Scott Madry

This chapter will present the top twelve things that everyone should know regarding the radically changing world of disruptive space technologies. First, a quick recap. We have taken a long look what disruptive innovation is, how it works, who benefits, who loses, and what this has to do with space and particularly the NewSpace or Space 2.0 revolution. We have learned a great deal from previous instances that first came from historical examples and then most recently from the now rapidly changing space sector. We have explored the new and emerging technologies that are changing our world and their potential impacts on the ‘other 3 billion’ people with whom we share our spaceship Earth. We have considered the international legal and policy implications, as well as the downsides of disruptive technologies in the 21st century. So what should you take away from all of this?

This chapter will analyze how these disruptive innovations can impact the future of the “other 3 billion” people of the developing world who currently are in great need and who do not benefit from space activities at all. We will also consider how these disruptive space technologies could help support attaining the U. N.’s 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This discussion will make a case for how disruptive space technologies could help set the stage for more than simply new businesses and innovation in the developed world, or for making billionaires even more wealthy. This chapter explores how such innovations might help fundamentally alter how space will impact the developing world.

We are nearing the end of our journey. This book has tried to view disruptive innovation in the space sector as one in a continuing series of such innovative processes and activities that have occurred over a very long period of time. More will follow in space and in other areas of technology. Disruptive innovations and their impacts upon our world are subjects of much scholarship and analysis, and these studies have produced several very useful insights that are relevant to the current status and future of space. Space and commercial space businesses are clearly different from most traditional businesses, in that they are not mass-market goods like boxes of cereal, at least not yet. But the entire space domain is undergoing a radical period of change, driven by the new, entrepreneurial Silicon Valley explosion in NewSpace ideas, money, and energy.

ABSTRACT The oldest and most extensive meteorological satellite systems are those of the United States and of Europe, as operated by the Eumetsat system. These are addressed in detail in the preceding two chapters. This chapter describes the meteorological satellite systems of China, India, Japan, Russia, and South Korea. These meteorological satellite systems are extensive and provide a number of sophisticated meteorological satellite sensing capabilities both from geostationary and polar orbiting satellite systems. Today all of these various satellite systems – those of China, Europe, India, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and the United States are in various manners linked together and share data. This international coordination of meteorological data is accomplished through the World Weather Watch (WWW) program of the World Meteorological Organization and the Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites (CGMS). These international cooperative efforts – supplemented by bilateral or regional agreements – allow a degree of standardization with regard to the formatting and display of meteorological data and a systematic process for sharing of vital weather data. This sharing of meteorological data is important on an ongoing basis – but this can be particularly important – when there is a failure of a meteorological satellite, a launch failure, or a delay in the deployment of a replacement satellite. In some cases, countries such as the United States have even “loaned” meteorological satellites to other countries when failures or launch delays have created gaps in critical coverage areas. The various international satellites around the world that are deployed in different orbital locations and with varying periodicity provide a very useful redundancy of coverage that is particularly important in tracking major storms and obtaining the most up-to-date information of atmospheric, oceanic, and of arctic conditions. This chapter provides a description of the meteorological satellite systems of China, India, Japan, South Korea, and Russia and their current status. Researchers can also consult the various universal reference locations (i.e., URLs) for these various meteorological satellite systems which can be useful in obtaining the more recent information about the deployment and operation of these systems.

