Strategic Research Institute www.isi.mod.gov.rs THE GREAT WAR IN 1915 Edited by Dr. Dalibor Denda Dr. Mario Christian Ortner Heeresgeschichtliches Museum/Militärhistorisches Institut Strategic Research Institute Belgrade, 2017 Editorial Board: Col Dr. Mario Christian Ortner (Austria) Lt Col Dr. Dalibor Denda (Serbia) Col (ret.) Dr. Stancho Stanchev (Bulgaria) Lt Col (ret.) Dr. Harold E. Raugh (USA) Dr. Andrey Shemyakin (Russia) Dr. Efpraxia Pashalidou (Greece) Reviews: Dr. Harold E. Raugh (USA) Dr. Vasiliy Kashirin (Russia) Dr. Milan Terzić (Serbia) Language editor: Aleksandra Đerić Layout and Graphics: Lt Col Dr. Miljan Milkić EtnoStil ISBN 978-86-81121-16-0 © Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, Wien, 2017 © Institut za strategijska istraživanja, Beograd, 2017 Front cover: Petar Lubarda, Man and the Beasts (1964). Copyright ownership: Heritage House Belgrade The Great War in 1915 CONTENTS ANTHOLOGY PREFACE by Dalibor Denda ............................................................ 9 PART ONE Oleg R. Airapetov OCTOBER 1915: RUSSIA AND BULGARIAN ENTRANCE TO THE WAR .................................................................................................................. 17 Efpraxia S. Pashalidou DEFENDING NEUTRALITY ALL THROUGH 1915. AN ACCOUNT OF HELLENIC DILEMMAS AND POLICIES ................................................................. 24 Ciro Paoletti LOGISTICAL AND POLITICAL REASONS FOR THE ITALIAN NEUTRALITY AND THE ITALIAN INVOLVEMENT IN WORLD WAR I, JULY 24 1914 – MAY 24 1915 ................................................................................ 35 Ilkka Tapio Seppinen FINLAND IN 1915: A NATION DID NOT KNOW, THAT IT WAS PREPARING FOR A CIVIL WAR ............................................................................... 56 PART TWO John Peaty THE SINAI CAMPAIGN. THE ATTACK ON THE SUEZ CANAL 1915 ......... 69 Krzysztof Kubiak CAUTIOUS WAITING - CAMPAIGN 1915 IN THE BALTIC SEA ................... 75 Mario Christian Ortner AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN ARMY IN 1915 ......................................................................... 86 Dalibor Denda SERBIAN ARMY IN 1915 .......................................................................................... 107 Aleksandar Životić POLEMICS ABOUT SERBIAN ATTEMPT TO DEFEND MACEDONIA IN 1915 .......................................................................................................... 119 5 The Great War in 1915 PART THREE Ljubinka Trgovčević MUSAE ET ARMA. VISUAL ARTISTS DURING THE 1914-1918 WAR ...... 133 Julia Walleczek-Fritz BEHIND THE FRONT LINE. RUSSIAN AND SERBIAN POWS AS FORCED LABOURERS IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY AND THE BEGINNINGS OF THE SOUTH-WESTERN FRONT IN 1915 .......................... 147 Vijoleta Herman Kaurić, Ljiljana Dobrovšak LIFE IN CROATIA IN 1915 ............................................................................................... 165 Snezhana Radoeva BULGARIA AND SERBIA IN COLONEL VLADIMIR LAKSA’S REPORTS (SEPTEMBER – NOVEMBER 1915) ..................................................... 177 Milan Gulić DALMATIA IN 1915 .............................................................................................................. 190 Dunja Dobaja, Damijan Guštin, Vladimir Prebilič NATIONAL COMMUNITY DURING WAR IN MULTINATIONAL EMPIRE: SLOVENIANS BEFORE AND AFTER ITALIAN DECLARATION OF WAR ON AUSTRIA-HUNGARY IN 1915 ........................ 210 PART FOUR Alexey Timofeev RUSSIAN STRATEGIC AND TACTICAL GOALS IN THE BALKANS IN 1915 ..................................................................................................... 231 Yaroslav V. Vishnjakov “SERBIAN GOLGOTHA” IN THE EYES OF G.N. TRUBETSKOY AND V.A. ARTAMONOV ................................................................................................................. 242 Biljana Stojić FRENCH MILITARY MISSIONS IN SERBIA DURING 1915 ........................... 256 Ferenc Pollmann THE FALL OF BELGRADE 1915 – SEEN FROM THE NORTH ..................... 276 PART FIVE Christian Stachelbeck THE 11TH BAVARIAN INFANTRY DIVISION IN THE BATTLE OF GORLICE-TARNÓW 2 MAY 1915 ................................................................................. 283 6 The Great War in 1915 Flavio Carbone THE ROYAL CARABINIERI DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR: MYTH AND REALITY ........................................................................................................... 294 Konstantin Semenov ALLAH’S RIDERS: COMBAT OPERATIONS OF THE CAUCASIAN NATIVE MOUNTED DIVISION IN THE CARPATHIANS IN JANUARY-MARCH 1915 .............................................................................................. 305 Miljan Milkić FROM OTTOMAN VASSALS TO SERBIAN SOLDIERS: MUSLIM POPULATION IN SERBIAN ARMY 1914-1915 .................................................... 315 Peter Chorvát, Miloslav Čaplovič CZECHS AND SLOVAKS IN THE SERBIAN VOLUNTEER UNITS (1915-1916) ............................................................................................................................. 325 Aleksandra Kolaković WAR AND PROPAGANDA IN 1915: FRENCH INTELLECTUALS AND ACTUALIZATION OF SERBIAN ISSUES ........................................................ 330 ABOUT THE AUTHORS 7 The Great War in 1915 UDC 94(439.5 Далмација)"1915" 323(439.5 Далмација)"1915" Milan GULIĆ DALMATIA IN 1915* ABSTRACT: This paper presents events in Dalmatia during the war in 1915. This year was of particular importance for the AustroHungarian province at the southernmost area of the Monarchy. While Dalmatian sons were laying down their lives across the European battlefields, remaining Dalmatian populace was experiencing an increasing shortage of the most basic foodstuff. Government's repression carried on, censorship in the few remaining newspapers continued unabated, and Southern Dalmatia with some islands became a war zone. This article is based on unpublished documents from Croatian state archives, the State Archives in Zadar, the Historical Archives of Kotor, the Military Archives, the press, and relevant literature. KEYWORDS: Dalmatia, 1915, Italy's entry into war, blockade of the Dalmatian coast, military action on the Adriatic Sea, repression of the Austro-Hungarian government. The year of 1914 has left its mark on the Kingdom of Dalmatia, the Austro-Hungarian province. The decision of Vienna that AustriaHungary goes to war against the Kingdom of Serbia had a great impact on all the inhabitants of this, formerly large, European country. With the heightened censorship, prohibitions, punishments, arrests, but also mobilization, wounding, capture and death of Dalmatians on fronts, this impoverished province with poorly connected transport routes was faced with the problem of uncultivated land, food shortages and increased supply costs. Moreover, in geostrategic games of big actors between the summer of 1914 and the spring of 1915 the province was the subject of talks between Vienna and Rome as a "bargaining chip". The Kingdom of Italy has already demonstrated its ambition toward the eastern shores of the Adriatic Sea on July 25th, three days before the war started, when the Italian envoy in Vienna said that, if Austria-Hungary occupies the territory of the Kingdom of Serbia, Italy wants territorial compensation on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, in accordance with Article 7 of the contract of the Tripartite alliance. After the war engulfed Europe, Italy declared neutrality, but not indifference. After the occupation of Vlore in Albania in August of 1914, it was clear that Rome 190 Dalmatia in 1915 was very interested in expanding toward the other side of the Adriatic.1 In the following months, while the war was in full swing, Dalmatia continued to be the subject of negotiations between