Analytical Brief Water Security & the Global Water Agenda A UN-Water ater Analytical Brief Water Security & the Global Water Agenda W A UN-Water Analytical Brief Copy-editing: Tim Lougheed ISBN 978-92-808-6038-2 © United Nations University, 2013 Copies available from: United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment & Health (UNU-INWEH) 175 Longwood Rd. South, suite 204 Hamilton, Ontario L8P 0A1 Canada Tel: +1 905 667 5511 Fax: +1 905 667 5510 Email: contact.inweh@unu.edu Web: www.inweh.unu.edu Acknowledgements iii Acknowledgements This Analytical Brief was prepared by Harriet Bigas, UNU-INWEH on behalf of the UN-Water Task Force on Water Security. The UN-Water Task Force on Water Security comprises the following UN-Water Members: FAO, UNCBD, UNDP, UNECA, UNECLAC, UNESCAP, UNESCWA, UNISDR, and UNU; the following UN-Water Partners: AIDA, GWP, IAH, ICID, IUCN, SIWI and WWF; and the following UN-Water Programme: UNW-DPC. The Working Group is co-chaired by UNESCAP and UNU-INWEH. The UN-Water Task Force on Water Security would like to thank the following individuals for their writing contributions to the Analytical Brief: Stefano Burchi, AIDA; Pasquale Steduto, FAO; Eelco van Beek, GWP; Patrick MacQuarrie, IUCN; Anton Earle, Anders Jägerskog, SIWI; David Coates, UNCBD; Themba Gumbo, Kees Leendertse, UNDP Cap-Net; Stephen Donkor, UNECA; Caridad Canales, Andrei Jouravlev, UNECLAC; Gareth James Lloyd, UNEP-DHI; Hongpeng Liu, Helena Wright, Salmah Zakaria, UNESCAP; Alice Aureli, Siegfried Demuth, Miguel de França Doria, Anil Mishra, Raya Stephen, UNESCO; Jose Gesti Canuto, Andre Magnus, Cecilia Scharp, UNICEF; Fabrice Renaud, Julia Kloos, UNU-EHS; Zafar Adeel, Harriet Bigas, Zuzanna Chociej, Manzoor Qadir, UNU-INWEH; Reza Ardakanian, Jens Liebe, UNW-DPC; Mark Briggs, Li Lifeng, Flavia Loures, Jian-Hua Meng, Meg Symington, WWF. The UN-Water Task Force on Water Security would also like to thank all UN-Water Members and Partners for their feedback and revisions during the review process. The UN-Water Task Force on Water Security is especially grateful to the following experts who provided a peer review of this document: Dr. Mark Giordano, Director of Water and Society, International Water Management Institute (IWMICGIAR); Dr. Peter Gleick, The Pacific Institute; Prof. Bruce Lankford, Water Security Research Centre, University of East Anglia; and, Prof. Patricia Wouters, Global Water Partnership TEC and Founding Director UNESCO Centre for Water Law, Policy and Science, University of Dundee. The UN-Water Task Force on Water Security would like to thank Harriet Bigas, UNU-INWEH for leading the coordination and development of the Brief, and Stéfanie Neno and James Morgan, FAO for facilitating the design and layout of the Brief. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements i Foreword iii Summary for Decision-Makers iv 1. A Working Definition of Water Security 1 2. Themes for Further Dialogue 5 2A. Correlation between Water and Human Security 5 2B. Water Security and Regional Integration across Political Boundaries 6 2C. Water Security in Conflict and Disaster Zones 8 2D. Progress and Success in Achieving Water Security 9 3. Policy Relevance of Water Security 11 3A. Water Security and Human Rights 11 3B. Human and Economic Development through Water Security 12 3C. Exploring the Water-Food-Energy Security Nexus 14 3D. Climate Change and Water Security 16 3E. The Role of Ecosystems in Ensuring Water Security 17 4. Policy Response Options 21 4A. Responding to Water Security Challenges 21 4B. Capacity Development to Ensure Water Security 23 4C. Improved Water Governance and Water Security 25 References 27 List of Acronyms 37 Foreword v Foreword It is fitting that the topic of water security, through the launch of this Analytical Brief, figures among the many celebrations marking the 20th anniversary of World Water Day on 22 March 2013 and the 2013 International Year of Water Cooperation. In recent years, the issue of water security has been gaining traction in the global political agenda and earning attention from national governments at the highest level, in particular for its links to peace and national security, but also for its implications for development issues. Several recent events and discussions have highlighted these links between water security and international peace; most notably, the High-Level Roundtable Discussion on Water, Peace and Security jointly hosted by the United States, the European Union and UN-Water that took place during the 67th Session of the United Nations General Assembly in September 20121. As highlighted by then U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, water security is key for ensuring peace and security, but also for human development. Secretary Clinton highlighted that water security offers opportunities: for cooperation, collaboration, and for addressing challenges in a multi-disciplinary and cross-sectoral way in order to reduce risks for potential conflicts and manage continued sustainable development and growth. With this Analytical Brief, UN-Water aims to provide a starting point for discussion on the range of issues that collectively fall under the umbrella of water security, identifying the challenges that lay ahead, the necessity of relating water security to policy development, and offering possible options for responding to these challenges. It underlines the important role that cooperation will play in addressing water security challenges, including collaboration between different stakeholders and across all levels, from local to international. The collaborative nature of UN-Water Members and Partners on the Analytical Brief sets an example for cooperation across the UN System for addressing the shared challenges of water security. The production of this Analytical Brief on water security is timely as the international community prepares for a post-2015 development world through the development of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). To this end, this Analytical Brief provides an important input into the discussion on the possible inclusion of an SDG on water, a process to which UN-Water is actively contributing. It is my hope that the ideas outlined here will serve to stimulate further discussion on water security and underscore the importance of water security in addressing a multitude of challenges: from health to education, industry to ecosystems, human rights to economic development and growth; among so many others. This Analytical Brief offers one step towards ensuring that water continues to be included amongst our top development priorities as we move beyond 2015. Mr. Michel Jarraud UN-Water Chair 22 March, 2013 1 A webcast of the event is available at: http://webtv.un.org/watch/roundtable-on-water-peace-and-security/1861036435001/. vi Water Security and the Global Water Agenda - A UN-Water Analytical Brief Summary for Decision-Makers This Analytical Brief serves as a starting point for dialogue on water security in the United Nations system. This Brief offers a working definition of water security developed from contributions made by the broad range of organizations, agencies, programmes and institutions that form UN-Water. Through this Brief, UN-Water aims to capture the constantly evolving dimensions of water-related issues, offering a holistic outlook on challenges under the umbrella of water security. It highlights the main challenges to be addressed, the role water security plays in policy agendas, and possible options for addressing water security challenges. A working definition of water security provides a common framework for collaboration across the UN system. Water security is defined as the capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socio-economic development, for ensuring protection against water-borne pollution and water-related disasters, and for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability. This shared definition will facilitate the work of UN-Water and its Members and Partners. Water security encapsulates complex and interconnected challenges and highlights water’s centrality for achieving a larger sense of security, sustainability, development and human well-being. Many factors contribute to water security, ranging from biophysical to infrastructural, institutional, political, social and financial – many of which lie outside the water realm. In this respect, water security lies at the centre of many security areas, each of which is intricately linked to water. Addressing this goal therefore requires interdisciplinary collaboration across sectors, communities and political borders, so that the competition or potential conflicts over water resources, between sectors and between water users or states, is adequately managed. In recognition of its security implications on tensions and conflicts, UN-Water supports the inclusion of water security on the agenda of the UN Security Council. Water security needs to be included in the formulation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDG process must incorporate a goal and related targets for achieving water security, as this will address multiple priority development areas under consideration: conflict and fragility; environmental sustainability; growth and employment; health, hunger, food and nutrition; inequities; energy; and of course, water. It is safe to state that investment in water security is a long-term pay-off for human development and economic growth, with immediate visible short-term gains. Recognition of the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation by the United Nations General Assembly and the UN Human Rights Council is an important step towards ensuring water security at the individual and community levels. The UN resolution on the human right to water and sanitation is a catalyst for further policy discussion between stakeholders and across sectors, and in the development of programmes that make possible the full realization of the rights of individuals and communities. A human rights-based approach to water security addresses critical gaps and bottlenecks, and emphasizes the establishment of regulatory functions and mechanisms for efficiency, participation and accountability. Innovative financial mechanisms need to be promoted that contribute towards the goal of achieving water security through a supportive policy environment. Traditionally, most of the financing for initiatives that help to achieve water security have come from the public sector. New and innovative sources of financing require a policy arena conducive to ensuring that investments are protected and can provide secure options for financing in the long term. Options include investments from the private sector, micro-financing schemes, particularly with local communities, and other innovative options for funding (e.g. crowdsourcing). Summary for Decision-Makers vii Successful transboundary water security can stimulate regional cooperation. Transboundary waters pose enormous challenges for achieving water security in systems, such as river or lake basins and aquifers, which are shared across political boundaries. In such cases, water-related challenges are compounded by the need to ensure coordination and dialogue between sovereign states, each with its own set of varied and sometimes competing interests. Numerous examples from across the globe demonstrate that shared waters provide opportunities for cooperation across nations and support political dialogue on broader issues such as regional economic integration, environmental conservation, and sustainable development. It is important to ensure that water security is achieved for all users, whether up- or downstream, and does not come at the expense of water insecurity for some. Good water governance is essential to achieving water security, and requires well-designed and empowered