ABSTRACT The technology, the applications, and the economic forces that have driven the design, functionality, and performance of ground systems for satellite communications have been very closely mirrored in the other major application satellite services. It is for this reason that this chapter combines consideration of the ground systems for satellite navigation, remote sensing, and meteorology. In essence, all the ground systems for the various applications are communications systems. Although the radio frequencies, modulation, and multiplexing methods and encryption schemes utilized vary for a variety of reasons – including defense and military-related consideration, all application satellites employ satellite communications between the spacecraft and the ground system. Some systems are broader or narrower in bandwidth and some only involve down links while other are more interactive with up and down links. The common elements that range across the ground systems for all application satellites include the following: All application satellites have become higher in power, more accurate in their stabilization and pointing of their onboard antennas and better able to deploy higher gain and larger aperture reflectors. This has allowed ground systems to be smaller, more compact, lower in power, lower in cost, and more widely distributed. Down-linked information is often encrypted to protect the integrity of information and data relayed from the satellite – particularly if there is a proprietary or defense-related application for the down-linked information. Solid-state digital technology associated with integrated circuitry, application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), and monolithic devices that have allowed the ground systems to be more highly distributed. There are essentially two tracks in ground systems development – one where geosynchronous satellites are involved and the ground system can be constantly pointed toward a single fixed point in the sky and the other where the ground system must have the ability to receive signals across the horizon and capture signals from a satellite that moves across the sky. Both types of ground receivers suited to “fixed” or “non-fixed” signal reception are needed in satellite communications, remote sensing, meteorological satellites, and satellite navigation. In addition to the user terms associated with different types of applications, there is a need for a tracking, telemetry, and command system to ensure the safe operation of the application satellite. Despite these elements of commonality, there are indeed differences in the ground systems, the antenna characteristics, their tracking capabilities, the frequency utilized, the degree to which the data is protected by encryption, and the need for expert analysis of the data received from the spacecraft.

One of the important new developments in commercial and governmental satellite systems is the active deployment of hosted payloads. The prime reason for the use of hosted payloads is to save costs and avoid the expense of a more costly dedicated mission. The hosted payload approach may involve the deployment of experimental packages that are typically only a one-of-a-kind project, or it can involve many operational packages that are “piggybacked” on a large low earth orbit constellation with many satellites so equipped. This is an approach that has been particularly promoted within US space programs in response to the US 2010 official space policy. This White House policy emphasized the use of hosted payloads, where cost savings and operational efficiency so allowed. This approach to the use of hosted payload is also being employed around the world by many different entities for a variety of purposes.Examples provided here include the IRIS experiment that was included on an Intelsat satellite, the Anik G1 with an X-band package, the WAAS package that flew on the Galaxy 15 satellite and the UHF package that is flying on the Intelsat 22 satellite. Another example of the specialized package flying as a hosted payload is the case of those experiments that are currently flying on the large Inmarsat Alphasat. The above examples typically involve very specific individual hosted payload packages.There can be much different type programs where the hosted payload approach involves the deployment of a small operational package on each of a number of satellites within a large-scale satellite network. In this case the example provided is with regard to the Aireon packages that are being deployed with the Iridium NEXT Satellite System.A decade ago, the hosted payload approach was a very occasional and unusual approach and most often involved a one-of-a-kind experimental package, but today “hosted payloads” have become a much more common practice with large companies such as Intelsat General and SES even having dedicated units that focus exclusively on hosted payload activities. Annual conferences on the topic of hosted payload now draw many hundreds of attendees. This growing interest in hosted payload flying on satellite networks has also led to the formation of the Hosted Payload Alliance with a quite large and growing global membership. In short, hosted payload activities in the course of the past decade have become a big business involving a large number of satellites and significant spacecraft and ground system investment.This chapter addresses the various types of hosted payload activities that are now in progress or planned and provides some analysis of the reasoning behind various hosted payloads and the pros and cons of such undertakings. This analysis considers not only the impact on capital investment, speed of implementation, launch costs, operational costs, and advantages and risks that are associated with various host payload projects that have become a part of the application satellite industry. In many instances the use of hosted payload strategies has been employed in governmental, military, and commercial programs to test new capabilities. Also governmental and military programs have flown on commercial satellite systems.Somewhat akin to the concept of hosted payloads is the concept of incremental or supplemental payloads that are secondary or even tertiary payloads that are launched as add-on to primary launch operations as part of a single launch deployment into outer space. This “piggybacked” launch operation can lead to cost savings, but this proliferation of smaller satellites in orbit can add to the growing problem of orbital debris.Consolidation of smaller payloads such as student experimental packages by placing them on a larger satellite as hosted payload or flying them to the International Space Station and returning them after the experiment is finished is now a common practice. This use of NanoRacks type experiments that fly on the International Space Station in particular can be highly cost effective, allows astronaut oversight of experiments, and eliminates orbital debris issues.

