STRENGTHENING JAMAICA’S CULTURAL/CREATIVE INDUSTRIES: A CASE STUDY (2012-2014) LITERATURE REVIEW AND OVERVIEW Donna P. Hope and Robin Clarke The Cultural and Creative Industries: A Global Perspective Over the last twenty years, policy makers and private sector actors have placed significant attention on the role and value of cultural/creative industries globally (Couture 2004, Cunningham 2002, O’Connor 1999, DCMS 2001, UNCTAD 2004 & 2008 and World Bank 2003). Traditional capitalism (such as manufacturing and oil) is now raising alarm bells because of its many failings and shortcomings. According to the UNCTAD (2010), global GDP dropped by 2.6%, the sharpest drop in sixty years. In 2009 alone, global trade dropped by 6-8%. This is because among developing countries, for instance, their GDP dropped from 5.4% in 2008 to 1.4% in 2009 with East and South Asia from 6.2% to 3.2%. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) reported that global unemployment increased from 5.9% in 2008 to 7.5% in 2009 affecting over 210 million people. These high levels of unemployment resulted in about 55 million people living below the poverty line1. International bodies such as the UNCTAD, World Bank, and the World International Intellectual Property Organization (WIIPO) have argued for a paradigm shift/s of a un/tidy marrying of economics, technology and culture. 1 The 2010 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) titled, The Economic impact of the Creative Industries in the Global Economy used similar data to argue that the creative economy is the new way forward in post-industrialised knowledge-based economies. 1|Page The twenty-first century has seen social, cultural, economic and technological seismic shifts as the world becomes one social space through technology and as traditional capitalism becomes unreliable in the global economy. The world over is dominated by images, sounds, symbols and ideas that are creating new jobs, reviving old ones, creating new wealth and new economies.2 These new economies are captured in loaded terms such as ‘cultural economies’, ‘creative and cultural economies’ or more appropriately, “creative economy”. The concept “creative industry” emerged in Australia in the early 1990s and was expanded by policy-makers in the United Kingdom in the late 1990s when the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) was established which in turn started its Creative Industries Unit and Task Force. Originally defined in 1998 by the UK government as “those industries which have their origin in individual creativity, skill and talent and which have the potential for wealth and job creation through the generation and exploitation of intellectual property” (Newbigin 2010: 15), the creative economy is made up of the following creative industries: the copyright industries, the patent industries, the trademark industries and the design industries. All these creative industries are protected by intellectual property rights defined by local, regional and inter/national governments and institutions such as the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), the European Patent Convention, the Community Trade Mark Office and the Community Plant Varieties Convention among others. Because non-renewable resources such as oil cannot sustain economies and markets around the world for much longer, many countries realise that the creative industries offer a market space 22 The Creative Economy: An Introductory Guide. The British Council, p. 9. 2|Page that people are prepared to pay for. In countries such as the United Kingdom, the US and Japan where people have more disposable income, more money is spent on entertainment than on health and clothing (Howkins 2002: XV). More specifically, approximately 17 percent and 20 per cent of total consumer expenditure is spent on entertainment in Britain and the USA respectively (Howkins 2002: XVI). The creative industries offer a market space where people can use their talents to “invent” goods and services that people are willing to pay for. It offers a new business model and is the new driver of micro/macro economic growth for many countries globally. Howkins (2002) notes significant changes in the United States of America, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom (UK), three of the countries that have earned significantly from this economic paradigm shifts. In the USA, for instance, the constitution of work has skewed towards intellectual properties. In 1997 alone, the world’s leading exporter state, the US, produced copyright products such as music, books and films among others at a value of approximately half a billion dollars, outperforming other traditional manufacturing sectors. Similar trends are found in the United Kingdom (UK) by the year 1999 where more people not only worked in but earned more in the music industry in Britain than other traditional industries such as steel, textile or car. By 1999 Switzerland, host and home to the largest communications fair, Telecom, attracted more people than expected, prompting the Swiss Tourist Board to allow people to stay in the city’s nuclear shelters3. 