Suchandra Ghosh

In this chapter, through a set of twentyseven
tablets from the Persepolis fortification tablets archive, that concern the areas of northwestern borderlands, I wish to explore the content of these tablets concerning travel rations dispatched to the eastern part of
the empire, and provide a narrative of the nature of functionaries, ordinary people, commodities (subsistent rations) and related things that went into the making of a political, economic and social archive of the
Achaemenids. A section at the end of the essay would briefly discuss the bearing of the Achaemenid presence among the people of the borderlands even much later.

We wish to study the epigraphic portrayal of the Śabaras and the Pulindas, who were by and large the “other” of the Brahmanical society. The rationale behind the choice of these two groups lies in the fact that in the textual sources Śabaras and Pulindas are often mentioned in the same context, and their names became generic appellations for “barbarous” tribes and forest groups. The marginality of the forest people remained an almost perennial theme in the long-term history of the subcontinent. However, there were occasions, particularly from the fourth century, when these forest people were represented as being in positions of power or status in a range of epigraphic records.

A region-wise study of patronage to Buddhist monasteries (mahāvihāra, vihāra, and vihārikā) in eastern India (Bihar and West-Bengal in India, and Bangladesh) in the early medieval period, is possible taking recourse to extant remains, epigraphical and textual mentions, and art historical representations. Scholars have extensively studied the major monasteries individually, where the issue of patronage was addressed along with other themes. However, the lifeline of these monasteries were benefactions from various categories of people, and so the issue of patronage becomes singularly important. These monasteries, particularly in south Bihar and north Bengal it seems,

The regional variations of the Dvaravati Buddhist clay tablets are the subject of this essay. The act of making tablets as a part of meditation practice, religious exercise or merit making was itself the main reason for the production of these tablets. The essay further probes into the possible adoption or adaptation from India as the practice of making these tablets is of Indian origin and numerous equivalents in the shape of plaques dating from seventh to eleventh centuries have been uncovered in abundance on different Buddhist sites of India. The essay argues that moulded clay tablets, albeit, a minor object in the vast repertoire of artistic or religious expressions are also to be taken into account as an element for understanding shared cultural practices across Asia.

The Greek tradition of coinage was maintained by the Bactrians, Indo-Greeks, Śakas and Kushanas, ruling successively in the North-west from the second century bc to second century ad. On their coins, apart from the rulers themselves, appear the figures and names of several deities. These were Greek deities in the beginning, to whom Iranian and Indian deities went on being added. The paper traces this process in detail and examines how the rulers first seem to address, through their coins, only an elite Greek or Hellenised aristocracy and then the wider Iranic and Indian populations, through the medium of deities figured on their coins. There was simultaneously the objective of legitimation and glorification of the rulers themselves by the same means. Curiously, Buddhism so important in Gandhara sculpture has only a rare presence on these coins even under the Kushanas.

While acknowledging the humanitarian outlook of early Buddhism, this article enquires into how far the Buddhist monastic order, the Saṅgha, was itself based on egalitarian principles. It is argued that in time, if not from the beginning, the Saṅgha could not avoid the creation of a hierarchy among monks, and in time the presence of a numerous class of servants or attendants, called ārāmikas, became a part of Buddhist monastic life.

The expression ‘Crossroads of Asia’ has been borrowed from a publication by Elizabeth Errington and Joe Cribb. It seemed to be the most befitting expression to underline the wide geographical horizon extending from Afghanistan to north-west India, which this paper intends to dwell upon. In earlier historiography this period, generally known as the post-Mauryan period, was often seen as one of ‘foreign invasions’. The paper would seek to examine how far this notion was guided by the representation of these ‘foreigners’, their social standings in the contemporary texts. The paper will also bring in certain images that were markers of Hellenism. People of the north-west were themselves of varying cultures, and the region displayed networks of wide ranging territorial and inter-civilizational contacts. A synthesis of the archaeological materials found in this region indicates multi-prong linkages of which the Central Asian connection played a significant role in the shaping of the culture of the region.

Gujarat’s role in the international trade network has long been researched. During the first half of the second millennium CE, the Indian Ocean emerged as a vast trading zone; its western termini were Siraf/Basra/Baghdad in the Persian Gulf zone and Alexandria/Fustat (old Cairo) in the Red Sea area, while the eastern terminus extended up to the ports in China. However, this essay privileges a single place, Anahilapura, which acted as a hinterland to many of the ports of Gujarat.

Taking cue from B.D. Chatopadhyaya’s seminal study on boundary markers to understand the spatial characteristics of rural settlements, a study on the boundary representations of copper-plate charters issued by three dynasties of Assam was undertaken. A close reading of the charters indicates that there was a significant variation in the pattern of delineating the boundaries. While limited boundary specifications could be seen in the copperplates of the Varmans, the Śālasthambhas initially set a pattern of describing eight boundaries of their donated lands by categorically mentioning the number eight but gradually this was overlooked. The Pālas of Kāmarūpa, on the other hand, were inclined to give much more detailed boundary specifications in their charters. These boundary denominations may be seen as an attempt by the state at gradually organising the donated lands in such a way that there remained no chance for encroachment of any other plot by the donee. The essay would also highl...

