Prehispanic Use of Chili Peppers in Chiapas, Mexico
Terry G. Powis1*, Emiliano Gallaga Murrieta2,8, Richard Lesure3, Roberto Lopez Bravo4, Louis Grivetti5,
Heidi Kucera6, Nilesh W. Gaikwad7
1 Department of Geography and Anthropology, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia, United States of America, 2 Department of Tourism Administration,
Universidad Autonoma de Chiapas (UNACH), Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico, 3 Department of Anthropology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United
States of America, 4 Instituto Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia-Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico, 5 Department of Nutrition, University of California Davis, Davis,
California, United States of America, 6 Departments of Nutrition and Environmental Toxicology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America,
7 Departments of Nutrition and Environmental Toxicology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America, 8 Department of Anthropology,
University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
Abstract
The genus Capsicum is New World in origin and represents a complex of a wide variety of both wild and domesticated taxa.
Peppers or fruits of Capsicum species rarely have been identified in the paleoethnobotanical record in either Meso- or South
America. We report here confirmation of Capsicum sp. residues from pottery samples excavated at Chiapa de Corzo in
southern Mexico dated from Middle to Late Preclassic periods (400 BCE to 300 CE). Residues from 13 different pottery types
were collected and extracted using standard techniques. Presence of Capsicum was confirmed by ultra-performance liquid
chromatography (UPLC)/MS-MS Analysis. Five pottery types exhibited chemical peaks for Capsicum when compared to the
standard (dihydrocapsaicin). No peaks were observed in the remaining eight samples. Results of the chemical extractions
provide conclusive evidence for Capsicum use at Chiapas de Corzo during a 700 year period (400 BCE–300 CE). Presence of
Capsicum in different types of culinary-associated pottery raises questions how chili pepper could have been used during
this early time period. As Pre-Columbian cacao products sometimes were flavored using Capsicum, the same pottery sample
set was tested for evidence of cacao using a theobromine marker: these results were negative. As each vessel that tested
positive for Capsicum had a culinary use we suggest here the possibility that chili residues from the Chiapas de Corzo
pottery samples reflect either paste or beverage preparations for religious, festival, or every day culinary use. Alternatively,
some vessels that tested positive merely could have been used to store peppers. Most interesting from an archaeological
context was the presence of Capsicum residue obtained from a spouted jar, a pottery type previously thought only to be
used for pouring liquids.
Citation: Powis TG, Gallaga Murrieta E, Lesure R, Lopez Bravo R, Grivetti L, et al. (2013) Prehispanic Use of Chili Peppers in Chiapas, Mexico. PLoS ONE 8(11):
e79013. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079013
Editor: John P. Hart, New York State Museum, United States of America
Received June 11, 2013; Accepted September 18, 2013; Published November 13, 2013
Copyright: ß 2013 Powis et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: The research was funded by a grant to Lesure from the Wenner Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research (Grant 8312). The funders had no role in
study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
* E-mail: tpowis@kennesaw.edu
extent, structure, and timing of chili pepper use or consumption in
the archaeological record remains scant.
The genus Capsicum is New World in origin and contains a
complex of 20–30 wild species and five domesticated taxa: C.
annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, and C. pubescens [2]. Of
the five domesticated species of chili pepper, C. baccatum and C.
chinense initially were domesticated in northern South America
while it is probable that C. annuum, C. frutescens, and C. pubescens
initially were domesticated in Mexico or northern Central
America [2–4].
In South America, researchers have identified starch grains of
Capsicum on artifacts, from milling stones and cooking vessels
recovered from house floors in two early village sites at Loma Alta
and Real Alto in southwestern Ecuador to ca. 6,000 years ago [3].
These microfossil remains represent some of the earliest dated chili
peppers in the New World. Fruits from C. baccatum and C. chinense
in early levels from two coastal Peruvian sites at Huaca Prieta and
Punta Grande were dated to ca. 3800 years ago [4].
