and living conditions. Considering these challenges, countries that implement, revisit and improve motivation strategies for teachers can attain high levels of optimal learning. Motivation strategies should motivate teachers to maximise their performance and increase learner performance. The financial incentive as a motivation strategy was established as having little influence to good learner performance as it did not enhance the motivation of teachers on which learner performance is dependent. The study established that there are many factors that motivate rural school teachers to enhance learner performance which can be considered in addition to a financial incentive for improved teacher motivation and learner performance in rural schools. The study also demonstrated that motivating teachers is a collective responsibility of all education stakeholders at different levels of education system functioning. The provision of support services at rural schools from Regional education offices is crucial in assisting teachers with interpreting curriculum contents and identifying training needs due to rural school teachers’ deprivation of resources because of the remoteness of their schools. This study contributes to the discourse on teacher motivation as this motivation relates to the financial incentive as a motivator to teach at schools in rural areas. Apart from eliciting the influence of financial incentive on teacher motivation, this study also 258 contributes to a holistic understanding of the factors that motivate teachers to teach at schools in rural areas and the factors that determine learner performance at rural schools. The study also contributes to the knowledge of the challenges that teachers teaching at schools in remote rural areas experience on a daily basis. 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What are your views on the implementation of the financial incentive for teachers at rural schools in Namibia? 2. How did the financial incentive influence learner performance in rural schools in the region insofar as attracting more qualified teachers? 3. How did the learners perform prior to financial incentive implementation as compared to their performance well after the implementation of the financial incentive? 4. Is the financial incentive achieving its intended outcomes of attracting qualified teachers to rural schools and improving learner performance in the region? 5. How would you describe the general working conditions in rural schools and how do these conditions influence learner performance? 6. What measures would you suggest for implementation to improve teacher motivation and learner performance at rural schools? 292 APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS WITH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND THE CIRCUIT OFFICE OFFICIAL 1. What are your views on the implementation of the financial incentive for teachers at rural schools in Namibia? 2. What do you think are the successes achieved by the teacher financial incentive in terms of learner performance in rural schools? 3. How did the learner performance changed in terms of before and after the implementation of financial incentive for rural school teachers? 4. How can the teacher incentive be linked to the professional development of unqualified teachers? 5. What proportion of your school staff is fully qualified and for how long do they stay at your school? 6. How motivated are rural school teachers and what motivates them to teach at rural schools? 7. Given the differences between urban and rural schools, what characteristics do you think rural school teachers should possess? 8. What do you think are some of the measures that can be implemented to improve learner performance at rural schools? 293 APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW WITH SAMPLED RURAL SCHOOL TEACHERS 1. What are your views in general on the implementation of the financial incentive as motivation for teachers to teach at rural schools in Namibia? 2. How does the implementation of the financial incentive influence learner performance in rural schools? 3. What do you think are the successes exclusively achieved by the financial incentive for teachers? 4. What are the challenges that teachers face when teaching in rural areas, and how does the financial incentive assist to overcome these challenges? 5. Do you think qualified teachers are satisfied with the financial incentive in rural schools? 6. What recommendations would you make regarding the motivation of teachers and the improvement of learner performance at rural schools? 294 APPENDIX E: DOCUMENT ANALYSIS GUIDE Rural School Name: ……………………. Document Focus of Analysis Findings Examination File Statistics of school performance (2014-2016) Attributions/reasons for examination statistics Number of qualified teachers Teacher Number of unqualified teachers recruitment File Number of temporary teachers Number of teacher turnover Required number of qualified teachers for Mathematics, Physical Science and English Incentive File Number of teachers receiving incentive Number of teachers not receiving incentive 295 APPENDIX F: RESEARCH INFORMATION SHEET FOR TEACHERS RESEARCH TITLE The influence of financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural Namibian schools DEAR PROSPECTIVE PARTICIPANT My name is Elock Emvula Shikalepo and I am studying towards a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Education. I am currently undertaking research study under the supervision of Prof HM van de Merwe, a Professor in the Department of Education Leadership and Management, at the University of South Africa (UNISA). We are delighted to invite you to participate in our study entitled ‘The influence of financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural Namibian schools’. We hope your participation in this study will be an enriching and rewarding experience to us all. I would like to provide you with more information about this project and what your involvement would entail