ABSTRACT Over the past half century, weather and sophisticated environmental imaging satellites have evolved providing an increasing ability to monitor a wide range of conditions on Earth. A long-term and effective partnership between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the United States space agency, NASA, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NOAA, has worked to design, launch, and operate a series of environmental monitoring satellites. These environmental monitoring satellites have grown in their technical capabilities to monitor cloud coverage, temperature, and wind velocity over the oceans and seas, lightning intensity, and storm formations. Interactive capabilities have for some time allowed these satellites to assist with search and rescue activities. In short, the expanded technical capabilities of these satellites, and particularly of the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite system, have allowed the development of an ever increasing range of applications and functionality. The initial United States meteorological or weather satellite program that began with TIROS created a specific type of remote sensing satellite that could assist in monitoring weather conditions for the continental US. Today’s GOES and Polar-Orbiting Environmental Satellites (POES) have now grown to become global in scope. These US satellites allow the development of an increasingly wide range of knowledge of the oceans and the Polar region, allow for more accurate mathematical models of meteorological conditions, help to monitor “space weather” conditions, assist with rescue of distressed ships and aircraft, aid transportation systems, and help with monitoring atmospheric pollution and conditions associated with climate change. The National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration, through its National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS), continuously operates a global network of satellites to achieve these goals. NOAA works closely with NASA in the design of environmental satellites and cooperates with the US Department of Defense in obtaining and distributing environmental information. Data obtained from US environmental spacecraft as well as from other spacecraft around the world are used for a wide range of applications. Currently these applications relate to the oceans and seas, coastal regions, agriculture and resource recovery, detection of forest fires, detection of volcanic ash, monitoring the ozone hole over the South Pole, and even the space environment in terms of the so-called space weather such as solar flares. Each day NOAA’s NESDIS processes and then distributes more than 3.5 billion bits of data. The processed images are distributed to weather forecasters in the United States and globally so that various users, for instance, disaster managers, and the general public can see weather patterns via television or on computer or smart phone displays. The timeliness and quality of the combined polar and geostationary satellite data have been greatly improved by enhanced computer installations, upgraded ground facilities, and international data sharing agreements as well as by military weather services.

The advent of small satellites has been a source of innovative technology, new entrepreneurial business initiatives, new economic models for space ventures, and many other changes. As noted in Chapter 6 this has not surprisingly given rise to a host of new issues and perceived needs for new standards of operations, codes of behavior, and perhaps new regulatory actions at the national and international level to keep space activities safe, harmonious, and operationally effective. Truly small satellites, of the cubesat and smaller category, have given rise to one set of concerns, while large-scale satellite constellations, sometimes called megaLEO systems, have given rise to other types of concerns.

ABSTRACT This chapter introduces what is meant by the term “applications satellite” and addresses why it makes sense to address the four main space applications in a consolidated reference work. This handbook also provides a multidisciplinary approach that includes technical, operational, economic, regulatory, and market perspectives. These are key areas whereby applications satellite share a great deal. This can be seen in terms of spacecraft systems engineering, in terms of launch services, in terms of systems economics, and even in terms of past, present, and future market development. This is not to suggest that there are not important technical and operational differences with regard to communications satellites, remote sensing satellites, global navigation satellites and meteorological satellites. Such differences are addressed in separate sections of the handbook. Yet in many ways there are strong similarities. Technological advances that come from one type of applications satellite can and often are applied to other services as well. The evolution of three-axis body-stabilized spacecraft, the development of improved designs for solar arrays and battery power systems, improved launch capabilities, and the development of user terminal equipment that employs application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC) are just some of the ways the applications satellites involve common technology technologies and on a quite parallel basis. These applications satellites provide key and ever important services to humankind. Around the world, people’s lives, their livelihood, and sometimes their very well-being and survival are now closely ties to applications satellites. Clearly the design and engineering of the spacecraft busses for these various applications satellite services as well as the launch vehicles that boost these satellites into orbit are very closely akin. It is hoped that this integrated reference document can serve as an important reference work that addresses all aspects of application satellites from A to Z. This handbook thus seeks to address all aspects of the field. It thus covers spacecraft and payload design and engineering, satellite operations, the history of the various types of satellites, the markets, and their development – past, present, and future, as well as the economics and regulation of applications satellites, and key future trends.