Italy and AustriaHungary. On December 11th of 1914, Italy officially reiterated its aspirations toward the parts of the Austro-Hungarian coastal lands next to the Adriatic as well as the territories in the Alps. It seemed that 1915 must have been a year of denouement. The following year did not bring a lot of benefits to Dalmatia. All the press that was not unreservedly in favor of the authorities was prohibited even in the days before the outbreak of war; Serbian, proSerbian and Yugoslav organizations were prohibited in the days when the war started, and prominent Dalmatians - political leaders, members of the Imperial Council and Dalmatian Parliament, were mostly in exile, internment, or in prison. Dalmatia was a land without freedom, without the working-age population, and soon without basic foodstuffs. Although Serbian newspapers were banned, and the work of Serbian organizations suspended, even the few remaining institutions with Serbian indication were a nuisance. Thus, on the night between 21st and 22nd of January, stones were thrown and windows were broken on the Serbian Savings Bank (Srpska štedionica) in Zadar, founded in 1902.2 These examples show that the situation in the region of Dalmatia at the dawn of 1915 was complicated, that the government was still repressive, and hostility between nations still present. The year also began by the court proceedings against the Dalmatians suspected to be declared against the imperial home and authorities in Vienna or otherwise harm the country, as it was then observed. First, on January 11th the Regional Court in Trieste ended a court hearing against Josip Šangulin, a student of trade school from Lukoran on Ugljan. He was accused of shouting “Long lives Serbia" in front of a large group of people on September 14th of previous year. He defended himself by explaining that it was a joke, that he was an Italian and not a sympathizer of the Slavs. Nevertheless, he was sentenced to eight months in prison.3 * This paper was created as a result of work on a project Conflicts and crisis: cooperation and development in Serbia and region in 19th and 20th century (№ 47030) which is financed by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of Republic of Serbia. 1 D. Šepić, Italija, saveznici i jugoslavensko pitanje 1914-1918, Zagreb 1970, 1-3; Д. Р. Живојиновић, „Сан Ђулијано и италијанске претензије на Јадрану на почетку светског рата 1914-1918. године“, Историјски часопис 20 (1973), pp. 307-317; G. Novak, Prošlost Dalmacije, Zagreb, 2001, p. 336. 2 „Iz grada i okolice“, Hrvatska kruna, 23. siečnja 1915, p. 3. 3 „Osuđen“, Narodni list, 20. siečnja 1915, p. 2. 191 The Great War in 1915 Around the same time the Regional Court in Zadar sentenced an Orthodox monk Makarije (Dubajić) to six months in prison "because of insulting the imperial home." With the same incrimination on January 20th the Military Court in Zadar convicted Špiro Kolundžić from Kistanje to a one-and-a-half-year prison sentence and Ivo Kuštera from Preko on Ugljan to six months in jail. Also, on January 21st a six-month sentence was given for the same reason to Josip Cuccagna from Trieste, but permanently residing in Zadar, and Jovan Relić from Smoković. Two days later (on January 23rd) Stevan Skurić from Risan was sentenced to a year and a half in prison under the same charges. In the following period The Court brought up even more accusations of insulting members of the royal family, then convicted Santo Pestić of Lukoran on Ugljan (one year in prison), Božo Međerić from Pašman (three years in prison) and Sava Ćalić from Brgud near Benkovac (two years in prison).4 On the basis of names and places of origin it can be observed that the convicts were mostly Serbs and that the repressive policy of Austro-Hungarian authorities towards them was not silent. The remaining Dalmatian newspapers published on a daily basis the names of the killed, wounded, and captured Dalmatians, and the names of Serbs who were killed, wounded or captured as the Austro-Hungarian soldiers were often listed among those names. The advanced phase of the war opened the additional need for collecting metal objects, some of which would be melted to produce weapons and ammunition. There was a growing need for silver, zinc, lead, aluminum, antimony, and others; however, starting on February 7th of 1915 the imperial order has placed the trade of aluminum, antimony, lead, copper, and silver under state control.5 The State decree to collect these metal objects throughout the Empire has led to formation of committees across different cities that oversaw collection of metal objects necessary for making weapons and ammunition. The importance of the work of these committees is best illustrated by their membership. In Split the local priests (V. Matošić, M. Kalogjera and H. Luger) and principals of men’s national schools (F. Bradić, N. Pušić, and V. Radica) became board members of the committee under the chairmanship of the municipal manager Fran Madirazza. Board secretary of the committee was the municipal secretary Dujam Mikačić.6 News was „Iz suda“, Narodni list, 23. siečnja 1915, p. 2; „Vojni sud“, Narodni list, 23. siečnja 1915, pp. 2-3; „Pred vojnim sudom“, Narodni list, 27. siečnja 1915, p. 3; „Vojni sud“, Narodni list, 30. siečnja 1915, p. 3. 5 A. Bralić, Zadar u doba Prvog svjetskog rata, doctoral dissertation, Zadar, 2005, p. 272. 6 “Sabiranje kovina za rat”, Pučke novine, 29. travnja 1915, pp. 3-4; “Sabiranje kovina”, Pučke novine, 12. svibnja 1915, p. 3. 4 192 Dalmatia in 1915 arriving from all parts of Dalmatia about the quantities of “metal scraps” which were often collected by children.7 The country’s great need for metal objects is best illustrated by the fact that on May 31st of 1915 the Ministry of Religion and Education called on the Orthodox and Catholic churches to donate “surplus” church bells. In October this request was further increased so that churches were asked that each diocese/ eparchy gives up 2/3 of the total weight of their bells. Churches could retain only those bells that were especially necessary for worship and those that were of special historical and artistic value.8 However, there were even more serious problems in Dalmatia, such as shortages of supplies, which have been apparent since the first days of the war, and the difficulties in agricultural work due to the absence of the working age population that was in the Austro-Hungarian army. Until Italy entered the war Dalmatia has managed to survive difficult months of the war. A sufficient quantity of lentils, potatoes, and other foodstuffs existed and there was also food from the previous year, which was due to the workforce being mobilized only after most of the field work was completed. For all these reasons, until spring of 1915 there was no significant famine, but appeals for cutbacks were frequent. At the turn of 1914 to 1915 the Austro-Hungarian Ministry of Agriculture already recommended that barley, corn, or potatoes are added to wheat bread. Even children in schools were asked to ration and conserve bread. Teaching staff have received instructions from the Ministry of Religion and Education to explain to the children the seriousness of the situation and proper handling of food, and, among other things, have said: "Do not ask for more bread than what you can eat. Think of the soldiers on the battlefield who would be happy to have even that little piece of the bread that you do not appreciate. And conserve potatoes as well! First, they must be cooked with the skin, and then peeled. Those who peel and then cook the potatoes are wasteful. Kitchen food waste should not be thrown away. The waste left of meat, vegetables, and potatoes may be given as food to chickens and other poultry, or let's give them to laborers as food for hogs."9 Prices of bread were increasing, and because of the shortage of quality flour, different "replacements" were used so that bread even „Starigrad, Pag“, Pučke novine, 20. svibnja 1915, p. 2; V. Urlić, U spomen 1914.