Haunted by math: MLD policy in Mumbai, India 75 Haunted by Math: The Impact of Policy and Practice on Students with Math Learning Disabilities in the Transition to Post-Secondary Education in Mumbai, India Melinda (Mindy) S. Eichhorn Gordon College Abstract Only six states in India currently identify learning disabilities as a category of disability. This article highlights the challenges students with math learning disabilities face in their transition from secondary school to higher secondary education and Bachelor of Commerce degree programs in the state of Maharashtra. While the current educational policy aims to help students with learning disabilities participate in the general education curriculum and pass the 10th standard secondary exam, the implementation of curricular modifications has repercussions in post-secondary settings when students lack the math content knowledge for a required math course in their Bachelor’s degree program. This qualitative study highlights the transitional experiences of secondary and post-secondary individuals with math learning disabilities in Mumbai through interviews with students, college administrators, and lecturers; and a document review of Maharashtra’s special education policies. The results suggest that current special education policies and college practices in Mumbai do not prepare students with math learning disabilities with the math knowledge that they need to succeed in post-secondary mathematics courses. Current higher secondary and post-secondary interventions in Mumbai are reviewed and implications for policy and practice for all levels of education are discussed. Keywords Math learning disability; dyscalculia; intervention; higher secondary; post-secondary; transition; primary math; elementary education; policy; India Introduction had to take the mandatory mathematical and From a young age, Vinod (pseudonym) was statistical techniques course. Vinod recounts his interested in pursuing a career in business. transitional experience: Before taking his 10th standard exam to complete It was a shock for me to take math secondary school, he underwent an educational again. I was weak in math to begin with, assessment and was diagnosed with learning and then it was like I wasn’t practicing disabilities (LD). He majored in commerce at a hard enough or something. People said that junior college which did not require a mathematics course (11th and 12th standard) in Mumbai. After completing junior college, Vinod enrolled for a bachelor’s degree in commerce at ______________________________ Corresponding Author: Melinda (Mindy) S. Eichhorn, Department of Education, Gordon College, 255 Grapevine Road, Wenham, MA 01984 Email: melinda.eichhorn@gordon.edu a Mumbai degree college. In the first year, he Global Education Review is a publication of The School of Education at Mercy College, New York. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Eichhorn, Melinda Sue (2016). Haunted by math: The impact of policy and practice on students with math learning disabilities in the transition to post-secondary education in Mumbai, India.. Global Education Review, 3(3). 75-93 76 Global Education Review 3(3) I wasn’t studying and I was not paying attention. But I was. It was frustrating. I started not to care. I left it (math); I was like “screw it.” You are stressed when you are behind. No one wants to be behind everyone else. (Vinod, personal communication, April 25, 2013) Vinod failed the mathematical and statistical techniques course and eventually moved to another degree college (which does not require a math course) to pursue a Bachelor of Arts degree because his previous college only offered commerce and science degrees. Once he finished his Bachelor of Arts degree, he went to London to study media. He currently lives in Mumbai and is a general manager of products and marketing for a multi-channel entertainment network on YouTube (Vinod, personal communication, April 25, 2013). Vinod’s case is similar that of other students with learning disabilities in postsecondary education in Mumbai. Students with math learning disabilities (MLD) reported having to study harder and longer than their peers, just to scrape by, or as in Vinod’s case, taking another path in order to reach their goal. If students with MLD have fallen behind in mathematics in primary school, and then discover they have a learning disability when they enter secondary school, what are the repercussions they face in mathematics as they transition to post-secondary education and into a career? Students with MLD eventually do learn basic math procedures in primary school, but are one to several years behind their typically achieving peers (Geary, Hoard, Nugent, & Bailey, 2012). If this gap widens during secondary school, what are the implications for students who opt out of math courses for 2-4 years, who must take required math courses in post-secondary education? This exploratory study is a first step in beginning to understand the way special education policy, and the current education system in India, impacts students’ math abilities and their post-secondary education options due to their math proficiency in secondary school. This qualitative study used interviews, observations, and a document analysis to examine the Indian education system’s lack of options for students who may want to pursue a degree in commerce, but are unable to do so because of counsel from secondary counselors or college requirements. Because only one type math course is offered as a part of the degree program, students lack options and may have to take extra private classes to keep up with their peers. This study originated from a desire of the Maharashtra Dyslexia Association (MDA) to correct the discrepancy between students with MLD and their typically achieving peers in postsecondary education, because many students in their network were experiencing severe difficulties in mathematics during their postsecondary transition, especially in Bachelor of Commerce degree programs. To this end, this study addresses two main questions:  What accommodations and supports do students with MLD use during their secondary and post-secondary education?  