ABSTRACT The technology, the applications, and the economic forces that have driven the design, functionality, and performance of ground systems for satellite communications have been very closely mirrored in the other major application satellite services. It is for this reason that this chapter combines consideration of the ground systems for satellite navigation, remote sensing, and meteorology. In essence, all the ground systems for the various applications are communications systems. Although the radio frequencies, modulation, and multiplexing methods and encryption schemes utilized vary for a variety of reasons – including defense and military-related consideration, all application satellites employ satellite communications between the spacecraft and the ground system. Some systems are broader or narrower in bandwidth and some only involve down links while other are more interactive with up and down links. The common elements that range across the ground systems for all application satellites include the following: All application satellites have become higher in power, more accurate in their stabilization and pointing of their onboard antennas and better able to deploy higher gain and larger aperture reflectors. This has allowed ground systems to be smaller, more compact, lower in power, lower in cost, and more widely distributed. Down-linked information is often encrypted to protect the integrity of information and data relayed from the satellite – particularly if there is a proprietary or defense-related application for the down-linked information. Solid-state digital technology associated with integrated circuitry, application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), and monolithic devices that have allowed the ground systems to be more highly distributed. There are essentially two tracks in ground systems development – one where geosynchronous satellites are involved and the ground system can be constantly pointed toward a single fixed point in the sky and the other where the ground system must have the ability to receive signals across the horizon and capture signals from a satellite that moves across the sky. Both types of ground receivers suited to “fixed” or “non-fixed” signal reception are needed in satellite communications, remote sensing, meteorological satellites, and satellite navigation. In addition to the user terms associated with different types of applications, there is a need for a tracking, telemetry, and command system to ensure the safe operation of the application satellite. Despite these elements of commonality, there are indeed differences in the ground systems, the antenna characteristics, their tracking capabilities, the frequency utilized, the degree to which the data is protected by encryption, and the need for expert analysis of the data received from the spacecraft.

ABSTRACT The oldest and most extensive meteorological satellite systems are those of the United States and of Europe, as operated by the Eumetsat system. These are addressed in detail in the preceding two chapters. This chapter describes the meteorological satellite systems of China, India, Japan, Russia, and South Korea. These meteorological satellite systems are extensive and provide a number of sophisticated meteorological satellite sensing capabilities both from geostationary and polar orbiting satellite systems. Today all of these various satellite systems – those of China, Europe, India, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and the United States are in various manners linked together and share data. This international coordination of meteorological data is accomplished through the World Weather Watch (WWW) program of the World Meteorological Organization and the Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites (CGMS). These international cooperative efforts – supplemented by bilateral or regional agreements – allow a degree of standardization with regard to the formatting and display of meteorological data and a systematic process for sharing of vital weather data. This sharing of meteorological data is important on an ongoing basis – but this can be particularly important – when there is a failure of a meteorological satellite, a launch failure, or a delay in the deployment of a replacement satellite. In some cases, countries such as the United States have even “loaned” meteorological satellites to other countries when failures or launch delays have created gaps in critical coverage areas. The various international satellites around the world that are deployed in different orbital locations and with varying periodicity provide a very useful redundancy of coverage that is particularly important in tracking major storms and obtaining the most up-to-date information of atmospheric, oceanic, and of arctic conditions. This chapter provides a description of the meteorological satellite systems of China, India, Japan, South Korea, and Russia and their current status. Researchers can also consult the various universal reference locations (i.e., URLs) for these various meteorological satellite systems which can be useful in obtaining the more recent information about the deployment and operation of these systems.

Chapter 1. Global Navigation Satellite Systems.- Chapter 2. Doppler Satellite Positioning, Telemetry and Data Systems.- Chapter 3. Precision and Navigational PNT Systems.- Chapter 4. Aided and Augmentation Systems, and Differential GPS.- Chapter 5. Applications of PNT Systems.- Chapter 6. National and International Governmental Policy Issues.- Chapter 7. Conclusions and Future Directions.- 8. Top Ten Things to Know About GNSS.- Appendix 1. Key Terms and Acronyms.- Appendix 2. Selected Bibliography.- Appendix 3. Selected Websites.