In Mesoamerica, Perry and Flannery [5] tentatively identified
8,000 year old stems, possibly from harvested from wild chilis at
Guila Naquitz, a dry cave located in Oaxaca, Mexico. More
Introduction
Upon reaching the New World, Christopher Columbus was one
of the first Europeans to encounter the fruits of Capsicum species,
calling them ‘‘peppers’’ because they had a spicy hot taste unlike
anything else in Europe at the time. Shortly thereafter chili
peppers were being added to dishes prepared in Spain and
Portugal and their culinary use soon spread across Europe and
into Asia. While these peppers likely had significance in the
culinary culture of the New World at the time of Columbus’
voyage [1], the occurrence of cultivated chili peppers (Capsicum
spp.) in earlier times, especially in Mesoamerica, is limited. Our
knowledge of the use of chili peppers among Mesoamerican
groups, such as the Maya, Olmec, and Zoque is limited at best. In
these areas, Capsicum rarely has been identified in the paleoethnobotanical record compared to the presence of other foodstuffs like
beans, maize, manioc, and squash. While archaeobotanists and
archaeologists today have a much clearer picture of the range of
foods used by ancient peoples of Mesoamerica in their daily
subsistence and dietary practices, the information on the nature,
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Chili Pepper Use in Mexico
Figure 1. Map showing the location of Chiapa de Corzo in relation to the Preclassic world (Map made by Lynneth S. Lowe).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079013.g001
convincing evidence, however, was found at Coxcatlan Cave in
the Tehuacan Valley, dated to ca. 6,000 years ago [6]. The
macrofossil data from the Tehuacan Valley site indicates that C.
annuum was domesticated in Mexico at approximately the same
time as the domestication of other Capsicum species in Ecuador.
Domesticated chili peppers also have been recovered from
Guila Naquitz and the nearby site of Silvia’s Cave located in
Oaxaca, Mexico. The excavated cave floors yielded a collection of
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122 chili peppers that could be dated from CE 600-1521. These
well-preserved specimens belonged to both C. annuum and C.
frutescens and were found along with other domesticates including
avocados, beans, maize, and squash. The remains may represent
refuse discarded by work groups who camped in the caves for short
periods of time while away from their village [5]. During
excavations in the tunnel under the Pyramid of the Sun at
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Chili Pepper Use in Mexico
Teotihuacan, researchers identified macrofossil remains of Capsicum sp. in construction fill dating to CE 150–250 [7].
Minnis and Whalen [8] reported first evidence for cultivated
chili, identified as C. annuum, from a site near Casas Grandes/
Paquime in northwestern Chihuahua dating to CE1200–1450.
This charred specimen was excavated from a subfloor trash
deposit in a room at Site 315 located approximately two kilometers
from the Casas Grandes site.
In contrast to these finds, recovery of chili peppers from
archaeological sites in the Maya area has been rare. Based on
archaeological and linguistic evidence, Colunga-Garcia Marin and
Zizumbo-Villarreal [9] have indicated that chili was cultivated by
1700 BC, if not earlier. Lentz [10] concluded that by at least 1200
BCE the ancient Maya had a maize-based system of food
production that included beans, peppers, and squash. Archaeologically, the earliest example of chili in the Maya area comes from
finds associated with Phase II (1000-400 BCE) deposits at Cuello
in northern Belize. This evidence, however, is scant since only one
seed of wild Capsicum sp. was recovered using flotation methods
[11–12]. The Cuello site also revealed wood charcoal from
domesticated chili that was recovered from a sealed chultun
(subterranean storage feature) dated to the Late Preclassic (CE
100–200) period [13]. Another seed, identified as Capsicum sp., was
found at the Late Preclassic site of Cerros in northern Belize [14].
Carbonized peduncles of C. annuum have been identified at Dos
Pilas another Late Classic site in Guatemala [15]. The strongest
chili-related archaeological evidence reported, however, comes
from the site of Ceren in El Salvador where carbonized seeds,
peduncles, and rinds of C. annuum were found in great abundance,
especially in storage rooms and in a kitchen area where they were
suspended from rafters in large clusters. These carbonized remains
were well-preserved by the ash and lava from the Loma Caldera
volcanic eruption in CE 540 [16].
Based on the data presented above, there are relatively few sites
in Mesoamerica, Central America, and South America that
contain remains of Capsicum. All of the specimens recovered to date
are examples of microfossils or macrofossils. No chemical
extractions have been performed on artifacts, whether pottery
vessels or stone tools, to determine the consumption of chili
peppers at sites in either area.
flavors and to make the bitter cacao beverages more palatable
[17–18], [21], [25–29].