-1918. Makarsko primorje, Makarska, 2007, p. 75; J. Vrandečić, „Brač u Prvome svjetskom ratu: prema agrarnom raspletu“, u: Godina 1918. Prethodnice, zbivanja, posljedice, Zagreb, 2010, pp. 89-103. 8 A. Bralić, Zadar u doba Prvog svjetskog rata, pp. 294-295; F. Škiljan, Prvi svjetski rat u Dalmaciji (1914.-1918.), Split/Dubrovnik, 2014, pp. 130-131. 9 Sjećanja jedne generacije. Grad Korčula 1900-1946, Korčula, 1990, p. 148. 7 193 The Great War in 1915 contained glass. In order to overcome problems with supply, on February 20th of 1915 the Committee of Supply for Nourished Population of Dalmatia was formed and comprised of governor - Count Mario Attems, representatives of the regency, the National Board, municipality of Zadar, the National Economic Council, Chamber of Commerce, and Cooperative Association of Split. Supply committees in Zadar, Šibenik, Split, and Dubrovnik were subordinates to this Committee.10 By the imperial decree starting on February 21st throughout the Austrian part of the Monarchy grain (wheat, rye, barley, oats, and corn) has been placed under special state control. Starting on February 24th, Department of Grain Trade oversaw the supply of grain during the war with headquarters in Vienna. In April, the Department of Grain Trade has established branches in Dalmatia, based in Zadar. In order to obtain a good insight a listing of grain and flour was obtained in the Austrian part of the Monarchy. The listing contained all producers and consumers of flour as well as all stocks.11 Despite the stricter control, by the end of March there were frequent occurrences where bread was quickly sold out at stores and the demand exceeded the supply. Soon the news came from Vienna that in all Austrian countries bread will be bought with vouchers.12 On Easter in 1915 the National Board urged all Dalmatian municipalities to suggest to its populace "to conserve as much bread as possible and plant a variety of green vegetables."13 Obviously, the supply of foodstuffs has decreased, and costliness has affected the few remaining foods. The central government in Vienna was fighting against the increase in prices of food items, or the "exaggeration in prices for essential supplies.”14 There were penalties; confiscations of goods, shops were closed down, but the lure of easy money during tough times maintained illegal businesses. Nevertheless, at the beginning of April newspapers wrote that some of the most needed food items, such as bread, cannot be obtained 'even with money of any kind." Evidence of this situation can be found in newspaper titles: "In the early morning at every bakery there are very unpleasant scenes, to find bread as early as possible. It is possible to see bloody heads, A. Bralić, „Kako preživjeti u Zadru? Prvi svjetski rat“, Radovi 37 (1998), pp. 155-175; A. Bralić, Zadar u doba Prvog svjetskog rata, pp. 140-141, 143-144; F. Škiljan, Prvi svjetski rat u Dalmaciji, p. 105. 11 A. Bralić, „Kako preživjeti u Zadru?“, p. 160; A. Bralić, Zadar u doba Prvog svjetskog rata, pp. 142-143. 12 „Kruh, Cedulje za kruh“, Pučke novine, 24. ožujka 1915, p. 3; „Štedimo hranu“, Pučke novine, p. 4. veljače 1915, 1; V. Urlić, U spomen 1914.-1918., p. 52. 13 “U Dalmaciji”, Pučki list, 31. ožujka 1915, p. 45. 14 Državni arhiv Crne Gore (DACG), Arhivski odsjek Istorijski arhiv Kotor (AOIAK), Opština Kotor (OK), CLXXIII-68. 10 194 Dalmatia in 1915 broken noses, and disheveled hair."15 Violent scenes could also be seen in fish markets in which, despite the difficulties of fishing during the war, people found a substitute for meat which was also short in supply. While all the foodstuffs were quickly becoming more expensive, an import of large quantities of potatoes saved many from starvation. As a result only this food item experienced a decrease in prices.16 The supply issues were particularly felt in the cities where there was a shortage of all items. The rural population, although they lived in passive regions, had an easier time obtaining food: "Each peasant has a big handful of green vegetables, some lentils and potatoes, a drop of homemade oil, and some wine; all which city folk are not able to have."17 The gravity of the situation in Dalmatia these days can be seen in the event when on April 30th of 1915 a group of sixty women protested in front of the City Council in Split. They were, according to press reports, shouting, "Give us our rights, we want to eat like you do. Aristocrats eat white bread, and we eat poison. Our kids have dysentery because of poor bread."18 Some of the women had pieces of poor quality bread in their hands at which they were spitting and shouting: "Give us either husbands or bread." The protest began about 9:45am, and at about 10am the women already smashed vegetables in front of nearby shops and clashed with law enforcement. At about 11am they attacked the premises of the Cooperative Association and broke the windows. While continuing the march through the city, the protesters were snatching bread from everyone who was carrying it, and mostly from maids who carried bread to their employers’ rich houses. Number of women who protested increased to about 250, and the protests were dismantled only at about 2:30pm when police repeatedly threatened to use weapons and fired in the air. They arrested 12 people, mostly women: Benedeta Siriščević, Vica Vršćak, Marija Đondić, Šimica Tomić, Antica Baldasar, Ane Trumbić, Dobrila Tomić, Perina Kaliterna, Manda Jurjević, Nika Jurić, Franica Rejić, and Vicko Radovniković. Protesters caused damages in the value of 2,000 crowns.19 “Nedajmo gladu na kućni prag”, Pučke novine, 8. travnja 1915, p. 1; “Borba za kruh”, Pučke novine, 15. travnja 1915, p. 3. 16 “Krumpir”, Pučke novine, 22. travnja 1915, p. 3; F. Škiljan, Prvi svjetski rat u Dalmaciji, p. 105. 17 “Pomanjkanje hljeba”, Pučki list, 28. veljače 1915, p. 29. 18 During 1915 dysentery was present in several Dalmatian districts. The authorities struggled against dysentery with recommendations and instructions to the people in any way that should help them protect or avoid the morbidity (DACG, AOIAK, OK, CLXXIII-55). 19 Hrvatski državni arhiv (HDA), Carsko i kraljevsko Ministarstvo unutarnjih poslova (№ 75), k. 39, Spalato, Brotexzesse. 15 195 The Great War in 1915 In the spring of 1915 the issue of Italy entering the war came to a head. Dalmatia waited for Vienna and Rome to make a decision and the outcome of their agreement. In order to have Italy as an ally, not an enemy, on March 27th via the new foreign minister, Baron von Stephan Buri|n Rajecz, Austria-Hungary offered Italy the area of South Tyrol in exchange for Italian neutrality until the end of the war. Unsatisfied with the offer, on April 10th Italy gave an ultimatum by demanding areas of Trento, Gorizia, Gradiška, Soča valley to Tolmin, Monfalcone, and the coastal area up to Nabrežina. The city of Trieste with Koper and Poreč were to form a free state, independent from both Vienna and Rome. Also, Italy has asked for a group of Adriatic islands: Vis (with the nearby Svetac and Biševo), Hvar (with Pakleni Islands and Šćedro), Sušac, Mljet, Korčula, Lastovo, and Palagruža. In addition, Vienna was to recognize the annexation of Vlora with the hinterland and explicitly declare that the empire has no interest in Albania.20 Ultimatum-like nature of the Italian demand sparked outrage in Vienna. It was clear that by fulfillment of these demands AustriaHungary would lose Trieste as its most important port on the Adriatic coast which was connected to several railroads, and with the loss of those islands it would lose control of its portion of the Adriatic coast. Supremacy over the Adriatic Sea would then switch from Vienna to Rome without