3 Howkins, John. (2002). The Creative Economy: How people make money from ideas. Allen Lane: The Penguin Press, pp. 86-89. 3|Page Today, the creative industries4 are one of the fastest growing sectors in OECD economies, employing on average 3-5% of the workforce (UNCTAD 2004). The potential for these industries to contribute significantly to the economies of developing countries (Kamara 2004, Nurse 2006 & 2007, Witter 2002 & 2003) has also been under examination. For example, the cultural/creative industries contributed seven percent to the world’s GDP (World Bank 2003) and is said to grow on average by 10 percent annually (PriceWaterhouseCoopers 2003). In 2005 alone, the creative economy globally was valued at $US 2.7 trillion and represented 6.1 % of its economy. Because people are paying for, are willing to pay for, and spend more on varying products such as entertainment offered by the cultural/creative industries, the individual and collective creative economy/ies grew exponentially, more so in industrialized countries (OECS economies) than in developing, such as those found in the Caribbean. In the 1990s alone, the annual performance of the creative economy doubled that of the service industries and quadrupled that of the manufacturing industries in OECS countries. The copyrights industries in Australia have proven promising and fulfilling over the period 1995/1996 to 2006/2007, according to data from the 2007 report by the PricewaterhouseCooper (PwC) in collaboration with the Australian Copyright Council (ACC) 5. The copyright industries have been growing (as at 1995/96) at an average annual rate of 4.7 per cent with the main ones growing at 5.1 per cent each year. In terms of GDP, it has been growing over the same period of 3.6 per cent. These figures reveal that just one example of the creative economy in Australia 4 Although the term cultural and creative industries are often used interchangeably, the latter encompasses a wider range of subsectors than the former. This will be defined and operationalized in the study. 5 These data were published in the document titled The Economic Contribution of Copy-Based Industries in Australia pp. 6-7. 4|Page make up a critical component of this country’s economic growth. These said industries employed just under a million people (837, 507), 8.7 % of the work force; salaries also saw a significant increase of an overall average of 50%. KEA6 notes that in Europe (thirty countries) the creative economy generated a turnover of 654 million euros, creating approximately 6 million jobs in 2003 alone. Being the fastest growing sector in OECD countries compared to traditional services and manufacturing, the creative industries contributed to 2 to 6% GDP in 2009. In countries such as the United Kingdom and Spain, the concept of creative cities is resuscitating socio-economic and infrastructural growth and development. According to UNCTAD (2005), Europe’s global export of creative products increased by 43% between 1996 and 2005, and in 2005 alone Europe led world exports of creative goods by US$ 145 billion. Its creative services rose sharply by an annual growth of 11% between 2000 to 2005 with its stronger performers being advertising, architecture, digital technologies, and research and development (R&D). The 2006 European Union report7 points out that the average European prefers to work in the creative industries than in traditional sectors such as manufacturing. The creative industries collectively employ approximately 6 million people; this figure outnumbers the populations of Greece and Italy combined. While there were job losses in the global economy in general and in Europe more specifically between 2002 and 2004, there was a 1.85 per cent job gain in the cultural/creative industries. The sector also caters to a ‘degreed’ workforce, as more than half has a bachelor’s degree while approximately a forth 6 KEA is a Brussels-based research and advisory company specialising in providing advice, support and research in relation to creative industries, cultural, entertainment, media and sport sectors since 1999. Their research focuses primarily on the creative and cultural industries of Europe. 7 European Union Report. (2006). “The Economy of Culture in Europe.” KEA European Affairs, Brussels. 