(PDF) Innovating Pedagogy 2015: Open University Innovation Report 4

This series of reports explores new forms of teaching, learning and assessment for an interactive world, to guide teachers and policy makers in productive innovation. This fourth report proposes ten innovations that are already in currency but have not yet had a profound influence on education. To produce it, a group of academics at the Institute of Educational Technology in The Open University collaborated with researchers from the Center for Technology in Learning at SRI International. We proposed a long list of new educational terms, theories, and practices. We then pared these down to ten that have the potential to provoke major shifts in educational practice, particularly in post-school education. Lastly, we drew on published and unpublished writings to compile the ten sketches of new pedagogies that might transform education. These are summarised below in an approximate order of immediacy and timescale to widespread implementation.

Open Research Online The Open University’s repository of research publications and other research outputs Innovating Pedagogy 2015: Open University Innovation Report 4 Other How to cite: Sharples, Mike; Adams, Anne; Alozie, N; Ferguson, Rebecca; FitzGerald, Elizabeth; Gaved, Mark; McAndrew, Patrick; Means, B; Remold, J; Rienties, Bart; Roschelle, J; Vogt, K; Whitelock, Denise and Yarnall, L (2015). Innovating Pedagogy 2015: Open University Innovation Report 4. The Open University. For guidance on citations see FAQs. c 2015 The Open University https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Version: Version of Record Copyright and Moral Rights for the articles on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. For more information on Open Research Online’s data policy on reuse of materials please consult the policies page. oro.open.ac.uk Innovating Pedagogy 2015 Exploring new forms of teaching, learning and assessment, to guide educators and policy makers Mike Sharples, Anne Adams, Nonye Alozie, Rebecca Ferguson, Elizabeth FitzGerald, Mark Gaved, Patrick McAndrew, Barbara Means, Julie Remold, Bart Rienties, Jeremy Roschelle, Kea Vogt, Denise Whitelock, Louise Yarnall Open University Innovation Report 4 Permission is granted under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence to copy, redistribute, remix, transform and build upon this report freely, provided that attribution is provided as illustrated in the citation below. You may make changes in any reasonable manner, as long as you indicate that you have done this and do not imply that the licensor endorses you or your use. To view a copy of this licence, visit creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0 A full-text PDF version of this report is available to download from www.open.ac.uk/innovating This material is based in part upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. IIS-1233722. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. Illustrations: Front–cover illustration of ESRI Geography Summer Camp © Christian Sailer, ETH Zürich. www.schulgis.ch/29401.html Reproduced with permission. Page 12. Session by the Teacher Institute at the Exploratorium San Francisco on ‘Reengineering your Science Curriculum’. Photograph by Gayle Laird © Exploratorium, www.exploratorium.edu Reproduced with permission. Page 15. Argument visualisation in Cohere. Figure redrawn from Buckingham Shum, S. (2008). Cohere: Towards Web 2.0 Argumentation. In Proceedings of COMMA’08: 2nd International Conference on Computational Models of Argument, 28-30 May 2008, Toulouse, France. IOS Press, pp. 97-108. Page 18. Children closely observe a banana slug during unstructured play. Photograph by Julie Remold. Reproduced with permission. Page 21. Aris context-based game showing the campus location of a student protest in the 1960s. Image © Chris Holden, University of New Mexico. Reproduced with permission. Page 24. Section of Scratch code for a hide-and-seek game. Screen captured from scratch.mit.edu/projects/10128368/#editor Page 27. ARROW remotely controlled radio telescope for Open University students. From the OpenScience Laboratory learn5.open.ac.uk/course/format/sciencelab/section.php?name=af_sxpa288 Page 31. Children interacting with a tabletop display on the JuxtaLearn project. Image © Anne Adams. Reproduced with permission. Page 34. Learner dashboard from the Cerego memorisation system. Screen captured from cerego.com/sets/720261/learn Page 36. Eyetracking study comparing people’s ability to recognise emotion in real and virtual faces. Image © Christian Joyal. Reproduced with permission. Page 39. Cover art for Portal 2 game. © Valve Corporation. www.thinkwithportals.com Suggested citation: Sharples, M., Adams, A., Alozie, N., Ferguson, R., FitzGerald, E., Gaved, M., McAndrew, P., Means, B., Remold, J., Rienties, B., Roschelle, J., Vogt, K., Whitelock, D. & Yarnall, L. (2015). Innovating Pedagogy 2015: Open University Innovation Report 4. Milton Keynes: The Open University. Institute of Educational Technology, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, United Kingdom Center for Technology in Learning, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Avenue, Menlo Park, CA 94025-3493, United States © The Open University, 2015. ISBN 978-1-4730-2017-7 Contents Executive summary 3 Introduction6 Crossover learning 11 Connecting formal and informal learning Learning through argumentation 14 Developing skills of scientific argumentation Incidental learning 17 Harnessing unplanned or unintentional learning Context-based learning 20 How context shapes and is shaped by the process of learning Computational thinking 23 Solving problems using techniques from computing Learning by doing science with remote labs 26 Guided experiments on authentic scientific equipment Embodied learning 30 Making mind and body work together to support learning Adaptive teaching 33 Adapting computer-based teaching to the learner’s knowledge and action Analytics of emotions 36 Responding to the emotional states of students Stealth assessment 38 Unobtrusive assessment of learning processes 1 Executive summary This series of reports explores new 1 Crossover learning Learning in informal settings, such as museums and after-school forms of teaching, learning and clubs, can link educational content with assessment for an interactive world, issues that matter to learners in their lives. to guide teachers and policy makers These connections work in both directions. in productive innovation. This fourth Learning in schools and colleges can be report proposes ten innovations enriched by experiences from everyday life; that are already in currency and informal learning can be deepened by adding questions and knowledge from the classroom. are having an increasing effect on These connected experiences spark further education. To produce it, a group interest and motivation to learn. An effective of academics at the Institute of method is for a teacher to propose and Educational Technology in The discuss a question in the classroom, then for Open University collaborated with learners to explore that question on a museum researchers from the Center for visit or field trip, collecting photos or notes as evidence, then share their findings back in the Technology in Learning at SRI class to produce individual or group answers. International. We proposed a long list These crossover learning experiences exploit of new educational terms, theories, the strengths of both environments and and practices. We then pared these provide learners with authentic and engaging down to ten that have the potential to opportunities for learning. Since learning provoke major shifts in educational occurs over a lifetime, drawing on experiences across multiple settings, the wider opportunity practice, particularly in post-school is to support learners in recording, linking, education. Lastly, we drew on recalling and sharing their diverse learning published and unpublished writings events. to compile the ten sketches of new pedagogies that might transform 2 Learning through argumentation Students can advance their understanding of science education. These are summarised and mathematics by arguing in ways similar to below in an approximate order professional scientists and mathematicians. of immediacy and timescale to Argumentation helps students attend to widespread implementation. contrasting ideas, which can deepen their learning. It makes technical reasoning public, for all to learn. It also allows students to refine ideas with others, so they learn how scientists work together to establish or refute claims. Teachers can spark meaningful discussion in classrooms by encouraging students to ask open-ended questions, re-state remarks in more scientific language, and develop and use models to construct explanations. When students argue in scientific ways, they learn how to take turns, listen actively, and Executive summary 3 respond constructively to others. Professional in the past (pattern recognition), setting development can help teachers to learn these aside unimportant details (abstraction), strategies and overcome challenges, such as identifying and developing the steps that will how to share their intellectual expertise with be necessary to reach a solution (algorithms) students appropriately. and refining these steps (debugging). Such computational thinking skills can be valuable 3 Incidental learning Incidental learning is unplanned or unintentional learning. It may in many aspects of life, ranging from writing a recipe to share a favourite dish with friends, occur while carrying out an activity that is through planning a holiday or expedition, to seemingly unrelated to what is learned. Early deploying a scientific team to tackle a difficult research on this topic dealt with how people challenge like an outbreak of disease. The learn in their daily routines at their workplaces. aim is to teach children to structure problems For many people, mobile devices have been so they can be solved. Computational thinking integrated into their daily lives, providing can be taught as part of mathematics, science many opportunities for technology-supported and art or in other settings. The aim is not just incidental learning. Unlike formal education, to encourage children to be computer coders, incidental learning is not led by a teacher, but also to master an art of thinking that will nor does it follow a structured curriculum, or enable them to tackle complex challenges in result in formal certification. However, it may all aspects of their lives. trigger self-reflection and this could be used to encourage learners to reconceive what could otherwise be isolated learning fragments 6 Learning by doing science with remote labs Engaging with authentic scientific tools as part of more coherent and longer term and practices such as controlling remote learning journeys. laboratory experiments or telescopes can build science inquiry skills, improve conceptual 4 Context-based learning Context enables us to learn from experience. By interpreting new understanding, and increase motivation. Remote access to specialized equipment, information in the context of where and when it first developed for scientists and university occurs and relating it to what we already know, students, is now expanding to trainee teachers we come to understand its relevance and and school students. A remote lab typically meaning. In a classroom or lecture theatre, the consists of apparatus or equipment, robotic context is typically confined to a fixed space arms to operate it, and cameras that provide and limited time. Beyond the classroom, views of the experiments as they unfold. learning can come from an enriched context Remote lab systems can reduce barriers such as visiting a heritage site or museum, to participation by providing user-friendly or being immersed in a good book. We have Web interfaces, curriculum materials, and opportunities to create context, by interacting professional development for teachers. With with our surroundings, holding conversations, appropriate support, access to remote labs making notes, and modifying nearby objects. can deepen understanding for teachers and We can also come to understand context by students by offering hands-on investigations exploring the world around us, supported by and opportunities for direct observation that guides and measuring instruments. It follows complement textbook learning. Access to that to design effective sites for learning, at remote labs can also bring such experiences schools, museums and websites, requires a into the school classroom. For example, deep understanding of how context shapes students can use a high-quality, distant and is shaped by the process of learning. telescope to make observations of the night 5 Computational thinking Computational thinking is a powerful approach to thinking sky during daytime school science classes. and problem solving. It involves breaking 7 Embodied learning Embodied learning involves self-awareness of the body interacting large problems down into smaller ones with a real or simulated world to support the (decomposition), recognizing how these learning process. When learning a new sport, relate to problems that have been solved 4 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 physical movement is an obvious part of the states. Typical cognitive aspects of learning learning process. In embodied learning, the include whether students have answered aim is that mind and body work together so a question and how they explain their that physical feedback and actions reinforce knowledge. Non-cognitive aspects include the learning process. Technology to aid whether a student is frustrated, confused, this includes wearable sensors that gather or distracted. More generally, students have personal physical and biological data, visual mindsets (such as seeing their brain as fixed systems that track movement, and mobile or malleable), strategies (such as reflecting devices that respond to actions such as tilting on learning, seeking help and planning how to and motion. This approach can be applied learn), and qualities of engagement (such as to the exploration of aspects of physical tenacity) which deeply affect how they learn. sciences such as friction, acceleration, and For classroom teaching, a promising approach force, or to investigate simulated situations is to combine computer-based systems for such as the structure of molecules. For more cognitive tutoring with the expertise of human general learning, the process of physical teachers in responding to students’ emotions