Our study tested 13 intact pottery vessels obtained from
stratified deposits excavated under the aegis of the Chiapa de
Corzo Archaeological Project by the New World Archaeological
Foundation (NWAF) between 1955 and 1963. The site is located
near the modern city of Tuxtla Gutierrez, the capital of the State
of Chiapas. Initial investigations by the New World Archaeological
Foundation began at the site during the mid-1950s and have
continued sporadically until today [30–34]. Chiapa de Corzo
contains 81 structures, with numerous temples and palaces, mostly
dating to the Late Preclassic (400 BCE-CE 300) period (Figure 2).
The site was settled sometime approximately 1200 BCE by MixeZoquean speakers who had strong ancestral and economic ties to
Olmec people residing in the Gulf and Pacific Coastal regions of
Mesoamerica. It reached its height between 700-200 BCE, when it
was seen as a cultural intermediary between the Olmec and Maya
civilizations.
We specifically chose vessels suspected to contain chemical
traces of cacao as identified in previous studies at the sites of Colha
located in northern Belize [20] and Puerto Escondido in Honduras
[18], and vessels known to be associated with spouted vessels. Each
of the vessels had been stored in a humidity-controlled environment since their excavation. Accession numbers were given to
each pot from the site (Table 1). All of them were considered to be
whole vessels prior to residue collection. They had all been washed
prior to curation in the Museo Regional de Chiapas. Gratitude to
the Consejo de Arqueologia in Chiapas for providing permission
for our project to proceed and the exportation of the samples for
analysis, as well as to Centro INAH Chiapas for providing the
Chiapa de Corzo samples.
The sample included four spouted jars, four vases, three bowls,
and two floreros (Figure 3, Table 1). All of the vessels are derived
from Middle and Late Preclassic burial and cache offerings in
Mounds 1, 5, 5A, 7, and 17. Five of the 13 vessels were excavated
from the Mound 5 palace located in the center of the site. The 13
vessels were slipped either red, orange, cream, or black. In
addition, they were also modified with either pre-slip incising and
fluting or post-slip incising in a herringbone design. Some of the
bowl forms had tetrapodal supports while the jars exhibited
bridge-spouts.
Chiapa de Corzo Pottery Samples
In the summer of 2012, while looking for the presence of cacao
in a small set of pottery vessels from the site of Chiapa de Corzo,
we identified chemical traces of Capsicum in five samples (Figure 1).
Our initial objective for testing these pots was to confirm the
notion that spouted jars, and associated vessel forms, were used in
the production of cacao beverages as previously reported in the
literature [17–22]. We also wanted to determine, if possible,
whether cacao beverage were consumed plain or mixed with
flavorings.
Research over the past decade into ancient Precolumbian use of
cacao beverages has shown that spouted jars, generally utilized
during the Middle and Late Preclassic (900 BCE-CE 300) periods
across Mesoamerica, were utilized in the serving of this beverage
[17–18], [20–24]. At present, there is limited information on the
extent of types and forms of vessels used to prepare and/or serve
cacao in different contexts (e.g., burials, caches, or from middens).
There is also limited information on the methods and techniques
used to prepare and serve cacao, whether these beverages were
consumed by elite and non-elites alike, and whether the drinks
were fermented. Regarding flavoring these cacao beverages, there
is speculation that achiote, allspice, honey, maize, vanilla, zapote,
various fruits, and/or chili pepper were added to provide different
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Residue Collection
No organic residues were visible on the interior surfaces of these
vessels. Ancient Zoque pottery is low-fired, typically under 850uC,
and therefore is ideal for absorbing and retaining organic
compounds. While there were no visible organics adhering to
the interior of these pottery fabrics, chemical extraction techniques
were necessary for confirmation using a standardized technique
[24]. The interior surface, taken primarily from the base and lower
side walls, of each vessel was lightly scraped using a new piece of
fine-grained sandpaper to remove any substances that may have
permeated the vessel wall. Burr from each sample, ranging from
1–10 grams, was captured on a new sheet of multipurpose white
paper and the material funneled into clean, previously unused
collection vials and immediately sealed. New sheets of sand paper
and multipurpose white paper were used for each sample
collected. This method was rigorously upheld throughout the
collection process to eliminate potential cross-contamination of
sample materials. Following collection, sealed vials were sent to the
Metabolomics Lab in the Department of Nutrition at the
University of California, Davis for analysis.