How do college math policies and procedures affect students with MLD? Overall, very little is known about students with MLD in India. Only one peer-reviewed article has examined the identification and classification of MLD in India, and it focused on primary students in the city of Mysore (Ramaa & Gowramma, 2002). There are a few other studies on learning disabilities in India, but these have focused on three types of learning disabilities (reading, writing, and math) together (Mogasale et al., 2012; Kulkarni et al., 2006; Karande et al., 2007, 2009). Although, in general, awareness of learning disabilities has increased in India over the past decade, there is still a general lack of awareness in schools (Karande, Sholapurwala, & Kulkarni, 2011; Karande, Mahajan, & Kulkarni, 2009). Some studies have recommended increased training for primary school teachers, early screening Haunted by math: MLD policy in Mumbai, India tools, and more remedial education and special educators in primary and secondary schools (Karande, Sholapurwala, & Kulkarni, 2011; Karande, Doshi, Thadhani & Sholapurwala, 2013; Unni, 2012). Other studies have examined the lack of uniformity for learning disability diagnosis, and attempted to create alternative, simplified procedures, especially for students in vernacular-medium schools (Mogasale et al., 2012, Ramaa & Gowramma, 2002). However, most researchers do not take an in-depth look at math learning disabilities and none have examined the impact of policy and transitional issues in post-secondary education. Overall, the peer-reviewed literature on students with math learning disabilities in India is sparse. Background Defining Math Learning Disabilities Students and adults with mathematics learning disability (MLD) are individuals that perform at a level substantially below their peers in mathematics, whose poor performance cannot be explained by any deficit in vision, speech, hearing, or intelligence. It is, in a sense, “unexpected underachievement” (Fletcher, Lyon, Fuchs, & Barnes, 2007, p. 27; American Psychiatric Association, 2013a, 2013b). Learning disabilities, which can occur in the areas of reading, mathematics, and/or written expression, contribute to students experiencing low self-esteem due to their poor academic performance and negative school reports (Fletcher et al., 2007; Gibson & Kendall, 2010; Lahane et al., 2013). Currently, there is no universal definition of math learning disability (MLD) (Mazzocco & Myers, 2003). Although there has been almost a century of efforts, problems with the definition of math “learning disability” still exist. There is still a lack of understanding as to which criteria classify MLD so that it is reliable and valid (Fletcher et al., 2007). According to the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), the definition of math learning disability was a severe 77 discrepancy (in some cases, more than two standard deviations) between a student’s achievement in math and his/her age, schooling, and level of intelligence (IQ), and significant impairment in real-life activities that require math (APA, 2004; Geary, 2011; Sparks & Lovett, 2009; Allsopp, 2008). In the DSM-5, the IQachievement discrepancy requirement was eliminated and now the criteria for MLD involves evidence of symptom persistence for at least six months, despite extra help or targeted instruction (Tannock, 2014). The DSM-5 acknowledges that learning deficits in mathematics are sometimes referred to as “dyscalculia” internationally (American Psychiatric Association, 2013a). Although the term, “dyscalculia,” is used extensively in India, the term “math learning disability” will be used throughout this paper in order to better reflect a wide range of difficulties in mathematics, rather than focusing on calculation and arithmetic. In the literature, these terms are occasionally used synonymously (Butterworth, 2002; Williams, 2012). In the field of MLD, there is disagreement as to whether MLD is caused solely by a core deficit in number sense/numerosity, as Butterworth (2005) posits, or due to a more general deficit in working memory or spatial cognition, which is the view of Geary et al. (2004) (as cited by Pennington, 2009). These two theoretical perspectives or orientations are still under debate, which make it difficult to define MLD (Fletcher et al., 2007). Overall, children with MLD typically have a low start point on math achievement tests and show slow growth as compared to typically achieving peers (Geary, Hoard, Nugent, & Bailey, 2012). Lewis (2014) posits that students with MLD process or manipulate numbers in an atypical way due to differences in cognitive abilities. If these early math deficits, or differences, are remediated immediately, then students may not fall further behind their peers in math skills (Desoete et al., 2009). Addressing slow growth usually requires several 78 simultaneous types of remedial and instructional interventions (Geary, Hoard, Nugent, & Bailey, 2012). Interventions may be particularly effective if they are early (Dowker, 2005; Nelson & Sheridan, 2011). Math Learning Disabilities in India The national government of India does not currently recognize “learning disability” or any type of mathematics learning disorder, so there are no uniform guidelines for assessment, diagnosis, or certification. There is also extreme lack of awareness of learning disabilities among teachers (Unni, 2012). The educational boards in only six states consider learning disability (LD) as a category of disability (Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu) (Al-Yagon et al., 2013). Currently, students in Mumbai, Maharashtra receive a learning disability certificate from one of three government hospitals (Nair, Sion, and King Edward Memorial), or a recognized testing center, such as the Maharashtra Dyslexia Association (MDA). Students are typically diagnosed as having a learning disability based on the IQ-achievement discrepancy model (DSM-IV), but organizations in India are moving towards the DSM-5 criteria (M. Khan, personal communication, September 30, 2014). The terms “dyslexia,” “dysgraphia,” and “dyscalculia” are used synonymously for reading, writing, and math learning disabilities on the LD certificates in Maharashtra. The occurrence of MLD in India is believed to be 5.5% to 6% among primary school children (Ramaa & Gowramma, 2002; Karande & Kulkarni, 2005). Due to the lack of uniformity in diagnosing learning disabilities, it is difficult to present an accurate picture of the number of students with MLD in the country. There are no standardized measures available for students who study in vernacular-medium schools (where the language of instruction is not English) (AlYagon, et al., 2013). Also, there is a debate as to whether standardized tests used in Western countries, such as the Woodcock-Johnson Tests Global Education Review 3(3) of Cognitive Abilities or the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) are culturally appropriate for Indian students who are studying in English-medium schools (AlYagon et al., 2013). The WISC does have an Indian adaptation test available for IQ, yet there are no standardized measures for academic achievement (M. Khan, personal communication, March 6, 2014). At this point, centers like the Maharashtra Dyslexia Association (MDA) use the academic achievement battery standardized on the U.S. and U.K. populations, but place emphasis on “error analysis and give a qualitative report with rationales for diagnosis and accommodations” (M. Khan, personal communication, March 6, 2014). The LD clinics at Nair and Sion hospitals also use tests that are not standardized for the Indian population, while KEM hospital uses curriculum-based tests for students in Englishmedium schools (Al-Yagon et al., 2013). More research needs to be done in order to develop curriculum-based tests for diagnosis of learning disabilities in India, especially in the 21 official Indian languages, apart from English (Al-Yagon et al., 2013). India, as a nation, is incredibly diverse. With 28 states and 7 union territories, there are 30 languages spoken by more than one million people. There are additional languages and dialects as well. Overall, it is very difficult to standardize a uniform assessment of learning, let alone of learning disabilities in India (Unni, 2012). In India, education is a responsibility of both the national and state governments. The national government performs an advisory role, but allows states the freedom to adapt or adopt policy and curricula, since the context varies considerably from state to state (M. Jain & K. Sharma, personal communication, July 5, 2013). Elementary education in India is defined by the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) as schooling up to 8th standard, or ages 6–14 (MHRD Department of School Education and Literacy, 2015a). Secondary education is for Haunted by math: MLD policy in Mumbai, India students between the ages of 14 and 18, which corresponds to 9th–12th standard (MHRD Department of School Education and Literacy, 2015b). In the state of Maharashtra, however, elementary education is further divided into primary (1st–5th standards) and upper primary (6th– 8th standard). Secondary education includes 9th and 10th standards, while 11th and 12th standards are known as higher secondary or senior secondary school (Maharashtra Prathamik Shikshan Parishad, 2015). Higher secondary schools are often called junior colleges in Mumbai. Since this study took place in Maharashtra, I will refer to higher secondary education as coursework following 10th standard and post-secondary education as all education following the 12th standard. Each school and college in India is associated with a Board, or curriculum, such as the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) Board, the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) Board, or a state Board. In Maharashtra, the state Board is the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) Board for primary and secondary schools, while the higher secondary Board is the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC) Board. Depending on the Board, students with MLD in Mumbai are eligible for “provisions,” or accommodations, ranging from extra time to dropping math after 8th standard (Karande, 2008; Karande & Gogtay, 2010; Kulkarni, et al., 2006; MDA, 2014). These provisions were originally intended to function as a “corrective lens” to help students with LD continue in regular education (Karande, n.d., slide 28; Karande, Sholapurwala, & Kulkarni, 2011, p. 516). Although these provisions, or accommodations, were envisioned to “level the play(ing) field” in secondary school, they can actually lead to gaps in math content knowledge and set students up for failure when these 79 students transition to junior college (11th and 12th standard) and degree college (Karande, 2008, p. 75). Additionally, there is low awareness among teachers and parents, and many students in Mumbai are not diagnosed with MLD or other learning disabilities until 8th standard or later (Karande & Gogtay, 2010). By this time, it is difficult to remediate the many misconceptions that students have formed about mathematical ideas. In higher secondary education (11th and th 12 standard) math is an elective subject. Students in both Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC – Maharashtra state board) and Indian School Certificate (ISC) junior colleges can opt out of mathematics. However, once students finish junior college (12th standard) and they pursue a Bachelor’s degree in post-secondary educational institutions (degree colleges), students may need to take a required math course, depending on their degree program. So although there is a (non-math) course substitution, such as Secretarial Practice in HSCaffiliated junior colleges, which serves as a program accommodation, students may still have to take a math course later on in their academic career (Madaus, 2010). For instance, if a student pursues a Bachelor’s degree in Commerce, a math course is required in the first year. Students with MLD in India may enter secondary school without the foundation required for higher-level mathematics, including conceptual understanding of math, mastery and automaticity of basic math facts and skills, and problem-solving strategies. Yet, math lecturers in higher secondary education assume and expect that students have already acquired the needed foundational knowledge and skills in previous classes. 80 Global Education Review 3(3) Secondary school (up to 10th standard) SSC board (General or lower-level math) ICSE board (option to drop math after 8th standard) CBSE board (no alternative options) IGCSE board (core or extended level math) Higher Secondary/Junior college (11th and 12th standard) Commerce (Math or Secretarial Practice) Arts Science Post-secondary/Degree college (Bachelor's degree) Commerce (Mathematical and Statistical Techniques) Arts Science Management Mass media Law Pharmacy Medicine Engineering Architecture Figure 1. Pathway to post-secondary education for students in Mumbai, Maharashtra. The students in this sample studied in SSC board and ICSE board schools in secondary school. This study focused on students with learning disabilities that had entered or completed the Commerce stream and their math course options. Mathematics and the Transition to PostSecondary Education Pursuing higher education improves a student’s chances of a higher income, opportunities for career advancement, achieving status, and becoming part of a life-long professional network (Wehman & Yasuda, 2005). However, students with MLD are at a great disadvantage in pursuing post-secondary education and job options since they typically lag behind their peers in conceptual and procedural understanding of math knowledge, skills, and problem solving. According to Ramaa & Gowramma (2002), nearly half of the Indian students with MLD also have a learning disability in reading and writing. Although students with math learning disabilities in India have a complex profile of strengths and challenges, their difficulties in math may limit their options and opportunities within postsecondary education (Pennini, 2006). On the whole, very little is known about the transitional experience of post-secondary Haunted by math: MLD policy in Mumbai, India students with MLD in India. This study begins to address this knowledge gap. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework The theoretical framework of critical theory in education was used to reflect on the way policies and practice affect students with MLD, and can actually disempower them, as well contributing to marginalization and exclusion (Arnesen, Mietola, Lahelma, 2007; Erevelles, 2005; Peters, 2005). Specifically, this article used insights from the intersection of critical pedagogy and disability studies in education to analyze the ways Indian educational policies and practices deny access to math content for people of various abilities (Gabel, 2002). For instance, if education is viewed as a “practice of access,” then all students should have access to the curriculum and learning opportunities (Baglieri, Valle, Connor, & Gallagher, 2011, p. 272). However, pulling students out of the regular classroom, tracking, and offering certain accommodations, will continue to separate them, mark them as different or disabled, and can limit their access to the curriculum and opportunities to learn (Baglieri, Valle, Connor, & Gallagher, 2011). This pattern of distinctions creates systems and norms that include or exclude students, based on their ability (Popkewitz, 2001). Additionally, current methods of identifying students as having a learning “disability” are problematic. The eligibility criteria make judgements between what is “normal” and what is a learning “disability,” and often categorizes students - attaching a stigma to their identity (Baglieri, Valle, Connor, & Gallagher, 2011; Goffman, 1963). Because learning disabilities are an invisible disability, students may reject accommodations to conceal their label and avoid the stigma, which Goffman (1963) calls “information control” (p. 91). Students may or may not be willing to embrace 81 this aspect of their identity, based on how they imagine others will perceive them (Schifter, 2015). However, all human differences and diversity is normal, including the continuum of math abilities (Baglieri, Valle, Connor, & Gallagher, 2011). Yet, general educational systems, especially those in India, are inflexible (Hehir, 2015b). Instead of questioning the norms of educational systems, students’ disabilities, or differences, are seen as the problem. So often, the “‘problem’ of disability” is seen as being the student’s fault, instead of questioning why institutional norms and classroom practices have not been changed (Hehir, 2015a, p. 181). In this article, therefore, the Indian education policy and college practices toward students with learning disabilities are viewed as inflexible systems which do not allow for diversity of mathematical abilities. Each finding is examined in light of this critical theory framework, emphasizing the ways students with MLD are denied access to mathematical content through current policy and practice. Methodology Setting and Participants This study took place in Mumbai (formerly Bombay), India’s most populous city between April 2012 and November 2013. Mumbai is located in the state of Maharashtra. The approximate population of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region (comprising Mumbai, Navi Mumbai, Thane, Vasai-Virar, Bhiwandi and Panvel) is nearly 21 million, according to the 2011 census (Press Information Bureau, Government of India, 2011). The students in this study are from predominately middle and upper-middle class areas of Mumbai. Five secondary students were selected for in-depth case studies (one male in 8th standard, two females and one male in 9th standard, and one 10th standard female). All of these students had been tested for LD at MDA, so they were 82 familiar with the organization. These students were chosen based on their ability to express themselves verbally and the parents’ willingness to be involved in this research. Six adults (five male and one female) with learning disabilities with a Bachelor’s degree were also interviewed. They had received remedial or testing services at MDA or responded to our requests for participants through the Indian Psychological Association list-serv. Pseudonyms have been used for all participants with learning disabilities. Permission was obtained to interview college math lecturers and administrators where MDA had some prior affiliation or personal connection. Other prominent colleges in south Mumbai and in the suburbs that offered degrees in Commerce were contacted. All college names and lecturer names are pseudonyms. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with college lecturers and administrators (n = 18) in seven colleges. Additional lecturers (n = 28) in four of the seven colleges were also asked to complete a survey (appended). The surveys gathered descriptive information about the lecturers and their views of the transition experience. Six observations were conducted with an in math courses in two of the colleges using an observation protocol. A document review was completed of government resolution circulars in Maharashtra, which outline the exam accommodations and quotas that are required for students with learning disabilities, as well as college and university math syllabi from Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education (MSBSHSE, Pune) and Mumbai University. Results Accommodations and Supports for Students with MLD in Secondary and Post-Secondary Education Secondary school counselors have advised students with MLD to drop math or take lower- Global Education Review 3(3) level math as early as possible (sometimes after 7th standard) (A. Kumar, personal communication, November 27, 2012). Yet, college lecturers (both at the junior college and degree college level) recommend that all students take math throughout their academic career (K. Kapoor, personal communication, January 21, 2013). Students who have been counseled to drop math or take a lower level math by secondary school counselors may not know all of the ramifications of their choice according to Mr. Kumar: “Since we cannot change the syllabus, we can change the way we counsel students about math courses, especially secondary school counselors” (A. Kumar, personal communication, November 27, 2012). In other words, educational professionals can advise students to make informed choices about dropping math or continuing their study of mathematics, based on their desired educational and career path, but don’t. Once students complete secondary