Francisco Liñán

Entrepreneurial intention is a rapidly evolving field of research, with a growing number of studies using entrepreneurial intention as a powerful theoretical framework. Some authors, however, are now calling for scholars to rethink the future of research on entrepreneurial intentions. This paper addresses this issue and, on the basis of a number of knowledge gaps in the literature, proposes future directions for research.

The aim of this paper is double. Firstly, it contributes to identifying the specific role of national culture as a variable that helps explain the level of economic development and reinforces the effect of entrepreneurship on the income level. Secondly, a deeper understanding of these relations in the case of the European Union is sought. In this study, data from two different sources have been used. The Schwartz Value Survey measures seven cultural orientations that are then grouped into three bipolar dimensions (embeddedness vs. autonomy, hierarchy vs. egalitarianism and mastery vs. harmony). The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor provides information regarding entrepreneurial activity. Using linear regression analysis, cultural and entrepreneurial variables are able to classify countries according to their development level, explaining over 60 % of the variance in Gross Domestic Product per capita. The role of culture is complex, with geographical elements being significantly relevant. In the case of Europe, some common elements conform what could be called “a European culture”: autonomy and egalitarianism clearly predominate over embeddedness and hierarchy, while harmony tends to prevail over mastery. Nevertheless, four well-defined groups of countries within the European Union emerge. Central and Northern Europe is closer to this European stereotypical culture, while English-speaking countries, Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean area exhibit their own differentiating elements each. These differences also exist with regard to entrepreneurial activity (overall Total Entrepreneurial Activity, necessity and opportunity-driven activity). Each of the four regional entrepreneurial cultures is characterized by a different entrepreneurial dynamics that may be plausibly explained by culture and income.

This study analyzes the interplay between gender differences and the social environment in the formation of entrepreneurial intentions. Data were obtained from two different European regions. The results show that the formation of entrepreneurial intentions is similar for men and women. At the same time, men consistently exhibit more favorable intentions than women do. Nevertheless, the perception of the social legitimation of entrepreneurship only serves to reinforce male entrepreneurial intentions, and not those of women. This holds for both regions and probably is a consequence of women feeling entrepreneurship to not be an acceptable career option for them. The implications of these results are discussed.

The role of values and motivations in understanding the entrepreneurial cognitive process deserves closer attention. So far, the predominant approach has been studying the entrepreneurial intention. This has been a very fruitful avenue of research. However, there is still much to be known to fully understand how the decision to start a venture is formed, and how the individual acts to implement that decision. Values and motivations are closely related, since both of them are linked to the notion of goals. The higher the importance attached to a goal, the more likely the person will form action plans to achieve it. In this paper, we present some ideas on how values and motivations could be integrated into the predominant entrepreneurial intention model. Firstly, we propose that values may help to explain the formation of intention antecedents (e.g., attitudes), and also moderate their effect on the entrepreneurial intention. Secondly, we point to the possibility that values and motivations may also play a role in the intention–action link. In particular, they may be instrumental in overcoming the barriers and obstacles toward effective start-up. In addition, this paper is also an introduction to the special issue, and we present the four papers selected to be included and highlight some of the most interesting aspects of their contributions.

A greater understanding of the relationship between cultural issues and entrepreneurial activity
is important because of its implication for national and regional development and growth.
Yet, many questions remain unanswered. For example, what is an 'entrepreneurial culture'?
What does it look like, what influences its presence or absence? How do we know, how do we
measure it? Furthermore, the central question is: How do cultural values influence entrepreneurial
activity? Conversely, how does entrepreneurial activity influence cultural values?

Purpose
– The need for more flexible, dynamic and innovative firms is widely recognised nowadays. Entrepreneurial capital may contribute to a more entrepreneurial labour force with work values aligned to those needs, thus becoming one of the firm's strategic resources. But entrepreneurial capital is not evenly distributed between countries and regions. The purpose of this paper is to measure the importance of a region's cultural values in determining its level of entrepreneurial capital, and considers how this may affect the characteristics of the workforce.

Design/methodology/approach
– Schwartz's (2004) approach to measuring cultural values will be followed. Entrepreneurial intentions will be used as a proxy for entrepreneurship capital, following Ajzen's (1991) theory of planned behaviour. A representative sample of 2,974 adults with higher education was used in the empirical analysis.

Findings
– Results show that the region's culture indirectly influences the entrepreneurial capital of its members. People in some regions are more pro-entrepreneurial, showing higher start-up intentions, due to their cultural characteristics.