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Figure 2. Site map of Chiapa de Corzo by CE 500 showing principle structures mentioned in text (Drawing by Ayax Moreno based
on original map by Gareth W. Lowe).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079013.g002
analysis, and that they were loaned to us for one day while we
conducted the residue study.
Laboratory Analysis
Methods
Capsaicin, dehydrocapsaicin, 4-OH, 3-OMe-benzylamine, 3,4Dihydroxybenzylamine and formic acid were purchased from
Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO). All solvents were
mass spectrometry grade and all other chemicals used were of the
highest grade available. Acquity UPLC HSS T3 1.7 mm
(16150 mm) column was purchased from Waters Corporation,
Milford, MA. We confirm that we obtained permission from the
Museo Regional de Chiapas to access the pottery vessels under
Extraction of Chiapa de Corzo Pottery Samples
A total of 13 pottery samples were extracted using the following
procedure. Ninety –200 mg of burr from each sample was
vortexed with 1 ml methanol: chloroform mixture (1:1) for 3
minutes then centrifuged. The resulting precipitate from each
sample was removed and the supernatant was concentrated with
Speed vac. To the residue 100 ul methanol: water (1:1) was added,
Figure 3. Image of the ceramic vessels from Chiapa de Corzo that were sampled for analysis (Photo by Roberto Lopez and Emiliano
Gallaga Murrieta).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079013.g003
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Table 1. Measurement data for the sampled pottery vessels from Chiapa de Corzo.
Sample #
# MRCH
# NWAF
Form
length/height
width
1
10-456167
2327
Tetrapod spout jar
15.5
16
10
2
10-457634
3397
Cylindrical vase
18
13.5
14
3
10-455436
1441
Jar with spout handle
15.5
13.5
9
4
10-250838
5254
Bowl
12
21
13
5
10-456304
2564
Tetrapod spout jar
8.5
9
4
6
10-250780
n/a
Polished white-slip urn
24.2
36.5
25.5
7
10-409571
3855
Sierra Red ‘‘florero’’
33
19.5
18.5
8
10-250781
2643
Sierra Red ‘‘florero’’
26.3
19.5
20
9
10-457648
n/a
Vase
24.2
14.5
16.8
10
10-456351
n/a
Tetrapod bowl
10.9
13.5
8.5
11
10-409637
284
Vase
14
12.6
13
12
10-457512
2643
Tetrapod spout jar
15.6
17
10.5
13
10-457518
3401
Vase
15.4
11.5
12.4
diameter
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079013.t001
Furthermore, the samples shows a presence of peak at 0.80 min
(Figure 6c) that matches well with the standard 4-OH, 3-OMebenzylamine (Figure 6a). Similarly, peak at.81 min (Figure 7c)
matched well with the standard 3, 4-Dihydroxybenzylamine
(Figure 7a). Moreover, there were no corresponding peaks seen
in blank (Figure 5b, 6b and 7b). Additionally, no peaks were seen
in Corzo samples that corresponded with the standard capsaicin
peak (data not shown). Table 3 shows all the dehydrocapsaicin, 4OH, 3-OMe-benzylamine and 3,4-Dihydroxybenzylamine positive Corzo samples (2, 3, and 7), which confirms presence of chili.
The traces amount of 4-OH,3-OMe-benzylamine was found in 1,
6, 8, 9, AND 12 samples, whereas trace amount of 3,4Dihydroxybenzylamine was present in 6 and 7. The rest of the
Chiapa de Corzo samples did not show presence of detectable
peaks at 5.44, 0.82 and 0.81 min. reaction monitoring (MRM)
method for UPLC/MS-MS operation (Table 2).
vortexted and filtered with 5 kD membrane filters. The Filtrates
were transferred to vials for UPLC/MS-MS analysis.
Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC)/MSMS Analysis
A Xevo-TQ triple quadruple mass spectrometer (Waters,
Milford, MA, USA) was used to record MS and MS-MS spectra
using Electro Spray Ionization (ESI) in positive ion (PI) mode,
capillary voltage of 3.0 kV, an extractor cone voltage of 3 V, and a
detector voltage of 500 V. Cone gas flow was set at 50 L/h and
desolvation gas flow was maintained at 600 L/h. Source
temperature and desolvation temperature were set to 150 and
350uC, respectively. The collision energy was varied from 6 to 13
to optimize four different daughter ions. The acquisition range was
20–350 D. Pure standards (Figure 4) (Capsaicin, dehydrocapsaicin,
4-OH, 3-OMe-benzylamine and 3, 4-Dihydroxybenzylamine)
were introduced to the source at a flow rate of 10 ml/min by
using methanol:water (1:1) and 0.1% formic acid mixture as the
carrier solution to develop multiple reaction monitoring (MRM)
method for UPLC/MS-MS operation (Table 2).