a fight. Austria-Hungary was willing to accept only a part of the demands (about Tyrol, Soča, and Albania), but the annexation of the Dalmatian islands was not an option. However, at the same time as they negotiated with Vienna, Italy has held discussions with the Entente Alliance. From these discussions emerged the London Treaty signed on April 26th of 1915. Through Treaty of London, Italy has committed itself "to wage war with all the means at its disposal in an alliance with France, Britain and Russia, and against those countries that are at war with these great powers." Italy received a promise that through the "force of the future peace agreement" it will get Trentino, the entire South Tyrol to Bremer "as its natural and geographical borders," the city of Trieste and its surrounding area, the province of Gorizia and Gradiška, all of Istria and Kvarner along with the town of Opatija, islands Cres and Lošinj, as well as the smaller islands of Plavnik, Unije, Srakane, Palacuoli, Sveti Petar Ilovik, Asinelli, and Grujica. Also, Italy was promised "the area of Dalmatia in its present scope, also including Lisarica to the north and Tribanj, and southward all areas all the way to the line which starts 20 M. Marjanović, Londonski ugovor iz godine 1915. Prilog povijesti borbe za Jadran 1914.1917., Zagreb 1960, pp. 162-165, 167-169, 195-200, 209-214; G. Novak, Prošlost Dalmacije, p. 336. 196 Dalmatia in 1915 from the sea near Cape Planka (between Trogir and Šibenik) and goes east along the sea, so Italians get all valleys whose rivers flow into the sea near Šibenik, and those are Čikola, Krka, Butižnica with all their tributaries." Italy would get all of the islands of the north and west of the Dalmatian coast, starting from Premuda, Silba, Olib, Skarda, Maun, Pag, and Vir to the north and, to the south all the way to the island of Mljet, including the islands of Svetac, Biševo, Vis, Hvar, Šćedro, Sušac, Korčula, Lastovo and Palagruža.21 While the negotiations with Italy were in progress, AustroHungarian forces advanced on the Eastern Front. Regardless of the worsening situation in Dalmatia, in the evening of May 5th Dubrovnik celebrated the successes of Austro-Hungarian troops on the front lines in Western Galicia. As soon as the telephone dispatch of the great victory came from Sarajevo, bells of all the churches were ringing constantly between 7pm and 8pm, there were lighted candles in the windows, and the city was decorated with flags. When Gundulić’s music arrived in front of the palace, people on the streets started singing “Carevka,” “Lijepa naša domovino”, and the Radetzky march. People cheered for the Austro-Hungarian and German Emperor and Archduke Friedrich. The musicians, accompanied by the people, walked through the city singing patriotic songs and playing cheerful marches. This celebration lasted until 10pm. Archduke Friedrich, the commander of the armed forces of Austria-Hungary, received official congratulations regarding his military success sent by the chairman of the Dalmatian National Committee Vicko Ivčević.22 However, despite the propaganda, censorship and pressures, in Dalmatia at that time single-mindedness and absolute support of the Emperor and the Empire could not be embraced. Evidence of this is the event of May 12th of 1915 when, in the bathroom of one of the classes of the Imperial and Royal High School, it was discovered that someone wrote "Long live Serbia" and "Long live Russia." The inscription was 21 Vojni arhiv (VA), Popisnik 4/2 (Ratna arhiva Druge armijske oblasti od 1914. do 1920. godine), k. 64, f. 5, № 26/2; M. Marjanović, Londonski ugovor iz godine 1915., 232-241, 445-449; D. Šepić, „Pitanje tajnosti Londonskog ugovora od 1915. g.“, Zbornik 2 (1964), pp. 85-105; J. Horvat, Prvi svjetski rat. Panorama zbivanja 1914-1918., Zagreb 1967, pp. 269-273; D. Šepić, Italija, saveznici i jugoslavensko pitanje, pp. 72-73; D. Šepić, „Talijanski iredentizam na Jadranu. Konstante i transformacije“, Časopis za suvremenu povijest 1 (1975), pp. 5-32; П. Опачић, „Српско-италијански војни односи у Првом светском рату и стварање Југославије“, Историјски часопис 29-30 (1982-1983), pp. 527-542; G. Novak, Prošlost Dalmacije, pp. 336-337. 22 „Proslava velike pobjede naše vojske“, Smotra dalmatinska, 12. svibnja 1915, p. 3; „Zemaljski Odbor Višem Zapovjedniku Vojske Nadvojvodi Fridrihu“, Smotra dalmatinska, 15. svibnja 1915, p. 3. 197 The Great War in 1915 discovered that day, but students have testified that they saw it a few days earlier.23 On the same day (May 12th) some of the repressive measures of the previous year (1914) were also formally implemented, so a final decision was made to dissolve the Parish of Serbian Sokol society on the Coast based in Herceg Novi, as well as all Serbian Sokol societies in Dalmatia which constituted that parish.24 In addition, there was a continued practice to dissolve the municipal authorities whenever provincial authorities viewed them as disagreeable. During the first year of the war (1914) municipal governments in Dalmatia were disbanded in the following locations: Dubrovnik on July 27th (Ivan Celio Cega was appointed as the administrator), Split on August 13th (Dr. Frano Madirazza became the new administrator, previously known for making anti-Serb statements), Kistanje on August 26th (Zvjezdan Čulić), Stari Grad on September 13th (Dr. Petar Ružević), Pag on October 13th (Gajo Malik), Kotor on October 23rd (Lazar Milin), and Knin on November 5th (Dr. Alfred Gloning). During 1915, trust was taken away from the municipal administration in Korčula (March 24th) and Friedrich Loger was appointed as the administrator, while on April 22nd municipality was disbanded in Vis and Richard Beden was appointed as the administrator. In June, the dissolution of the municipal government happened in Risan, and Eng. Rudolf Zasteri was appointed as the administrator. In late September, the Regency abolished the municipal government in Komiža, and Leopold Bakos was appointed as the administrator.25 By signing the Treaty of London, Italy demonstrated which side it will join. Based on everything that was promised, on May 4th Italy withdrew from the Triple Alliance, and on May 23rd declared a war on Austria-Hungary, which was an indicator of another large European country’s entry into the slaughter of World War I. Declaration of war on the Monarchy by the Kingdom of Italy, was marked as a betrayal. Emperor Franz Joseph wrote that "a similar apostasy has not been seen in history as what the kingdom of Italy has done to both of its allies". The 23 HDA, f. 75, k. 39, Staatsrealschule in Spalato, staatsfeindliche Aufschrift. „Raspuštena društva“, Smotra dalmatinska, 15. svibnja 1915, p. 3; „Srbska sokolska družtva razpuštena“, Narodni list, 19. svibnja 1915, 2. 25 HDA, f. 75, k. 62, Comisa, Auflösung der Gemeindevertretung; Razpuštena obćina, Narodni list, 21. travnja 1915, 2; „Raspust općinskog zastupstva u Visu“, Smotra dalmatinska, 28. travnja 1915, p. 2; „Razpuštene obćine“, Narodni list, 5. svibnja 1915, p. 2; „Viška općina raspuštena“, Pučke novine, 6. svibnja 1915, p. 2; „Razpuštena obćina“, Narodni list, 16. lipnja 1915, p. 2; „Razpust obćine“, Narodni list, 6. listopada 1915, p. 2; „Raspust općinskog zastupstva u Komiži“, Smotra dalmatinska, 6. listopada 1915, p. 3; Sjećanja jedne generacije, p. 150. 