action provides a way to engage learners in and dispositions, so that teaching can become feeling as they learn. Being more aware of more responsive to the whole learner. how one’s body interacts with the world can also support the development of a mindful 10 Stealth assessment The automatic data collection that goes on in the background when approach to learning and well-being. students work with rich digital environments 8 Adaptive teaching All learners are different. However, most educational presentations and can be applied to unobtrusive, ‘stealth’, assessment of their learning processes. materials are the same for all. This creates a Stealth assessment borrows techniques from learning problem, by putting a burden on the online role-playing games such as World of learner to figure out how to engage with the Warcraft, in which the system continually content. It means that some learners will be collects data about players’ actions, making bored, others will be lost, and very few are inferences about their goals and strategies in likely to discover paths through the content order to present appropriate new challenges. that result in optimal learning. Adaptive This idea of embedding assessment into a teaching offers a solution to this problem. It simulated learning environment is now being uses data about a learner’s previous and extended to schools, in topics such as science current learning to create a personalised and history, as well as to adult education. The path through educational content. Adaptive claim is that stealth assessment can test teaching systems recommend the best places hard-to-measure aspects of learning such as to start new content and when to review old perseverance, creativity, and strategic thinking. content. They also provide various tools for It can also collect information about students’ monitoring one’s progress. They build on learning states and processes without asking longstanding learning practices, such as them to stop and take an examination. In textbook reading, and add a layer of computer- principle, stealth assessment techniques guided support. Data such as time spent could provide teachers with continual data on reading and self-assessment scores can how each learner is progressing. However, form a basis for guiding each learner through much research remains to be done, both to educational materials. Adaptive teaching can identify the measures of student learning either be applied to classroom activities or in process that predict learning outcomes for online environments where learners control different learning systems and to understand their own pace of study. the amount and format of student learning data that are useful to teachers. Concerns have 9 Analytics of emotions Automated methods of eye tracking and facial recognition can been raised about collection of vast amounts of student learning data and the ethics of using analyse how students learn, then respond computers to monitor a person’s every action. differently to their emotional and cognitive Executive summary 5 Introduction This is the fourth in a series of annual reports on innovations in teaching, learning and assessment. The Innovating Pedagogy reports are intended for teachers, policy makers, academics and anyone interested in how education may change over the next ten years. This report is the result of collaboration between Scale researchers at the Institute of Educational Technology in The Open University and the Center Delivering education at massive scale has been for Technology in Learning at SRI International. the headline innovation of the past three years. We have shared ideas, proposed innovations, Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) now read research papers and blogs, and commented engage millions of people in learning online. on each other’s draft contributions. We compiled It is not clear whether the business of offering the report by first producing a long list of new university-level courses for free can be sustained. educational terms, theories, and practices, then However, MOOCs have demonstrated that it is reducing these to ones that have the potential possible to design methods of learning that improve to provoke major shifts in educational practice. with scale. Where the pedagogy of a MOOC This 2015 report introduces ten pedagogies that is based on learning through conversation either already influence educational practice or and social networking, then the more people offer opportunities for the future. By ‘innovative who take part, the richer the interactions, with pedagogies’ we mean theories and practices of people around the world exchanging ideas and teaching, learning and assessment for the modern, sharing perspectives. In July 2015, the largest- technology-enabled world. ever gathering of learners took place on the FutureLearn platform, with 270,000 people taking a course from the British Council on preparing for six overarching the IELTS language examination. Just one video from that course, asking the participants to discuss themes: scale, how they feel about taking exams, attracted 56,000 connectivity, reflection, comments and responses. To manage this level of engagement requires techniques from social extension, embodiment, networks, of ‘liking’ comments, ‘following’ learners and educators, and rewarding popular learners and personalisation and their contributions, so the most successful contributions are highlighted. We are aware that innovative pedagogies are Other pedagogies that are being explored at proliferating like fundamental particles in physics. massive scale include badges to accredit What started as a small set of basic teaching learning, crowd learning (participants post methods (instruction, discovery, inquiry) has been questions, stories, images, videos and computer extended to become a profusion of pedagogies programs for other learners to answer or review), and their interactions. So, to try to restore some citizen inquiry (members of the public propose order, we have examined the previous reports and engage in investigations and science projects) and identified six overarching themes: scale, and rhizomatic learning (learners work together connectivity, reflection, extension, embodiment, in dynamic ways to determine their own curriculum and personalisation. In describing these, we have and modes of learning). highlighted in bold the pedagogies identified in our previous reports. 6 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 Themes Pedagogies (with year of report) Scale Rhizomatic learning (2012) MOOCs (2012, 2013) Crowd learning (2013) Citizen inquiry (2013) Badges to accredit learning (2013) Massive open social learning (2014) Connectivity Seamless learning (2012, 2013) Flipped classroom (2014) Bring your own devices (2014) Crossover learning (2015) Reflection Assessment for learning (2012) Learning analytics (2012, 2013) Learning to learn (2014) Learning design informed by analytics (2014) Learning through argumentation (2015) Extension Geo-learning (2013) Learning from gaming (2013) Event-based learning (2014) Learning through storytelling (2014) Threshold concepts (2014) Computational thinking (2015) Context-based learning (2015) Incidental learning (2015) Learning by doing real science (2015) Embodiment Maker culture (2013) Bricolage (2014) Embodied learning (2015) Personalisation Personal inquiry learning (2012) Dynamic assessment (2014) Adaptive teaching (2015) Analytics of emotions (2015) Stealth assessment (2015) Pedagogy themes that have emerged from the Innovating Pedagogy reports Introduction 7 Connectivity of structured argumentation, students can explain their reflective processes to others, thus engaging Learning at scale offers opportunities for in a collaborative process of experimentation and connectivity between learners from different discussion. This is part of a process of learning to nations, cultures and perspectives. The opportunity learn. now is to understand how to create and manage courses that encourage productive discussion on Assessment for learning can help each learner to controversial topics. reflect on current learning difficulties, find relevant resources and overcome difficulties. At its most Connectivity not only covers learning between effective, this kind of formative assessment fits into people, but also across locations. Flipped the cycle of learning, providing feedback on how classrooms allow students taking courses in well new information has been learned and giving conventional schools and universities to learn the pointers to new learning activities that will fill gaps basic principles of a subject by watching videos and in knowledge. reading instructional text online, then meeting with tutors on campus to explore and discuss the topic Learning analytics, which enable data on in greater depth. In crossover learning, students processes and outcomes of learning to be used may start an investigation in class, initiated by to improve the quality of teaching, offer a means a teacher, then continue it outdoors or at home, for educators to reflect on how they teach and on using mobile devices such as smartphones to the ways in which they design for learning. More collect data and evidence that are then shared broadly, schools and universities can introduce a and presented back in class. These are specific process of institutional learning, with everyone, kinds of seamless learning, connecting learning including students, using idea-sharing software experiences across locations, times, devices and such as IdeaScale to reflect on successes and social settings. A policy of bring your own devices failures, and propose ideas to improve the quality not only supports these teacher-managed forms of education. of connected learning, but also allows students to follow their own lines of research and collaborative Extension learning inside and beyond the classroom. Some innovative pedagogies form part of this process of institutional improvement not by Reflection offering radically different ways of teaching, but by All this activity online and in the physical world extending the scope of current teaching methods could suggest a future for education that is and overcoming their weaknesses. Threshold hugely dynamic and mobile. That may be one concepts are ideas that open up new ways of vision. But knowledge also comes from reflection thinking about a problem. If a threshold concept and contemplation. The engine of learning is a such as ‘heat transfer’ or ‘centre of gravity’ is continuous cycle of engagement and reflection, taught well, it can inform everyday activities such with our activity in the world – as we explore an as cooking or sports coaching. environment, perform an experiment, or read a Learning through storytelling offers new book – producing new information that must be perspectives on an ancient tradition through assimilated with existing knowledge. This provides techniques such as practomime that blend both the enrichment and the mental conflict that classroom and online storytelling, with teachers and are sources for reflection and understanding, students creating shared stories. Computational perhaps leading to discussion and plans for further thinking offers a powerful approach to solving investigation. This cycle of productive learning problems using structured techniques derived appears in school classrooms (where teachers from computing, including iteration, debugging and encourage reading, reflection and discussion), problem decomposition. the science lab (through experiment, note taking and synthesis of data), and field or museum trips Technologies also enable us to extend the settings (where students form an inquiry question, collect in which learning takes place. Students can now data in the field, then reflect on the findings at learn by doing real science, making use of lab home or in the classroom). By learning the skills equipment and expensive technology that is not 8 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 available on site but can be controlled remotely at Personalisation distant locations. A variety of technologies, from televisions to augmented reality, also provide Continuing the physics analogy, personalisation is opportunities for event-based learning and the mysterious missing particle of education. Since context-based learning. the early experiments with teaching machines in the 1950s, educational technologists have attempted Management and orchestration of learning are to develop new methods of personalised instruction essential to ensure that students are learning that will respond to the behaviour of each student, productively. As educators, researchers, and policy or infer students’ mental states and correct their makers, we need to move beyond assumptions that misunderstandings. So far, this has only been playing games and chatting online with friends are successful for limited topics in mathematics or necessarily bad. Instead, we should look for ways science. to integrate the worlds of social media, gaming and formal education. This will not be easy, given Adaptive teaching now offers the promise of using entrenched views, and it cannot be done in a naïve data about each learner’s previous and current way, by adding a layer of game playing or social learning to create a personalised path through chat to traditional schooling. Perhaps the greatest educational content. At the same time, analytics challenge, and opportunity, facing education is to of emotions promise to provide personalised connect the productive incidental learning – that learning based on emotional responses, and goes on in homes, workplaces, museums and the personal inquiry provides opportunities for outdoors – with formal classroom education. This investigations based on a learner’s own questions connection could be made using learning from and interests. gaming (an approach that enables employees Personalised learning is a wider process of to gain occupational skills of decision-making, understanding and developing the aptitudes and strategy and negotiation through playing online skills of each learner through methods such as strategy games) or geo-learning (students dynamic assessment and stealth assessment. explore their local environment with the support of Is personalisation incompatible with learning interactive maps and guides while connecting with at scale? Or will we be able to develop new other learners investigating the same environment pedagogies that offer thousands of learners the online). opportunity to pursue their personal pathways to knowledge, at the same time as they engage in Embodiment shared