UPLC/MS-MS analyses of all the samples were carried out
with a Waters Acquity UPLC system connected with Xevo-TQ
triple quadruple mass spectrometer. Analytical separations on the
UPLC system were conducted using a Acquity UPLC HSS T3
1.7 mm column (16150 mm) at a flow rate of 0.15 ml/min. The
gradient started with 100% A (0.1% formic acid in H2O) and 0%
B (0.1% formic acid in CH3CN), changed to 50% A over 3 min,
followed by a 4-min linear gradient to 10% A, resulting in a total
separation time of 7 min. The elutions from the UPLC column
were introduced to the mass spectrometer and resulting data was
analyzed and processed using MassLynx 4.2 software. Pure
standard mixture was used to optimize the UPLC conditions
prior to analysis. After LCMS analysis the remaining extract of the
samples was stored at 280uC in the Metabolomics Lab in the
Department of Nutrition at UC-Davis for further evaluation.
Chili Pepper-positive Pottery
The results of these analyses provide conclusive evidence for the
presence of Capsicum spp. in five (Vessel 1,2,3,7, and 11) of the 13
samples (Figure 8). Sample 2 represents the earliest positive
chemical signature and confirms early chili pepper consumption at
the regional ceremonial center of Chiapa de Corzo by 400 BCE
(Francesa Phase). Vessels 1 and 3 are dated slightly later to ca. 200
BCE (Guanacaste Phase) while Vessels 7 and 11 are derived from
contexts dated from CE 100–300 (Horcones Phase). Four of the
five positive vessels (1, 2, 3, and 11) were found in Mound 5 in
different contexts but all of them are associated with high status
individuals. For example, Sample 2 was found in a massive burial
offering and Sample 1 from a rich offering inside Room 8. Mound
5 is a palace structure located on the southern portion of the site.
Mound 5is 32 meters long by 30 meters wide and has a maximum
height of two meters. There are several entrances on the structure,
delimited by pillars, which open onto courtyards where archaeologists think that the Chiapa lords lived or at least held audiences.
At least five sumptuous tombs have been found in this palace
structure, one of which (Burial 149) contained one of the earliest
chili-positive pottery vessels (Sample 2) [35–38].
Vessel 1 is a short, polished brown tetrapod free-spout jar with
incised herringbone decoration located around the body. Vessel 2
is a tall, narrow, orange-slipped cylindrical vase with no decoration
Results
The UPLC/MS-MS analyses of Chiapa de Corzo samples
clearly shows a presence of peak at 5.47 min (Figure 5c) that
matches well with the standard dihydrocapsaicin (Figure 5a).
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Figure 4. Major Capsaicinoids present in chili and proposed degradation pathway for biomarker analysis.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079013.g004
Usulután, El Salvador [30], [35–38]. Vessel 7 is a tall, red-slipped
vase-like pot that is often referred to as a ‘‘florero’’ among
Zoquean archaeologists.
on its exterior surface. This vessel, with the earliest chemical
signature of Capsicum, was found in a grave of an adult male who
was buried with 14 other ceramic pots, jade earplugs, and a
bivalve sea shell pectoral necklace. Vessel 3 is a tall, orange-slipped
bridge-spout jar with a globular body. Vessel 11 is a short, wide,
orange-slipped vase with no exterior decoration. The other
positive sample, Vessel 7, was found in Tomb 7 in Mound 1,
which is contemporaneous in date with Mound 5. Mound 1 is
located at the south end of Chiapa de Corzo. It is identified as a
temple complex used for religious activities. In this structure, at
least five elite tombs were uncovered. The lords interred were
richly adorned with sumptuous offerings, including several
imported vessels from Guatemala and Oaxaca, as well as from
Discussion and Conclusions
The present study initially was conducted to search for chemical
traces of cacao (Theobroma cacao) in a variety of vessel forms (e.g.,
bowls, jars, and vases), and most notably spouted jars, which were
recovered from a variety of contexts (e.g., burials, caches) at
Chiapa de Corzo. We also were interested in identifying flavorings
and/or seasonings that could have been added to the cacao
beverages. While we sought to recover chemical traces of cacao,
none were found. We identified, however, traces of Capsicum in
38% of the sampled pottery. The results of the chemical
extractions provide definitive proof that Middle and Late
Preclassic vessels from the site contained Capsicum. The information obtained from the Chiapa de Corzo vessels extends the date of
chili pepper use by the ancient Mesoamerican peoples by several
hundred years into the Middle Preclassic period to about 400
BCE.