school th (10 standard), they can enter higher secondary studies by attending a junior college. The choice of stream (Arts, Commerce, or Science) is very important to students in junior college, and can limit their future education and career options. For example, students who enter the Arts stream in junior college may only complete a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) or a Bachelor’s in Mass media degree in degree college (M. Bose, personal communication, February 18, 2013). Most junior colleges in Maharashtra are affiliated with the Higher Secondary Certification Board (HSC). When secondary students with MLD transition to a HSC junior college, they receive an accommodation of half an hour extra time on each exam (two hours in duration) and do not have to draw figures. If the student fails the exam, he/she gets “20 grace marks to pass the exam” (Government of Maharashtra Higher & Technical Educational Department, 2004, p. 1). Grace marks are extra points given to students who meet a certain criteria to help equalize their opportunity for Haunted by math: MLD policy in Mumbai, India success, as opposed to grading on a curve for all students. Student with MLD can apply these grace marks to one subject, or spread them across subjects. Students identified as having a MLD are not penalized for number reversals (Government of Maharashtra Higher & Technical Educational Department, 2004). Degree colleges (for Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees) are affiliated with the University of Mumbai. The same accommodations listed for the junior colleges above are available at the degree college level (MDA, 2014). If students apply for the LD accommodations in higher secondary and postsecondary education, they have to take their 83 Thoma, 2008). Some students chose not to selfdisclose their learning disability to postsecondary faculty and do not avail the provisions (Getzel, 2008). Post-college adults remarked that they felt scared to ask lecturers for help during college. Some of these overcame their fears during degree college due to strong self-determination skills, yet others reported feelings of being judged by lecturers and were afraid of what their peers might think if they found out they had learning disabilities. One lecturer mentioned that students in his college were afraid to meet him for extra help during school hours: Most students with LD do not disclose exams in a separate room to receive extra time. their diagnosis. They get bullied. Other Vinod did not want to seem different from his students are very strong and harsh towards peers, so he did not ask for accommodations in students with LD. In fact, many students do college for his learning disabilities: not want to meet me during school hours, It is not always so easy to ask for help. If you get provisions, then you have to take for fear that their peers might see them getting extra help. your exam in a different room. You will be (A. Kumar, personal communication, seated in the roll number order during the November 27, 2012) exam. People will notice you aren’t there and they will ask you, “Why didn’t you give your exam?” “Where were you?” No one was aware that I had a learning disability in college. (Vinod, personal communication, April 25, 2013) Participants with MLD are also impacted by the level of support in their home and school environment. Students with MLD in this sample, such as Vaibhav and Kunal, had access to remedial education and private tutoring. Kunal reported how he passed the Mathematical and Statistical Techniques course: If students have difficulty understanding I took Secretarial Practice (S.P.) in the math concepts in junior college and degree junior college, so I had a gap of 2 years college, most lecturers will offer extra classes. with no mathematics. Plus, I wasn’t really However, these are open to all students and are comfortable with math in the first place. not remedial classes. The lecturer might be able During my first year of B. Com., I had a to give more attention to students, but he/she private tutor. He came to my house three does not use alternative teaching methods to days a week and taught me for two hours. explain the concepts. Only a few colleges in Then, he gave me homework and practice south Mumbai offer special “dyslexia cells.” problems. For six days a week, I studied These “cells,” or programs, are primarily for math. I had to work really hard at math. . . support services for students with learning . . . if you dedicate your time, and study for disabilities (A. Kumar, personal communication, three hours a day, you can easily get 18 November 27, 2012; R. Archarya, personal communication, February 11, 2013; Getzel & 84 Global Education Review 3(3) marks on a 50 mark paper (which is 36%, impaired students, and students with orthopedic just enough for the passing rate of 35%). disorders and learning disabilities (dyslexia, (Kunal, personal communication, March dysgraphia, and dyscalculia) (Maharashtra 13, 2013) Secondary and Higher Secondary State Kunal was solely focused on passing the class. Certain colleges, like Shri Ram, offer special programs for students with learning disabilities. Thus, students with MLD can be further supported for post-secondary success and their math abilities, depending on their environment. However, many students with MLD have difficulty meeting post-secondary mathematics demands. Students with MLD may have conceptual gaps in understanding, visual-spatial deficits and/or difficulties with word problems. Due to the hierarchical nature of mathematics, students with MLD are not prepared for postsecondary math demands if they have fallen behind their peers in primary and secondary school (Strawser & Miller, 2001). The government of Maharashtra and the Higher Secondary Certificate Board have attempted to put some supports in place for students with MLD in the post-secondary setting, such as curricular accommodations and exam concessions. If the current accommodations are viewed through the lens of critical theory, they are performing an exclusionary role. In other words, students with MLD are excluded from math content and pre-requisite skills in secondary school, such as algebra, which are required for a degree college math course. The current policies for students with MLD are a quick fix, but ignore the root of the problem gaps in math content and foundational skills. College Policies and Procedures in Mathematics and the Effect on Students with MLD In junior colleges, there is a 3% quota (or reservation) for admission to 11th standard for physically handicapped students, which includes visually impaired students, speech and hearing Education Department, 2001). The 3% quota is based on merit, irrespective of the