discussion and collaborative inquiry? School, university and online learning all promote the primacy of abstract academic knowledge. Innovating Pedagogy Yet embodied learning recognises that we are In our reports, we have aimed to understand and creatures with bodies that we use to explore, acknowledge learning in a world of interactive create, craft, and construct. A renewed interest digital technologies. A focus on technologies could in maker culture has seen people gathering for run the risk of chasing each invention up and down maker faires, jamborees and craft days. the switchback of innovation, marketing, hype and Enthusiasts use modern tools, such as Raspberry obsolescence. Some devices for education that Pi hobbyist computers or 3D printers, to carry out have long been out of fashion, such as teaching environmental surveys, create soccer–playing machines, language labs, and integrated learning robots, or design intricate jewellery. Bricolage is systems, reappear in new guises for the next a practical process of learning by tinkering with wave of technology. By examining innovative materials, transforming products or materials that pedagogies, we aim to ride the roller coaster of are ready to hand into new constructions. It is a technology adoption, highlighting ways of teaching, fundamental process of playful learning, from learning and assessing that can be successful both building sandcastles to creating improvised art and now and in the future. fashionable clothing. Introduction 9 Resources A provocative and enlightening blog post dealing with the perils of predicting the future of technology for education: followersoftheapocalyp.se/i-watch-the-ripples- change-their-size-but-never-leave-the-stream- altc-2015/ IdeaScale software to create and share ideas: Ideascale.com 10 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 Crossover learning Connecting formal and informal learning Potential impact: high Timescale: medium (2–5 years) We spend our lives learning yet choose to label The concept of crossover learning can also be particular sections more formally using terms such applied to the ways in which we think about learning as ‘kindergarten’, ‘school’, ‘university’, ‘qualifying’ as a whole and the scope for adjusting how formal or ‘professional development’. Such distinctions and informal combine to influence attitudes and are becoming less useful as formal aspects of motivation for learning at all ages. Increasingly, learning are interlinked with the informal learning educators, policymakers, and researchers experiences that occur during museum visits, after- view learning as taking place across settings school and hobby clubs, or internships. Connected and contexts, in a ‘learning ecosystem’. This technologies, new approaches to assessing and perspective has coincided with a rise of interest recognising learning, and new insights into the in, and opportunities for, crossover learning, value of informal learning are combining to blur helping learners to connect experiences gained the familiar distinctions. This section looks at the throughout the learning ecosystem. Research ways we can connect formal and informal learning on linking informal and formal learning therefore experiences, benefiting from the crossover covers aspects that help us consider learning in between them. different ways, such as learning design, activity design, rethinking assessment and recognition, As well as being valuable in their own right, informal and the ways in which methods and technology learning experiences can also enhance students’ can help to transfer information and experience academic pursuits. Learning outside school across settings. supports the development of skills and dispositions that help students do better within school. A simple example of crossover from formal to informal Towards competency-based learning is the museum visit, an experience which learning has obvious educational aspects but which varies Some schools and universities are planning to depending on its structure and purpose. For include informal and non-academic learning example, setting formal aims focused on gathering practices as they move away from education evidence linked to subject-based questions will based on ‘seat-time’ and homework, towards a guide the actions of student visitors and connect competency-based approach that focuses on the the visit to the curriculum. ability to achieve goals and acquire skills rather than On the other hand, creating space in the formal on the volume of knowledge gained. Recognising curriculum for students to pursue individual themes that students’ informal learning can contribute to based on their interests can enable informal their development of skills and competencies may experiences to influence curriculum topics and reduce student workload and allow opportunities tasks. Authentic experiences with a subject, for for undirected activities outside the classroom to example through an internship or mentoring role, become part of schoolwork. can also encourage persistence in the pursuit of At one extreme, incorporating informal learning related careers. A more coordinated approach within the classroom could simply lead to reduced involves organisations such as museums, youth expectations for formal outcomes. But activities can and hobby clubs partnering with schools and also be designed that enable learners to recognise universities to develop learning materials aligned and reflect on their out-of-school activities. Also, to the local curriculum. Crossover learning 11 Session by the Teacher Institute at the Exploratorium, San Francisco, on ‘Reengineering your Science Curriculum’’. by engaging in practical activities, they can be Teachers and informal educators now have more supported to develop traits and skills such as opportunities for professional development related persistence and self-direction that can aid success to crossover learning. Those working in informal in any subject. For example, in an innovative learning at museums and community centres can project, students studying American Literature built access the local curriculum and crossover key their own chairs and, in the process, developed concepts and develop intentional connections skills of problem solving, communication and between programme activities and school collaboration. Identifying connections between the learning. Similarly, teachers can learn to facilitate poetry they were studying and furniture making open-ended explorations in their classrooms. helped them appreciate the craft and structure of The Teacher Institute at the Exploratorium, a written texts. museum that emphasises hands-on activities in San Francisco, California, helps teachers facilitate Recognising achievement activities based on the principles behind the interactive exhibits at the museum. Partnerships A shift towards crossover learning requires between formal and informal education entities adjustments to the ways in which we assess and can help ensure that staff strategies for crossover recognise achievement. For example, using badges learning are sustained. to record less formal achievements recognises activities that come from different sources. Tools that allow students to gather resources, such as Finding space to bring Tumblr or Pinterest, can enable learners to develop transferable skills such as curation, evidence informal learning into building and reflective commenting. Users of such tools provide records of their interactions and formal education paths through information on the Internet, so that one item or a single collection can act as an entry has the potential to point for a deeper exploration of a subject. enrich knowledge with experience 12 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 Conclusion Finding space to bring informal learning into formal and in the workplace. The challenge is to design education has the potential to enrich knowledge this integration so that it retains the coherence of with experience. Adding direction to informal the established curriculum while embracing some activities can enhance motivation and increase the of the fun and freedom of informal exploration. impact of informal experiences on school learning Resources Partnerships between art museums and schools: Report exploring the relationships between blog.ed.gov/2015/06/16-museums-in- science education in formal and informal settings: partnership-with-schools-a-model-for-learning/ Bevan, B., Dillon, J., Hein, G.E., Macdonald, M., Michalchik, V., Miller, D., et al. (2010). The Exploratorium Teacher Institute, San Making science matter: collaborations between Francisco, USA: informal science education organizations exploratorium.edu/education/teacher-institute and schools. Washington DC: Center for Weidinger, N. (2012). Maker Education and The Advancement of Informal Science Education. WikiSeat Project, The Institute for the Future Blog. www.informalscience.org/documents/ iftf.org/future-now/article-detail/maker- MakingScienceMatter.pdf education-and-the-wikiseat-project/ National Research Council. (2015). Identifying Example of crossover learning between an and supporting productive STEM programs in elementary school and local museums: out-of-school settings. Washington, DC: National jacksonville.com/news/metro/2015-05-10/story/ Academies Press. museum-magnet-creates-little-curators-and- www.nap.edu/catalog/21740/identifying-and- docents-cross-over-learning supporting-productive-stem-programs-in-out- of-school-settings Crossover learning 13 Learning through argumentation Developing skills of scientific argumentation Potential impact: medium Timescale: short (1–2 years) Modern education extends beyond the transmission How teachers can encourage of knowledge and procedures, towards enabling students to become active and reflective learners. productive argumentation The pedagogy of argumentation prepares students To benefit from argumentation, students must for a world where the consequences of science, listen and talk carefully, justify claims, and discuss such as climate change and genetic engineering, ideas using reason and evidence. This kind of affect every person and are publicly debated. classroom discussion does not come easily to most students and needs to be thoughtfully supported. Students can only understand scientific ideas Teacher practices associated with learning through in depth by engaging in the kinds of inquiry and argumentation include: communication processes that scientists use. These involve reasoning and arguing from available • having students articulate their evidence in order to improve and refute ideas and ideas orally and in writing explanations, while communicating understanding • asking questions that drive students to through the use of precise language. The methods evaluate and improve their ideas of scientific argumentation are not confined to the traditional sciences, but can be applied to • restating or revoicing students’ remarks in mathematics, history, language, arts, and the more scientific or mathematical language human sciences. Science content and the practices • having students develop and use of science need to be learned in concert; neither models to construct explanations. should be taught in isolation or as a prerequisite Professional development can help teachers to lead for the other. dynamic group discussions using these strategies. Teachers can support constructive argumentation Argumentation pedagogy by establishing classroom norms for taking turns in conversation, active listening, and responding invites students to make constructively to other people’s ideas. claims and provide Technologies to support supporting evidence learning through argumentation A good way to spark serious discussion of scientific Engaging students in scientific argumentation ideas is to pose a thought-provoking question that contrasts with traditional science pedagogy based has no simple answer and that requires discussion on lecturing and posing closed questions to which of theory and evidence. Here are some examples, the answers are already known. Argumentation ranging across topics and levels. Why aren’t birds pedagogy invites students to make claims and electrocuted when they land on electric cables? provide supporting evidence for those claims and Why don’t we feel the weight of a plane when it to discuss whether the evidence someone presents flies over us? Can we measure intelligence? Is for a claim is sufficient and is justified according to time travel possible? How can we know whether the standards of the discipline. Jesus was a real person? 14 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 Teachers may ask students to investigate a on middle and secondary school topics in biology, topic in groups and then share and compare chemistry, earth science, and physics. These their responses. Classroom communication projects present a driving question and then lead technologies can help this process. Classroom students through a process of online investigation ‘clickers’ are devices handed out to each student that requires them to formulate arguments and in a class to indicate a response to a question. A explanations backed with data collected in the teacher might ask students to suggest different course of the investigation. Many of the projects answers to a question and then vote for the best lead to a student debate that pits different proposed answer, displaying a bar chart of the number of solutions or conclusions against each other with students selecting each response. The teacher the goal of further refining students’ thinking. RUNAWAY COMPUTER A NEW DARK AGE SPREAD OF DESERTS INTELLIGENCE is an example of is an example of is an example of LARGE SCALE PROBLEMS OF THE 21ST CENTURY Show All Ideas has sub probl Open the idea List view and display all instances of this Idea Unpin Node HOW CAN E GLOBAL WARMING AND DEBA Connection Search Similarity Contrast Consistency Proof Argument visualisation in Cohere then asks the class to discuss the responses, Conclusion perhaps adding further evidence, then they Implementing argumentation pedagogy can be vote again. Typically, student responses start to difficult. Most students and teachers are used converge towards a more normative understanding to questions with known answers, which are of the scientific topic. asked so students can demonstrate individual Students can also engage in scientific mastery of a science idea or topic. By contrast, argumentation online. For example, the Cohere argumentation provides an opportunity for students system supports visualisation of arguments. The to build knowledge through a process of proposing, Knowledge Forum online environment supports critiquing, and defending ideas over cycles of students to articulate, link, and reflect on their turn-taking. This can be a laborious process. own and each other’s ideas. Students have used Students need thoughtful teacher-guided support Knowledge Forum to build an understanding of to learn the specialised form of argumentation scientific topics such as human body systems and that scientists use to build deeper understanding causes of pollution. of the natural world. Teachers may require several years to become proficient in leading classroom The Web-based Inquiry Science Environment discussions that promote the development of (WISE) platform offers a variety of science projects Learning through argumentation 15 science knowledge and argumentation skills. teachers in the past. Well-designed science Developing rich, curriculum-aligned questions or learning activities that incorporate rich topics for topics for science argumentation can be difficult as discussion in person or online can be combined well. with technologies to support communication and maintain a record of student thinking and its Fortunately, freely available online resources evolution over time. provide examples that have worked well for Resources Knowledge forum online environment for Study of classroom conditions that promote, knowledge building: nurture and sustain argumentation practices www.knowledgeforum.com/ among students: Duschl, R. A., & Osborne, J. (2002). Supporting 20 big questions in science: and promoting argumentation discourse in www.theguardian.com/science/2013/sep/01/20- science education. Studies in Science Education, big-questions-in-science 38(1), 39-72. Alozie, N. M., Moje, E.B., & Krajcik, J.S. (2010). cset.