The Achaemenid Empire’s expansion towards the Indus basin initiated a new confluence of Iranic and Indian cultures. Alexander’s conquests added a Greek component to this confluence, marked by Aśoka’s Aramaic and Greek edicts. The Seleucids and their successor Greek states in Bactria and other parts of Afghanistan, while continuing their homage to Greek divinities on coins, also incorporated concepts, customs and art inherited from the Achaemenids. Their Saka and Parthian successors continued the same policy as indicated by their cons. It was the Kushans beginning with Kanishka (with Huvishka continuing the practice) who shifted to Iranian gods and goddesses.

... 491-494. Wagle, NK, 1963, Society At The Time Of Buddha, London, pp. 151-154. Wheeler, REM and Krishna Deva, 1946, "Arikamedu: An Indo-Roman Trading Station on the East Coast of India", Ancient India, II, pp. 17-124. 68 South Asian Studies 22

This paper examines the presence of seals, sealings, amulets and coinages at the Dvaravati cultural sites in the context of their relation with objects unearthed across the shores of the Bay of Bengal in India. The social environment of the voyaging objects is also looked into apart from situating them in the religious network of the period. The presentation, while discussing the network of relations, also addresses the question of agency in the whole process of interaction spanning across the Bay of Bengal.

This paper examines the presence of seals, sealings, amulets and coinages at the Dvaravati cultural sites in the context of their relation with objects unearthed across the shores of the Bay of Bengal in India. The social environment of the voyaging objects is also looked into apart from situating them in the religious network of the period. The presentation, while discussing the network of relations, also addresses the question of agency in the whole process of interaction spanning across the Bay of Bengal.

Bengal, covering the Ganga delta and the trans-Meghna zones up to the south-easternmost parts of Bangladesh, (for details see the chapter on Historical Geography) was ideally suited to linkages with Southeast Asia from remote times. The extensive Bengal coast, from Suhma to Harikela sub-regions, covered the entire delta-the largest delta in the world. The fluvial network paves the way for riverine communications between the coast and the interior. There is little doubt that the Bengal/Ganga delta provides the landlocked Ganga plains with the crucial outlet to the Bay of Bengal. The Bay of Bengal network is inextricably interlocked with the mainland and maritime Southeast Asia. On the other hand, the close proximity of Harikela with Arakan offers the overland corridor to mainland Southeast Asia. In no other zones of the subcontinent this combination of the overland and maritime networks with Southeast Asia is offered by geography. This unique natural endowment made Bengal one of the most significant areas for sustained interactions with Southeast Asia (see the section on trade in the chapter on Economic Life). There is a growing body of literature on the history of the cultural interactions between these two areas with a particular thrust on the role of Buddhism as the pivotal feature of this network. Bengal, along with Bihar, is noted for the flourishing condition of Buddhism and this area marked one of the last bastions of Buddhism from the 10th century CE onwards, when in the greater parts of the subcontinent Buddhism had started to fade out gradually. The 600-1300 CE phase will particularly figure in our present discussion. As during this period outstanding Buddhist monasteries emerged and flourished at Nalanda, Vikramaxila, Somapura and Mainamati, it is only natural that Bengal's Buddhist network with Southeast Asia is often studied from the point of these premier Buddhist centres in Bihar, northern and southeastern Bengal (Magadha, Abga, Pundra and Samatata regions). Recent decades have also brought to light the importance of the trans-Meghna tracts (Samatata and Harikela) in this Buddhist network. This historiographical shift will be addressed in our present effort. One should clearly underline here that our survey of the Buddhist network between

Gujarat's role in the international trade network has long been researched. During the first half of the second millennium CE, the Indian Ocean emerged as a vast trading zone; its western termini were Siraf/Basra/Baghdad in the Persian Gulf zone and Alexandria/Fustat (old Cairo) in the Red Sea area, while the eastern terminus extended up to the ports in China. However, this essay privileges a single place, Anahilapura, which acted as a hinterland to many of the ports of Gujarat. Keywords Chaulukyas – Indian Ocean – Jaina – mandapika – port and hinterland