While our scientific study has pushed back the antiquity of
Mesoamerican chili pepper presence, we are most interested in
how the pepper may have been used either from a culinary,
pharmaceutical, or ritual perspective during this early time period.
Finding positive Capsicum evidence in five samples of different
pottery types and shapes – and where Capsicum was the only
residue identified – a number of questions may be raised. It is
Table 2. MRM method parameters used in chilli analysis.
Analyte
mode
Parent
m/z
Daughter
m/z
Cone
Coll
Capsaicin
PI
306.3
137.1
20
13
Dihydrocapsaicin
PI
308.3
137.0
19
11
4-OH,3-OMebenzylamine
PI
154.1
137.1
8
4
3,4Dihydroxybenzylamine
PI
140.1
123.1
10
6
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079013.t002
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Figure 5. UPLC/MS-MS chromatograms illustrating (a) Standard dihydrocapsaicin (b) Blank (c) Representative Corza sample
confirming the presence of dihydrocapsaicin. Insets: MS/MS spectra of standard dihydrocapsaicin (A) and from sample extract (B). Samples
were extracted and analyzed as described in methods.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079013.g005
Figure 6. UPLC/MS-MS chromatograms illustrating (a) Standard 4-OH-3OMe-benzylamine (b) Blank (c) Representative Corza
sample confirming the presence of 4-OH-3OMe-benzylamine. Insets: MS/MS spectra of standard 4-OH-3OMe-benzylamine (A) and from
sample extract (B). Samples were extracted and analyzed as described in methods.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079013.g006
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Figure 7. UPLC/MS-MS chromatograms illustrating (a) Standard 3,4-dihydrobenzylamine (b) Blank (c) Representative Corza sample
confirming the presence of 3,4-dihydrobenzylamine. Insets: MS/MS spectra of standard 3,4-dihydrobenzylamine (A) and from sample extract
(B). Samples were extracted and analyzed as described in methods.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079013.g007
and metates) residues would be the next fruitful step in
understanding the culinary practice involved. A starch grain
analysis of such food preparation implements would complement
our chemical extraction technique conducted on the pottery
vessels. All of the vessels that tested positive for Capsicum were
serving vessels and it becomes important to identify which pots
may have been used in mixing the peppers into a paste form. At
present, we do not have access to a full range of vessels associated
with making such a seasoning. However, to date, there is not a
single ‘‘molcajete’ found in the Chiapa de Corzo ceramic
important to mention that the analyses conducted on these
samples were repeated to verify the presence of Capsicum in the
positive samples.
Was the chili ground up to produce a paste or a salsa and
subsequently used as a seasoning in foods that were offered to the
Zoquean gods or chiefs? Or, were the peppers left whole in the
pots? We assume that the presence of chili is in the form of a sauce
or paste, and not whole given that no seeds or other macrofossils
were identified in the interiors of the vessels. If the peppers were
served in paste form, then testing grinding implement (e.g., manos
Table 3. UPLC-MS/MS analysis of pottery samples.
Sample#
Capsaicin
Dihydrocapsaicin
4-OH,3-OMe-benzylamine
3,4-Dihydroxybenzylamine
Chili status
t
Positive
2
+
Positive
3
+
+
6
t
t
7
+
t
Positive
8
t
9
t
+
Positive
1
+
Positive
4
5
10
11
t
12
t
13
t
+ = identified, t = traces.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079013.t003
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if other substance(s) were identified such as cacao. Information
from hieroglyphic texts, both on vessels and murals, will help to
shed light on the types of beverages prepared and consumed as
well as which ingredients were used to flavor them. There is strong
evidence for this in the Maya area where epigraphers have
deciphered texts showing different kinds of cacao-based beverages
and gruels [40–43], for example, but, to date, few identify chili
peppers as an additive or flavoring. It is hoped that we can remedy
this lack of information, from a biomolecular perspective, in the
future when we conduct an indepth study of the remaining pottery
vessels from Chiapa de Corzo.