24 198 Dalmatia in 1915 emperor was indignant: "In a time of distress Italy has left and joined the camp of our enemies." He pointed out that Austria-Hungary has not in any way violated the multi-year alliance with Italy: "We have not threatened Italy with anything, we have not damaged its reputation, we have not touched its honor, or its interests and we have always faithfully performed our allied duties and were working for its protection, when it went to the war."26 Hostility between Italians and Croats was present before and, shortly after the outbreak of the World War I, it easily became a motive for Dalmatians to fight fiercely on the front line with Italy – the Isonzo Front. The best proof is these regular reports from the Italian front: "The enthusiasm of our troops is great. With immense pleasure and delight in the heart, brave Dalmatians are fighting against treacherous Italians. They know that they are defending their homeland. When it was said that we are going to fight Italy, from my company everyone signed up voluntarily except one sick man. When it was said: go fight the Italians, all were healed!"27 This meant that another front was open for the Austro-Hungarian armed forces. The need for soldiers has, of course, increased; therefore, in Dalmatia, elderly men were mobilized (even up to a birth year of 1865). Those days, Split was "loaded with recruits from the area, who went under the flag," and 400 new Dalmatians were taken to the battlefield in one day. Additional mobilization left many Dalmatian villages without bureaucracy, doctors, city councilors, teachers, which is why the Provincial School Board called on retired teachers to accept the job. Aside from cultivating the land, mobilization also influenced the population growth which, in Dalmatia during the war years, dropped by about 50%.28 Starting on May 26th of 1915, Italy declared "effective blockade of the Austro-Hungarian coast, stretching from the Italian border to the border of Montenegro". The blockade has included all the islands, harbors, coves and bays and stretched along the Albanian coast from the Državni arhiv u Zadru (DAZD), Vlada/Namjesništvo za Dalmaciju. Prezidijalni spisi (88), svežanj 685, „Mojim narodima!; Kraljev proglas narodima!“, Hrvatska kruna, 26. svibnja 1915, 1; „Postupak Italije, Proglas Nj. Veličanstva“, Pučke novine, 27. svibnja 1915, 1, 3; M. Marjanović, Londonski ugovor iz godine 1915., pp. 261-263. 27 “Junaštvo Dalmatinaca”, Pučke novine, 24. lipnja 1915, p. 3. 28 “Kraljev proglas”, Narodni list, 26. svibnja 1915, 1; “Odlazak vojske”, Pučke novine, 27. svibnja 1915, 4. Until the outbreak of war in 1914 in Dalmatia annually about 26,000 children were born and around 14,000 people died and the annual population growth rate was about 12,000 people. Number of newborn during the war years had fallen by about 50% and the number of deaths increased by about 40%. According some estimates, in the period of 1914-1917 the population of Dalmatia decreased by around 55,000 (F. Škiljan, Prvi svjetski rat u Dalmaciji, pp. 67-69). 26 199 The Great War in 1915 border with Montenegro to Cape Kephali. Blockade of part of the Albanian coast was justified by the fact that the Austrian authorities used some Albanian ports to meet the needs of its warships.29 Given that, before the Italian blockade of the Dalmatian coast, wheat and flour in Dalmatia arrived from Rijeka and Trieste which was now interrupted, Dalmatia found itself in deep trouble. Poor soil could hardly feed the population by itself, particularly when its cultivation was affected by mobilization, so the shortage of basic foodstuffs was increasing as well as starvation. As one trouble usually doesn’t come alone, the harvest that year, as it often happens, greatly failed. Downy mildew destroyed vineyards across Dalmatia. As Frano Ivanišević wrote: "This year betrayed us in three areas: grain did not grow as expected, the grapes are for the most part destroyed, and the amount of oil we have is enough only if used as medicine, none as everyday food. Considering wine and oil, not counting the grain, this year Dalmatia took a loss of around 40 million crowns in crops." Starting in July, there was also a noticeable shortage of lard, oil, and eggs.30 It was already noted that the entry of Italy into the war intensified international relations in Dalmatia, especially the hostility between the Croats and Italians. These tense relations particularly came to the forefront in Trogir. Conflicts among respectable people, riots and night riots have led to the proposal to establish some sort of city guard. AntiItalian protests were organized in Zadar, and in the night between May 24th and 25th windows of a shop owned by an Italian were broken. As the city of Zadar was under great Italian influence, it is not surprising that the entire municipal council, headed by Mayor Dr. L. Ziliotto, visited the governor Attems on May 27th and expressed his "unshaken allegiance and loyalty toward our ruler and Austro-Hungarian state." The fear that the Austrian authorities could strike on the Dalmatian capital because of the huge Italian influence persuaded the authorities to take this step of expressing loyalty.31 Shortly after Italy's declaration of war on Austria-Hungary, on May 31st the Italian Consul in Zadar (Angelo Toscani) ceased activities. The same was done by the vice consul in Split (Marcello Roddolo) and Dubrovnik (Emilio Manfredi) and consular agents in Metković (Rodolfo D'Alessandro) and Šibenik (Dr. Giovanni Difnico). In complex war circumstances their further stay in Dalmatia made no sense. They were „Blokada naše obale“, Narodni list, 29. svibnja 1915, p. 1. „Prije crne zime“, Pučke novine, 15. rujna 1915, p. 1. 31 „Obćinsko vieće kod namjestnika“, Narodni list, 29. svibnja 1915, p. 2; „Manifestacija zadarske obćine“, Narodni list, 2. lipnja 1915, 2; „Trogir“, Pučke novine, 16. lipnja 1915, 2; A. Bralić, Zadar u doba Prvog svjetskog rata, pp. 110-111. 29 30 200 Dalmatia in 1915 sent on their way to Sarajevo, and from there through Croatia, Hungary, Austria, and Germany they reached the border with Switzerland. In addition, activities of other Italian diplomatic representatives were stopped on the Austro-Hungarian seaboard - Consul General in Trieste (Vittorio Lebrecht) and consular agents in Mali Lošinj (Giovanni Maria Martinolich), in Poreč (Steno Becich) and Rovinj (Alvise Riamondo).32 The fear of Italian attacks from the sea and possible collaboration of local Italians have caused that on several occasions "Italian subjects" were transported inland within the Monarchy. Decisions were made later about which Italian families can be returned, and which ones will be transferred to internment camps. The authorities have become very repressive towards the Italians who were nationals of Italy, while the Italians with Austro-Hungarian citizenship were put under full control. In the days before the war started, some Italians fled to Italy, and their property was later confiscated mainly to compensate for damages caused during the action of the Italian fleet in Dalmatia. There have also been cases of confiscation of factories owned by Italian citizens or those that were established with Italian capital. Within the first days after the Italian declaration of war, 70 Italian nationals were arrested in Šibenik, some of whom have lived in Dalmatia up to 50 years. There was an order to close the shops whose owners were interned Italians. Larger groups of Italians were expelled in the coming days from Vis, Hvar, Dubrovnik, and Zadar.33 Italian associations and societies were forbidden in Dalmatia. According to the decision on May 28th existence of the following societies were banned: Societ{ degli studenti italiani della Dalmazia in Zadar, Circolo canottieri Diadora in Zadar, Associazione italiana di beneficenza in Zadar, Club Libertas in Šibenik, Associazione italiana di beneficenza in Šibenik, Associazione italiana di beneficenza in Split, and Unione sportiva in Dubrovnik. The local branches of the association called Lega Nazionale in Dalmatia (in Dubrovnik, Korčula, Zadar, Imotski, Kotor, Split, Trogir, Šibenik, Hvar, Stari Grad, and Drniš) were disbanded by decision on June 16th. A lawyer from Zadar, Stjepan Polli, was appointed as the asset manager of these associations. Three days later (June 19th) association called Gabinetto di Lettura in Trogir was dismantled.34 DAZD, f. 88, sv. 685, Exequaturentziehung bezüglich der italienischen Konsularämter in der Monarchie; DAZD, f. 88, sv. 685, Exequaturentziehung der italienischen Konsularämter in der Monarchie; DAZD, f. 88, sv. 685, № 8128; A. Bralić, Zadar u doba Prvog svjetskog rata, p. 110; F. Škiljan, Prvi svjetski rat u Dalmaciji, p. 138. 