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/files/ An analysis of the supports and constraints for documents/publications/Osborne-Supporting scientific discussion in high school project‐based and promoting argumentation discourse in science. Science Education, 94(3), 395-427. science education .pdf deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/ To provoke argument among educators, see: handle/2027.42/69162/20365_ftp. Kirschner, P. A. & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. pdf?sequence=1 (2013). Do learners really know best? Urban Description of Cohere system for argument legends in education, Educational Psychologist, visualisation: 48(3), 169-183. Buckingham Shum, S. (2008). Cohere: Towards ocw.metu.edu.tr/pluginfile.php/3298/course/ Web 2.0 Argumentation. In Proceedings of section/1174/Do Learners Really Know Best. COMMA’08: 2nd International Conference on pdf Computational Models of Argument, 28-30 May Practical guidelines for teachers to manage 2008, Toulouse, France. IOS Press, 97-108. productive talk in science classrooms: oro.open.ac.uk/10421/ Michaels, S. & O’Connor, C. (2012). Talk Science Comprehensive survey of research into using Primer. Cambridge, MA: TERC. ‘clicker’ technology in large classrooms: inquiryproject.terc.edu/shared/pd/ Caldwell, J.E. (2007). Clickers in the large TalkScience_Primer.pdf classroom: current research and best-practice Resnick, L. B., Michaels, S., & O’Connor, tips. CBE-Life Sciences Education, 6(1), 9-20. M.C. (2010). How (well-structured) talk builds www.lifescied.org/content/6/1/9.full the mind. In D. D. Preiss & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Innovations in Educational Psychology: Perspectives on Learning, Teaching, and Human Development. New York, NY: Springer. 163-194. www.lrdc.pitt.edu/bov/documents/resnick_ howwell-structuredtalkbuildsthemind_033012. pdf 16 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 Incidental learning Harnessing unplanned or unintentional learning Potential impact: medium Timescale: medium (2–5 years) Incidental learning is learning that is unplanned Incidental learning continues into adulthood, but is and may be unintentional. It can happen at any generally not valued by examiners or employers. time in any place: at home, while working, or on Early research into incidental learning explored the move. Incidental learning is not usually led by a how people learned as part of their daily work tutor, neither does it follow a structured curriculum routines through observation, conversation with nor result in formal certification. It frequently occurs colleagues, use of work tools, and problem solving. within activities that learners engage in by choice and forms part of everyday work and leisure. Schools are recognising How researchers have that children can learn explored incidental learning Young children engage in incidental learning as through play and they develop abilities to speak, play with toys discovery, making and interact with their family and friends. Through unstructured play, they can learn problem solving, time for unstructured language use, social, physical, and self-regulatory skills. exploration In a study of incidental learning of arithmetic, Researchers have identified factors that make children were tested on their ability to do sums that incidental learning successful. These include: the require approximation (‘more or less’). The study goals of the learners, people nearby for discussion found that 65% of the children aged 5-6 could and interaction, the tools they have at their answer problems such as: ‘‘If you had 24 stickers disposal, their location, and the time they have and I gave you 27 more, would you have more or available. Awareness of these factors improves less than 35 stickers?’’ It seems that many young understanding of the incidental learning that takes children are able to do a form of approximate place and enables the creation of environments arithmetic without being taught, by incidental that support incidental learning. learning of the skills of estimation. These powerful Persistence and confidence contribute to success and general techniques are not developed further in incidental learning. The social environment is when they start school and begin with 2+2=4. also important since the incidental learning process Schools are recognising that children can learn often places learners in a vulnerable position through play and discovery, making time for because they have to ask for help. Incidental unstructured exploration. But there is still little learners may follow a path similar to the inquiry awareness that young children starting school learning approach: framing and refining questions, have already gained skills of estimation, creative planning an investigative path, and identifying problem solving, wordplay, and game design that resources that may help. Or they may seek out could form the basis of a new kind of early years situations where learning can occur, such as public curriculum. seminars or book-reading clubs. Incidental learning 17 Assisting incidental learning and bringing examples of use (for example, those gained by watching a foreign movie with Game designers embed opportunities for subtitles) back into the classroom for reflection and incidental learning within computer games by discussion. setting challenges and offering rewards, as well as by providing landscapes to be navigated, rules Educators are also exploring how to design to be inferred, and the motives and actions of learning experiences that build upon incidental game characters to be interpreted. Some ‘serious learning that takes place elsewhere. Approaches games’ employ similar forms of incidental learning include support for learners in reflecting on to teach language and cultural skills by immersing learning that takes place throughout their lives and players in a foreign environment. This builds on the making connections between incidental learning longstanding approach (from the European ‘grand and deliberate learning. tours’ of the 18th century) of taking young adults on trips abroad to pick up the language and culture of New developments a foreign country. New developments have promise for extending Second language educators have long recognized the benefits of incidental learning. For example, the advantages of the context-richness and social the iSpot citizen science application is designed learning experienced by incidental learners who for people of all ages to spot and share their are immersed in authentic foreign language observations of wildlife. For example, a hiker can environments. Travellers and migrants often upload photos of an unusual bird, insect or flower pick up languages much faster than classroom to iSpot, adding basic information and, if possible, students can. Techniques to emulate immersive a suggested identification. Others respond by incidental learning include encouraging learners to adding, amending or confirming the identification. hold everyday conversations in the language they Once confirmed, the software links this addition to are learning, teaching exclusively in the language, other identifications of the species with photos by Children closely observe a banana slug during unstructured play 18 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 their finders. This act of incidental learning can set learning has occurred, given that it cannot be the contributor on a path of discovery that includes planned and often is not recorded. There is also the comparisons with other sightings and a developing challenge involved in providing learners with well- understanding of how experts classify species. timed opportunities for reflection and helping them reconceive isolated learning fragments as part Based on principles of incidental work-based of more coherent, longer term learning journeys. learning, SRI International is developing a mobile Equally, there are challenges for learners to value app to add a virtual mentoring structure to on-the- their own learning journeys, find time to pursue job learning. This includes ways for the employer their hobbies and interests, and resist attempts by and employees to generate useful content that others – parents, teachers, managers – to over- may be shared by browsing a ‘deck of cards’ in the formalise and validate their personal learning. app. Learners can set goals based on available time and have progress tracked. They can also We still know very little about how young children seek information on work topics and connect with acquire abilities related to language, arithmetic, colleagues engaged in similar tasks. science, and social interaction, let alone the beginnings of creativity, art appreciation, Conclusions psychology and philosophy. As researchers start to uncover these processes of incidental learning, we Although incidental learning can enrich formal may see the emergence of new pedagogies that learning and occurs throughout a lifetime, it build on children’s pre-existing skills and develop presents challenges for teachers and learners. It these into adulthood. can be difficult for a teacher to know when incidental Resources iSpot community to identify wildlife Kerka, S. (2000). Incidental learning. Trends and and share nature: Issues Alert No. 18: Center on Education and www.ispotnature.org/ Training for Employment. www.calpro-online.com/eric/docs/tia00086.pdf Study of how pre-school children can solve addition and subtraction problems through Le Clus, M. A. (2011). Informal learning in the approximate arithmetic: workplace: a review of the literature. Gilmore, C. K., McCarthy, S. E., & Spelke, E. S. Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 51(2), 355- (2007). Symbolic arithmetic knowledge without 373. instruction. Nature, 447(7144), 589-591. ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=115 www.psychology.nottingham.ac.uk/staff/lpzcg/ 2&context=ecuworks2011 files/nature05850.pdf Silva, P. M. (2007). Epistemology of Incidental Design of web-based systems to support Learning. PhD, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and incidental learning: State University. Glahn, C., Specht, M., & Koper, R. (2009). scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd- Perspective and Contrast, Design Principles for 10162007-224008/unrestricted/silva.pdf Supporting Self-directed and Incidental Learning. Application of psychological theory to overcoming In Proceedings of I-KNOW ’09 and I-SEMANTICS the distinction between formal and informal ’09, 2-4 September 2009, Graz, Austria. education: dspace.learningnetworks.org/ Strauss, C. (1984). Beyond ‘formal’ vs. ‘informal’ bitstream/1820/2009/1/perspective_and_ education: uses of psychological theory in contrast_design_principles.pdf anthropological research. Ethos, 12(3), 195-222. scholarship.claremont.edu/pitzer_fac_pub/66/ Incidental learning 19 Context-based learning How context shapes and is shaped by the process of learning Potential impact: medium Timescale: medium (2–5 years) Context is how we make sense of experience, play, while safeguarding them so they do not stray by distinguishing between what is relevant and into dangerous situations either outdoors and irrelevant. For example, when reading a book, the online. At university level, a central issue in subjects meaning of each word and phrase is conveyed such as geology, archaeology and environmental not only by its own characteristics, but also by its sciences, is whether to use a field trip to immerse location in relation to other words or illustrations. students in an authentic context, with all its risks and uncertainties, or to provide them with an Until recently, education has been designed to experience similar to that of a field scientist by minimise the effects of context on learning, so manufacturing or simulating typical data. that children can gain universal knowledge and take tests that are appropriate whatever the location, time of day, or surroundings. Yet many context is both professions, such as medicine, art, or engineering, require general professional knowledge to be something we are applied in specific contexts. They also need practical knowledge to be built up from working immersed in and in many differing situations. So an understanding of how context relates to learning is essential for something we create innovating pedagogy. Augmented reality, virtual reality and environmental modelling can provide students with the experience Learning in context and of viewing and sampling real data, for example by learning by creating context viewing a virtual microscope showing pre-prepared images of rock that can be zoomed, scanned and Consider a group of friends standing before a viewed under different lighting conditions. These painting in an art gallery. They are in a specific technology-enhanced approaches increase ease context, comprising the painting, gallery, the friends of access and teacher control of the situation, but and other people. They are also creating context these advantages must be weighed against the by engaging in shared action and conversation, value of doing science in real locations which are by moving closer to see the painting, discussing potentially difficult and costly to access. the artist, and comparing this painting with others they have seen. Thus context is both something we are immersed in and something we create. Context-sensitive technologies The same is true when reading a book: we are for learning simultaneously at a specific word on a page, and New context-sensitive technologies offer creating contextual meaning from our knowledge opportunities to develop enriched contexts for of language and literature. learning. Handheld location-aware guides and This dual nature of context, as something that augmented-reality applications can offer audio, surrounds us and something we create through our text and images to describe the current location or activity, raises problems for teachers at all levels. object, such as a painting or museum item. The A teacher of young children needs to offer them aim is to give the visitor general information that opportunities to create context through exploratory relates to the specific place or exhibit. 