It was more than a century ago that Gauranga Nath Banerjee's landmark monograph entitled Hellenism in Ancient India was first published in 1919. It had, in its fourteen chapters, comprehensively dealt with architecture, sculpture, painting, coinage, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, art of writing, literature, drama, religion, philosophy, mythology, fables and folklore to show the impact of Greek ideas, thought and other cultural manifestations on corresponding realms in the lives of Indian people. The monograph has been frequently reprinted till this day, underlining that the issues raised and discussed therein continue to interest serious historians. Though not as expansive, the monograph under review is no less passionate about the need to question some facile assumptions underpinning the identification of elements of 'Hellenism'. In the ensuing quest lies the impulse to see this phenomenon not as an agent of imposition of one cultural type over the other, but as a long-drawn two-way process. No wonder that Professor Suchandra Ghosh has been able to delineate new contours to understand this process. The exercise is comparable with similar ventures that have redefined the parameters of another 'external' influence, viz., what constitutes the 'Roman' in the context of the 'Indo-Roman' cultural encounters and trade relations. Professor Rajan Gurukkal's Rethinking Classical Indo-Roman Trade (2016) shows how we have come a long way forward since the days of Warmington (The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India, 1928) and Wheeler (Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers, 1955). Ghosh has made the provocative beginnings of a similar feat on 'Hellenism'. 'Hellenism' is just one of the several components within the overall trajectory of From the Oxus to the Indus. It explores the political and cultural histories of the Indo-Iranian borderlands during the reigns of the Bactrian and Indo-Greek rulers, known as Yavanas in the subcontinent. The region corresponds to the present-day Central Asian Republics of Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan (Tajikstan), Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwest India. The region formed a focal point for travellers, pilgrims, monks, merchants and political personalities. Different facets of such diverse people's daily lives have justifiably been situated in a specific geographical landscape, where the Hindukush stands out prominently, dividing the entire

A collection of articles on temple architecture in South and South­East Asia. By SUCHANDRA GHOSH Temple Architecture and Imagery of South and Southeast Asia, Prasadanidhi (temple's treasure) celebrates the life and scholarship of Professor Madhusudan Amilal Dhaky, best known the world over for his works on the subject of Indian temple architecture and Jain art and literature. Those of us who are not art/architectural historians as such, or did not have the privilege and opportunity to be associated with him, do have an idea of his profound erudition through the mega volumes of Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, which was a vast undertaking of inestimable importance by M.A. Dhaky along with Michael Meister and Krishna Deva. He was the real force behind the success of the Encyclopaedia. The editors, Parul Pandya Dhar and Gerd J.R. Mevissen, deserve our congratulations for this well­produced and well­onceived felicitation volume. As expected, the volume in honour of Dhaky has contributions from well­known scholars of South and South­ Eeast Asian temple art and architecture both from India and abroad. Indeed, as the editors correctly stated, " the thirty­two essays reflect the most recent and revised research in South and South­East Asian art history by some of the finest minds engaged in the field ". The volume begins with a foreword by Kapila Vatsayan. Her close association with Dhaky Saheb, as he was often called, helps to her underline the facets of Dhaky's personality, which she characterises as strong, tenacious and unwavering with a kind of flexibility. Devangana Desai's " Dhaky Saheb: Reminiscences " is a vibrant journey down memory lane. The editors' introduction gives us an insight into the succeeding pages, which they have curated with great care. It is really the call of the day to not only look at the temple arts and architecture from the perspective of India but also include the art historical traditions of other regions of South Asia and South­East Asia. This broadening of horizon goes well with Dhaky's own understanding of the art and architecture beyond India, which for him is a dialogue, a kind of conversation with Indian art and architecture. In keeping with the master's own endearing engagement, temple obviously gets the first preference as a theme in this volume. But there are essays related to other issues, such as patronage, rituals and memorial monuments, which are significant and form essential elements of a religious and social landscape. It was imperative that this book should have an essay dedicated to the academic journey that Dhaky had undertaken for years for his passion, the temple. Parul Pandya Dhar has been immensely successful in presenting a representative discussion of his writings on temples, offering readers his research methods, his critical art historical construct, his emotional attachment with temple yet maintaining a scientific temper. This reading into the works of Dhaky sets the stage for reading and understanding the 32 essays in the next section. Hemant Dave illuminates us about Dhaky's penchant for writing in regional languages, particularly Gujrati, his mother tongue. He gives us a succinct account of the invaluable treasures that came from the master's pen in Gujarati and a few in Hindi. The book is laid out into six sub­themes: Architectural Styles, Modes, Materials, and Milieus; Architectural Elements; Architecture and the Configuration of Imagery; Embodying the Deity; Inhabiting the Temple; and Piety, Society and Ritual Performance. All these themes are linked some way or another to Dhaky's contribution to the disciplines of art and architecture. The first section is directly related to the field to which Dhaky substantially contributed. It opens with an essay by Walter M. Spink on the development of the vihara shrines from Bagh to Ajanta. Taking the two sites together, he weaves a wonderful narrative of the interface between them —Bagh as a source for the development of the stupa shrines at Ajanta and Ajanta for the introduction of Buddha imagery in Bagh caves.