33 „Podanici talijanski“, Pučke novine, 27. svibnja 1915, p. 4; A. Bralić, Zadar u doba Prvog svjetskog rata, pp. 112-114; F. Škiljan, Prvi svjetski rat u Dalmaciji, pp. 132, 138-139. 34 HDA, f. 75, kut. 39, Einstellung der Tätigkeit einiger italienischer Vereine; HDA, f. 75, kut. 39, Dalmatien: Auflösung der reichsitalienischen Vereine „Associazioni italianedi 32 201 The Great War in 1915 After Italy entered the war Dalmatia was afraid that Dalmatian towns could come under fire from the Italian navy or even Italian aircrafts. Due to the fear of the Italian attacks from the sea from the coastal towns, important provincial institutions were evicted. Plans for the relocation of important provincial institutions from Zadar, as well as the district authorities in other coastal towns, were developed shortly after the outbreak of the war (1914), and especially in weeks when the French fleet sailed into the waters of Dalmatia for maneuvering reasons. In the days before Italy's declaration of war everything was ready for the evacuation of the provincial institutions from Zadar.35 Imperial and royal governorship of Dalmatia, with its complex apparatus, was transferred from Zadar, and they settled in Knin. In addition to the Presidency, I Section of regency who took care of municipal affairs, IV Health Department, part of the VIII Constabulary Section, Section IX that took care of military affairs, and XII agricultural department. VII Constuction department was placed in Siverić, and in Drniš II Department that took care of buildings of worship, III Section dealing with religious matters, V Department responsible for forestry, second part of VIII Constabulary department, X Forest department, XIII Veterinary Department, and XIV Computing section. In addition, Provincial School Board and the editorial board of the official newsletter of the provincial government, Objavitelj Dalmatinski, were relocated to Drniš. Appeal court was relocated to Knin, and National Committee along with Orthodox bishop was moved to Obrovac on May 26th,36 while the Catholic and Orthodox Seminary discontinued operation. The decision to put the National Committee in beneficenza“; DAZD, f. 88, sv. 685, „Raspust društva Gabinetto di Lettura u Trogiru; Podružnice Lege Nazionale“, Narodni list, 17. srpnja 1915, p. 2; „Upravitelj Legina imanja“, Narodni list, 11. kolovoza 1915, p. 2; F. Škiljan, Prvi svjetski rat u Dalmaciji, p. 141. 35 A. Bralić, Zadar u doba Prvog svjetskog rata, pp. 100-103. 36 HDA, f. 75, kut. 43, „Dalmatinischer Landesausschuß und gr. or. Bischof in Zara; vorübergehender Wechsel des Amtssitzes; „Objavitelj“ u Kninu“, Narodni list, 29. svibnja 1915, p. 2; „Domaće viesti“, Narodni list, 12. lipnja 1915, p. 3; „Iz Drniša“, Pučke novine, 16. lipnja 1915, 2; A. Bralić, Zadar u doba Prvog svjetskog rata, pp. 103-104. On the backup locations these administrative authorities remained for several months. Since the Italian army had not shown the strength to seriously threatened Dalmatia, provincial authorities were gradually beginning to return to Zadar. Appeal court, headed by Judge Dr. Vjekoslav Benedetti, was the first provincial authority to return to Zadar (16 th July), Provincial Committee returned from Obrovac on 10 th September, the Regional School Board in October, and other authorities, led by governor Attems, in June 1916 (HDA, f. 75, kut. 43, “Rückverlegung des Sitzes des dalmatinischen Landesausschusses von Obbrovazzo nach Zara; Povratak prizivnog suda”, Narodni list, 17. srpnja 1915, 2; “Zemaljski odbor”, Narodni list, 11. rujna 1915, 2; A. Bralić, Zadar u doba Prvog svjetskog rata, pp. 104-105). 202 Dalmatia in 1915 Obrovac has been criticized because this town in Bukovica was quite remote and poorly connected to the rest of Dalmatia.37 The fear of Italian attacks in the Adriatic was not groundless. This could be seen already in the first days after the declaration of war. Because of the danger of attack of the Italian Navy, Austro-Hungarian merchant ships took refuge in the Karin and Novigrad Sea. Passage through Maslenica gorge was blocked by steel mesh so that submarines could not go through, and at the entrance two Austrian torpedo boats were patrolling.38 In the early morning of May 24th, a group of Italian ships passed near Komiža and operated around Biševo.39 Therefore, the same day the district chief in Šibenik Božo Calebich ordered a blackout of the city and began forming a volunteer corps to defend the coast.40 Two Italian cruisers were already closing in on a remote Dalmatian islet of Palagruža on May 25th.41 A group of soldiers disembarked, searched a residential area of the lighthouse keepers who were able to hide, and then left the islet.42 On the night of June 9th the Italians came to Palagruža again with 16 torpedo boats and 15 battleships. They blocked the islands and disembarked a stronger military detachment. The lighthouse keepers were again hiding in the same way as the last time when the Italians came, or the French the year before. However, this time the Italians stayed on the island, established a radio-telegraph station and stationed a submarine. On the third day the lighthouse keepers came out of their hiding as they could no longer stay there. All were arrested and sent to Italy as prisoners of war. By invading Palagruža a small but symbolically and strategically important part of the Austro-Hungarian territory found itself in the hands of their enemies, but this situation did not last long.43 “O sjedištu zemaljskog odbora”, Narodni list, 24. srpnja 1915, p. 2; “Još o sjedištu zemalj. Odbora”, Narodni list, 31. srpnja 1915, p. 2; A. Bralić, Zadar u doba Prvog svjetskog rata, pp. 103-104. 38 F. Škiljan, Prvi svjetski rat u Dalmaciji, p. 133. 39 DAZD, f. 88, sv. 685, Brzojavka Predsjedništvu Namjesništva Knin, 24. 5. 40 S. Grubišić, “Pregled povijesti Šibenika 1873-1921. godine”, u: Šibenik. Spomen zbornik o 900. obljetnici, Šibenik, 1976, pp. 409-442. 41 Palagruža represents a group of 15 small islands in the middle of the Adriatic Sea. The largest among them, the island of Palagruža whose length is approximately 1,300 meters, and it is up to 300 meters wide, occupies a total area of 20 km 2. Until 1860 the island had belonged to the Kingdom of Sicily, but Kingdom of Italy was not perceived as their own state, and it came under Habsburg rule. At that time a lighthouse was built on the island (1875) and a meteorological station founded (1895). The church of St. Michael is on the island (Hrvatska enciklopedija, VIII, Zagreb 2006, p. 222). 42 The French did something similar on 20 th September 1914 during its increased presence in the Adriatic Sea. 43 “Domaće viesti”, Narodni list, 23. lipnja 1915, p. 2. 