20 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 The Aris application offers a set of tools to create Generalised knowledge about migration and and deliver location-based games such as climate change develops by exploring patterns of scavenger hunts and re-enactments of historical data across time and location. events. One Aris game re-creates a student protest in the 1960s on the University of Wisconsin Context in education Madison campus. A visitor to the university can take Young children’s learning is tied to contexts of time, the role of a reporter, moving round the campus, place, people, objects, so they live ‘in the now’. witnessing past events through images and video As they mature, children are increasingly able to at the campus locations where the events took create context by applying generalised knowledge place and conducting simulated interviews with to a situation. For both children and adults, this participants. process can be supported by tools for accessing Users of Aris can also create contexts by taking knowledge in context and for abstracting general photos and making notes that are added to a map, knowledge across multiple contexts. Aris context-based game showing the campus location of a student protest in the 1960s Contextual learning ties together pedagogies for others to view when they reach the appropriate covered in previous editions of the Innovating locations. This and similar context-based systems Pedagogy report, including geo-learning, can be used, for example, in citizen journalism, seamless learning, event-based learning, crowd as people record everyday events, or in language learning, and citizen inquiry. The common theme learning for people to add labels in a foreign is learning that comes from being situated in and language to locations and objects that pop up understanding a context, and from reporting and on other people’s devices when they visit each comparing events across multiple contexts. As location. an approach to education, contextual learning When learning across contexts, communities of involves helping students to learn from the world amateur scientists already share and compare around them, and to see how general principles in local data on, for example, weather, wildlife, science and society relate to their everyday lives. rocks and fossils. Schools can participate in It is often not easy to take what is learned in one these community activities through sites such as setting and apply it in another. Words and ideas Journey North, which engages students and citizen vary according to their context. A word like ‘set’ in scientists around the world in studying wildlife English has very different meanings in a kitchen, migration and seasonal change, including tracking a tennis court, and a mathematics classroom. migration of hummingbirds, recording sightings of Similarly, ideas and activities may need to be re- butterflies and noting when tulips bloom in spring. interpreted from one context to another, and data Context-based learning 21 items collected at particular locations may need to and to connect general knowledge with everyday be checked or modified before they can be used life, but it requires skill in interpreting localised more generally. So context-based learning is a words, concepts and data. powerful means to understand places and events, Resources Aris web-based system for creating and playing Discussion of the ‘Salters’ courses for context-based mobile games: context-based science education, focusing on arisgames.org/ development of the Salters Advanced Chemistry course: Luckin’s Ecology of Resources design framework Bennett, J., & Lubben, F. (2006). Context‐based for learning, context and technology: chemistry: the Salters approach. International eorframework.pbworks.com/w/page/3777765/ Journal of Science Education, 28(9), 999-1015. FrontPage hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00513319/ Journey North website that engages students and document citizen scientists in tracking wildlife migration and Hansman, C.A. (2001). Context‐based adult seasonal change: learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing www.learner.org/jnorth/ Education, 2001(89), 43-52. www.andrews.edu/sed/leadership_dept/ documents/context_based_adult_.pdf 22 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 Computational thinking Solving problems using techniques from computing Potential impact: medium Timescale: medium (2–5 years) As we learn chemistry, we broaden and extend Debugging – Refining those steps. our knowledge of the scientific method. As we A final step that is usually implied without being study music, we develop and refine our sense of included in the main list is timing and of rhythm. Each area of the curriculum is associated with a set of skills that can be Presenting a solution in a usable form. applied throughout our life, giving us new ways to This method of problem solving can be worked understand the world. through as a series of explicit steps. In the process, In the case of computing, as we learn its principles it may be internalised so that we use it automatically and languages, we also acquire a set of problem- when faced with a new problem. solving skills. Together, these are known as ‘Computational’ does not imply that humans are Computational Thinking. The value of these skills being taught to think like unimaginative machines and their associated concepts, practices and that can only solve a problem when supplied with a perspectives, is widely recognised. set of instructions to follow. Computational thinking Countries are adding computational thinking to is a way in which humans can think when they are the list of key school subjects. In England, the trying to solve problems. The approach can be National Curriculum states that children should set out as a set of clear steps, but separating and be offered high quality computing education navigating these steps is a creative human activity. that will equip them with skills in computational Although this way of thinking was developed thinking and creativity to understand and change in the context of computer programming and the world. Outside education, large companies computer science, it can be applied more widely. such as Google and Microsoft Research regard Some definitions specify that it is used for the computational thinking as an essential set of development of problem-solving procedures that problem-solving skills and techniques for software can be mechanically interpreted. This appears to be engineers. an unnecessary restriction. Computational thinking provides a way of formulating problems and their Elements of computational solutions. It enables people to deal confidently with thinking complexity and with open-ended problems. It is essential when developing computer applications, Computational thinking uses the same steps to but it is also valuable in any discipline. deal with a variety of problems. Decomposition – breaking a large problem down Problem-based learning into smaller ones In the classroom, computational thinking can be Pattern recognition – recognising how these related to the use of problem-based learning. This smaller problems relate to ones that have been pedagogy was developed in response to the needs solved in the past of professional practice, as a way of ensuring that students are not only able to pass examinations Abstraction – identifying and setting aside but can also apply in practice the concepts that unimportant details they have learned. Algorithm design – Identifying and refining the steps necessary to reach a solution Computational thinking 23 In order for problem-based learning to be effective, teachers need to ensure that students are familiar Studying computing with the relevant skills and concepts, and that involves much more than they are guided as they apply a problem-solving strategy. This is likely to involve working together learning to code to: plenary session. Although the individual work may 1. Examine a case and clarify terms be extensive, this is essentially a time-bounded 2. Identify the problem approach. In a real-world setting, the process 3. Analyse the problem would extend further, with solutions tested and refined over a long period. In problem-based 4. Draft an explanatory model learning, the process ends at Step 7, at which point 5. Establish learning goals an appropriate solution to the problem is likely to be identified in discussion with a teacher. 6. Work individually to collect additional information Computational thinking differs from problem-based learning in that it arises from a need to solve 7. Apply and discuss additional information immediate practical problems rather than work For example, medical students might be presented through pre-prepared exercises. It breaks an initial with a set of information about a patient. Having problem down into smaller elements, then relates clarified the details, they would list key symptoms these to ones that have been solved in the past. and possible causes, suggest what might be wrong, It also assumes that solutions will be tested and identify what they need to find out in order to check refined until an acceptable one is reached. Thus, if they are correct, perform some tests and then it can be more useful in practical settings than the use these additional data to make a firm diagnosis. problem-based learning approach, but may not be This is a systematic approach to problem solving, appropriate to solve human and social problems designed for the classroom. It focuses on a single that cannot easily be decomposed into sub- problem and includes learning goals. It shifts from problems. group work to individual study and back to a Section of Scratch code for a hide-and-seek game 24 Innovating Pedagogy 2014 Computational thinking skills Connecting – recognizing the power of creating with and for others Learning to solve problems in the context of computing is associated with the development of Questioning – feeling empowered to ask questions a set of skills. Researchers who have investigated about the world. how children engage with the programming These findings emphasise that computational environment Scratch have identified skills and thinking is more than a set of steps to be worked shifts in perspective related to computational through. It is not only a way of thinking, but also a thinking: way of working and of approaching problems. Experimenting and iterating – developing something, trying it out, and then developing some Conclusion more. Studying computing involves much more than Testing and debugging – finding and solving learning to code. It enables learners to engage in problems as they work. abstraction, by defining patterns and generalizing from specific instances. It introduces ways Reusing and remixing – building on existing of processing information and representing it projects or ideas in different ways. It requires learners to work Abstracting and modularizing – exploring systematically to identify and remove errors. connections between the whole and the parts Perhaps most importantly, it provides them with a way to break down problems and work to solve Expressing – recognising that working in this way them across every area of life. is a creative activity. Resources The importance of computational thinking and What is Computational Thinking? A framework how it can be incorporated within the curriculum developed by Harvard, based on studies in the for children aged 5–11: context of the Scratch programming environment: Berry, M. (2013). Computing in the National scratched.gse.harvard.edu/ct/defining.html Curriculum: a guide for primary teachers. Bedford, Scratch programming environment for children: UK: Computing at School. scratch.mit.edu www.computingatschool.org.uk/data/uploads/ CASPrimaryComputing.pdf A framework that includes lesson planning, classroom techniques and assessment methods: Computational Thinking: Teacher Resources Curzon, P., Dorling, M., Ng, T., Selby, C., & from The International Society for Technology Woollard, J. (2014). Developing computational in Education (ISTE) and the Computer Science thinking in the classroom: a framework. Teachers Association (CSTA): Computing at School. csta.acm.org/Curriculum/sub/CurrFiles/472.11 community.computingatschool.org.uk/ CTTeacherResources_2ed-SP-vF.pdf files/3517/original.pdf Google for Educators offers a curated collection of A detailed review of publications on computational resources related to computational thinking: thinking: www.google.com/edu/resources/programs/ Grover, S., & Pea, R. (2013). Computational exploring-computational-thinking/index. thinking in K–12: a review of the state of the field. html#!resources Educational Researcher, 42(1), 38-43. Computational thinking 25 Learning by doing science with remote labs Guided experiments on authentic scientific equipment Potential impact: medium Timescale: ongoing Laboratory experiences offer opportunities for collect data from physical phenomena. Through a students to experiment directly with the material remote lab, students can now work with scientific world, or data from it, using the tools, data apparatus and materials that would otherwise collection equipment, models and theories of be too expensive, dangerous, difficult, or