Research limitations/implications
– Results help explain why a larger share of the workforce in some regions presents work values facilitating flexibility, creativity and innovation. Similarly, they explain some of the difficulties faced when transferring human-resource practices that have been successful in one branch, to new branches in regions with lower entrepreneurial capital.

Originality/value
– The paper is novel in that it contributes to explaining why the majority of firms in some regions enjoy a more flexible and innovative labour force than those in less entrepreneurial regions.

Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to examine under-researched psychological and environmental factors related to entrepreneurial motivation and intention. This helps us to explore the links between risk perception (risk as opportunity and risk as threat), economic context (in a recession), entrepreneurial motivation (personal attitudes and perceived behavioral control) and intention for new venture creation.

Design/methodology/approach
– A sample of 619 individuals from two European countries, Spain and Great Britain, is studied. A range of control variables have been considered, including demographics, human/social capital and country effects. Structural equation modeling is used to analyze the relationships among the model constructs.

Findings
– The structural model broadly holds and adequately fits the data. Entrepreneurial risk perception is strongly linked with entrepreneurial motivation. Entrepreneurial motivation, in turn, is strongly linked with entrepreneurial intention. It suggests, therefore, an indirect effect of risk perception on intentions. Economic context is also linked with risk perception and entrepreneurial intentions.

Research limitations/implications
– Results from this exploratory study suggest a role of risk perception in establishing the entrepreneurial intention of individuals. Therefore, greater attention should be paid to this element in entrepreneurship education programs. Similarly, perceptions about the economic (recessionary) environment and its relationship with risk perception also have to be taken into account, with the purpose of letting students understand the possibilities that are present in a recessionary situation.

Originality/value
– This is the first time that perceptions about risk and the economic context are tested within the theory of planned behavior.

Although the theory of planned behaviour can be applied to entrepreneurship, study outcomes concerning the role of the subjective norm construct vary substantially. Using data from ten dissimilar countries, two critical topics held responsible for conflicting outcomes in research on entrepreneurial intention are investigated:

On the first topic, structural equations suggest that a simple multi-item subjective-norm measure is better than the frequently-applied product of normative beliefs and motivation to comply. On the second, structural equation modelling reveals that the internal consistency and explanatory capacity of the constructs is about the same with the original model than with a modified model taking into account the indirect influences of subjective norms on attitudes and on perceived behavioural control. These results should serve as a guide for future theoretical and empirical development, and put existing study outcomes into perspective.

This paper studies the mediating role of cultural values in explaining the total entrepreneurial activity (TEA) and the entrepreneurs’ motivation -differentiating opportunity versus necessity motives- in countries with different levels of development. Data for 56 countries coming from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) and the Schwartz Value Survey (Schwartz, 1994, 2006b) are analysed using structural equations modelling. The results show that only in higher income countries do Autonomy values boost entrepreneurial activity. Additionally, higher entrepreneurship is found in countries where Egalitarianism predominates, and the effect becomes stronger as income level rises.
Furthermore, the Egalitarianism-Hierarchy dimension is also very relevant in
explaining the opportunity/necessity ratio.

Extending from Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behaviour, this paper develops a more integrated entrepreneurial intention model. This incorporates the role of culture, along with motivations, skills and knowledge of the entrepreneurial environment. The cross-cultural applicability of the model is tested across two different countries, Great Britain and Spain, on a total sample of 1005. Partial Least Squares technique is used to try and overcome limitations of previous research. The model broadly holds for both countries. Implications for public decision makers and entrepreneurship education are discussed. In particular, enhancing the level of knowledge and awareness about entrepreneurship would increase self-efficacy perceptions and, hence, entrepreneurial intentions.

2. Temporal stability of entrepreneurial intentions: a longitudinal study Francisco Liñán, Juan C. Rodríguez-Cohard and Joaquín Guzmán INTRODUCTION Entrepreneurship is considered as a process that occurs over time (Bygrave, 2003; Dubini and Aldrich, 1991; Gartner, ...

12. The impact of global value chains on Andalusian tourism SMEs Pilar Tejada and Francisco Liñán INTRODUCTION The present process of globalization stresses the need to continuously seek international competitiveness. Thus, firm strategies have been rapidly evolving over ...

In this paper, the main objective is the introduction of the new socioeconomic concept of social capital in the intention-based model of new firm creation. Starting from Ajzen´s theory of planned behaviour, the specific influence of social capital both on the formation of intentions and, ...