institutions with supporting legislative and policy instruments. Achieving water security requires institutional, legal and regulatory support and capacity for change, adaptive management structures, new forms of relationships, and multilayered models capable of integrating complex natural and social dimensions. Governance structures must be adapted to local conditions and needs, applied at various levels so that they mutually reinforce and complement one another. In conflict and disaster zones, threats to water security increase through inequitable and difficult access to water supply and related services, which may aggravate existing social fragility, tensions, violence, and conflict. Water security is precarious in conflict and disaster zones, and threats to water security are manifested through negative impacts on water resources and related ecosystems, both in quantity and quality. Conflicts and disasters can have cascading effects and far-reaching implications on water security, with political, social, economic and environmental consequences. Water security must be addressed as a first step in the aftermath of conflicts and disaster in order to restore livelihoods and revive social and economic development. Water security will be compromised by the consequences of climate change, as the vast majority of its impacts will be on the water cycle, resulting in higher climatic and hydrological variability, with important consequences for societies. These effects on water security will differ regionally and will depend upon a number of factors, including geographic location and features, conditions of water availability and utilization, demographic changes, existing management and allocation systems, legal frameworks for water management, existing governance structures and institutions, and the resilience of ecosystems. Changes in the hydrological cycle will threaten existing water infrastructure, making societies more vulnerable to extreme water-related events and resulting in increased insecurity. Ensuring that ecosystems are protected and conserved is central to achieving water security – both for people and for nature. Ecosystems are vital to sustaining the quantity and quality of water available within a watershed, on which both nature and people rely. Maintaining the integrity of ecosystems is essential for supporting the diverse needs of humans, including domestic, agricultural, energy and industrial water use, and for the sustainability of ecosystems, including protecting the water-provisioning services they provide. Policy-makers need to identify existing capacities, as well as gaps, in order to properly address the water security challenge. Capacity development is a long-term process based on incentives, good governance, leadership, and knowledge management and transfer, which need to be continuously adapted according to stakeholders’ feedback and needs. The UN-system, and in particular UN-Water, can address gaps in capacity by emphasizing collaboration amongst agencies; fostering trans-sectoral coordination at the national level by encouraging the sharing of and access to capacity development resources; providing water education and training to support institutional challenges; and establishing a knowledge community to address water security challenges. viii Water Security and the Global Water Agenda - A UN-Water Analytical Brief Water security can only be achieved if it is supported by an enabling environment that establishes systemic and cross-cutting changes, including integrated policies targeting synergies across sectors, while managing the demand for water by all users and stakeholders. Efforts to achieve water security through multi-sectoral, coordinated policies and inter-disciplinary approaches will have multiple positive effects by addressing water challenges holistically, taking into account the needs of various sectors, such as energy and agriculture, that will require increasing water resources to satisfy population growth and growing demands. Such an environment will reflect the interconnectedness between sectors while respecting the needs for water by individuals and communities. Section 1 A Working orking Definition of Water W Security 1 This Analytical Brief serves as a starting point for dialogue that water is managed sustainably throughout the water on water security in the United Nations system. The cycle and is done so through an inter-disciplinary focus, working definition of water security offered here was so that it contributes to socio-economic development and developed from contributions made by the broad range of reinforces societal resilience to environmental impacts organizations, agencies, programmes and institutions that and water-borne diseases without compromising the form UN-Water. This Brief aims to capture the dynamic and present and future health of populations and ecosystems. constantly evolving dimensions of water and water-related Achieving water security requires allocation among users issues, offering a holistic outlook for addressing water to be fair, efficient and transparent; that water to satisfy challenges under the umbrella of water security. basic human needs is accessible to all at an affordable cost to the user; that water throughout the water cycle Water security is defined here as the capacity of is collected and treated to prevent pollution and disease; a population to safeguard sustainable access to and that fair, accessible and effective mechanisms exist adequate quantities of acceptable quality water to manage or address disputes or conflicts that may 2 for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being , and arise. The concept operates at all levels, from individual, socio-economic development, for ensuring protec- household and community, to local, sub-national, tion against water-borne pollution and water-related national, regional and international settings, and takes disasters, and for preserving ecosystems in a climate into account the variability of water availability over time. 3 of peace and political stability . This definition implies 1 In addition to the main contributors, this section has benefitted from a rich email discussion between UN-Water Members and Partners on the definition of the term “water security”, with additional comments provided by: AIDA, FAO, GWP, IAH, IUCN, UNDP, UNESCAP, UNESCWA, WWF. 2 Human well-being has multiple constituents, including basic material for a good life, freedom of choice and action, health, good social relations, and security (MA, 2003). 3 This definition of water security is based on the one provided in UNESCO’s International Hydrological Programme’s (IHP) Strategic Plan of the Eighth Phase (see UNESCO-IHP, 2012a), endorsed at the 20th Session of the UNESCO-IHP Intergovernmental Council (UNESCO-IHP, 2012b: Resolution XX-5). Water Security and the Global Water Agenda - A UN-Water Analytical Brief 2 The term “water security” offers a common frame- A common working definition of water security will work and a platform for communication, and will facilitate the incorporation of water security issues facilitate the work of UN-Water and its Members in the international development dialogue, particu- and Partners. Various definitions and interpretations of larly in the formulation of Sustainable Development the term “water security” exist (cf. UNESCO-IHP, 2012; Goals (SDGs). Uncertainties about the definition of “water GTZ, 2010; Grey and Sadoff, 2007), and use of the term security” restrict the use of the term in the context of inter- is widespread both within and outside the UN system, national, regional, and national processes and the UN’s whether defined or not. A mutually agreed-upon defini- development work. This potentially places water issues at tion, especially across the UN system, is needed if water a disadvantage when compared to other interests, such as security is to be achieved, and provides a shared under- food security or energy security, in similar forums. In such standing of the concept and its various complex dimen- settings, more effort will be required to articulate water sions. The UN-Water working definition of water security issues, often in more complicated and incomplete ways. provides a common platform that consolidates the views A common working definition will serve to encapsulate and approaches across the UN system, and provides a the topic succinctly, thereby strengthening communica- focal point for enhanced collaboration among UN-Water tion, and improving the coordination, formulation and Members and Partners. achievement of common sustainable development goals – challenges this Analytical Brief seeks to address. Box 1: Key Aspects of Water Security The discourse on water security in recent years contains a number of common, key elements to water security. Below is a summary of the core elements necessary to achieving and maintaining water security, as found in a broad range of published definitions: • Access to safe and sufficient drinking water at an affordable cost in order to meet basic needs, which includes sanitation and hygiene (cf. United Nations General Assembly, 2010), and the safeguarding of health and well-being; • Protection of livelihoods, human rights, and cultural and recreational values; • Preservation and protection of ecosystems in water allocation and management systems in order to maintain their ability to deliver and sustain the functioning of essential ecosystem services; • Water supplies for socio-economic development and activities (such as energy, transport, industry, tourism); • Collection and treatment of used water to protect human life and the environment from pollution; • Collaborative approaches to transboundary water resources management within and between countries to promote freshwater sustainability and cooperation; • The ability to cope with uncertainties and risks of water-related hazards, such as floods, droughts and pollution, among others; and, • Good governance and accountability, and the due consideration of the interests of all stakeholders through: appropriate and effective legal regimes; transparent, participatory and accountable institutions; properly planned, operated and maintained infrastructure; and capacity development. Sources: Adapted from the UN-Water Concept Note “Water Security – A Working Definition” [internal document, 4th Draft, 2011] and the Ministerial Declaration of The Hague on Water Security in the 21st Century, Second World Water Forum, 22 March, 2000. Section 1. A Working Definition of Water Security 3 The term water security captures the dynamic dimen- Water security encapsulates complex and intercon- sions of water and water-related issues and offers nected challenges and highlights water’s centrality a holistic outlook for addressing water challenges. for achieving a sense of security, sustainability, devel- While some definitions of water security have a narrow opment and human well-being, from the local to the focus, representing specific interests, many others attempt international level. Many factors contribute to water to capture the various dimensions of the term (see Box security and range from biophysical to infrastructural, 1). Approaching water issues under the umbrella of water institutional, political, social and financial – many of which security captures most interests in water and offers a lie outside the water realm. Water security, therefore, means for considering these issues holistically, as many lies at the centre of many security areas, each of which issues are closely interrelated and have multiple causes, is intricately linked to water (Zeitoun, 2011). Addressing impacts, and solutions across sectors. water security, therefore, requires interdisciplinary collaboration across sectors, communities and political borders, so that the potential for competition or conflicts over water