disability (M. Khan, personal communication, April 19, 2016). According to the syllabus for Standards 11 and 12, college students only have three compulsory subjects: English, Environment Education, and Health and Physical Education. Students can then choose four other electives (42 electives are listed in the syllabus) to complete the required coursework each year (Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education, 2012). However, at all of the colleges in this sample, students must choose, as one of their electives, either mathematics or Secretarial Practice (S.P.). S.P. requires no mathematical skill. The students need only to understand English (S.P. college lecturer, personal communication, December 19, 2012). S.P. does not serve as a mathematical subject option. It is an entirely unrelated subject. In some colleges, students have an open choice between Math and S.P.; yet other colleges have a cut-off score requirement in order to have access to math courses and all other students must take S.P. At Ambedkar College, only students who have scored 87-88% on their 10th standard exam are eligible to enroll in 11th and 12th standard math classes. All other students take Secretarial Practice (S.P.) at Ambedkar (L. Ghose, personal communication, February 6, 2013). The case is the same at Singh College, except the acceptable passing percentage on the 10th standard exam is a little lower at 83% (or 125 out of 150). Only students who qualify for math based on their 10th standard exam score in math are eligible to enroll in math in 11th standard (V. Jha, personal communication, February 6, 2013). At St. Joseph Junior College, if a student took general math or lower-level math for their 10th standard Haunted by math: MLD policy in Mumbai, India 85 exam (an accommodation for students with based on their math abilities as measured by MLD in the SSC Board), they are ineligible to their 10th standard exam results. The seemingly enroll in 11th standard math (U. Jain, personal communication, January 21, 2013). The degree college math lecturers reported that they expect students to have the simple choice between Secretarial Practice and mathematics in junior college may not be a choice at all, and may further reinforce systems of exclusion based on mathematical ability. prerequisite skills and knowledge from having taken math continuously through 12th standard Discussion (K. Kapoor, personal communication, January Math learning disabilities do not disappear with 21, 2013). A degree college math lecturer time, and students with MLD will continue to adamantly reported that students who take face difficulties as they enter secondary school Secretarial Practice, then enroll in the and higher secondary education (Mazzocco, Mathematical and Statistical Techniques course Devlin, & McKinney, 2008; Vogel, Fresko, & are not prepared for it: “These students have a Wertheim, 2007; Shalev, Manor, & Gross-Tsur, lot of difficulty, especially with word problems. 2005). Students with MLD also need continued They have difficulty figuring out what is given, practice and review of foundational math skills what is asked, applying formulas, like with profit (Fuchs et al., 2013). This suggests the need for percentage” (M. Bose, personal communication, continued instruction of critical component February 18, 2013). A lecturer from Shri Ram skills and math content in secondary and post- College, as well as another lecturer from secondary education. Ambedkar College, also reported that any For students with MLD, the gap in math secondary student that drops math is not knowledge and skills may have started in prepared to take math at the college level primary school, due to their atypical (survey, February 18, 2013). understanding of math concepts and possible According to a review of the Mathematical deficits in number sense, working memory, and Statistical Techniques course syllabus and processing, and attention. Yet, these difficulties textbooks, students must have pre-requisite can be exacerbated for secondary students with understanding of algebraic concepts, such as MLD in Maharashtra due to current special linear equations and functions (Welling, Saraph, education policies, including dropping and Diwanji, 2013; Joshi et al., 2011). Students mathematics (ICSE Board), taking a lower-level must complete all of the math by hand in this math exam (SSC Board), or applying 20 grace course. Calculators are permitted for all students marks to a student’s failed exam to enable them in degree college, but statistical software is not to pass (SSC Board). These policies are focused available in the colleges in this sample (Shri on helping students pass the 10th standard Ram College, observation, February 11, 2013). exams, but do not prepare them for post- College math lecturers reported through surveys secondary education. Instead, the current that the most important skills that students need policies allow students to have gaps in critical for their classes are reasoning skills, problem component skills and math content. Students, solving skills, and algebraic concepts. parents, and secondary school counselors must Considering the current practices of junior understand the gap of necessary mathematical colleges through the lens of critical theory, knowledge, skills, and strategies that will students who take Secretarial Practice are continue to widen if students take lower level denied access to pre-requisite math content math or drop math, and later on, take Secretarial required for a Bachelor’s degree in Commerce Practice instead of math. Viewing this gap from 86 Global Education Review 3(3) the lens of critical theory in education, when education. According to Strawser & Miller junior colleges force students into S.P., they are (2001), students with MLD will not be prepared performing a gate-keeping role by excluding for post-secondary math demands, if they have certain students from the opportunity to fallen behind their peers in primary and continue math instruction. Also, by offering a secondary school. Also, students must have non-math substitute, like S.P., the junior access to the general education curriculum and colleges are continuing to marginalize students national standards to ensure positive academic with MLD in the transition. If enrolled in S.P., outcomes and to prepare them for future steps students with MLD receive no re-teaching in (Maccini & Gagnon, 2002). critical mathematical skills during the two years Lack of preparation for the Mathematical of junior college. This limits their access to the and Statistical Techniques course (required for a mathematical curriculum, as well as restricts bachelor’s degree in Commerce) may be due to their opportunities to learn important math the fact that