time- science. That was the conclusion of a report from consuming. For example, the Radioactivity iLab the US National Academy of Sciences, echoed in enables students to measure radiation from a a statement from the British Council for Science sample of strontium-90. In this iLab, students in the and Technology that “Practical laboratory work United States move a Geiger counter in Australia is the essence of science and should be at the up and down to measure the radioactivity at heart of science learning.” Yet the value of school different distances and watch what happens over a laboratory work has also been criticized, as the live video. The learning goal is to observe and infer experience of running an experiment in a school that the intensity of radiation from a point source lab can emphasize practicalities and neglect deep decreases proportionally to the inverse square of learning. the distance. One important area of innovation has been to provide students in schools and universities with balance the time remote access to real scientific experiments. In a remote laboratory, a student controls real and support for doing the materials and apparatus over the internet, and the procedure can be executed flawlessly by lab work with time and a computer. Students can therefore focus on intellectual skills and conceptual understanding. support for learning Classroom teachers can spend less time on setting up and managing materials and equipment, from it and more time on framing and supporting student Remote labs are available for many topics learning. Students can also more easily compare including astronomy, biology, chemistry, computer data sets, collect larger data sets, and engage in networking, earth science, engineering, hydraulics, replications and extensions. An example is the microelectronics, physics and robotics. Further, Remote Experimentation Laboratory (RExLab) at common platforms are emerging such as iLab the Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil. In Central, Go-Lab and the OpenScience Laboratory. Brazil, only 7% of schools currently have their own The benefits and growing availability of remote science labs, so it gives students the opportunity to labs mean that now is an ideal time to focus on the control scientific equipment and run experiments pedagogical innovations that will be necessary to in electrical circuits, mechanics, physics and realise the full potential of both local and remote computing. labs. Note that a remote laboratory is not a simulation: As technology makes the mechanics of lab work students control high-end scientific equipment and faster and more straightforward, how can learning 26 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 be enhanced? Six questions are at the heart meaningful experiments and investigations. of innovative pedagogies for learning by doing They need help to form concepts, through science: techniques such as concept mapping, and to elaborate hypotheses. They also need 1 What is the learning purpose? In traditional teaching labs, the purpose was sometimes considerable guidance in making sense of the data that results, relating the data back to their only to handle scientific equipment safely and original driving questions, and deciding what precisely. This work is taken out of students’ to do next. By attending to the complete cycle hands in a remote lab. Consequently, in of planning, acting and reflecting, educators remote labs educators more often focus can better develop students’ abilities as self- on conceptual understanding and inquiry regulating learners. ARROW remotely controlled radio telescope for Open University students goals that are aligned with today’s curricular aspirations. Students often appreciate 3 How can students get timely feedback to guide their learning? Researchers spending less time setting up (and cleaning have noted that, in traditional physical labs, up) a lab and more time pursuing intellectual teachers typically walk around to identify goals. They may also appreciate getting a difficulties students are having with the lab, higher quality data set with less fine tuning of and intervene appropriately – however, equipment. But, for some purposes, hands- they may need guidance on how to engage on experience with local materials may be students conceptually during the session. In better. For example, in a remote lab students a remote lab, students also need to be tested have fewer opportunities to design how they and assisted during their engagement with the control and measure phenomena. Whether lab, but the teacher may not be present during with remote or local labs, a focus on authentic the session. Digital resources can support science learning goals (and not just on the students in checking their own understanding use of authentic materials) is a hallmark of and progress, and thereby provide feedback innovative pedagogy. to guide learning while doing the lab work. 2 What guidance do students need before and after the lab session? Educational 4 How can social roles support learning goals? Likewise, physical labs in schools and designs often provide explicit resources for universities are places where students interact guiding students during the lab session. socially in support of each other’s learning. The guidance they require beforehand and In remote labs, a basis for communication afterwards is often less thoughtfully designed. can be set up via chat or online calling. Yet For example, students need support to plan communication alone is not enough. Learning by doing science with remote labs 27 Research in the area of computer-supported collaborative learning emphasises the need 6 How can teachers prepare? Remote labs offer new possibilities for teacher learning. to structure students’ collaboration, which can For trainee teachers who are studying at include assigning specific roles to students, university, they can practise with a remote providing a shared workspace, orchestrating lab on their university campus and then teach when students should communicate in the students with the same lab during a practical course of their work with the lab, and helping teaching experience in a school. Remote them to monitor and improve the state of their labs also offer teachers sample data sets social engagement. that students collected, which can be used to help with planning their lessons. Further, 5 Can the places for sense making and data collection be flipped? Conventionally, since teachers in different locations can use the same remote lab, they can more easily students are expected to collect data during engage in discussions of their pedagogical school time, and to organize and interpret their approach to teaching the lab class. data as homework. However, this arrangement requires students to do challenging intellectual work in the less supported environment, alone Conclusion at home. With remote labs it becomes possible Doing real, practical scientific experiments is no for students to run their experiments outside longer restricted to science labs in schools or class, thus flipping the use of time at home universities during normal working hours. The and in school. This could enable teachers ability to conduct experiments remotely over the to focus with students on making decisions Internet means that students may have access about what to investigate and discussing the to equipment and materials that they would not resulting data. Overall, innovative pedagogies otherwise be able to engage with, due to issues can be employed to balance the time and around cost, safety, level of difficulty and time support for doing the lab work with time and required. This also enables students and teachers support for learning from it – making sure that to focus on learning goals and the pedagogy of the difficult work of sense-making is not left to science learning, rather than just practical handling students to struggle with alone. of apparatus. 28 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 Resources Go-Lab portal to online labs for schools: Study of remote lab use by undergraduate www.go-lab-project.eu students, indicating a need for realism such as live video of the lab: Open letter from the Council for Science and Sauter, M, Uttal, D. H., Rapp, D. N., Downing, M. Technology to the former UK Secretary of State & Jona, K. (2013). Getting real: the authenticity of for Education in 2013, arguing that practical remote labs and simulations for science learning. laboratory work should be at the heart of science Distance Education, 34(1), 37-47. learning: groups.psych.northwestern.edu/uttal/ www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ documents/Sauteretal2013.pdf uploads/attachment_data/file/230509/13-1131- stem-education.pdf Study of introduction of remote lab use in a Brazilian school, indicating importance of access iLabs network of remote labs: on mobile devices and teacher development: ilabcentral.org Simão, J. P. S., de Lima, J. P. C., Rochadel, Remote Experimentation Laboratory (RExLab) J. B. daS. (2014). Remote Labs in Developing provided by the Federal University of Santa Countries: An Experience in Brazilian Public Catarina, Brazil: Education. In proceedings of IEEE 2014 Global relle.ufsc.br Humanitarian Technology Conference, 1-13 October 2014, San Jose, CA. 99-105. OpenScience Laboratory, bringing practical ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp. science to students: jsp?arnumber=6970267 learn5.open.ac.uk Report on the status of science labs in US high Review of remote labs in education: schools: Cooper, M. & Ferreira, J. M. M. (2009). Remote Singer, S. R., Hilton, M. L. & Schweingruber, laboratories extending access to science and H. A. (Eds.) (2005). America’s Lab Report: engineering curricula. IEEE Transactions on Investigations in High School Science. Learning Technologies, 2(4), 342-353. Washington DC: National Academies Press. oro.open.ac.uk/20433/1/tlt2009040342.pdf www.nap.edu/catalog/11311/americas-lab- report-investigations-in-high-school-science Evaluation of use of remote labs with schools, indicating a need to focus on active manipulation Review of guidance for supporting student use of of control devices and to teach key skills such as online and remote labs: experimental design and control of variables: Zacharia, Z. C., Manolis, C,. Xenofontos, N., Lowe, D., Newcomb, P., and Stumpers, B. (2013). de Jong, T., Pedaste, M., van Riesen, S. A. N., Evaluation of the use of remote laboratories for Kamp, E. T., Mäeots, M., Siiman, L., & Tsourlidaki, secondary school science education. Research in E. (2015). Identifying potential types of guidance Science Education, 43(3), 1197-1219. for supporting student inquiry when using link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2 virtual and remote labs in science: a literature Fs11165-012-9304-3#/page-1 review. Educational Technology Research and Development, 63(2), 257-302. link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2 Fs11423-015-9370-0#/page-1 Learning by doing science with remote labs 29 Embodied learning Making mind and body work together to support learning Potential impact: medium Timescale: long (4+ years) Embodied learning comes from self-awareness working in harmony to express the process of of one’s own body – its movements, biomedical thinking can be powerful aids to teaching and measurements, limits and interactions with the learning. Children show their working of subtraction world. Whilst it is essential for some forms of problems by crossing out and adding figures; poets learning, such as playing a new sport or learning leave traces of their creative processes on the to drive a car, it also relates more generally to written manuscript. how the body shapes and conditions our cognitive learning. As we move through environments and interact with people and objects, our bodies and Embodied learning limbs fit in with the surroundings. We continually adjust, without conscious awareness, to the terrain comes from self- as we move about, the surrounding temperature, the objects and people we touch. The environment awareness of one’s provides opportunities for action (affordances) own body that our bodies detect and act upon by walking, running, hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, Devices with pen or touch input can capture these tasting. Learning happens when this continuous pen strokes and replay them to provide an animation process of action and reaction comes to our of problem solving. Teachers can create ‘worked attention. This can happen when the body does example’ videos to demonstrate the process of not fit neatly into the environment (perhaps it solving a mathematical problem or to explain a stumbles at a concealed step), or we are learning concept by drawing and adding to a diagram. to perform a physical activity such as dancing, New technologies that are sensitive to pressure of or we are shaping the environment to our needs touch allow more subtle ways of communicating (for example, by drawing, painting, sculpting or the process of drawing and painting. However, building). these are digital imitations of the flow of ink and the colour of pigment. Paints create colour by How embodiment reflecting ambient light, while computer screens transmit and filter light. affects learning Technology can add value when communicating It follows that physical acts – such as using a pen, through gesture, with interactive surfaces such pencil or brush to write and draw – affect how we as tabletops (large multi-touch computer screens, learn. When writing or drawing by hand rather than presented horizontally at waist height) supporting typing on a keyboard we are able to cross out, add individual and collaborative work. Using these notes and draw diagrams alongside the text. The interactive tools, learners can manipulate digital process of creating a text, mathematical solution, information directly with their fingers, feet or other or drawing can be made visible to other learners bodily movements. or teachers. Students may use their workings and crossings out to gain insight into thinking Gestures enable people to communicate by processes, see gaps in knowledge, and suggest indicating or moving real or virtual objects, working ways to improve the technique, perhaps by adding together to produce shapes and patterns, and notes or drawings. These acts of mind and body creating music and dance. Gestures may also have 30 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 a fundamental role in children’s development of a certain time period, heart rate, or even blood mathematics and science, as they rotate shapes, oxygen levels). These