5|Page of the population has. Most are self-employed and use their creative talent not only to produce a good or service, but also to open and manage a viable business. The UNCTAD (2008) roport points out that in 1996, global exports of creative goods and services, creative industries, valued approximately US $ 240 billion but by 2005 it reached a value of US$420 billion. More specifically, in the area of design8, there was growth from $US1.1 billion in 1996 to US$2.2 billion in 2005. The same is true of other creative industries using the same time period, 1996-2005. Global exports of publishing moved from US$30 billion to US$40; creative services9 moved from US$ 30 billion to US$ 80 billion; heritage moved from US$15 billion to US$28 billion; visual arts moved from US$10,1 billion to US$24 billion; audiovisual US6 billion to US$ 18 billion in 2005; performing arts10 moved from US$ 5 billion to US$ 15 billion; and for new media11, they moved from US$ 7 billion to US12 billion in 2005. These figures remained unchanged when the global recession hit in 2008 for developed countries, but also showed other emerging players in the global creative economy. The Creative The Industrial Design Society of America (IDSA) defines industrial/ design as the “creation and development of concepts and specifications that optimize the function, value and appearance of products and systems for the mutual benefit of users and manufacturers.” 8 9 Wikipedia Encyclopedia entry defines the creative services as a subsector of the creative industries, a part of the economy that creates wealth by offering creativity for hire to other businesses. Creative services also means a department within a company that does creative work such as writing, designing, and production among others. 10 The performing arts is defined as any on-stage and site-specific performances- such as theatre, opera, dance, ballet- that has been copyrighted. This definition is not all-encompassing. 11 The Computer Language Company Inc. offers two definitions. In the first instance, they are forms of communicating in the digital world, which includes publishing on CDs, DVDs and, most significantly, over the Internet. Secondly, the concept that new methods of communicating in the digital world allow smaller groups of people to congregate online and share, sell and swap goods and information. It also allows more people to have a voice in their community and in the world in general. 6|Page Economy Report (2010) points out that though traditional sectors such as manufacturing was seriously crippled in many ways, the creative economies actually grew exponentially in individual states and collectively in terms of global exports. In 2008, for example, global trade declined by 12% but world trade of creative goods and services continued growing to value of $US 592 billion, reflecting an annual growth rate of 14% during 2002-2008. This continued success of the creative industries in a recessionary period is attributed, in part, by South to South12 trade of creative goods and services as well as their (South-to-South) global exports. The report notes too that the South’s global exports of creative goods reached US$176 billion in 2008, accounting for 43% of total creative industries trade with an annual growth rate of 13.5% between 2002-2008. Collectively, the South has the fastest market share in world markets for the creative industries because of their global exports as well as South-to South trade of creative goods and services. Between 2002 and 2008, the South-to-South trade of creative goods valued approximately US$ 60billion and the trading of creative services grew to US$ 21 billion in 2008, a significant increase from US$7.8 billion in 2002. The Cultural and Creative Industries: A Caribbean Perspective The Caribbean’s creative/cultural industries include but are not limited to music industries, the audiovisual industries, publishing, visual arts, the performing arts, the fashion and glamour industries, festivals, and the copyright industries. Working along national, regional and international lines, the Caribbean has established or worked with several agencies, bodies, and institutions to meet the needs of the creative/cultural industries in the region. At the national level, agencies established include Jamaica’s JAMPRO, the Jamaica Federation of Musicians, 12 South-to-South refers to the Asian-Pacific region. 7|Page the Recording Industry Association of Trinidad and Tobago, the Bahamas Musician and Entertainers Union, TIDCO13 and Ministries of Trade. Each country also has copyright agencies such as COTT14, COSCAP15, and JACAP16). At the regional level, agencies, bodies or institutions include CARICOM Cultural Division, Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME), Caribbean Export, and the Caribbean Regional Negotiating Machinery (CRNM). The Caribbean has worked with inter-governmental agencies such as WIPO, UNCTAD, IDB, and the Commonwealth Secretariat. It has also worked with non-governmental organisations such IFFRO and UNESCO. Studies on the creative/cultural industries in the Caribbean have focused on the music industry (Brown 2004), the audiovisual industry (Bully 2002), the publishing industry, the performing arts (Tull 2005), the visual arts (Nurse 2006), festival and cultural tourism (Nurse 2002) as well as the fashion industry and