resources, between sectors and between water users or states, is adequately managed (Wouters et al., 2009). Section 2 Themes for Further Dialogue This section outlines the broad concepts for understanding of security and acts as a central link across the range of water issues within the context of security. It establishes securities, including political, health, economic, personal, the link between water and human security issues, and food, energy, and environmental, among others (cf. highlights how water insecurity can lead to fragile and Zeitoun, 2011). vulnerable societies. It points to the importance of the role of water in transboundary contexts, whether for coopera- Water is a multi-dimensional issue and a prerequisite tion, or in tensions or instability, and serves to stimulate the for achieving human security, from the individual to research and policy communities to address water security the international level. A number of individual securities challenges. must be met in order to achieve human security: a good level of health and well-being, adequate and safe food, a secure and healthy environment, means to a secure liveli- 2A. The Relationship between Water and Human Security hood, and protection and fulfillment of fundamental rights and liberties, among others (see e.g. UNDP, 1994). Water is required for ensuring these securities are met, from access Water issues must be placed within the existing to water supply at the individual or community level, to paradigm of human security. In the past few decades, the peaceful sharing and management of transboundary definitions of security have moved beyond a limited focus water resources across political boundaries (cf. Ministerial on military risks and conflicts and have broadened to Declaration of The Hague on Water Security in the 21st encompass a wide range of threats to security, with a Century). Human security is dependent on an individual’s particular focus on human security and its achievement sense and level of well-being, with these being closely through development (UNDP, 1994; Leb and Wouters, tied to the individual’s need for water and the benefits it 2013). Water is best placed within this broader definition provides. Water security can therefore reduce the potential Water Security and the Global Water Agenda - A UN-Water Analytical Brief 6 for conflicts and tensions, contributing to significant social, Multi-disciplinary approaches and cross-sectoral development, economic and environmental benefits on a policies are needed to address water issues under- larger scale, as well as to the realization of states’ interna- lying human security. The cross-sectoral nature of water tional obligations. means it is critical to ensure that each sector’s reasonable demands for water can be satisfied in a way that will also Improper disposal of Industrial waste satisfy critical elements of human security. Integrated, cross-sectoral policies, coordinated decision-making and enforceable legal instruments and institutional mechanisms are needed to ensure that water acts as a linking factor to achieving security and that competition between In developing countries, sectors for limited water resources can be adequately 70% of industrial wastes are dumped untreated into waters where they pollute the usable water supply. managed (see for example Section 3A on Water Security and Human Rights, 3C on Exploring the Water-EnergyFood Security Nexus and 4A on Options for Responding to Water Security Challenges). In recognition of its security implications on tensions and conflicts, UN-Water supports the inclusion of water security on the agenda of the UN Security Council. Climate change has been recognized by the UN Source:World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) Security Council for its security implications (United Nations Department of Public Information, 2011), with water being Addressing the multiple challenges of water security the medium through which climate change will have the will reduce the risks, threats and vulnerabilities associ- most effects. Similarly, by including water security on its ated with human security and contribute to a more agenda, the UN Security Council will formally recognize secure future. A number of important global drivers the direct implications of water on human security issues: are significantly affecting water resources, increasing the either as a trigger, a potential target, a contributing factor risks and vulnerabilities to human security. First, shifting or as contextual information. Such recognition would demographics, such as population growth, increasing acknowledge that water is in itself a security risk4; that urbanization and migration, and changing consump- acknowledging water insecurity could act as a preventative tion patterns will result in increased demand for water measure for regional conflicts and tensions; and that water resources. Second, a changing hydrological cycle due security could contribute to achieving increased regional to human influences such as deforestation, land-use peace and security in the long term. changes and the effects of climate change will have an impact on the water cycle and water availability. Third, increasing demands and competition for water resources across sectors, such as food, energy, industry and the 2B. Water Security and Transboundary Water Management environment, will put a strain on water resources. Finally, safe wastewater treatment and re-use will need to be Transboundary waters pose enormous challenges for managed so as to prevent pollution and contamina- achieving water security. Where water systems, such tion and protect the quality of precious water resources. as river or lake basins and aquifer systems, are shared across internal or external political boundaries, water-related challenges are compounded by the need to ensure coordi- 4 There is a long history of water-related conflicts, as documented in The Pacific Institute’s Water Conflict Chronology (see: http://worldwater.org/conflict.html). Section 2. Themes for Further Dialogue 7 nation and dialogue between sovereign states, each with boundary water cooperation has been difficult, several its own set of varied and sometimes competing interests examples from across the globe demonstrate that shared (GWP, 2013). Around the world, there are some 276 major waters provide opportunities for cooperation across nations transboundary watersheds, crossing the territories of 145 and support political dialogue on broader issues such as countries and covering nearly half of the earth’s land surface economic integration and sustainable development. For (MacQuarrie and Wolf, 2013). More than 300 transboundary example, the Southern African Development Community aquifers have also been identified, most of which are located (SADC) coordinates transboundary water cooperation on across two or more countries (Puri and Aureli, 2009). 15 basins across Southern Africa. In Southeast Asia, the Mekong River Commission has decades of cooperation Our freshwater resources on river basin management among the lower Mekong countries. In Europe, degrading water quality and trans- 0.3% Freshwater lakes & rivers boundary pollution prompted a move towards greater 30% Groundwater cooperation on the Danube River Basin (ICPDR, 2012). In Latin America, transboundary cooperation has taken place over hydro-electric development on the Paraná River between Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina. International 70% Ice and snow cover in mountainous regions watercourses, particularly when supported by international instruments such as the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention and the 1992 UNECE Convention, can help to alleviate increased incidents of water insecurity as a result of the pursuit of sovereign interests that may threaten regional peace and security. Source: World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) Abundance of Transboundary Waters Transboundary water management and cooperation within and across states on the development and protection of transboundary water resources are essential in the context of water security. Transboundary water management (TWM) cuts across many sectors and disciplines, including international water law, water resources management and ecosystem protection, food and energy security, peace and political stability, human rights, international relations, and regional devel- 148 countries countries include include territory territory within within one one or or more more transboundary transboundary river river basins basins 39 countries countries have have more more than than 90% 90% of of their their territory territory within within one one or or more more transboundary transboundary river river basins basins 21 lie lieentirely entirelywithin withinone oneor or more moreof ofthese thesewatersheds watersheds Source: UNESCO opment and integration. Without ongoing dialogue and cooperation, unilateral development measures, such as The role of non-state actors is becoming increasingly hydropower development and water extractions, can lead important in the process of transboundary water to significant impacts on neighbouring countries sharing cooperation. Non-state actors, such as community groups the same basin (Wolf, 2007). Such impacts can lead, for in border areas, individual and community rights holders, example, to river fragmentation, disrupting the health of and water users, have largely been absent from the formal aquatic ecosystems and adversely affecting communities TWM process. The experience, knowledge and expertise downstream that may depend on fisheries for livelihoods of such actors can add legitimacy to decision-making, and and food security. provide valuable perspectives to the potential impacts on ecosystems and livelihoods. Their participation is essential Achieving transboundary water security can stimu- to ensuring buy-in and effective implementation of joint late regional cooperation, especially when supported development projects between states. Water governance by international instruments. While historically trans- systems are increasingly recognizing the need for trans- 8 Water Security and the Global Water Agenda - A UN-Water Analytical Brief boundary water management structures to engage these aggravate existing social fragility, tensions, violence stakeholders, especially women as part of IWRM (Earle and and conflict, thus increasing the risk to water security. Bazilli, 2013). Similarly, sub-national entities can have an This is particularly true when water and related services are important role in transboundary water management when provided at the local level, where they are less resilient and supported by their governments, contributing to the estab- more vulnerable to external shocks. At the local level either lishment of trust among one another, leading to greater within countries or between border communities, water technical cooperation and paving the way for coordination scarcity may lead to political instability or conflict, often and cooperation over shared waters once institutions are exacerbated by attempts at profiteering through private established. uncontrolled sales of water. Threats to water resources or ecosystems can aggravate these conditions, fostering a The role of transboundary aquifers and management vicious cycle that must be addressed when dealing with issues needs to be included in both national and inter- conflicts and natural disasters. national water legal systems. While aquifers contribute significantly to a global river basin’s water availability, their collaborative governance across sectors and political borders has largely been overlooked, hampering efforts to achieve water security. Given the particular characteristics of transboundary aquifers and their greater vulnerability to contamination, exploitation, and