Is it possible that the chili substance inside these vessels was used
for medicinal, ritual, or magical purposes rather than culinary?
Recent studies show that Capsicum species were included in a
number of herbal remedies for microbial origin ailments by the
Maya [44]. Once again we have the problem that only Capsicum
was identified, but still possible that the chili residue on the pot was
placed to be used for medicinal purposes by its owner in the other
world.
Another explanation for this unexpected result is provided by
Alfredo Lopez Austin. He suggested that sometimes the interior of
the vessels were covered with a mixture of chili and ash as a
measure to prevent/repeal insects to eat whatever is inside
(Alfredo Lopez Austin, personal communication, 2013). So, in this
case the chili could be just a part of the process to preserve
something else that was not preserved or taken away at some point
in time.
The fortuitous finding of Capsicum species in these pots provides
the earliest evidence of chili consumption in well-dated Mesoamerican archaeological contexts. We do not know exactly what the
Chiapa de Corzo people were doing with it, but are clear that its
use is important to be present on at least five different elite contexts
and to be part of a ritual paraphernalia from at least 400 BCE to
AD 300. Clearly, more research would be necessary to know what
exactly Capsicum species are been used for, if it is a local species or
is part of the well-known Mixe/Zoque trade network at Chiapa de
Corzo. These questions, among others, would be promising but
spicy areas of future research.
Figure 8. Image of the five vessels that tested positive for
Capsicum from Chiapa de Corzo. Photos by Roberto Lopez and
Emiliano Gallaga Murrieta.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079013.g008
collection for the Preclassic period, like those found in Central
Mexico for salsa making in later periods. This vessel form is found
at Chiapa de Corzo but for the Postclassic period [34].
Further, were chili peppers consumed by elites and non-elites
alike? All the chili-positive pottery vessels analyzed were discovered in different elite contexts from a long span of time from 400
BCE through CE 300, so was there restricted use of this pungent
fruit 2,400 years ago? To address this question we would need to
expand the dataset to include vessels derived from lower status or
commoner contexts such as middens and burials.
Why would there be evidence of chili peppers in a spouted jar?
It is commonly assumed that spouted jars were used for pouring a
liquid into another container. Perhaps the peppers were not made
into a sauce but a spicy beverage or alternatively a chili sauce that
was stored in the spouted jars and subsequently poured as a dining
condiment. Given the pungency and ‘‘heat’’ associated with chili
preparations, it would be logical to suggest that specific jars would
be used to store and serve the products – jars whose only function
was to store and serve chili-related products, at least for Samples 1
and 3. It is important to consider the possibility that all or at least
some of the pots deposited at a specific event (tomb or offering)
would be part of the community-wide feast and that afterwards the
empty pots were deposited as part of the ritual deposition [24],
[39]. If so, then the drained pots would leave minimal residues for
archaeologists to examine.
The sampled vessels were chosen by form rather than context,
making the assumption that those particular types would be more
likely to get a positive result for cacao (Theobroma cacao). The
unexpected results provide a different scenario. From five different
elites contexts (three burials: Tomb 7, 12, and 149, and two
offerings) and each of them containing several vessels, at least one
of the vessels chosen had chili residue on it. It would be interesting
to sample the entire vessel assemblage from one or more of these
contexts to see if other vessel types and forms had chili in them, or
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Alfredo Lopez Austin, Aurora Montufar Lopez,
David Lentz, Ruth Dickau, Dolores Piperno, Emily McClung de Tapia,
Patricia Crown, John Clark, Marco Beteta, Paul Minnis, and Sonia
Zarrillo for providing information about chili peppers in Mesoamerica and
South America. Thanks to INAH and the Consejo de Arqueologia to give
permission for the project and exportation of the samples for analysis, as
well as Centro INAH Chiapas for providing the Chiapa de Corzo samples.
Norbert Stanchly is thanked for providing comments on an earlier draft of
this manuscript, and comments from the academic editor and reviewers
made the final version better.
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: TP EGM RL LG HK NG.
Performed the experiments: LG HK NG. Analyzed the data: TP EGM RL
RLB LG HK NG. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: LG HK
NG. Wrote the paper: TP EGM RL RLB LG HK NG. Photographed all
of the pottery vessels that were analyzed for ancient residues: EMG RLB.
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