copyright. Nurse’s 2006 study examined the contribution of the Caribbean’s cultural/creative economy/ies and industry/ies country by country, across the region, as well as their performance in the global economy. Nurse (2006) laments the fact that the cultural and creative industries across the Caribbean were and continue to be viewed as noneconomic drivers, having little to no real significance to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and overall economic growth. This is considered as a significant flaw on the part of policy-makers and advisers, institutions and a legal framework needed to finance, distribute and market products from the region. Creative/cultural industries in the Caribbean are fragmented internally 13 TIDCO- Tourism and Industrial Development Company 14 COTT- Copyright Music Organization of Trinidad and Tobago 15 COSCAP- Copyright Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers Inc. (Jamaica) 16 JACAP- Jamaica Association of Composers 8|Page and at the regional level. Countries such as Jamaica, Barbados, and Trinidad and Tobago benefit more from their creative/cultural industries in terms of US$ global exports because they have a relatively functional internal legal, structural and global exposure compared to other countries in the Caribbean. Countries such as Guyana, Suriname, and the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) are still in their first phase of developing their cultural/creative industries. They lack the business and legal infrastructure than can spur growth (Nurse: 2007: 3). This, among others, points to a series of hurdles affecting the region’s potential for even further growth and development: over-population; high levels of illiteracy; high debt to GDP ratio; social problems such as crime and violence, and poverty; scarce capital for investment; lacking the familiarity with law and finance in these industries; and competing with global giants in North America and Europe. Economic growth among Caribbean member states has been significantly anaemic at best and minimal at least. For instance, the average growth rate of real GDP (1991-2005) in the CARICOM countries of The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Jamaica, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago collectively amounted to approximately 2.8%. Individually, Belize had the strongest growth rate of 4.9% with Jamaica having the least growth rate of 1.0 per cent17. There are also regional problems such as making the Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME) a reality, facilitating better coordination among member states. Currently, there have been some shifts away from this but there is still the problem of real capital injection from public and private sector bodies in this regard. The 2010 Creative Economy Report notes that since the beginning of the twenty-first century, countries such as Jamaica, Barbados, the Dominican Republic, and Trinidad and Tobago have been inching towards a 17 Source: Caribbean Centre for Monetary Studies, UWI St. Augustine. 9|Page creative economy, primarily focusing on music and cultural festivals. Governments, agencies, investors, institutions and policy-makers have realised the potential of the cultural and creative industries. In 2008 member states of the CARIRORUM-EU signed an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) with the mandate of developing the cultural and creative industries in the region18. Creativity and culture were discussed as a (new) source of economic growth where, members in the region’s creative/cultural industries would have better and more meaningful access to European markets being mindful however of immigration laws of individual European countries19. Findings from a 2009 study from the CARICOM Secretariat conclude that the creative industries in the Caribbean have emerged as a key growth sector in the economy through its contribution to GDP exports and employment, as well as through its impact on destination and intellectual property rights20. In acknowledging one of the many failings of the creative sector in the region, the report recommends that trade in the creative sector needs to move beyond the goods sector to incorporate trade in the services as well as copyright and royalties. This would result in development of the creators, the creative goods and services, and better coordination among bodies, persons and agencies involved. A case in point is the Caribbean Copyright Link which helped to expand the royalty collections from US$ 1.2 million in 1999 to US$2.6 million in “Creative industries key to Caribbean economic growth” in the Business section. In The Jamaica Observer, July 24, 2009. 18 This was published in Business section of the Jamaica Observer titled “Creative Industries key to Caribbean growth”. 19 Nurse, Keith, “The Creative Sector in CARICOM: The Economic and Trade Policy Dimensions,” University of the West Indies, Barbados. CARICOM Secretariat, Regional Symposium on Services, Antigua & Barbuda, July 2009. 