37 203 The Great War in 1915 A few Italian ships approached the island of Vis on June 1st and quickly showered the lighthouse on Cape Stončica and lighthouse keeper’s house with multiple projectiles. The missiles mostly missed their targets, and ships sailed to the island of Sušac and Vela Luka on Korčula.44 Similar situation occurred again on June 5th when the task of the Italian ship was to target the railway line near Mihanići and lighthouses on the islands of Vis, Kopište, and Lastovo. Soon there was a skirmish near Vis between the three Italian cruisers and several AustroHungarian torpedo boats.45 The next day railway was the target again. At dawn on June 18th (about 4:15am) more Italian ships were moved closer to Cavtat and targeted the railway tracks Uskoplje–Zelenika. Although at that very moment a train was moving down the tracks, it was not hit. The railway suffered only minor damage, but the traffic was normalized already at nine o'clock.46 During the month of July the Italian fleet was still very active in operations on the Dalmatian coast. In the early morning, at approximately 4am on July 11th, an Italian fire ship landed in the bay next to the church of St. Michael on the island of Lastovo. Several sailors disembarked, ransacked the warehouses, seized some goods and a few rifles and captured two people. Then fire was open on them which caused the Italian sailors to flee. However, additional three fire ships soon arrived, with one of them opening fierce fire on Lastovo. There was significant damage to the municipal warehouse, church tower, and the target was also the road leading to the village Lastovo. The shooting lasted until 5:35am, when the fire ships sailed to Italy.47 Three Italian warships were approaching the Dalmatian coast on the evening of July 16th passing Molunat and Cavtat. It must have seemed daunting to the inhabitants of the region who observed from nearby hills as "three large dark masses are lazily moving like oil on a calm sea." These ships started shooting at the crack of dawn the next day, and the targets were villages Uskoplje, Gabrili, and Drvenik, as well as railway line Dubravka-Mihanići-Cavtat. Several shells fell on Ćilipi and Močići, and one on Zvekovica. However, precision was not at a high level, so the train could arrive without problems to Zelenika. But thanks to the DAZD, f. 88, sv. 685, № 12/pr.; “Posjet tal. mornarice Visu”, Narodni list, 23. lipnja 1915, p. 2. 45 DAZD, f. 88, sv. 685, № 13/pr.; “Francuzi o uspjehu naše mornarice, Talijanske lađe u našim vodama”, Narodni list, 9. lipnja 1915, p. 2; “Bombardovanje Čilipa”, Narodni list, 26. lipnja 1915, 2; F. Škiljan, Prvi svjetski rat u Dalmaciji, p. 133. 46 “Bombardovanje dalmatinske željeznice”, Narodni list, 23. lipnja 1915, p. 2. 47 DAZD, f. 88, sv. 685, Općinsko upraviteljstvo Lastovo kotarskom poglavaru Korčula, 11.7.1915. 44 204 Dalmatia in 1915 Austro-Hungarian submarine torpedoes, an Italian warship was hit and it sank a few hours later. At the same time another group of Italian warships was active on the islands of Sveti Andrija and Grebeni where they destroyed lighthouses.48 On July 18th a group of Italian ships came to the waters of Dubrovnik, Cavtat and Gruž. They fired about 300 shots hitting mainly the railway and the railway station. However, the fired ammunition was mainly hitting the Dalmatian karst. Several houses were damaged, one vineyard was destroyed, but considerable damage was inflicted only to the Milić couple in Lozica whose storage was hit and 300 liters of olive oil were lost.49 On August 5th in the waters near Palagruža there was a direct confrontation of the Austro-Hungarian submarine U-5, which was stationed at the base in Šibenik, and the Italian submarine Nereide. The Austro-Hungarian submarine sank the Italian submarine, which killed 20 sailors.50 Just a few days later Austro-Hungarians went into action for complete return of control over Palagruža. Seven Austro-Hungarian torpedo boats approached the islands on August 15th and opened intense artillery fire. The lighthouse, the church of St. Michael, and the temporary homes that were built by the Italians were destroyed. The attack of the Austro-Hungarian fleet and airplane apparently persuaded the Italians that the conquest of Palagruža is more harmful than beneficial and that its strategic value is not as significant as it seemed, so the islands remained deserted until the end of the war.51 While the front towards Italy from the outset largely stagnated, the Eastern Front was far more intense. The successes of the Central Powers’ forces in this part of Europe attracted a great deal of public attention throughout the Monarchy including Dalmatia. In early June of 1915, the whole Split was decorated with flags in honor of the second conquest of well-established Przemyśl.52 Zadar was also decorated with flags during the conquest of Przemyśl as well as the fall of Lviv a few “Bombardiranje gružke željezničke pruge”, Narodni list, 31. srpnja 1915, p. 2; “O napadaju tal. mornarice na gružku željeznicu”, Narodni list, 4. kolovoza 1915, p. 1. 49 DAZD, f. 88, sv. 685, Talijanska flota - bombardiranje obale kod Dubrovnika, dne 18/7.1915; DAZD, f. 88, sv. 685, Brzojavka Predsjedništvu Namjesništva Knin, 18.7. 50 M. Blažević, “Prilozi povijesti Šibenika za Prvoga svjetskog rata i talijanske okupacije od 1914. do 1921. godine”, u: Zbornik Stijepa Obada, Zadar/Split/Zagreb, 2010, p. 625645. 51 “Ispražnjenje Pelagruže”, Pučke novine, 25. kolovoza 1915, 3; “Oslobođena Palagruža”, Narodni list, 25. kolovoza 1915, p. 1; I. Rubić, Palagruža, Split 1929; F. Škiljan, Prvi svjetski rat u Dalmaciji, p. 137. 52 “Iskičenje grada”, Pučke novine, 10. lipnja 1915, p. 4. 48 205 The Great War in 1915 days later.53 Conquering of Lviv was also celebrated on June 23rd in Knin. When the news came of the fall of Lviv many inhabitants of Knin, carrying the Austro-Hungarian, German, and Ottoman flags, gathered outside the building which was a temporarily office of the governor.54 In Split at the Cathedral of St. Domnius on June 27th there was a "Pontifical Mass of thanksgiving" in honor of the conquest of Lviv. In a full church the mass was held by Split’s Bishop Antun Đivoje, and there was also a governor Attems. After the mass, Attems met with representatives of the clergy and administration, as well as with representatives of Croatian associations in Split led by Dr. Ante Mladinov. Conquering of Lviv was also celebrated in Šibenik. Šibenik city orchestra hosted a concert on the coast, and the next day a pontifical service was held in the Cathedral Basilica and thanksgiving in the Orthodox Church. Even little Olib celebrated the conquest of Lviv. With a multitude of flags all over the town, on the facade of the church and the school building the emperor’s image was set up, and beneath it the inscription: "Long live our merciful king and the emperor Franz Joseph I.! Long live our brave army! Long live the army of our allies!" The next day he held a mass attended by many school children who sang “Carevka” after the mass. The situation was similar in the southernmost province – the Bay of Kotor. The press wrote: "After the news of the occupation of Lviv the whole the Bay of Kotor burst into indescribable patriotic celebration, it was decorated with flags for three days." The churches held thanksgiving services, and pontifical service in Herceg Novi was held by Bishop Frano Uccelini.55 In honor of the conquest of Lviv the National Committee of the Kingdom of Dalmatia, led by Vicko Ivčević, addressed the Field Marshal Friedrich via telegram in which, among other things, it said: "Brilliant successes in the northeastern part of the monarchy echoed particularly in this southernmost kingdom. The new enemy, who betrayed the principles, in the name of which it has been united with us in the past, wants to own these Slavic lands, even the Dalmatian islands. The National Board cultivates a constant hope that their efforts will be futile next to the test of the courage of our army and our navy already well known to our enemy, all this in addition to the resolute national will to defend to the end our homeland and belonging to Habsburg Monarchy."56 “Okićenje grada”, Narodni list, 5. lipnja 1915, p. 2; “Kićenje u znak radosti”, Narodni list, 23. lipnja 1915, p. 2; A. Bralić, Zadar u doba Prvog svjetskog rata, p. 112. 54 “Iz Knina nam pišu”, Narodni list, 26. lipnja 1915, p. 2; “Prigodom preosvojenja Lavova”, Smotra dalmatinska, 30. lipnja 1915, p. 2. 55 “Proslava osvojenja Lavova”, Smotra dalmatinska, 30. lipnja 1915, p. 2; “Dopisi, Olib, 27 lipnja”, Hrvatska kruna, 3. srpnja 1915, pp. 2-3; F. Škiljan, Prvi svjetski rat u Dalmaciji, p. 96. 