if you should agree to take part. WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY? I am conducting this study to explain the influence of financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance in rural Namibian schools, with a view to introducing interventions aimed at enhancing rural school performance. WHY ARE YOU BEING INVITED TO PARTICIPATE? I approached your school principal to help me with identifying staff members who can provide useful information for this study as a result of their years of experiences and exposure to teaching and learning in a rural setting. You were therefore chosen on the basis of your qualifications and considerable teaching experiences in a rural setting. The approximate number of interviewees for individual interviews is seven participants (five School Principals, one Circuit Office official and one Regional Office official). The focus group interviewing, of which you will be part, will comprise of approximately thirty teachers in total, whereby six teachers constitute a focus group at each selected rural school. 296 WHAT IS THE NATURE OF YOUR PARTICIPATION IN THIS STUDY? You are expected to participate in a focus groups interview with the researcher. In this interview, I would like to have your personal views and opinions on the influence of the financial incentive on teacher motivation and learner performance at rural schools. This information can be used to develop understanding of the financial incentive as well as the improvement of teacher motivation strategies at rural schools for improved learner performance. With your kind permission, the interview will be audio-recorded to facilitate collection of accurate information and later transcribed for analysis. Shortly after the transcription has been completed, I will send you a copy of the transcript to give you an opportunity to confirm the accuracy of our conversation and to add or to clarify any points. The interview questions will be semi-structured and revolve around the financial incentive, teacher motivation, teaching and learning as well as learner performance. The focus group interviewing is expected to last for less than 60 minutes. Since you will participate in a focus group, it is necessary to define a focus group as a group of people discussing a topic, guided by a set of questions. In this case, the group will consist of at least five teachers. While every effort will be made by the researcher to ensure that you will not be connected to the information that you share during the focus group, I cannot guarantee that other participants in the focus group will treat information confidentially. I shall, however, encourage all participants to treat information confidentially. For this reason I advise you not to disclose personally sensitive information in the focus group. CAN I WITHDRAW FROM THIS STUDY EVEN AFTER HAVING AGREED TO PARTICIPATE? Participating in this study is voluntary and you are not obliged to consent to participate. If you voluntary decide to take part, you will be asked to sign a written Informed Consent form as well as a Focus Group Interview Confidentiality form. You are free to withdraw at any stage and without giving a reason. WHAT ARE THE POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF TAKING PART IN THIS STUDY? Your participation in the study will contribute to the existing tank of knowledge about teacher motivation strategies for rural schools, as driving forces underlying learner performance. As an outcome of your participation, the findings of the study will inform education policy makers about the influence of the financial incentive on rural school performance and how best rural school teachers can be motivated to enhance learner performance at rural schools. Informed policy maker can implement interventions for ensuring a motivated teaching team and an improved learner performance in rural schools. 297 ARE THERE ANY NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES FOR ME IF I PARTICIPATE IN THE RESEARCH PROJECT? No considerable risks are foreseen during the course of the research or as a result of the research undertaken, as participants are anticipated not to incur cost or use their resources, to a great extent, to make the study possible. The only resource the researcher is humbly requesting from you is a few minutes of your time. Your time will be used for you to participate in the interview and for verification of data correctness after transcription. The researcher will access the participants at their duty stations and arrange to meet with them at a day and time convenient to them. The phenomenon/subject under investigation (financial incentive), is a phenomenon that applies to all teachers in the rural parts of the region, and making inquiry into its influence and effectiveness will not harm anyone involved, given its wide application. However, since the use of the financial incentive is individually-based, individual participants may not be comfortable in narrating the impact of the financial incentive on their motivation and may develop discomfort in narrating the subject of study during interviewing or thereafter. HOW WILL THE INFORMATION THAT YOU CONVEY TO THE RESEARCHER AND YOUR IDENTITY BE KEPT CONFIDENTIAL? All information you provide is considered completely confidential. Your name will not appear in any publication resulting from this study and any identifying information will be omitted from the report. Your answers will be given a code number or a pseudonym and you will be referred to in this way in the data, any publications, or other research reporting methods such as conference proceedings. The researcher will be in possession of the recorder in order to ensure confidentiality of information. A confidentiality agreement will be signed by the people responsible for making sure that the research is done properly. Your answers may be reviewed by people responsible for making sure that research is done properly, including the transcriber, external coder, and members