20 10 | P a g e 200621. The UNDP (2010) reports that Trinidad and Tobago has been a part of the global economy for almost a century and earnings from its carnival industry alone accounted for approximately five per cent of its GDP in 2008. Nurse (2007) posits that the Caribbean has a competitive advantage in some sectors, particularly at the production stage in the value chain. What is highlighted are the systemic and structural problems of the region’s creative/cultural industries which are plagued with problems of marketing, packaging, distribution and financing of the sectors. The many successes in the region, Nurse (2007) continues, are serendipitous or failed to benefit the region in any meaningful way/s. Data from UNESCO (2005) indicate that there is an unfair and unbalanced trade of creative goods and services. The Caribbean collectively imported approximately US$ 88.6 million of tangible goods but exports US$ 2.3 million as at 2002. The biggest importer of cultural goods was Jamaica, with imports valuing US $52.7 million while exports valued US$482 million; Barbados imported US$16.7 million but exported US 901.3 million. Other countries that followed this trend as at 2002 were Anguilla, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines22. The data collectively show that the Caribbean is a net importer from global creative industries, contributing minimally to global exports of the creative economy. 21 The Caribbean Copyright Link is a joint venture between four copyright management organizations: The Jamaica Association of Composers, Authors and Publishers Ltd. (JACAP); Copyright Music Organization of Trinidad and Tobago (COTT); Copyright Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers Inc. (COSCAP, Barbados); and Eastern CaribbeanCopyright Organization for Music Rights Inc. (ECCO–St. Lucia). 22 Adapted from UNESCO (2005) Study on International Flows of Cultural Goods between 1998-2002. 11 | P a g e While the Caribbean is limping along in this regard, other developing regions of the world such as the Asian Tiger/East Asia- Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong (China) and China (mainland) are focusing on and using the creative and cultural industries as economic vanguards in the new digital economy (UNCTAD 2004). These countries individually and collectively focus on software, publishing, design, music, video/making and electronic games, collaborating effectively and symbiotically with their ICTs industries. The ongoing research by the secretariat of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD 2004: 7) points to several important facts: India, with its more than two billion population, has been investing in its creative industries in general and entertainment industry in particular and this will double, increasing its $4.3 billion to $9.4 billion in 200823. Also, Thailand and Singapore are investing in film and advertising industries and in the case of Singapore, these industries are married to other industries such as heritage, design and media; and South Korea is investing in digital media and video game animation (World Bank 2003). South Korea emerged with a stronger economy after the Asian meltdown of the late 1990s and used this adversity, among other factors, to redirect their economy, to the creative talents of its human resource. Cunningham (2009) notes, cited by Newbigin (2010), that “[South] Korea’s great surge of digital literacy and growth, both in the household and market sectors of the creative economy came on the back of the many thousands thrown out of work by the Asian meltdown of the late 1990s creating entrepreneurial start-ups backed by affordable and available [government-funded] broadband capacity” (p. 32). Other creative economic giants such as the USA have announced broadband infrastructural 23 Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) (2004). The potential for enhanced IndiaMercosur trade in creative industries. Background paper for UNCTAD XI. 12 | P a g e investment to spur job growth24. South Korea saw the rise of new businesses and an “explosion of user-generated content; consumer co-creation, games fan bases, intense program engagement outside the pure market-optimizing cash nexus” continues Cunningham (2009), cited by Newbigin (2010: 32). South Korea and other such countries demonstrate the need for creative and strategic injection of private and public capital to provide the creative industries the opportunity to mushroom beyond their current anaemic stages in places such as the Caribbean. The government-funded broadband infrastructure had ripple effects on South Korea’s economy: it allowed the creative entrepreneurs to use their talents to produce income-generating products/services which consequently created high demand among consumers. Collectively the Asian Tiger’s growth is also expected