56 “Čestitanje i zahvala”, Narodni list, 3. srpnja 1915, p. 2. 53 206 Dalmatia in 1915 At the news of the fall of Lviv, Obrovac was "in no time" decorated with flags.57 Makarska celebrated for four days. The music played on city streets, and the churches held "grateful Lord’s services."58 At the same time when conquering of Lviv was celebrated, a year since the assassination in Sarajevo was also commemorated. Memorial services in memory of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and Countess Sophie Kotek were held. The whole Split was in mourning. In attendance were the governor Attems, the municipal administrator, military authorities, and others. A sad song was sung by the Croatian Choral Society Zvonimir.59 The same day a formal memorial "for the dearly departed Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, the Duchess Hohenberg," was held in the local Roman Catholic parish church in Obrovac. In the local Orthodox ("Greco-eastern") Church a memorial service was held on July 3rd by diocesan Dimitrije (Branković). Both church services were attended by representatives of the National Committee, the municipal government and other distinguished citizens.60 Commemorative services were also held for this occasion in the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches in Drniš.61 Late in the afternoon of August 5th Dalmatia heard about the conquest of Warsaw. The municipal authorities have been racing to send greeting cards to the imperial and royal army.62 That same evening in Zadar more flags were put up, so this center of Dalmatia was in festive attire the next morning on August 6th. On that occasion Vis was also decorated, and it celebrated for three full days. As soon as news came of the fall of Warsaw, Drniš could hear the mighty ringing from all the churches, and some people gathered and started singing “Carevka” in a chorus. That evening in Knin numerous black-and-yellow flags fluttered in the city, but the best evidence of the sentiment is these lines: "That evening the bells of all the churches announced joyful news to the people, and the city was lit up until very late at night." The next day, the crowd marched through the city of Knin in the honor of this event, and the gathering was at its highest point in front of the City Council where the governor Attems was just about to enter. People sang “Carevka” and cheered for the emperor and allied armies. The event ended with a “Iz Obrovca nam pišu”, Narodni list, 7. srpnja 1915, p. 2. V. Urlić, U spomen 1914.-1918., p. 85. 59 “Iz Splita nam pišu”, Narodni list, 3. srpnja 1915, p. 2. 60 “Zadušnice”, Narodni list, 7. srpnja 1915, p. 2. 61 “Zadušnice za Nj. c. i k. Visost Nadvojvodu Franja Ferdinanda i prejasnu mu suprugu kneginju Hohenberg”, Smotra dalmatinska, 30. lipnja 1915, p. 2. 62 DACG, AOIAK, OK, CLXXIII-25. 57 58 207 The Great War in 1915 musical gala, which was held in front of café Dinara.63 The municipal manager in Split issued a proclamation that by placing a flag on every house a three-day celebration should be held in honor of the conquest of Warsaw and Ivangorod.64 Aside from Przemyśl, Lviv, Warsaw, and Ivangorod, other successes on the Eastern Front were also celebrated, thus Zadar was also decorated with flags in honor of the conquest of Brest-Litovsk.65 In early September French ships again showed a more aggressive approach in the waters of Dalmatia. On September 9th the French submarine Papin fired three torpedoes at a group of Austro-Hungarian warships near Cape Planka by Rogoznica. One torpedo hit the TB51T torpedo boat which caused extensive damage and killed 14 sailors. Although it was badly damaged, the torpedo boat was towed to its home port in Šibenik.66 In early September final decision was rendered on the dissolution of a series of Serbian, Croatian, and Italian societies in Dubrovnik and its surrounding areas. Societies were dissolved on the grounds that "as a result of their activity that is dangerous for the country, their legal existence is no longer justified." At the same time, formal dissolution of the following societies went into effect: Dubrovnik City Music Society, Choral Society Sloga in Dubrovnik, Charitable Cooperative of Serbian Women from Dubrovnik, Croatian Reading Room of Dubrovnik, Croatian Municipal Music Society in Dubrovnik, Croatian and Serbian National Home in Cavtat, Serbian Philharmonic Society Zahumlje in Cavtat, Cavtat Music Society, the National Library in Dubrovnik, Ljudevit Gaj Society in Dubrovnik, Croatian Sokol parishes Gundulić in Dubrovnik, Gabinetto di lettura in Dubrovnik, Circolo filarmonico raguseo in Dubrovnik, Societ{ operaia Progesso in Dubrovnik, and Associazione italiana di beneficenza in Dubrovnik.67 In the early autumn of 1915, Austria-Hungary, along with Germany, and some time later Bulgaria, began an offensive which eventually should break the resistance of the two Serbian Kingdoms - Serbia and Montenegro. However, unlike the previous year when throughout Dalmatia successes on the Serbian front were celebrated, such as the temporary conquest of Valjevo and Belgrade, now the population of “Okićenje grada”, Narodni list, 7. kolovoza 1915, p. 2; “Veselje za osvojenje Ivangoroda i Varšave”, Smotra dalmatinska, 7. kolovoza 1915, p. 2; “Veselje za pad Ivangoroda i Varšave”, Smotra dalmatinska, 11. kolovoza 1915, p. 2. 64 „Kićenje grada“, Pučke novine, 12. kolovoza 1915, p. 4. 65 „Okićenje grada“, Narodni list, 1. rujna 1915, p. 2. 66 M. Blažević, Prilozi povijesti Šibenika, pp. 629-630. 67 DAZD, f. 88, sv. 685, Raspust protudržavnih društava u Dubrovniku. 63 208 Dalmatia in 1915 Dalmatia, it seems, had no will and no time to celebrate the progression through Serbia. Trying to survive was more important than anything. A group of women in Zadar protested in late September in the City Council and asked for oil, petroleum, food and price reductions "because with today's high cost of living they cannot survive."68 In early October, a decision was made to establish a Municipal resupply committee in each of the Dalmatian municipalities that will determine the price of flour and bread and give permits for the sale of bread to specific shops. Previously announced cards and vouchers that were used to buy flour and bread went into effect on November 17th. From November 28th bakers were no longer allowed to sell bread to those who did not have cards. The card was valid for a week and during that period each person could get 1,040g of flour or 1,960g of bread, which came to 210g of bread per person per day. Only heavy duty laborers received additional 700g of flour or 980g of bread per week.69 Around the same time, because of shortages of meat, sales of meat and meals that were entirely or partially made of meat were banned on Wednesdays and Fridays. In the coming period sale of sugar and coffee was also reduced, which was of poor quality and contained various ingredients as additives.70 Based on given information, we can see that the year of 1915 was really a turning point for Dalmatia at the time of World War I. At the end of this year an average Dalmatian waited for his miserable ration of bread with a card in his hands. And when he had some money to buy what he could, goods that could be found sporadically were of very poor quality. That year’s drought caused the Dalmatian pantries to have shortages of even olive oil and wine, which represented the basic products of Dalmatian land. To make matters worse, the end of the war was not yet in sight, so the new year of 1916 did not promise anything good. A. Bralić, Zadar u doba Prvog svjetskog rata, p. 146; F. Škiljan, Prvi svjetski rat u Dalmaciji, p. 117. 69 A. Bralić, „Kako preživjeti u Zadru?“, pp. 161-162. 70 DACG, AOIAK, OK, CLXXIII-351; DACG, AOIAK, OK, CLXXIII-499; F. Škiljan, Prvi svjetski rat u Dalmaciji, pp. 109-111. 68 209