ABSTRACT This chapter introduces what is meant by the term “applications satellite” and addresses why it makes sense to address the four main space applications in a consolidated reference work. This handbook also provides a multidisciplinary approach that includes technical, operational, economic, regulatory, and market perspectives. These are key areas whereby applications satellite share a great deal. This can be seen in terms of spacecraft systems engineering, in terms of launch services, in terms of systems economics, and even in terms of past, present, and future market development. This is not to suggest that there are not important technical and operational differences with regard to communications satellites, remote sensing satellites, global navigation satellites and meteorological satellites. Such differences are addressed in separate sections of the handbook. Yet in many ways there are strong similarities. Technological advances that come from one type of applications satellite can and often are applied to other services as well. The evolution of three-axis body-stabilized spacecraft, the development of improved designs for solar arrays and battery power systems, improved launch capabilities, and the development of user terminal equipment that employs application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC) are just some of the ways the applications satellites involve common technology technologies and on a quite parallel basis. These applications satellites provide key and ever important services to humankind. Around the world, people’s lives, their livelihood, and sometimes their very well-being and survival are now closely ties to applications satellites. Clearly the design and engineering of the spacecraft busses for these various applications satellite services as well as the launch vehicles that boost these satellites into orbit are very closely akin. It is hoped that this integrated reference document can serve as an important reference work that addresses all aspects of application satellites from A to Z. This handbook thus seeks to address all aspects of the field. It thus covers spacecraft and payload design and engineering, satellite operations, the history of the various types of satellites, the markets, and their development – past, present, and future, as well as the economics and regulation of applications satellites, and key future trends.

This chapter will analyze the most important emerging, new, and disruptive technologies that have already, or shortly will, make an impact in the arena of space, as well as here on Earth. Major innovations such as artificial intelligence, additive manufacturing and GNSS are included, along with less known and less understood emerging concepts such as edge computing and cubesats.

The civilian GPS system was intentionally developed at first with limited precision, and so later several systems were developed to improve the quality and reliability of this and the other civilian systems. Some are ground-based and others are space-based. These use a technique referred to as differential GPS, or DGPS. These were originally developed to defeat selective availability, and to provide higher precision in applications such as civil aviation that require both higher precision as well as system integrity not provided in the basic signals.

Before we consider the GPS system and its international equivalents, there are still two operational satellite systems that rely on the Doppler technique originally developed for Transit. These are the Argos environmental data system and the Cospas-Sarsat satellite search and rescue system. These systems, although not generally well known, provide excellent capabilities, and operate in a spirit of international cooperation and collaboration for the benefit of all humankind.

This brief book covers a great deal of background and detail about GNSS networks and services. Some of the chapters provide what many might consider minutiae about the various coding and other systems available to obtain great precision for some applications like geodesy to track continental drift. This final chapter tries to boil down some of the most important points covered in this book that might be considered some of the key “takeaways” that are important to remember.

The U. S. NAVSTAR GPS system was the first and is still by far the most commonly used advanced satellite navigation system. It is made up of three segments: the space segment (a constellation of satellites in orbit), the control segment (ground stations and control centers that operate and oversee the system), and the user segment (your smart phone or hand-held GPS receiver). A brief timeline of the GPS systems shows that development began in 1973 (to replace TRANSIT), with the first satellite launch in 1978 and full, global operational capability achieved in 1993. This global capability continues today and is assured, free of cost to all users, into the future.

The tremendous growth in this industry is driven by the enormous number of applications provided by GPS and the other GNSS systems. These are far beyond what was originally designed and envisioned to be a strictly U. S. military system. Providing extremely precise, three-dimensional timing and navigation in a worldwide common grid that can be easily converted to any local mapping coordinate system has created huge new commercial markets and new scientific and public benefits. GNSS allows for continuous, passive, all-weather operation of an unlimited number of users anywhere on Earth, up to low-Earth orbit. But we cannot deny that GPS is vital to national security needs, and GPS is an aspect of almost every U. S. military activity. It is the same for Glonass and the Russian Federation, and will be so for China, India, Japan, and the EU.

The world of small satellites has now evolved into two different categories or types. One type is that of small satellites that are deployed in quite low Earth orbit so that they naturally decay and return to Earth and thus automatically meet the InterAgency space Debris Committee (IADC) Space Debris Mitigation guidelines that urge removal from orbit within 25 years from their end-of-mission life. These types of small satellites, typically nanosats or picosats, are usually only a few kilograms in mass and are also usually experimental projects.

We are soon to have four or five operational GNSS systems, and even more regional augmentation systems, so international cooperation in signal interference and frequency compatibility are of growing importance. Avoiding frequency interference is vital, partly due to the limited spectrum allocated and available, and also because of the possibility of intentional interference or jamming, due to the dual use nature of the technology.