students with MLD have not had concepts required for a bachelor’s degree in access to or success in algebra, which has been Commerce. referred to as an academic passport or a Lecturers in this sample reported that students who take Secretarial Practice instead of math during 11th and 12th standard are not “gateway to expanded opportunities” (Impecoven-Lind & Foegen, 2010, p. 31; Fennel, 2008; Lacampagne, Blair, & Kaput, 1995; prepared for the required math course for the Maccini, McNaughton, & Ruhl, 1999). But, in first year of a Bachelor’s degree in Commerce. order to succeed in algebra, students need a Students with MLD that took Secretarial strong foundation in the prerequisite skills Practice in junior college, then opted for a needed for algebra, such as fractions, decimals, bachelor’s degree in commerce reported that percentages, ratio and proportion, problem they felt shocked and had to work extremely solving, and even basic multiplication (Fennell, hard during the Mathematical and Statistical 2008). It is imperative that students with MLD Techniques class in their first year (Vinod, in India have access to algebra so that they are personal communication, April 25, 2013; Kunal, not held back by the “gatekeeper” to educational personal communication, March 13, 2013). and economic success (Impecoven-Lind & Some students are able to scrape by and pass, Foegen, 2010, p. 32). but others fail the math course and have to Another reason for lack of preparation is repeat the entire year. Lecturers for the degree that junior colleges are performing a college math course assume that students have gatekeeping role and excluding students, by taken math throughout their academic career enforcing an eligibility score for mathematics and have the pre-requisite skills through 12th courses in junior college, based on students’ standard mathematics. Kunal reflected on his performance on the 10th standard exam. When transition: “Math keeps coming back. I might students are excluded from math in junior have a gap of 2-3 years of no math, but then I college, they lose additional pre-requisite skills have to take another course” (personal that are required for the Mathematical and communication, March 13, 2013). It is as if math Statistical Techniques course in B.Com. If is haunting him throughout his educational students fail this math course, they have to experience. repeat the entire year of first-year B.Com., and These findings are consistent with current many of them experience similar difficulties in research on the hierarchical nature of accounts and economics later in the coursework mathematics and access to post-secondary (S. Parikh, personal communication, August 23, Haunted by math: MLD policy in Mumbai, India 87 2013). Considering the current practices of and Statistical Techniques course in the junior colleges through the lens of critical Bachelor of Commerce degree program. theory, students who take Secretarial Practice Through the lens of critical theory, current are denied access to pre-requisite math content policy and practice is segregating students with required for a Bachelor’s degree in Commerce MLD and denying them of essential math based on their math abilities as measured by content needed for certain degree college their 10th standard exam results. These findings were consistent with other programs. The current system is very rigid and does not cater to individual students’ needs, international research on students with MLD perhaps an artifact of an education system that and transition to post-secondary education. must educate, uniformly, such a huge Therefore, the findings may have practical population. implications for special education policy at the In order to help MLD students be better secondary and post-secondary level, as outlined prepared for secondary and post-secondary below. mathematics, there are three major systemic changes that can be instituted in the Indian Conclusions and Recommendations It is very difficult to repair foundational deficits in math understanding once the student reaches post-secondary education. Interventions are most effective when they are conducted early in a student’s academic career (Dowker, 2005; Nelson & Sheridan, 2011; VanDerHeyden, 2008). Also, in the Indian educational system, students are not rewarded for understanding the math content or for increasing their mathematical literacy. Instead, the goal is to simply pass the exam or pass the course (usually by memorizing). These findings suggest that current special education policy and junior college practices in Maharashtra do not prepare students with MLD for the math knowledge that they need to succeed in post-secondary mathematics. Although the current policy may enable students with MLD to pass the 10th standard exam, they, on average, lack critical component skills and math content required for post-secondary math courses. Also, students with MLD can be “forced” into taking Secretarial Practice for two years of junior college, excluding them from two additional years of math content and review of pre-requisite skills needed for the Mathematical education system. These systemic changes should include: professional development for primary teachers, multiple math course options in secondary and post-secondary education, and awareness training for teachers and lecturers at the secondary and post-secondary level. First, primary school teachers should be provided with continued professional development that prepares them to identify students who are struggling with math early on and to use varied teaching methods to help students understand math concepts. Since the gap between students with MLD and typically achieving students emerges before they leave secondary school, primary teachers should identify students with math learning disabilities and difficulties in mathematics in the early stages of learning. The current practice of identifying students in 8th standard or later is difficult for intervention and the gap between these two groups of students will only widen in later years. For early intervention, teachers need math screening tools, multiple strategies to teach conceptual and procedural math skills, and knowledge and experience in math remediation. The Maharashtra Secondary School Certificate (SSC) Board and Maharashtra State Department of Education can be involved in facilitating early math screening in primary 88 Global Education Review 3(3) schools (English-medium as well as vernacular- including more time to complete all math tasks. medium). Since the national government does Course options continue to be an issue for not yet recognize learning disabilities, this students with MLD in junior college. Students information is not included in the Bachelor’s with