data, sometimes referred organise things into categories, pour liquids, and to as ‘the quantified self’, can be applied to help move objects into alignment or set them in motion. us learn about ourselves, to improve fitness and The speech children use with adults in performing diagnose bodily illnesses and weaknesses. these actions, such as ‘push’ and ‘pour’, forms the basis for scientific language. Pros and cons of In some instances, tabletops are better for embodied learning supporting learning than using a mouse and cursor Embodied learning can produce new insights by on screen, as there is a more direct route between generating data that are personal and directly a person’s cognitive intent and their physical relevant. It may also offer new ways to engage with movements. For example, in the European learning that prove appealing to some learners. JuxtaLearn project, groups of school children However, unless it is implemented thoughtfully it worked together on digital tabletops to produce will present accessibility challenges, in particular joint explanations of ‘tricky topics’ in science and to those who have physical disabilities and those mathematics. Using their hands, they were able who experience difficulties with physical exertion to move and re-order on the large screen boxes or complex bodily movements. This may result in of text that represented the structure and content frustration or embarrassment for those learners, of their explanations. As they explained their leading to reduced motivation and engagement. actions to others, and engaged physically with the text, they probed their own understanding of the Other effects on motivation have been identified. scientific concepts. Some people have reported that they find personal fitness monitors addictive, so they are reluctant New developments in to exercise when not wearing them, feeling that embodied learning such activity is wasted. They have also reported feeling ‘controlled’ by the device, even though they Mobile and wearable devices now contain a range experience feelings of happiness, satisfaction, of different sensors that can provide information pride and increased motivation when they reach not only about our external environment (including their daily targets. ambient temperature, light levels and location) but also about an individual’s physical and biological Conclusion data (such as the number of steps walked over Embodied learning suggests that learning occurs not only in the mind, but also through existing and new practices engaged in by our physical bodies. Using bodily actions when learning new content may result in deeper, longer-lasting memory traces and, in some cases, higher test scores and increased knowledge retention. New developments in wearable and implanted technologies, including internal microchips and digital tattoos are likely to provide even greater amounts of personal data about physical movements and physiology. However, these possible extensions or enhancements to minds and bodies will not always be a comfort or a benefit. It is clear that we need carefully to consider the potential negative impacts on learning, such as demotivation and intrusion, before we engage with these developments more extensively. Children interacting with a tabletop display on the JuxtaLearn project Embodied learning 31 Resources Khan Academy teaching by worked example Evans, M. A. & Rick, J. (2014). Supporting videos: learning with interactive surfaces and spaces. In www.khanacademy.org J. M. Spector et al. (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology SMALLab Learning advancing embodied learning (fourth edition). New York: Springer-Verlag. 689- in schools and museums: 701. smallablearning.com/embodied-learning/ A related paper can be downloaded from Duus, R. & Cooray, M. (2015). How we edutech.uni-saarland.de/uploads/330/iss- discovered the dark side of wearable fitness icls2012.pdf trackers, The Conversation, June 19, 2015. Reflection on the body’s role within teaching theconversation.com/how-we-discovered-the- and learning, based on observation of a school dark-side-of-wearable-fitness-trackers-43363 science teacher: McNerney, S. (2011). A Brief Guide to Embodied Latta, M. M. & Buck, G. (2008). Enfleshing Cognition: Why You Are Not Your Brain. Scientific embodiment: ‘falling into trust’ with the body’s role American Blog Network, November 4, 2011. in teaching and learning, Educational Philosophy blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/a- and Theory, 40(2), 315-329. brief-guide-to-embodied-cognition-why-you- www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1469- are-not-your-brain/ 5812.2007.00333.x Evidence from gestures by teachers and learners Review of literature from anthropology, linguistics, that mathematical knowledge is embodied: psychology and education: Alibali, M. W. & Nathan, M. J. (2012). Embodiment Roth, W-M. (2001). Gestures: their role in in mathematics teaching and learning: evidence teaching and learning. Review of Educational from learners’ and teachers’ gestures, Journal of Research, Fall 2001, 71(3), 365-392. the Learning Sciences, 21(2), 247-286. www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~nunez/COGS160/ website.education.wisc.edu/~mnathan/ Roth_PS.pdf Publications_files/2012_Alibali%26Nathan_ JLS_Embodiment_Instruction_Gesture.pdf 32 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 Adaptive teaching Adapting computer-based teaching to the learner’s knowledge and action Potential impact: medium Timescale: long (4+ years) Adaptive teaching refers to the ways in which and unprepared. Adaptive teaching attempts to computer applications can analyse data from adjust to differences in background knowledge learning activities to provide learners with relevant and experience, providing ways for learners to content, to sequence their learning activities, to cope. Such technology also can provide just-in- address gaps in their knowledge, and to accelerate time feedback by responding to recent actions, their learning. The term can also apply to software to correct an error or offer a hint. A teacher in a that helps teachers to adapt their classroom classroom cannot provide personal assistance to activities based on responses from students. each student, yet giving such immediate feedback Adaptive teaching is distinct from interactive may improve student performance. learning, which takes place when a learner uses technology that responds to input but does not Learning at one’s own pace, adapt to the specific characteristics of the learner. Adaptive teaching products have been developed visualizing learner differences for use in classrooms, in workplaces and at home. Picture a student who is taking a course in college that uses adaptive technology software. The student thinks some parts of the curriculum are A teacher in a classroom interesting and some are boring. Instead of being cannot provide personal forced to do the parts that she considers boring, whenever the course reaches that point she can assistance to each choose her own sequence in which to study the material. When she is tested at the end of each student, yet giving such section, the more she is stuck on a problem the more hints she receives. Once she understands immediate feedback easier problems, she is given more difficult ones. The computer suggests weaker areas she should may improve student review. At the end of the day, the teacher views the performance performance of each student and uses feedback from the system to find that a large group of students had trouble with certain questions, so Learners have differences in their knowledge, plans either to re-teach those concepts in class the experience, and preferences for studying. Even next day, or to split the students into small groups when a school screens learners using pre-requisite to discuss specific problems, as suggested by the courses, students will differ in proficiency and software. confidence. For example, consider two learners who have passed high school algebra and join the same college mathematics course. One Adaptive teaching technologies learner has a passion for algebra, whereas the The number of adaptive learning products is other considers it an exercise required to get a expanding at a rapid pace. Some educators see degree. Their attitudes and skills in the class may adaptive approaches as providing flexible study be quite different: the first may be bored, wanting options to students, particularly those struggling extra challenge, while the other may be anxious in remedial and general education courses or fully Adaptive teaching 33 Learner dashboard from the Cerego memorisation system online classes. Many of these products have their courses or to create their own. Its adaptive course roots in 1980s research into ‘intelligent tutoring sequence is neither a pre-set path, nor one based systems’. These were developed primarily to on test results, but it employs algorithms and support mathematics teaching, but new products machine learning methods that continuously tailor address a broad range of subjects including a learning sequence for each learner. It also adds English, psychology, economics and biology. learner interests to standard educational content, Recent research into adaptive technologies is for example, producing mathematics problems expanding beyond cognitive learner data by focused on an industry that appeals to the learner. responding to learners’ moods and brain activity. Cerego memorisation software asks learners to set Adaptive products are designed and sequenced by goals based on the content they need to cover and professional software designers and educational the time available to study it, then designs a daily technologists. Pearson’s MyLab and Mastering study plan. Brainscape adapts flashcards based products include many subjects: biology, chemistry, on a learner’s confidence and available study time. engineering, psychology, writing, culinary sciences, Its model is informed by cognitive science research oceanography and accounting. The Knewton uses on how teaching methods should be sequenced, psychometric tools to analyse student ability, timed and repeated in order to store knowledge probabilistic models to recommend the learning reliably in long-term memory. activities to complete next, clustering to group Adaptivity has also been applied to massive open students by proficiency, and decay curves that online courses (MOOCs) and online learning model forgetting and trigger reminders to study content to support learners based on their older material. Knewton, like others such as Smart preferences for pedagogical approach. They can Sparrow, allows a teacher to select the lesson choose from approaches as diverse as closely design and to set the range of adaptability. mentored apprenticeship and discovery through Smart Sparrow provides tools to create simulations experimentation. An interactive companion and interactive content. CogBooks enables to the Mathspring math tutoring game sends educators either to select from previously created encouraging messages to students and adapts the 34 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 game difficulty depending on learner confidence, branched packets of content at several levels to interest, frustration or excitement. Another tutoring provide multiple pedagogical approaches, confront program adapts content by monitoring brain activity common misconceptions, and offer a battery of and also documents workload, boredom, off-task hints that give learners the appropriate level of activity and engagement. challenge and support. Systems for mathematics and language teaching have been designed to Adapting adaptive teaching generate examples and hints at varying levels of difficulty, matched to the learner’s actions. Previous editions of Innovating Pedagogy have They can generate exercises, detect where addressed ingredients of adaptive learning the student makes an error, and indicate the including learning analytics, dynamic assessment, misunderstanding. However, the design of these and learning from gaming. Despite much progress, tutoring systems can involve years of research adaptive teaching faces barriers. The cost of into learners’ misconceptions. For this reason, developing adaptive teaching systems can be high cost-benefit analysis and developing efficiencies if teaching material must be produced to match around analysis and generation of content are the needs and interests of different learners. particularly useful for the growth of adaptive Where traditional approaches require a linear teaching technologies. string of lessons, adaptive learning requires Resources Adaptive flashcards: Smart Sparrow adaptive e-learning platform: https://www.brainscape.com www.smartsparrow.com Cerego adaptive software for learning based on Introduction to adaptive web-based systems for spaced rehearsal for memory retention: education: cerego.com Brusilovsky, P., & Peylo, C. (2003). Adaptive and intelligent web-based educational systems. CogBooks: adaptive learning books: International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in pub.cogbooks.com/~cogbooks/product/ Education (IJAIED), 13, 159-172. Knewton system for teachers to create adaptive telearn.