in the ICTs industries as well as animation, press and newspaper, music, live entertainment, music and publishing (FICCI 2004). The Cultural and Creative Industries: The Case of Jamaica Jamaica’s most pervasive cultural/creative industries include but are not limited to fashion, music (its best performer globally), audio-visual works, art, sculpture among others. Recognising this, the Government of Jamaica (GOJ) has established several agencies, bodies, and institutions to work individually and collectively to meet the needs of the ‘creative/cultural industries. These include the Ministry of (Education), Youth and Culture; Jamaica Cultural Development Commission (JCDC), Jamaica National Heritage Trust (JNHT), Institute of Jamaica (IOJ) in the Ministry of (Education), Youth and Culture; JAMPRO Film and Entertainment Commission; Jamaica Intellectual Property Organization (JIPO) in the Ministry of Commerce, Science and Technology; the Entertainment Unit in the Ministry of Industry and Tourism, the Jamaica Tourist 24 Poirier, John. “Obama announces broadband grants to spur jobs”. In Reuters, July 2, 2010. 13 | P a g e Board (JTB), Creative Production Training Centre (CPTC) in the Ministry of Information; Culture in Education (CIEP) and the Urban Development Commission (UDC) which has special responsibilities in built heritage and TPDCo in heritage25. Institutions that provide training include The University of the West Indies, Mona, ASHE, Edna Manley School of the Performing Arts, The University of Technology, HEART-Trust NTA and Excelsior Community College among others. Local private bodies, agencies or institutions that cater to the cultural/creative industries include Jamaica Guild of Artists, Jamaica Wood Products and Furniture Association (JaWFA), Jamaican Association of Authors and Publishers (JACAP) in 1998, Jamaica Musical Rights Administration Society (JAMRAS), Jamaica Copyright Licensing Agency (JAMCOPY), Jamaica Performers Administration Society (JPAS) and the Intellectual Property Service Centre (IPC). The GOJ and the local public and private agencies, organizations and institutions have either collaborated with, seek funding from, received funding or guidance from international bodies, institutions, or non-governmental organizations such as the World Bank, United Nations Educational, Scientific, Cultural Organization (UNESCO), UNDP, UNCTAD, USAID or WIPO on matters about the cultural/creative industries among others. The move to document and highlight the value of the cultural/creative sectors in Jamaica has focussed narrowly on the visible and popular music industry (Brown 2004, Davis, 1998, KozulWright & Stanbury 1998, Witter 2002) on the one hand and on a projected government thrust (National Cultural Policy of Jamaica 2003 & Vision 2030 Jamaica: National Development Plan 2009) on the other. Yet, a major percentage of the potential of cultural industries in developing 25 The National Cultural Policy of Jamaica: Towards Jamaica The Cultural Superstate March 2003. 14 | P a g e economies remains to be exploited, especially in other areas such as the audiovisual industries, the publishing industries, the performing arts, visual arts, fashion, copyright, festival and cultural tourism. Despite the wealth of talent and rich cultural heritage that is recognised to exist in the developing world across the whole range of cultural activities, developing countries like Jamaica remain largely marginal players in the cultural/creative industries sector, often occupying the lower ends of the value chain. Though this is a fact that affects developing regions such as the Caribbean in general, and states such as Jamaica in particular, the trajectory of Jamaica’s cultural/creative industries is proving promising. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) based in the United States noted that in 1999, reggae music valued US$14.5 billion in that economy with Jamaica merely recovering less than US$0.5 billion of said sum. Witter’s 2002 research, An Economic Survey of the Music in Jamaica, notes the importance of the creative economy to Jamaica’s economy. It was estimated that as at 2002 the size of the international market of reggae was US$ 60-75 million, liberally valuing about 100 million. In 2000, revenues collected from concerts, stage/ shows and street dances valued approximately JM$160 million, employing about 6-10,000 persons in the music industry (Stanbury 2003; Witter 2002). Witter (2002) pointed out that at that time Jamaica had about 170 sound systems, 200 recording studios, and approximately 200 recordings were released each week. Successful recording studies/labels that have made an impact on the global market include Shocking Vibes, VP Records, Germain and Penthouse. The Survey of Living Conditions (2003) in Jamaica noted that there was a 15.7% increase in exports of recorded music between January and June of 2003; this exceeded exports over the same period in 2002. 