MLD are not prepared for degree college degree in Education syllabus at this time. mathematics because junior colleges are Therefore, teachers need additional pre-service performing a gatekeeping role and excluding and in-service training on identifying math students, by enforcing an eligibility score for difficulties and strategies for teaching students mathematics courses in junior college, based on so they better understand math concepts early students’ performance on the 10th standard on and throughout primary and secondary exam. When students are excluded from math in school. Teacher educators and teachers need junior college, they lose additional pre-requisite access to teacher guides that accompany the skills that are required for the Mathematical and textbook and outline specific strategies for Statistical Techniques course in B.Com. The teaching students with misconceptions and Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC) Board can atypical understandings in mathematics, examine the exclusive practices of Mumbai keeping in large class sizes in mind. Professional junior colleges in mathematics courses, as well development should include video examples of as consider offering additional math courses to math remediation (since there are few experts in include students with various math abilities. this area in India) in one-to-one, small group, Third, secondary school teachers and and large group settings – so that teachers can college lecturers should be aware of learning observe methods of math remediation and disabilities as well, since the difficulties students snapshots of engagement with students with with MLD have in math will not disappear as MLD. The National Council for Educational they transition from primary to secondary and Research and Training (NCERT) has the on to post-secondary education. During the data capability to offer math remedial training collection, there were only a few lone lecturers through satellite and video conferencing to that were aware of MLD and really wanted to regional education institutes. The videos can advocate for these students, such as Professor also be uploaded on their website so that private Kumar at Ambedkar College. College school teachers can also view them. administrators questioned the authenticity of Second, students with MLD need multiple learning disability certificates and thought math course options throughout their secondary parents were taking advantage of the system of and post-secondary education. Current concessions, or accommodations. Lecturers were curriculum Board policies allow students with unsure as to what MLD was and how it impacted MLD to drop math in secondary school (ICSE) students’ learning. Post-college adults remarked or take a lower-level math exam without that they felt scared to ask lecturers for help. targeted instruction (SSC). However, secondary One lecturer even mentioned that current students with MLD need continued practice and students in his college are scared to meet him for review of foundational math skills, as well as extra help during school hours, for fear that their access to the grade-level curriculum, to be peers might see them and later bully them. The prepared for post-secondary math demands Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and (Strawser & Miller, 2001). Only one math class Higher Secondary and Mumbai University need per standard, or year, is presently offered. Yet, to take an active role in leading an awareness the data suggests that students with MLD need campaign. When teachers gain knowledge of more flexibility in math course options, learning disabilities and the students’ need for Haunted by math: MLD policy in Mumbai, India accommodations, they may form more positive attitudes towards these students (Karande, Sholapurwala, & Kulkarni, 2011; Saravanabhavan & Saravanabhavan, 2001). In turn, students may find the lecturers more approachable for help. Students with math learning disabilities need allies in learning – people who do not limit their achievement, but believe in intellectual growth and the talent of all students (Dweck, 2006). Additionally, teachers and lecturers can help typically achieving students to be more aware of the rationale behind the provisions and accommodations for students with learning disabilities, which may reduce bullying (Karande, Mahajan, & Kulkarni, 2009). Implications for Policy Makers These findings will be useful for inclusive education advocacy groups in India as they work with policy makers and enforcers at the national and state level, as they revise policy and procedures for students with learning disabilities in Maharashtra and India. Future researchers can build upon the present work by investigating students with MLD from various socio-economic backgrounds in Maharashtrian government (vernacular-medium) schools, as well as considering degree programs in professional (Architecture, Engineering, etc.) and vocational (Management and Mass Media) streams. Additionally, educational researchers might explore special education policies in other Indian states. Author Note The author wishes to thank the Maharashtra Dyslexia Association in Mumbai for their support of this study. References American Psychological Association (APA). (2004). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental 89 disorders, 4th ed. 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How many students are enrolled in your class? 8. On a typical day, how many students come to class? 9. What are the minimum criteria to pass in your college (actual test score, etc.)? 10. What methods of math instruction do you use in your class on a weekly basis (please tick all that apply)? Lecture Group work Solving sums during class Other, list here: _____________________________ 11. Do you give homework following your class? Yes No 12. If so, how much do you give per week? 13. What is your opinion about students’ success: The student is responsible for his/her own success The college supports students in their academic success 14. Explain your choice above 15. Please rank the following math skills as low (L), medium (M), or high (H) – depending on which skills are most important in your field of study:  Algebra L M H  Geometry L M H  Statistics L M H  Trigonometry L M H  Calculus L M H 16. Please rank the following cognitive skills as low (L), medium (M), or high (H) – depending on which skills are most important in your field of study:  analytical skills L M H  interpretation L M H  precision and accuracy L M H  problem solving L M H  reasoning L M H  time management L M H  strategic study skills L M H  persistence L M H M H  ability to use study groups L 17. Do you allow students to use calculators in your class? Yes 18. Why or why not? No