A relatively recent development in satellite applications is the enormous growth in the use of positioning, navigation and timing (PNT) satellite systems such as the U.S. global positioning system, or GPS. There are now several similar systems, so they are collectively referred to as PNT systems, for precision navigation and timing systems or global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), which is the term used by the International Telecommunication Union. These PNT systems use a constellation of satellites to provide very precise timing, navigation, and positioning data globally, and they have valuable applications for disaster management.

The term NewSpace, or Space 2.0, has been used to describe a new revolution in space businesses and private sector space actors. These terms generally refer to a completely new paradigm and approach to space activities. It is partly generational, and partly driven by new technological, cultural, and economic realities.

ABSTRACT This chapter introduces the subject of remote sensing both in terms of its technology and its many applications. Remote sensing via satellite has become a key service that is used in many civil applications such as agriculture, forestry, mining (and prospecting for many types of resources), map making, research in geosciences, urban planning, and even land speculation. Perhaps, one of the most vital uses of remote sensing today is related to disaster warning and recovery. The first use of remote sensing was essentially for military purposes and this remains the case today, and, thus, this chapter addresses these applications as well. Remote sensing, Earth observation, related Geographical Information Systems (GIS), plus the interpretation and use of this type of data are today often referred to today as Geomatics. This section starts with a history of remote sensing and then continues with a discussion of the technology and its applications. In a number of ways meteorological or weather satellites are essentially a specialized form of remote sensing satellites. Thus the history presented here covers the not only what are considered remote sensing satellites but meteorological satellites as well. The meteorological satellites are discussed in much greater detail later in this Handbook.

Introduction.- Disaster Management and the Emergency Management Culture.- Organizing for Disasters.- Space Systems for Disaster Management.- Space Remote Sensing Fundamentals and Disaster Applications.- Precision Navigation and Timing Systems .- Geographic Information Systems.- Major International and Regional Players.- The Emerging World of Crowd Sourcing, Social Media, Citizen Science, and Remote Support Operations in Disasters.- International Treaties, Non-Binding Agreements, and Policy and Legal Issues.- Future Directions and the Top Ten Things to Know About Space Systems and Disasters.- Appendix A: Key Terms and Acronyms.- Appendix B: Selected Bibliography.- Appendix C: Selected Websites.

ABSTRACT The technology, the applications, and the economic forces that have driven the design, functionality, and performance of ground systems for satellite communications have been very closely mirrored in the other major application satellite services. It is for this reason that this chapter combines consideration of the ground systems for satellite navigation, remote sensing, and meteorology. In essence, all the ground systems for the various applications are communications systems. Although the radio frequencies, modulation, and multiplexing methods and encryption schemes utilized vary for a variety of reasons – including defense and military-related consideration, all application satellites employ satellite communications between the spacecraft and the ground system. Some systems are broader or narrower in bandwidth and some only involve down links while other are more interactive with up and down links. The common elements that range across the ground systems for all application satellites include the following: All application satellites have become higher in power, more accurate in their stabilization and pointing of their onboard antennas and better able to deploy higher gain and larger aperture reflectors. This has allowed ground systems to be smaller, more compact, lower in power, lower in cost, and more widely distributed. Down-linked information is often encrypted to protect the integrity of information and data relayed from the satellite – particularly if there is a proprietary or defense-related application for the down-linked information. Solid-state digital technology associated with integrated circuitry, application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), and monolithic devices that have allowed the ground systems to be more highly distributed. There are essentially two tracks in ground systems development – one where geosynchronous satellites are involved and the ground system can be constantly pointed toward a single fixed point in the sky and the other where the ground system must have the ability to receive signals across the horizon and capture signals from a satellite that moves across the sky. Both types of ground receivers suited to “fixed” or “non-fixed” signal reception are needed in satellite communications, remote sensing, meteorological satellites, and satellite navigation. In addition to the user terms associated with different types of applications, there is a need for a tracking, telemetry, and command system to ensure the safe operation of the application satellite. Despite these elements of commonality, there are indeed differences in the ground systems, the antenna characteristics, their tracking capabilities, the frequency utilized, the degree to which the data is protected by encryption, and the need for expert analysis of the data received from the spacecraft.