15 | P a g e In this regard, the Creative Economy 2010 published by the United Nations recommends that the “Government of Jamaica (GOJ) needs to focus on reggae, [dancehall], film and other creative services to grow [its] ailing economy” (p.15). Reggae, for instance, values billions in US dollars with Jamaica only getting a fraction of that. The report also makes the point that Jamaica had a US$6 million trade surplus in its creative services (as at 2008). These data indicate that the creative/cultural industries in Jamaica need to be re-considered as viable planks on which Jamaica’s economy can flourish. In 2008 alone the report found, the cultural/creative industries in Jamaica exports, US$39million, outperformed the island’s imports at US$33 million. The Planning Institute of Jamaica 2012’s summary report notes that the contribution of recreational, cultural and sporting activities to GDP has been gradually increasing over the past 10 years. In 2010, the creative/cultural industries accounted for 2.9 per cent of GDP, an increase of 0.2 per cent point compared with 2009. Tamara Scott-Williams in her article “Culture is an economic Driver” quotes Dr. James, senior research fellow and adjunct distinguished professor, economics, University of Technology, where he stated in The Economic Contribution of Copyright-Based Industries in Jamaica that “a dollar of foreign exchange put into music and other recreation forms yields $6.18, [while] that same dollar put into communications yields [only] $1.49” (The Sunday Observer, Janaury 20, 2013, p. 6). Sports and copyright sectors together contribute eight per cent of Jamaica’s GDP, contributing more than traditional industries such as agriculture26. It was estimated that Jamaica’s copyright industries27 valued an estimated 4.8 % of Tamara Scott-Williams in her article “Culture is an economic Driver” published in The Sunday Observer, January 20, 2013 p.6 reads the cultural/creative industries as the new economic drivers. 26 The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) grouped the copyright industries in four areas: (1) Core – industries that exist only because of copyright and are primarily involved in the creation, manufacture, production, broadcast and distribution of copyrighted works. These include press and literature, music, theatrical productions, 27 16 | P a g e GDP in 2007 and in the 2010 Economic Report on the Creative Industries (UNCTAD), it had increased to 5.1%, more than mining sector. The WIPO Commissioned Study on The Contribution of The Copyright –Based Industries To The Economy Of Jamaica (2007) notes that in 2005 the copyrights industries accounted for 4.8% of Jamaica’s GDP, valuing approximately US$ 464.7 million and accounted for 3.03% of employment. The core copyright industries accounted for JM$10.4 million or 35.6% of the total. The main contributors of the core copyright industries were radio and television broadcasting (12.3% of total copyright sector) followed by press and literature (10.6% of total copyright sector), and finally the music and theatrical productions with 4.34% of the total copyright sector. The interdependent copyright industries contributed 15.5%, the partial copyright industries contributed 9% and the non-dedicated support copyright industries contributed 39%. Additionally, the core copyright industries contributed 59.3% of total employment in the copyright sector or 1.8% of total employment. Most people found employment in press and literature (20% of copyright), radio and television (15.7%), and music (6.4%) and theatrical productions (2.6%). Jamaica’s most pervasive and global creative giant is its music, primarily reggae and dancehall. No other Caribbean island or mainland territory has recorded the level of success in album sales, and opera, motion picture, video and sound, radio and television, photography, visual and graphic arts, related professional and technical services, software databases and new media, advertising services, copyright collective management Societies. (2) Partial – a portion of the industries’ activities are related to copyright through manufacture, performance, exhibition, broadcast, communication or distribution and sales. (3) Interdependent – involved in the manufacture, performance, broadcast and communication in order to support and facilitate the creation of copyrighted works and other protected subject matter. (4) Non-dedicated support – duties are included in this group where part of the activities are related to broadcast, communication, distribution and sales in protected subject matter and they are not included in the core copyright industries. 