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00197315/ learning content: document www.knewton.com Design, development and deployment of a MOOC MathSpring adaptive mathematics practice that offers five learning strategies based on software: learner preference: mathspring.org Sonwalkar, N. (2013) The First Adaptive MOOC: A Case Study on Pedagogy Framework and Report on adaptive learning for Knewton: Scalable Cloud Architecture – Part I. MOOCs www.knewton.com/wp-content/uploads/ FORUM, 1, 22-29. knewton-adaptive-learning-whitepaper.pdf online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/ mooc.2013.0007 Pearson MyLab & Mastering adaptive tutoring products: www.pearsonmylabandmastering.com Adaptive teaching 35 Analytics of emotions Responding to the emotional states of students Potential impact: medium Timescale: long (4+ years) Emotions, attention and engagement are key upon the emotional reactions of volunteers, these drivers for learning. When you decide whether to companies adjust the way groups of people will get out of bed, read a complex article, or complete react to emotional inputs and thereby maximise a challenging task, how you feel about performing the chance that people will remember a brand these activities will determine whether you will do positively. them, persist and, more importantly, enjoy them. In the field of the learning sciences, researchers are on the brink of a similar breakthrough. Techniques Detecting emotions for tracking eye movements, emotions and Detection of emotions using advanced artificial engagement have matured over the past decade. intelligence approaches is an approach used in Combining a mature discipline with relatively marketing and advertising. Several companies inexpensive ways to measure where learners can accurately measure how people experience watch and click in learning materials will allow emotions, engagement, and attention while researchers, teachers and learners to discover watching an advertisement, using only a simple where, when, and how people learn. webcam on a tablet, smartphone or laptop. By While you are reading this text, you may combining eye-tracking movements (the way a simultaneously be keeping an eye on a chat viewer’s eyes focus on particular elements in stream, listening to Spotify, or overhearing a a video or text) with facial expressions (such nearby conversation. If this text is truly engaging as amazement, or a shake of the head) and and interesting, your mind, eyes, and body will be posture (leaning backwards or forwards), several fully immersed in the learning experience. In the companies can already track, trace and predict future, using analytics of emotions, institutions will how people react to particular advertisements, be able to track which learning materials students where their attention is drawn, whether they like are following, and whether they are distracted, or dislike a particular scene, and whether they guessing answers to quiz tests, or really engaged associate the brand with particular emotions. in learning. Rather than running expensive expert and customer focus groups to establish whether an Personalised learning based advert works or not, marketing companies have found that thousands of people are freely willing on emotional responses to share their emotional reactions to featured By combining people’s clicking and typing advertisements just by sitting behind a screen. By behaviour with the areas where they focus their repositioning certain elements and scenes based gaze, rich opportunities for personalised learning could become available. For example, if a student is glancing back to earlier material, it may be that the text is not sufficiently clear and he is struggling with some concepts. If he is continually looking for key terms, scrolling back and has a puzzled facial expression (or worse, is getting annoyed), the Eye-tracking study – the overlaid colours show where the system may suggest a short video explaining key viewer is looking 36 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 concepts in an engaging manner, or offer a quick with a peer. Thus, analytics of emotions can help function. work alongside adaptive teaching to offer a more personalised learning experience. analytics of emotions While there may be valuable opportunities to link eye-tracking and emotion data with learning can work alongside behaviour data, learners will only be willing to share eye movements, facial expressions and posture adaptive teaching data with others if they perceive positive benefits. to offer a more One such benefit would be that the analytic tools are able to identify learners’ emotions correctly personalised learning and then provide appropriate teaching and useful feedback. Even as the practical problems are experience solved, complex ethical and privacy challenges will need to be addressed, if learning providers wish Alternatively, if the analytics indicate that a student to monitor students’ emotional reactions. They will is rapidly skimming text, she may already be need to develop trust with learners and educators already familiar with key concepts and be getting by providing accurate, adaptive learning solutions bored, so an engaging exercise might pop up, or based upon actual learning emotions and needs. a chat opportunity to discuss a complex problem Resources Test your own emotional reactions to advertising Design of adaptive tutoring based on overcoming videos: negative student emotions: www.affectiva.com/technology/ Arroyo, I., Muldner, K., Burleson, W., & Woolf, B. P. (2014). Adaptive interventions to address Project by Sidney D’Mello and Ryan Baker to students’ negative activating and deactivating detect emotions while students learn from the emotions during learning activities. In R. Sottilare, Newton’s Playground game for physics learning: A. Graesser, X. Hu & B. Goldberg (Eds.). Design sites.google.com/site/sidneydmello/ Recommendations for Intelligent Tutoring projects#TOC-Emotions-while-Students-Learn- Systems Vol 2 (pp. 79-92). Orlando, FL: U.S. from-Newton-s-Playground Army Research Laboratory. Introduction to how researchers are gathering ict.usc.edu/pubs/Intelligent%20Tutoring%20 data from many sources, including emotion, to Support%20for%20Learners%20 develop computer-based tutoring systems: Interacting%20with%20Virtual%20Humans.pdf Koedinger, K., D’Mello, S., McLaughlin, E. A., Study comparing people’s ability to recognise Pardos, Z. A., & Rosé, C. P. (2015). Data mining emotions on real and virtual faces: and education. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Joyal, C. C., Jacob, L., Cigna, M-H., Guay, J-P. Cognitive Science, 6(4), 333-353. & Renaud, P. (2014). Virtual faces expressing onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wcs.1350/ emotions: an initial concomitant and construct abstract validity study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, Visschedijk, G. C., Lazonder, A. W., van der Hulst, 8(787). Published online. A., Vink, N., & Leemkuil, H. (2013). Modelling www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ human emotions for tactical decision-making PMC4179743/ games. British Journal of Educational Technology, 44(2), 197-207. publications.tno.nl/publication/100054/ RqYpW1/visschedijk-2013-modelling.pdf Analytics of emotions 37 Stealth assessment Unobtrusive assessment of learning processes Potential impact: medium Timescale: long (4+ years) As people play modern computer games – Principles and theories of exploring simulated worlds, combatting foes and overcoming challenges – the computer software stealth assessment monitors their progress, changing the game world, The key principles of stealth assessment are that: spawning new enemies and setting increasingly difficult problems. This approach of continually • the software analyses interactions of students tracking a person’s progress while providing within a computer game or simulation immediate automated responses has been termed • the system continually adjusts the structure stealth assessment and it is starting to be applied of the game to support learning, for example to educational games and simulations. by offering new challenges of a form and level matched to the student’s performance Stealth assessment extends adaptive teaching by making continual adjustments to a simulated • the system maintains the flow of the game, environment, rather than selecting a path or so that the teaching and assessment are part of the game rather than added layers exercise based on diagnosis of a learner’s knowledge and misconceptions. The assessment • the system builds a dynamic model is embedded within the flow of the game and the of the learners to indicate their student is likely to be unaware that this dynamic abilities and competences process of monitoring and response is taking place. • it is intended to reduce learners’ anxiety about taking tests by blurring the distinction The pedagogy that between assessment and learning, while carrying out accurate diagnosis. underlies stealth The pedagogy that underlies stealth assessment is that of competency learning. The teacher (or, in the assessment is that of case of stealth learning, the computer) estimates competency learning what the student knows and can do, continually providing tasks and assessment that are matched to the student’s competency. To do this the teacher, The term was first used by Valerie Shute in 2005 or teaching system, must diagnose how the student to describe the automated assessment process in is performing on specific problems and then infer a system named Smithtown to teach principles of levels of competency across a network of skills. microeconomics (for example, the laws of supply The objective is to detect the student’s problem- and demand) while students explored a simulated solving skills involving knowledge, comprehension world and altered variables such as the price of and application while also uncovering the higher- coffee and the incomes of inhabitants. The aim level abilities of creativity and critical thinking. was to teach students how to engage in inquiry learning by forming hypotheses and testing The pedagogy that underlies stealth assessment is predictions. The software used methods from that of competency learning. Automated collection artificial intelligence to monitor and analyse the of the assessment data relies on matching the students’ actions, providing them with feedback to pedagogy of competency learning with methods support their inquiry skills. of computer game design including: setting goals 38 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 to be achieved, managing conflict or challenge, Examples of stealth providing continual responses, creating a compelling game story, designing a believable assessment simulated environment, and offering meaningful An example of a computer game that employs interactions within the environment. stealth assessment is Portal 2, developed by Valve Corporation. The player takes the role of Chell, who has to explore an advanced science laboratory, realised as a complex mechanised maze, and find an exit door by using a set of tools. An educational aim is for the user to learn aspects of physics, to gain visual spatial skills and to develop critical thinking abilities. Another, very different, example of stealth assessment can be found in the TAALES tool. This analyses the lexical properties of students’ essays (such as word frequency and use of academic language) to assess the students’ vocabulary knowledge. Stealth assessment of student essays with TAALES is being coupled to a system that helps the students to improve their essay-writing skills. Opportunities and challenges Stealth assessment works best when the assessment strategies, the game and the simulated world are all developed together through a process Cover art for Portal 2 game of evidence-centred design that applies not only to the assessment but also the gameplay (so that the game elements are included to stimulate A successful method of developing stealth engagement and learning). A less successful assessment games is through Evidence-Centred approach is to add dynamic assessment to an Design. First, the educational game designer existing game or simulation. needs to determine what knowledge, skills and competencies will be assessed, so that they can Stealth assessment techniques can give learners be built into the gameplay. These attributes cannot immediate feedback on their actions and also be assessed directly (since the game has no direct provide teachers with information on how each way of knowing what the student is thinking and the learner is developing skills of inquiry, critical stealth approach precludes setting explicit tests of thinking, decision-making and creativity. This knowledge), so the designer has to work out which work is at an early stage and it is not yet clear behaviours and interactions will provide evidence whether the methods of stealth assessment need of a player’s knowledge, skills and competencies. to be developed afresh for each game and topic, Then the game is constructed to provoke these or whether general methods of design can be activities, with measures of success and failure in adopted. performance as the learner undertakes a mission or solves a game problem. These measures are The term ‘stealth assessment’ evokes attempts by interconnected to form a network of probabilities teachers and game designers not only to monitor that the learner has gained the desired skill or learners’ actions but also to infer their motivations, reached the required level of competency. competences and limitations, whether or not Stealth assessment 39 the learners are willing or give permission. For Stealth assessment offers engaging ways to teach research projects, these systems can, and should, competencies such as creativity, problem solving, be developed within strict ethical guidelines that persistence and collaboration, by incorporating include telling the learners how they are being dynamic assessment and feedback into computer monitored, how the information will be used, and games. The methods need to be introduced with gaining informed and willing consent from the care and sensitivity, but early results show promise participants. But stealth assessment is already in combining the engagement of simulation games being embedded into commercial games and with the diagnostic power of dynamic assessment. might, for example, be used without players’ knowledge to assess insurance risks. Resources Portal2 game: Introduction to stealth assessment: www.thinkwithportals.com Shute, V. J. (2011). Stealth Assessment in computer-based games to support learning. In Study of TAALES for essay assessment: S. Tobias and J. D. Fletcher (Eds.) Computer Allen, L. K. & McNamara, D. S. (2015). You Are Games and Instruction, Charlotte: Information Age Your Words: Modeling Students’ Vocabulary Publishing. 503-524. Knowledge with Natural Language Processing http://myweb.fsu.edu/vshute/pdf/shute%20 Tools. In proceedings of the 8th International pres_h.pdf Conference on Educational Data Mining, 26-29 June 2015, Madrid, Spain. Comprehensive report on stealth assessment: www.educationaldatamining.org/EDM2015/ Shute, V. & Ventura, M. (2013). Stealth proceedings/full258-265.pdf assessment: measuring and supporting learning in video games. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Evidence-centred design: http://myweb.fsu.edu/vshute/pdf/Stealth_ Messick, S. (1994). The interplay of evidence and Assessment.pdf consequences in the validation of performance assessments. Educational Researcher, 23(2), 13-23. onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/10.1002/j.2333-8504.1992.tb01470.x/pdf 40 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 Innovating Pedagogy 2015 Exploring new forms of teaching, learning and assessment, to guide educators and policy makers Open University Innovation Report 4 ISBN 9781473020177 9 781473 020177

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