the impending impacts from climate change, increased attention is needed to ensure that these resources are protected and sustainably and equitably managed (Cooley and Gleick, 2011). High percentage of water related disasters Between 1991 and 2000 over 665,000 people died in 2,557 natural disasters of which 90% were water related 2C. Water Security in Conflict and Disaster Zones Water security is precarious in conflict or disaster zones, where it is subject to their negative impacts. Disasters and conflicts have an impact on water resources Source: WWDR, 2012 and related ecosystems by reducing their quality, quantity or both. In Sudan, violence broke out in March 2012 at Conflicts and disasters can have cascading effects the Jamam refugee camp, where large numbers of people and far-reaching implications on water security, faced serious water scarcity (McNeish, 2012). Disasters with political, social, economic and environmental and conflicts reduce water security by compromising the consequences. Millions of people worldwide are forcibly physical infrastructure needed to access water, sanitation displaced as a result of conflict and natural disasters, and hygiene services, such as treatment plants, drainage creating political tensions and social needs to support systems, dams, or irrigation channels. Conflicts and disas- them; this was the case in 2012 when refugees from Mali ters may impinge directly or indirectly upon the social were forcibly displaced to neighbouring Mauritania (Tana, capital and human resources needed to run water-related 2012). Disasters and conflicts can destroy infrastructure infrastructure, along with the governance, social or polit- and affect social, cultural and economic activities at the ical systems that keep water utilities functional and water local level, also compromising wider political or environ- services accessible (Donnelly et al., 2012). mental conditions, which can severely hinder a country’s development (BCPR-UNDP, 2004). In 2011 alone, some In conflict or disaster zones, inequitable and difficult 184,000 Somalis fled to neighbouring countries, with access to water supply and sanitation services may water and food insecurity linked to drought in the Horn Section 2. Themes for Further Dialogue 9 of Africa being among the major driving factors (UNHCR, A step in the right direction: water security, under- 2011). Lack of infrastructure, such as roads and food ground water resources and transboundary water storage, aggravated by poor regulatory and institutional management in the Guaraní Aquifer, Latin America. governance, pose further problems. Conflicts and disas- The Guaraní Aquifer extends over an area of more ters can also affect water security by inhibiting access to than 1 million km2 across Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and water and water-related services, affecting health, social, Argentina, with a population of 15 million living in the cultural and economic activities of entire communities, as area overlying the aquifer. The area has abundant, but happened in South Sudan in 2012 (Ferrie, 2012). often polluted, surface water resources; there is thus a need to secure reliable water supply sources for drinking water while taking into account the expected increase in Somali exodus linked to drought demand for water for high-value agricultural and industrial uses. At the national level, although each country sharing the aquifer has its own institutional framework for water resources management, until recently, no clearly defined In 2011 alone, mechanisms for transboundary groundwater management some 184,000 existed. In 2010, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay Somalis fled to signed the Guaraní Agreement, which established the neighbouring foundation for the aquifer’s coordinated management countries, with water in an effort to prevent conflicts over groundwater use, and food insecurity linked to drought contributing to increased water security. in the Horn of Africa being one of the major driving factors Source: UNHCR, 2011 A turning point: the case of Lake Uromiyeh, Iran. In order to improve the living conditions of their people, stimulate economic activities and improve water security in the region, the provincial governments of West- and 2D. Progress and Success Stories in Achieving Water Security East Azerbaijan and the government of Iran have initiated many water development projects over the past 20 years, including the construction of dams and irrigation areas. Success stories from around the globe demonstrate However, increased withdrawals from inflowing rivers and how water security can be attained for people, nature a longer dry period have lowered water levels and raised and economic development; in turn, stories of failure salt concentration in the inland basin of Lake Uromiyeh. to achieve water security offer equally important The Government of Iran has subsequently taken steps to lessons for the future. When assessing either the success protect Lake Uromiyeh against further degradation, with or failure around water security, it is important to consider support from the UN. New legislation has been approved for whom water security is being sought, for what purpose at the national level and a basin-wide organization has and at what level. Determining whether water security has been established to manage and protect the lake. Agree- been achieved also depends upon whether it comes for ments have been reached to stop further water-consuming some at the expense of water insecurity for others: success developments in the basin and to reduce withdrawals stories on water security for a certain region or user might during dry years. Establishing a good governance structure well spell disaster for downstream regions or users. Water has provided a turning point for the lake’s recovery. security for all members of a transboundary setting present complex challenges but can also offer useful lessons where it has been achieved. 5 This initiative was launched in 2010 between UNEP and the Nile Basin Initiative, and is currently in its concluding stages. 10 Water Security and the Global Water Agenda - A UN-Water Analytical Brief Cooperation over the Rhine River, Europe. The Rhine Making progress towards water security in the Nile River is shared among nine countries and has an impor- Basin. The Nile Basin is the main source of water in the tant economic value, particularly for the Netherlands and north-eastern region of Africa and is also one of the Germany, but also for other riparian countries, such as world’s most politically sensitive and vulnerable basins. Switzerland and France. At the beginning of the coopera- Water resources are under considerable stress due to a tion process in 1831, through the adoption of the Conven- number of factors, including demographic, economic, tion of Mainz, water security was mainly defined in terms social and climate changes, which in turn can exacer- of navigation: the right for all to use the river and the bate political tensions. The implementation of measures duty of countries to provide infrastructure to make that for achieving water security locally can have important possible. Over the years, cooperation on the Rhine has impacts regionally, particularly for downstream users. For evolved to encompass a broader approach to international example, a project on adapting to climate change-induced water management, including security issues such as the water stress in the Nile River Basin5 (UNEP, 2013) involving protection of fisheries, water quality, ecology and flooding. a variety of partners, including key representatives from These efforts have resulted in a considerable improve- riparian states and regional institutions, aims at addressing ment in the quality and ecological condition of the Rhine. this situation to help strengthen future water security in At the same time, the riparian countries have developed the Nile Basin, with the additional benefit of encouraging effective operational systems to coordinate their actions dialogue and facilitating cooperation in a sensitive area during emergency situations such as disasters and extreme important to all riparian countries. While collaboration weather conditions (floods and droughts). can be challenging, it is the only option if long-term water security and stable development are to be achieved. Section 3 Policy Relevance of Water Security Water security consists of various dimensions, as detailed this right into national policy and/or legislation through in the previous sections, which have interlinked impacts new strategies, laws, and constitutional amendments and consequences. Each of these dimensions has its (Boyd, 2012). This movement has fostered a new focus and own set of policy implications, which increasingly need emphasis on addressing the concerns of those who have to be coordinated if water security challenges are to be traditionally been vulnerable, marginalized or left behind. addressed holistically. This section explores the relevance of water security to policy formulation on a number of key The UN resolution on the human right to water and dimensions – from human rights, to development, to the sanitation acts as a catalyst for further policy discus- protection of ecosystems. sion between stakeholders and across sectors, and in the development of programmes that make possible the full realization of the rights of individuals and 3A. Water Security and Human Rights communities. Progress toward realizing such fundamental human rights would strengthen the participation of all Recognition of the human right to safe drinking stakeholders, increasing their transparency and account- water and sanitation by the United Nations General ability. The integration of these human rights also empha- Assembly and the UN Human Rights Council is an sizes the role of water and sanitation in ensuring water important step towards ensuring water security at the security, two areas identified as major bottlenecks for the individual and community levels. Since the adoption progressive realization of universal access. of the UN resolutions on the human right to water and sanitation (United Nations General Assembly, 2010; United A human rights-based approach to water security Nations General Assembly Human Rights Council, 2010b), addresses critical gaps and bottlenecks, emphasizing an increasing number of states have explicitly integrated the establishment of regulatory and enforcement Water Security and the Global Water Agenda - A UN-Water Analytical Brief 12 mechanisms for efficiency, participation, and account- Access to improved drinking water ability. The formal recognition of a human right to water and sanitation will not in itself alter the realities on the ground, such as water scarcity, polluted wells and rivers, poor governance, a lack of investments in infrastructure, or the prevalence of inequalities. Nevertheless, it has already generated political will, providing a framework for development, conflict resolution, and accountability in the water services sector (see Box 2). By establishing clear legal obligations and reporting requirements for states resulting from the right to water and sanitation, the UN General Assembly (UNGA) Resolution and related declarations may One in 6 people worldwide - 783 million don't have access to improved drinking water sources. Source: World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) Joint Monitoring Programme on Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) lead to increased investments in these sectors, creating an environment that will facilitate the realization of other or conflicts. Given the inherent relationship of water to a basic human rights that are critical to human dignity and wide range of cross-sectoral issues, recognition of water the full enjoyment of life. security by the UNSC would be seen as a renewed effort to address water issues within national and international Water requirements for our basic needs policy. This is especially crucial in light of increasing water stress, scarcity, competition and water risks worldwide (see also Section 2A on Water and Human Security). The UN suggests that each person needs 50 40 30 20-50 litres of water a day to ensure their basic needs for drinking, cooking & cleaning 3B. Human and Economic Development through Water Security Investment in water security is a long-term pay-off for human development and economic growth, with immediate visible short-term gains. Significant upfront investments may be required, but these will pay off in the 20 long term through better institutions, increased capacity, 10 improved levels of human well-being, environmental sustainability, economic production, and reduced conflicts. 