17 | P a g e global exports, and individual artist success. No Caribbean artist, individually and collectively, has had the success of Bob Marley, Shaggy, Maxi Priest among others. Ziggy Marley has had major successes with Love is My Religion and he also operates the Tuff Gong Worldwide record which is responsible for the distribution of Bob Marley’s music worldwide. Shaggy’s 2001 album, “Hot Shot,” sold over 20 million copies worldwide in addition to other successes. The cult classic, The Harder They Come alone was estimated to value US$18 million. Sean Paul is described as the most internationally successful dancehall artist next to Shaggy. His 2004 album “Dutty Rock” sold 6 million copies28 worldwide and got him a Grammy award and several other nominations, pushing him into the mainstream of global music. He also did collaborations with mega stars such as Beyonce Knowles, Rihanna, Keyshia Cole among others29. Reggae’s global value in sale (primarily recordings) in the late 1990s was estimated at US$ 1.2 billion, with a forth being repatriated to Jamaica’s producers, musicians, and song writers (Kozul-Wright and Stanbury 1998). While these figures demonstrate the triklce down of effect of capitalism to the local music industry, it also demonstrates the absent of creative and strategic planning by the State and other local and private music personnel. A case in point is that many of the (successful) artists opt to sign with international record companies and not with local ones, and are also not members of the local copyright agency (JACAP) (Cuthbert and Wilson 1990). This means that tremendous revenue is loss. 28 Album sales were retrieved from RIAA.com 29 Top Ten Richest Reggae/Dancehall Artist Alive. Retrieved from http://forum.dancehallreggae.com/showthread.php/209890-TOP-10-Richest-Reggae-Dancehall-Artiste-Alive 18 | P a g e The Recording Industry Association of America located in the United States of America data show that as at 1999, reggae music was worth US14.5 billion in that economy with Jamaica unable to obtain as little as US$0.5 billion of that sum. Jamaica also produced and continues to produce some of the region’s most successful artists on the global stage with the like of Bob Marley, Shaggy, Sean Paul, Damion Marley, Beenie Man, Bounty Killa among others. But even with this success, the report notes that Jamaica had a trade deficit within the cultural/creative industries. In conclusion, the creative and cultural industries have risen to prominence in the twenty-first century as traditional industries become more unpredictable, unstable and unreliable. Consequently, there has been a seismic cultural, economic, social, global and technological shift towards the creative and cultural industries as they are proving to be more promising and viable options. As early as the mid-1990s, industrialized countries (OECD) have turned to these industries and as their prospects became more important, international bodies, agencies, institutions as well as laws were implemented to regulate global players. Also, more and more people became formally involved in the sectors in the form of workers, creators and innovators. At the global level, the creative and cultural industries are the fastest growing sectors in places such as North American, Britain and the Asian Tiger. These include advertising, television and radio, publishing, art, crafts, architecture, fashion, design, fashion, film, performing arts, research and development (R&D), video games, software, and toys and games. While this is true in the OECD countries as well as the Asian Tiger, the Caribbean as a region individually and collectively is limping along the way and has had major but more minor successes in areas such as music, film among others. The region is said to lack the legal, 19 | P a g e institutional and capital framework to significantly benefit from these industries even though several steps have been taken to address these problems. The problems affecting the region are the said problems affecting individual countries such as Jamaica. Jamaica has the biggest creative product in the Caribbean region- reggae- but benefits in no significant from it. While Jamaica has taken some steps to acknowledge such challenges, it is still not enough in terms of export as the creative and the cultural industries globally are major centres of imports for Jamaica than that of exports. Jamaica, like the rest of the Caribbean, is a net importer, not a net exporter of the creative and cultural industries. 20 | P a g e SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY Allen Consulting Group. (2001). The Economic Contribution o Australia’s Copyright Industries. Report commissioned by the Australian Copyright Council and the Centre for Copyright Studies. Bennett, Tony and Carter, David (eds). 2001. Culture in Australia: Policies, Publics and Programs. (Oakleigh and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brown, Hilary. (2004). National Strategy & Action Plan to Further Develop the Jamaican Music Industry. Prepared for the Ministry of Education, Youth and Culture, Jamaica, and UNESCO Global Alliance Programme, New York. 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