of the Research Ethics Review Committee. Otherwise, records that identify you will be available only to people working on the study, unless you give permission for other people to see the records. Your anonymous data may be used for other purposes such as a research report, journal articles and/or conference proceedings. Confidentiality and anonymity will be ensured by not using your names and by not making presentations in a way that the information can be linked to you. 298 HOW WILL THE RESEARCHER(S) PROTECT THE SECURITY OF DATA? The hardcopies (sheets of document analysis findings and transcribed interview sheets) will be stored safely in a lockable safe at the researcher’s home, with keys only in possession of the researcher and only the researcher can access the safe. The recorder will also be stored in the same safe. The soft copy (Report) will be stored safely in the researcher’s computer with a password. This computer will only be used by the researcher and he will not let any user have access to the computer for the safety of the data. Future use of the stored data will be subject to further Research Ethics Review and approval if applicable. Should it become necessary to destroy the stored data, hard copies will be shredded and electronic copies will be permanently deleted from the hard drive of the computer through the use of a relevant software program. WILL YOU RECEIVE PAYMENT OR ANY INCENTIVES FOR PARTICIPATING IN THIS STUDY? Taking part in the study by the participants is based on understanding the aims of the research, is at own will and upon personal informed consent. Therefore, participants will not be entitled to any reward in return for participating in the study. As stated earlier, participants will not incur any costs as the research will be conducted at their work places, on a mutual agreed date and at the time convenient to them. HAS THE STUDY RECEIVED ETHICAL APPROVAL This study has received the required approvals as detailed below: 1. A written Ethical Clearance Certificate granted by the Research Ethics Review Committee of the College of Education Research and Ethics Committee, University of South Africa, permitting the researcher to go into the field and collect data. 2. A written Permission Letter was granted by the Regional Director of Omusati Education Directorate, permitting the researcher to conduct the research in Omusati Region, Tsandi Circuit and at the selected rural schools in Tsandi Circuit. Copies of the approval letters can be obtained from the researcher on request. HOW WILL I BE INFORMED OF THE FINDINGS/RESULTS OF THE RESEARCH? If you would like to be informed of the final research findings, please contact Elock Emvula Shikalepo on +264 81 400 9190 or by e-mail (shikalepoelock@gmail.com). Upon enquiry, you will be informed when the finding are available. For your convenience, and when possible, the researcher can visit your workplace to inform you of the findings. Should you require any 299 further information or want to contact the researcher about any aspect of this study, please contact +264 81 400 9190, or by e-mail (shikalepoelock@gmail.com). Should you have concerns about the way in which the research has been conducted, you may contact Prof HM van der Merwe, at +27 83 442 1503 or e-mail to vdmerhm@unisa.ac.za. Alternatively, contact the College of Education Research and Ethics Commitee Chairperson, Dr Madaleen Claassens at mcdtc@netactive.co.za Please fill the Informed Consent return slip on the next page as confirmation of having read the content pertaining to the study and voluntary agreeing to participate in the study. Thank you for taking time to read this information sheet and for willing to participate in this study. Thank you. ____________________ Elock Emvula Shikalepo PhD Candidate, UNISA 300 APPENDIX G: INFORMED CONSENT FORM Informed Consent to participate in this study 1. I, ______________________________________ (participant name), confirm that the person asking my consent to take part in this research has told me about the nature, procedure, potential benefits and anticipated inconvenience of participation. 2. I have read (or had explained to me) and understood the study as explained in the information sheet. 3. I have had sufficient opportunity to ask questions and am prepared to participate in the study. 4. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time without penalty. 5. I am aware that the findings of this study will be processed into a research report, journal publications and/or conference proceedings, but that my participation will be kept confidential. 6. I agree to the audio-recording and transcription of the focus group interviewing and its confidentiality agreement 7. I have received a signed copy of the informed consent agreement. Participant Name & Surname (please print) ____________________________ _________________________ Participant Signature ________________ Date Researcher’s Name & Surname: ELOCK EMVULA SHIKALEPO _________________________ Researcher’s signature ________________ Date 301 APPENDIX H: CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENT FORM Confidentiality Agreement 1. I_________________________________________________ grant consent that the information I share during the focus group interviews/individual interviews may be used by Elock Emvula Shikalepo for research purposes. 2. I am aware that the group discussions/individual interviews will be audio-recorded and grant consent for these recordings, provided that my privacy will be protected. 3. I undertake not to divulge any information that is shared in the group discussions/ individual interviews to any person outside the group in order to maintain confidentiality. Participant Name & Surname (please print) _____________________________ ________________________ Participant Signature _____________ Date Researcher’s Name & Surname: ELOCK EMVULA SHIKALEPO _________________________ Researcher’s signature ______________ Date 302

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