0 Source: World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) In the short term, water security can lead to increases in employment and education opportunities, especially for The momentum created by the UNGA resolution on women and girls who often bear the brunt of responsi- the human right to water and sanitation can help bility for collecting water. In the long term, it results in bring the larger water security agenda to the atten- reductions in health-care spending, productivity losses tion of the United Nations Security Council. Water and labour diversions (UNDP, 2006). Investments in water security is dependent upon a sense of security at the security — including water services, capacity building, individual level, which can be assured through recognition good governance, the maintenance of water-related of the human right to water and sanitation. Recognition ecosystem services, and natural infrastructure — mitigate by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) of water the need for corrective measures and to some extent, the security issues would highlight the need for states to clarify need for significant funds funnelled through channels such obligations to prioritize human water use at the individual as development aid. and community level as part of efforts to minimize tensions Section 3. Policy Relevance of Water ater Security 13 Box 2: Service Criteria for the Human Right to Water (a) Sufficient quantity: Water must be available in a quantity sufficient to satisfy all personal and domestic needs. (b) Water quality: Water must not pose a threat to human health. (c) Regularity of supply: Water supply must be sufficiently reliable to allow for the collection of amounts sufficient to realize all personal and domestic needs over the day. (d) Safety of sanitation facilities: Human, animal and insect contact with human excreta must be effectively prevented. Regular maintenance, cleaning and – depending on the technology – emptying is necessary to that extent. Sludge and sewage must be properly disposed of to avoid negative impacts on water quality and human health. (e) Acceptability: Sanitation facilities, in particular, must be culturally acceptable. This will, for instance, often require privacy as well as separate male and female facilities. (f) Accessibility of services: Services must be available within or in the immediate vicinity of each household as well as schools, workplaces, health-care settings and public places. Access must be ensured in a sustainable manner. (g) Affordability of services: Regulation has to set standards regarding pricing. Water and sanitation services do not have to be provided for free and tariffs are necessary to ensure the sustainability of service provision. To meet human rights standards, the essential criterion is that tariffs and connection costs are designed in a way, including through social policies, that makes them affordable to all people, including those living in extreme poverty. Source: United Nations General Assembly Human Rights Council, 2010a: Para 47, pp.16-17. Prioritizing water security through access to water, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Despite sanitation and wastewater management leads to its core link to development, the centrality of water greater returns on social and economic growth and to achieving the MDGs has been largely overlooked. development, from the individual to the national Water security must therefore figure prominently in the level. The lack of availability and access to basic water and post-2015 development framework, including through sanitation services impedes individuals and communities the setting of targets and indicators that reflect water’s from achieving greater levels of well-being and benefitting cross-cutting value to food, energy, and other priority from opportunities for social and economic development. This is particularly true for the most poor and vulnerable segments of the population, such as women and children. Investing in water and sanitation and wastewater management will lead to increased levels of human health, reduced levels of poverty and indigence, and increased opportunities for education and employment, resulting in overall national economic development. Water security is embedded in development goals – as shown through the Millennium Development Decrease in education time As it takes more time to gather water and fuel, the available time for education or other economic and political activities decreases. Already, the majority of children worldwide who do not attend school are girls. Goals (MDGs) – and lies at the heart of progress, and needs to continue to be included in the future Source: UN Women Water Security and the Global Water Agenda - A UN-Water Analytical Brief 14 Figure 1. The Water-Food-Energy Nexus 3C. Exploring the Water-Food-Energy Security Nexus Water Water, food and energy are inextricably linked security to d de ee d is n foo ter ow Wa gr to rts po ns ter tra wa od al) Fo irtu (v Wa ge ter i ne s n rat ee e e de ne d rg En y to ergy su is pp ne ly ed wa ed ter concerns and form a critical nexus for understanding Food can be used to produce energy and food are strategic resources sharing many comparable attributes: there are billions of people without access to them; there is rapidly growing global demand for each of them; each faces resource constraints; each depends upon healthy ecosystems; each is a global good with trade implications; each has different regional availability and varia- Energy is needed to produce food Energy and addressing development challenges. Water, energy tions in supply and demand; and each operates in heavily Food Adapted from: Water - A Global Innovation Outlook Report, IBM, 2009) development areas. The SDG process must consider incor- regulated markets (Bazilian et al., 2011). In this way, water, food and energy are fundamental to the functioning of society, closely interlinked (see Figure 1), and associated with deep security concerns. Global Water Use porating a goal and targets for achieving water security as a means of attaining economic and social development and environmental sustainability. Progress in many of the future post-2015 goals will be determined by how governments respond to the water crisis and whether they value water-related ecological services and incorporate these 70% for irrigation 20% for industry services into decision-making and development strategies (UNDP, 2006). 10% for domestic use There needs to be increased investments in human development initiatives with a strong focus on water. Source: World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) Such initiatives should include development of capacities that encourage equity, empowerment, participatory and transparent decision- and policy-making processes, sustain- The nexus perspective focuses on the interdepend- ability, productivity and accountability. The private sector ence of water, energy and food, and recognizes their offers one possible channel for increased funding and interconnectedness and the potential consequences could be combined with traditional sources of financing of one sector on another. Institutional mechanisms from governments and donors. Investors are reluctant to within governments and other governance structures invest in water-insecure areas, even though these places follow narrow mandates along sectoral lines, creating are the most in need of investment for development fundamental disconnects. This has often led to negative (Adeel, 2012; Grey and Sadoff, 2007). Making progress impacts, especially for the most vulnerable and marginal- towards water security will therefore create new invest- ized, including hindrance of a transition towards a greener ment opportunities and improve the climate for local economy, acceleration of ecosystem degradation, deple- entrepreneurs. tion of natural resources, and slow progress towards development goals (Bonn2011 Nexus Conference, 2012). Addressing this security nexus in a holistic manner will Section 3. Policy Relevance of Water ater Security 15 allow for greater efficiency based on systems thinking and a holistic, nexus-driven approach that takes into account prevent unintended negative externalities when imple- interdependencies across sectors and coordinated decision- mented through policy integration and harmonization. making, the management of trade-offs and synergies can support a transition to sustainability (see also Section 4A Daily water requirement on Responding to Water Security Challenges). The daily drinking water requirement per person is 2-4 litres, but it takes 2,000 to 5,000 litres of Developing economies pose a critical challenge in the water to produce one person's daily food. social, and political stability as well as raising issues of water-food-energy security nexus affecting economic, equity. Emerging economies are characterized by common challenges such as population growth, increasing rates of urbanization, large investment needs in infrastructure development, the emergence of new consumers, and the impacts of climate change on freshwater availability. These challenges will place additional stress on water resources, with serious drink per day consequences for water, energy and food sectors in these countries, especially at the local level. The convergence of drivers on the water-food-energy nexus threatens water security, posing risks for public health, political stability, and continued economic growth in many developing regions of food per day Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) the world, with Asia being a notable example (see Box 3). Re-orienting policy frameworks will help to address the challenges in the water-food-energy security Adopting a holistic approach towards the water- nexus. First, governments need to strengthen public energy-food security nexus can help reduce the policies, including planning systems and appropriate potential for conflicts and tensions. The increasing pricing, gradually removing energy, agricultural and water interdependencies of water, food and energy may raise subsidies, to ensure productive and efficient use of security concerns and create flashpoints for instability. The resources. Second, governments can work to reduce linkages between these three strategic resources make market failures by improving access to capital, enabling them central to achieving security, with their securitiza- innovation, and supporting property rights for co-manage- tion increasingly being recognized in global dialogues (The ment of common pool resources. Third, governments Water, Energy & Food Security Nexus, Bonn 2011; Food can promote better supply and demand management by Security in Dry Lands Conference, Qatar 2012; Interna- forging stronger links between water resources, the sectors tional Water Summit, Abu Dhabi 2013). By incorporating that use or produce those resources, and global markets. Box 3: Growing Demand for Water, Food and Energy in Asia As population growth and urbanization rates in the region rise, stress on water resources in Asia is rapidly intensifying. For multiple reasons, already as many as 635 million people in Asia lack access to safe water, and 1.9 billion people lack access to effective sanitation (JMP, 2012). Strong income growth is also leading to changes in diets, favouring foods such as meat, which use more water inputs. Demand for energy is also expected to increase, particularly in China and India, where projections for water, energy and food in those countries suggest a sharp increase to keep up with demand and growth. Ensuring a secure supply of water, food and energy is essential given Asia Pacific’s growing population, increasing demands, and increasingly scarce water and land resources. Water Security and the Global Water Agenda - A UN-Water Analytical Brief 16 Finally, governments must ensure increased consistency poverty (World Bank, 2006), while clima te change could and coherence in decision- and policy-making processes. increase global malnutrition by up to 25% by 2080 (Fischer et al., 2002). 3D. Climate Change and Water Security Daily water requirement The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts yields from rain-dependent agriculture could be down by 50 percent by 2020 Climate change impacts will have direct consequences for water security, which will vary according to geographic location. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) points towards a great vulnerability of freshwater resources as a result of climate change, with severe consequences for economic, social and ecological systems (IPCC, 2008; IPCC, 2012). The effect on water security will differ regionally and will depend upon a number of factors, including geographic location and features, conditions of water availability and utilization, demographic changes, Today 2020 existing management and allocation systems, legal frameworks for water management, existing governance structures Source: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and institutions, and the resilience of ecosystems. Changes in the hydrological cycle will threaten existing Rainfall to affect poverty figures water infrastructure, making societies more vulnerable to extreme water-related events and resulting It is predicted that rainfall variability alone could push over 12 million people into absolute poverty, while some predictions indicate that climate change could increase ease global malnutrition by up to 25% by 2080. in increased insecurity. As witnessed by hurricane Sandy on the north-eastern coast of the United States in late 2012, extreme water events can increase water insecurity by affecting the functioning and operation of water infrastructure, including hazard protection, storage and delivery capacity, and pollution and wastewater management. Poor and marginalized communities can be even more affected, yet have much less capacity to adequately cope due to underlying factors such as environmental mismanagement, rapid Source:United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and unplanned urbanization in hazardous areas, and failed governance (IPCC, 2012). A majority of impacts from climate change will be on the water cycle, resulting in higher climatic and Ensuring water security in the face of climate change hydrological variability, with important consequences can be achieved through appropriate adaptation for societies and their water security. The IPCC (2012) measures. Climate change impacts, combined with social, expects an increased incidence of droughts due to decreasing political and governance factors, will generate new or trends in precipitation in some areas, while others will see an exacerbate existing water insecurities as availability, supply increasing incidence of floods and other extreme events such and demand of freshwater resources are increasingly as cyclones due to increasing trends in precipitation intensity. affected (UN-Water, 2010). Adaptation options, innova- Similarly, increased risk of water supplies or increased risk tive thinking, and more use of traditional knowledge of sea-level rise will follow the melting of glaciers, while are urgently needed in order to reduce water insecurity. increased temperature and saltwater intrusion from rising UN-Water (2010) has made recommendations in this sea levels will compromise water quality. Rainfall variability direction (see Box 4), addressing issues of governance and alone could push more than 12 million people into absolute knowledge generation, among others. Section 3. Policy Relevance of Water ater Security 17 Box 4: Recommendations from UN-Water on Improving Water Security through Adaptation to Climate Change a) Mainstream adaptation within the broader development context. Adaptation measures should be integrated into national development plans, establishing links with policies addressing food and energy security, poverty reduction, disaster risk reduction and environmental protection. b) Strengthen governance and improve water and wastewater management. Participative, multi-stakeholder dialogue mechanisms should be established at various geographical scales (including transboundary), preferably within the context of IWRM frameworks. Mandates of relevant institutions need to be clarified and strengthened to ensure inter-sectoral planning and decision-making within legal frameworks and instruments. c) Improve and share knowledge and information on climate and adaptation measures, and invest in data collection. The decline of hydrological networks needs to be stopped and reversed so that decision-making can be based on solid empirical evidence. Hydrological data need to be freely shared between stakeholders, and several gaps in knowledge need to be filled. International research needs to be strengthened in order to assess uncertainties such as those generated by climate change. d) Build long-term resilience through stronger institutions, and invest in infrastructure and in well-functioning ecosystems. Managing risks and building capacity to deal with unpredictable events should be a priority, especially among the most vulnerable rural and urban poor. Systematic assessments of climate change resilience of all utilities, including rural water and sanitation programmes, are needed. ‘No regrets’ investment schemes are needed for both ‘hard’ adaptation measures such as infrastructure and ‘soft’ adaptation measures such as incentives and demand management. e) Invest in cost-effective and adaptive water and wastewater management and technology transfer. The development and transfer of technologies, appropriately adapted to local conditions, must be facilitated, and the capacity to implement and operate them supported. f) Leverage additional funds through both increased national budgetary allocations and innovative funding mechanisms for adaptation in water management. Improving adaptive capacity calls for more intelligent use of existing financing, targeted towards the most vulnerable groups and ecosystems. The full range of financing options needs to be used, including innovative financing mechanisms, private sources and public funding from developed countries. Source: UN-Water, 2010. 3E. The Role of Ecosystems in Ensuring Water Security and floods, and supporting water availability in soils which underpins food security. Ecosystems no longer capable of providing water services will have a direct impact on Water security and ecosystems have a reciprocal providing key services for human, water and other securities. relationship necessary for the enhancement of both. The relationship between water security and ecosystems Ensuring that ecosystems are protected and conserved is one of mutual benefit and support: ensuring that there is central to achieving water security – both for is sufficient, good quality fresh water available to support people and for nature. Ecosystems are vital to sustaining the functioning of ecosystems will lead to ecosystems that the quantity and quality of water available within a water- are healthy and capable of providing the water needed shed, on which both nature and people rely. Nature alone for the benefit of human and natural communities. Such cannot guarantee water security for people – it is based on benefits include providing clean water, mitigating droughts contributions of nature and human ingenuity, where both Water Security and the Global Water Agenda - A UN-Water Analytical Brief 18 Box 5: Water Security, Fresh Water and Ecosystem Services Freshwater resources, including rivers, lakes and wetlands, are degrading at the fastest rate compared to any other major biome (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010). This poses a key threat to water security and related ecosystem services. Many water-related ecosystem services are clearly related to water security for humans, such as drinking water provision. Less obvious services are just as important: for example, sediment flows underpin land integrity, maintaining the resilience of coastal and delta regions to extreme weather events, such as storms and flooding. The following four broad categories of services provided by fresh water and related natural systems express the close and mutually dependent relationship between ecosystems and water security: a) Provisioning services or goods, which are often more visible and traded, including food, fibres and energy; b) Regulating services, such as water purification, groundwater recharge and balancing, prevention of saltwater intrusion into coastal watersheds, flood control, and sediment transport and deposition; c) Supporting services, which underpin other services, such as nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary production, habitat provision and biodiversity maintenance; and, d) Cultural services, ranging from recreational opportunities to aesthetic and spiritual values. Source: MA, 2003. built and natural infrastructure are needed for efficient and effective management of water resources. Protecting water resources is essential for supporting the diverse domestic, agricultural, energy and industrial needs of humans, but also for supporting ecosystems from ridge to reef (GEF, 2004) and the key benefits they provide (see Box 5). Sufficient fresh water, of both quantity and quality, is needed in order to ensure that ecosystems function Our freshwater resources The total volume of water on Earth is about 1.4 billion km3. The volume of freshwater resources is around 35 million km3, or about 2.5 percent of the total volume. properly, underpinning basic water security. Ecosystems, and the living things that depend upon them – including humans – are adapted to specific water conditions. Our current hydrological cycle has provided a period of relative stability on which we have come to rely (Sandford, 2012). Although ecosystems can cope with and adapt to variations in conditions, significant changes in water quantity, quality and timing will increase their stress and represent risks to their continued functioning and the life they support, thereby posing a risk to overall water security. Decision-makers must understand the value of functioning ecosystems and their benefits (see Box 6), so that they make choices that incorporate freshwater Source: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Section 3. Policy Relevance of Water ater Security Freshwater availability is limited 19 conservation considerations into decisions, from planning through to implementation and monitoring of projects. Maintaining the integrity of ecosystems before they The total usable freshwater supply for ecosystems and humans is about 200,000 km3 become compromised is an essential component of achieving water security and reducing the potential for conflicts. The continuous pace of human development is threatening the capacity of ecosystems to adapt, raising concerns that ecosystems will reach a tipping point less than 1 percent of all freshwater resources after which they are no longer able to provide sustaining functions and services, and will become unable to recover their integrity and functions (Maas, 2012). Establishing sustainability boundaries will set the capacity of ecosystems before their limit is surpassed, acting as a preventa- Source:United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) tive measure before crises and conflicts arise. Box 6: Increasing Water Security through Natural Infrastructure Solutions for water security that incorporate natural infrastructure can enhance efficiency, effectiveness and equity, but also spur implementation and progress towards long-term availability of water for all. Benefits include, among others: Increase in drinking water supply: Watershed management saved US $5 billion in capital costs for New York City and US $300 million annually (Maître and Davis, 2001), and storage of Beijing’s drinking water in Miyun watershed forests is worth US $1.9 billion annually (Wu et al., 2010). Improved sanitation and wastewater management: The Nakivumbo swamp provides water purification for Kampala, Uganda worth US $2 million per year compared to costs of US $235,000 (Russi et al., 2012). Increased food security: Tonle Sap lake and Mekong river fisheries supply 70-75% of people’s animal protein intake in Cambodia; they are worth up to US $500 million annually and employ 2 million people (MRC, 2005). Reliable energy security: Investment in soil conservation has significantly extended the life expectancy of the Itaipu dam in Brazil and Paraguay (Kassam et al., 2012), and watershed management has been worth US $15-40 million for the Paute hydro-electric scheme in Ecuador (Emerton and Bos, 2004) Drought management: Watershed restoration on the Loess Plateau, China has eliminated the need for drought-related emergency food aid to a region that is home to 50 million people (World Bank, 2013). Climate change resilience: With investment in developing skills and water institutions, people in the Pangani river basin, Tanzania, are negotiating ‘environmental flows’ to sustain the ecosystem services they need for climate change adaptation, food and water security (Welling et al., 2011). Restored rivers: In the USA, 15 jobs are created for every US $1 million invested in river restoration (Kantor, 2012). Section 4 Policy Response Options The UN system is poised to play a key role in facilitating and changing circumstances in order to meet unique the achievement of water security through internal and challenges and needs. external collaboration with stakeholders such as governments, water and research institutions, communities and Achieving water security requires a holistic approach individuals. This section highlights the key supporting and a long-term perspective. Although progress has elements needed to achieve water security – policies, been made in some areas, serious challenges undermine capacities, governance mechanisms and structures – and human, social and economic development, such as absent options for addressing water security challenges. or still unreliable water supply and sanitation services, wastewater collection and treatment, extreme weather events, and degraded ecosystems. These challenges call 4A. Responding to Water Security Challenges for a consideration of plausible future scenarios in order to create policy responses capable of coping with the increasingly complex context of our world (see Box 7). Increasing water security will require tailored policy responses that can be adapted to local, national Policies are needed on water planning, allocation and and regional contexts. While different scenarios can pricing, aimed at increasing water security through offer insights into how water systems might look in the increased water efficiency in industrial, agricultural future (see Box 7), proposed policy responses will build a and domestic water use, while ensuring affordability foundation to strengthen and enhance the ability of water for those who are unable to pay. Pricing water artifi- systems to withstand changes and the uncertainties of the cially lower than its actual cost, including as a result of future. Countries with flexible policy foundations and legal subsidies, all too often leads to increased demand, waste frameworks will enable them to adapt to a specific context and overuse across the domestic, agricultural and indus- Water Security and the Global Water Agenda - A UN-Water Analytical Brief 22 Box 7: Developing Scenarios under the World Water Assessment Programme The World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) has developed “Five Stylized Scenarios” (Gallopin, 2012) to explore how the world water systems might evolve between the next 20 and 40 years, considering a number of main driving forces that are setting and will continue to set future trends (e.g. demography, economy, technology, climate change, etc.). These scenarios set a useful analytical framework that conveys the urgency of achieving water security, especially in those countries that are already waterinsecure. In 2013, the “Water Futures and Solutions: World Water Scenarios” project, endorsed by UN-Water, entered its new 5-year phase, with plans to announce its interim findings in 2015 at the 7th World Water Forum. This new phase will focus on developing plausible scenarios and testing options to address the challenges for their sustainability. Conventional World economy economy wellbeing 3 wellbeing technology 1 technology global cooperation 1 water stress population 0 values economy 3 wellbeing 2 2 water stress Global Conciousness Conflict-world climate change 0 global cooperation ecosystem health values population values values climate change ecosystem health economy technology 1 water stress 0 population climate change 3 2 2 global cooperation population Techno-world technology 0 0 global cooperation ecosystem health wellbeing 3 1 1 water stress climate change economy water stress technology 2 Conventional World Gone Sour wellbeing 3 global cooperation values population climate change ecosystem health ecosystem health Figure: The Five Stylized Scenarios (Gallopin, 2012). trial sectors. Establishing policies on water pricing that Creation of an enabling environment and supporting reflect its actual cost, including the cost of infrastructure, policies for the use of unconventional water sources, delivery of services and treatment, and the economic value such as wastewater management, for the redeploy- of water itself, would encourage better use and conserva- ment, recovery and reuse of water for human and tion, thus enabling society to meet its increasing demands other competing uses, is needed. There is enormous with limited available freshwater resources. Virtual water potential for wastewater to contribute to achieving water trade flows help to alleviate the burden of limited water security, particularly in areas with acute levels of freshwater resources in water-scarce countries; however, this needs scarcity and increasing problems of water quality deterio- to be set in the context of equitable international trade ration. Wastewater treatment and reuse, supported by that considers comparative advantages amongst trading relevant research and pertinent policy-level interventions, countries and ensures equitable flow of benefits. can transform this untapped resource from an environ- Section 4. Policy Response Options 23 Global water scarcity Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) mental burden and health constraint into an economic Innovative financial mechanisms can contribute to the goal asset that contributes to achieving water security while of achieving water security through a supportive policy maintaining the health of people and the environment. environment. Traditionally, the majority of financing for Appropriate policies can guide the use of non-conventional initiatives that help to achieve water security has come from water sources, including sufficient financial commitment the public sector (Adeel, 2012). New and innovative sources for policy implementation and education of stakeholders, of financing require a policy arena conducive to ensuring supported by increased collaboration between researchers, that investments are protected and can provide secure international organizations, governments, and water users options for long-term financing. Options include invest- (Qadir et al., 2006). Such policies could include water ments from the private sector, micro-financing schemes, planning, setting appropriate standards for water re-use, and innovations such as crowdsourcing. market-based reallocation, watershed management, and payment for ecosystem services. 4B. Capacity Development to Ensure Water Security Water withdrawals The lack of capacity related to water – human, financial, institutional, technological, and serviceprovisioning – is a major hurdle towards achieving water security. As water security has social, humani- Water withdrawals are predicted to increase by 50 percent by 2025 in developing countries, and 18 percent in developed countries. Today tarian, economic, legal and environmental dimensions, it requires an equally wide range of capacities and expertise that go beyond the immediate management of available water resources. In particular, capacity development at the institutional level is of great importance, as it sets 2025 Source: Global Environment Outlook: environment for development (GEO-4) The total volume of water on the framework for capitalizing on human capacities and coordinating multi-sectoral policies. In many countries, such institutional frameworks, particularly those which allow 24 Water Security and the Global Water W ater Agenda - A UN-Water Analytical Brief for trans-sectoral decision- and policy-making, are often increasing water-related capacities depends on increasing poorly developed. the number of adequately educated and trained water professionals, or developing the institutions required for Water security will require a wide range of capacities, adequate water management to support water security. using a multi-disciplinary approach to adequately address a similarly wide range of demands. Water Increased capacity for water security depends on resources are needed to satisfy a wide range of demands, data availability on the quantity and quality of water from drinking water supply to agriculture and energy resources, as well as financing for implementation of production, to water for ecosystems. Increased demand interventions. Sound management of water resources affects trade, commerce and economic growth and devel- relies as much upon the knowledge of available water opment, calling for increased skills and capacity to assess resources and their dynamics as well as on their uses and and monitor resources, understand the impacts of global users. Such management can only be achieved with data change to better inform on suitable adaptation strate- of sufficient quality, which requires adequate human and gies, prepare for disasters, increase cooperation between financial resources. Better quality data and monitoring countries that share transboundary resources, integrate and reporting of water resources will lead to an increase the value of ecosystem services into policy, and support in knowledge, which will support the ability to make ongoing cross-sectoral dialogue and mutual learning informed decisions for enhancing water security through among those making decisions. better water resources management. Capacity development is needed at different levels Capacity development is a long-term process based and requires a cross-sectoral enabling environment on incentives, good governance, leadership, and that supports water security. Capacity will be needed at knowledge management and transfer, which needs various levels, from individual to organizational and insti- to be continuously adapted according to stake- tutional, in order to reduce vulnerability to water insecu- holders’ feedback and needs. Capacity development rity, with poor capacity at various levels and across disci- is an organic learning process based on agreed norms, plines often cited as a major hurdle to the attainment of respect for value systems and fostering of self-esteem. water security (UNW-DPC, UNESCO-IHP and BMU, 2009; For capacity development to be successful, it needs to UNEP, 2012). Supporting policies, laws and infrastructures integrate external inputs into national priorities, processes will create the right enabling environment to allow for and systems, build upon existing capacities rather than increased capacity based on environmental potentials and create new ones, remain engaged under difficult circum- limits and country- or region-specific needs (UNEP, 1993). stances, and, above all, remain accountable to the ultimate Such policies need to reach across disciplinary and insti- beneficiaries (OECD, 2006). Capacity development requires tutional boundaries so that water resources management accountability through the monitoring of outcomes and can take place in an integrated and sustainable way. impacts from the perspective of its beneficiaries. Policy-makers need to identify existing capacities, as The UN-system, and in particular UN-Water, can well as gaps, in order to properly address the water address gaps in capacity by emphasizing collabo- security challenge. Such assessments need to be under- ration amongst agencies, fostering trans-sectoral taken at both the institutional and relevant geographical coordination at the national level, providing educa- (national, river basin, etc.) levels. At the individual level, tion and training to support institutional capacity an assessment of human capacities for water services and development, and establishing a knowledge commu- climate change freshwater adaptation is needed (WMO nity to address water security challenges. Capacity and UNESCO, 1997); at the institutional level, an assess- development leading to improved water security requires ment of performance and capacity to respond to changing applying trans-disciplinary, multi-level, multi-stakeholder, circumstances is essential (WWAP, 2012). In many regions, and gender-sensitive approaches. Through UN-Water, such Section 1. A Working Definition of Water Security 25 Box 8: A List of Key Issues Critical for Establishing Good Water Governance The following issues constitute useful benchmarks to gauge how well a country’s water legislation and institutions respond to evolving socio-economic and environmental conditions, and what kind of reform will help to achieve related water security goals. 1) Establishing the river basin and/or the aquifer system, as appropriate, as the basic bio-geographic unit for water management, requiring coordination and cooperation between political units across national and international borders; 2) In areas where important groundwater aquifers do not coincide with river basins, special attention should be given to the coordination and cooperation over these aquifers, particularly in establishing mechanisms and incentives that move away from unsustainable groundwater pumping to the sustainable management of groundwater resources; 3) Reconciling the security of water rights with risk, uncertainty of resource availability and supply, and sustainability through measures such as the periodical review of permits, avoidance of monopolization, and transfer of negative externalities; 4) Pursuing efficiency gains and providing for dispute resolution mechanisms, in order to offer equity and flexibility in the allocation of water rights among competing uses; 5) Prioritizing the environment and vital human rights in water allocation policies, laws and decisionmaking processes, including requirements to assess and manage environmental flows; 6) Integrating water resources management of surface and underground waters with land and biological resources governance; 7) Empowering water users and other stakeholders to take on greater responsibility, access relevant information and administrative and judicial remedies, and participate in decision-making processes regarding water management and allocation; 8) Accounting for customary water allocation systems, rights and practices at the local level, where these exist; 9) Strengthening risk management of water-related natural hazards, including the use of early warning systems; 10) Protecting freshwater ecosystems of high conservation value from infrastructure development, including the designation and management of protected areas. Source: Burchi, 2012. approaches can be achieved through the integration of new partners, associates, sub-regional and country 4C. Improved Water Governance and Water Security networks, catalysers, brokers, donors, capacity development and demand centres, which can scale up capacity at Good governance is a prerequisite to achieving water all relevant levels. Other factors include capacity-building security, as the international community has long courses, educational materials based on experiences and and repeatedly recognized. Poor governance mecha- lessons learned from all regions, and technical advisory nisms, expressed through weak legislative and institutional assistance to identify relevant expertise. arrangements, underinvestment, poorly enforced legislation and accountability mechanisms, and corruption, Water Security and the Global Water Agenda - A UN-Water Analytical Brief 26 hamper efforts to achieve water security (International tory support, capacity for change, adaptive management Freshwater Conference, Bonn 2001; World Water Forum, structures, new forms of relationships, and multi-layered Istanbul 2009; World Water Forum, Marseille 2012). models capable of integrating complex natural and social Governance mechanisms necessary for water security dimensions (see Box 8). A number of international instru- include operating capacity, transparency, participation, ments have been under development for the last two accountability, and access to legal recourse. Such objec- decades (see Box 9). In response to emerging threats and tives are best achieved through formal agreements and trends, such as climate change and rapid economic and processes at the national and international levels. population growth, different regions are already modernizing and reforming water legislation and water manage- Good water governance relies on well-designed, ment systems. For example, among Latin American and empowered institutions to enact and enforce legisla- Caribbean countries, there has been a growing moderniza- tive and policy instruments and are conducive to the tion of the sector’s legal frameworks, which, in many cases, attainment of predetermined social, economic and were non-existent or obsolete (Hantke-Domas, 2011). environmental goals associated with water security. Governance may be expressed through different organi- Financing is essential for good water governance, zational structures and arranged according to local condi- with the private sector poised to play a key role in tions, capacities and agreed domestic and international this regard. Global business has already put water on its policy goals. Governance structures must take into account agenda in recognition of the importance of reliable water power groups and local arrangements when designing supplies and healthy living conditions and the associated systems aimed at improving water security in an efficient need to manage business risks. As a next step, corporate and sustainable manner. For example, a review of national water stewardship should adopt a more consistent and water governance systems shows a variety of water alloca- transparent approach to the development and enforce- tion mechanisms, such as those that grant permits by ment of modern legislation. Such recognition has already competent authorities, those which are market-based, or a begun through the establishment of the UN Global combination of both (Le Quesne et al., 2007). Compact (United Nations Global Compact, 2012), which prioritizes good governance together with corporate devel- Water governance is an evolving process that opment and growth. Cooperation of the private sector requires continuous refinement as it responds to new with water authorities on capacity-building, data genera- challenges, information, experiences, and problems. tion, and technology transfer will further support increased Achieving water security requires institutional and regula- capacity in governance. Box 9: Existing Global Legal Frameworks for Transboundary Water Management A number of countries have been working to ratify existing framework water conventions and implement related guidelines and best practices; some examples of relevant instruments include the following: • The 1997 UN Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, which today counts 30 contracting states – only 5 short of the number required for entry into force; • The 1992 UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, expected to be open for accession by all UN member states by late 2013 or early 2014; in the meantime, countries can benefit from the wealth of knowledge and tools developed to facilitate its implementation; and, • The 2008 ILC Draft Articles on the Law of Transboundary Aquifers, which should be considered in terms of how they can be best applied to specific aquifers. References 27 References 10th International River Symposium and International Environmental Flows Conference, 2007. 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Zeitoun, M., 2011. “The Global Web of National Water Security”, Global Policy 2(3): 286-296. List of Acronyms 37 List of Acronyms AIDA Association for International Development Agencies BEFS Bioenergy and Food Security Project FAO Food and Agriculture GEF Global Environment Facility GWP Global Water Partnership IAH International Association of Hydrogeologists ICID International Commission on Irrigation & Drainage ICPDR International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River IPCC International Panel on Climate Change IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature JMP Joint Monitoring Programme MDG Millennium Development Goals NBI Nile Basin Initiative SDG Sustainable Development Goals SIWI Stockholm International Water Institute TWM Transboundary Water Management UN United Nations UNCBD United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa UNECLAC United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCWA United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia UNGA United Nations Generaly Assembly UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction UNSC United Nations Security Council UNU United Nations University UNU-EHS United Nations University – Institute for Environment and Human Security UNU-INWEH United Nations University – Institute for Water, Environment and Health UNW-DPC UN-Water Decade Programme on Capacity Development USAID United States Agency for International Development WMO World Monetary Organization WWAP World Water Assessment Programme WWF World Wildlife Fund UN-Water produces a number of documents for a variety of purposes. The purpose of the Analytical Water Brief is to serve as a basis for discussions related to UN-Water’s areas of focus through its Work Programmes, Thematic Priority Areas, and Task Forces. The Analytical Brief is used to identify potential activities for UN-Water and can be used as a tool for substantive discussions with various key stakeholders. The Analytical Brief is published in time for relevant major events and will support UN-Water to engage in discussions on emerging issues.