Jerzy Linderski

Auspicium, literally 'watching the birds' (avis, specio), but the term was applied to various types of divination. Festus (Paulus, Gloss. Lat. 367) records five types of auspical signs: from the sky (ex caelo, mostly thunder and lightning), from birds (ex avibus; observed were the number, position, flight, cries, and feeding of birds), from sacred chickens, the pulli (ex tripudiis; they were kept hungry in a cage; if food dropped from their beaks when they were eating, this was an excellent sign, auspicium sollistimum), from quadrupeds (ex quadrupedibus, e.g. a wolf eating grass), and from unusual, threatening occurrences (ex diris). They were either casually met with (oblativa) or specially watched for (impetrativa). The first two categories could be both oblative and impetrative, the third only impetrative, the fourth and fifth only oblative. Through the auspices the gods did not foretell the future but only expressed their approval or disapproval of an action either contemplated or in progress (the latter only through the oblativa). They were valid for one day only, and thus pertained solely to the time of an action, not to its substance. If denied, the approval for the same undertaking could be sought again on the next day. Here resides the technical difference (often disregarded in colloquial speech) between auspices and auguries: the latter were the auspices that pertained not only to timing but also to substance. At inaugurations of priests and temples the deity gave approval not only for the day of the ceremony but also for the person or the place (locus) to be inaugurated. The auguria had no time limit, and to remove their effects a special ceremony of exauguratio was necessary. The auguries could be conducted only by the augurs (see augures); any person could use the auspices, hence the division into private and public auspices. The former largely fell into desuetude, though remaining in use for weddings (Cic. Div.

bidental. When lightning struck, the Etruscan and Roman ritual prescribed that the bolt be buried (often inscribed fulgur conditum), and the place enclosed (Lucan. 1. 606-8; 8. 864). Most ancient sources derived the name from the sacrificial victim (bidens, "having two teeth" (i.e., incisors, and hence two years old), but it may be a rendering of the Etruscan word for the bolt or refer to a thunderbolt split into two branches.

Dedicatio. Transfer of a thing from the human into the divine sphere was accomplished through the act of dedicatio and consecratio, the former indicating surrender of an object into divine ownership, the latter its transformation into a res sacra. Dedications of temples, places, and altars (aedes, terra, ara) were legally binding only if performed by competent authorities:

Divination. Roman. All divination stems from the belief that gods send meaningful messages. These messages were classified in a variety of intersecting ways: according to the character of signs through which the message was conveyed, and whether these signs were sent unasked or were actively sought; the time-frame to which a sign was taken to refer (future, present, past) and the content of the message itself (prediction, warning, prohibition, displeasure, approval); and, most importantly, whether the message pertained to the private or public sphere, the observation and interpretation of the latter category of signs forming part of Roman state religion. The divine message was either intuitively conveyed or required interpretation. Cicero (Div. 1. 12) adopts the division of divination (elaborated by the Stoics, see Stoicism) into two classes, artificial (external) and natural (internal). The latter relied upon divine inspiration (instinctus, adflatus divinus), and was characteristic of prophets (vaticinantes) and dreamers (somniantes). The former was based on art (ars) and knowledge (scientia). To this category belonged the observation of birds, celestial signs, entrails, unusual phenomena, also astrology and divination from lots. But inspired utterances (see Sibyl) and dreams also required interpretation. The Roman state employed three groups of divinatory experts: the augures (augurs), the board of priests for the performance of sacred rites (see quindecimviri sacris faciundis), who were in charge of the Sibylline books (see Sibyl), and the haruspices. The first two were the official state priests; the haruspices were summoned as needed. Their special province was the observation of the entrails of sacrificial victims (haruspicy or extispicy), especially the liver (hepatoscopy). Both the augurs and haruspices observed and interpreted the avian and celestial signs (particularly fulmina and tonitrua, lightning and thunder), but they treated them differently. For the augurs they were the auspices expressing divine permission or prohibition concerning a specific act; they were indicative of the future only in so far as faulty auspices, and especially wilful disregard of auspices, might cause divine anger (which, however, could manifest itself in a variety of unpredictable ways). But for the haruspices (and also for the non-Roman augurs) the very same signs could be indications of specific future happenings. All signs were either solicited or unsolicited. The latter could function either as unsolicited auspicia oblativa or as prodigies. The former referred solely to a concrete undertaking, the prodigies on the other hand to the state of the republic. They were indications that the normal relationship with the deity, the 'peace of the gods' (pax deum), was disturbed. Particularly potent were unusual occurrences (monstra, ostenta, Cic. Div. 1. 93). In the case of adverse auspices the action in question was to be abandoned; in the case of prodigies it was imperative to find out the cause of divine displeasure (this task often fell to the haruspices) and to perform various ceremonies of appeasement (procuratio). See portents.

, LANGUAGES OF). In a broader sense it may also include the cults of the Veneti in the northeast , and those of the speakers of Messapic (cognate with the Illyrian) in the southeast (Apulia); excluded are the religions of the Etruscans, Greeks, Ligurians, and Celts. The cults of the Indo-European settlers were first amalgamated with the autochthonous Mediterranean elements, and later exposed to Etruscan and (from the 8 th cent.) Greek influences.

Salus, a deified 'virtue', the safety and welfare of the state (akin to, and perhaps influenced by, the Greek Soteria), with a temple on the Quirinal vowed in the Samnite War in 311 and dedicated in 302 bce (Livy 10. 1. 9). Her feast (natalis, 'birthday') was on 5 August (Cic.Att. 42. 4; Sest. 131; and the calendars). There may have existed an earlier cult of Salus (Varro, Ling. 5. 52); her association with Semonia (related to the Semunes of the archaic Carmen arvale) suggests Salus as protectress of the sowing (Macrob.Sat. 1. 16. 8; Festus, Gloss. Lat. 406; ILS 3090; on some imperial coins she holds corn-ears). From the 2nd cent. bce she became identified with the Greek Hygieia, 'Health'. Salus Augusta or Augusti, the 'Health' and 'Saving Power' of the emperor, frequently appears on inscriptions and coins (enthroned, holding sceptre and dish, often feeding the snake). Public and private vows for the salus of the emperor (often associated with the Salus Publica, esp. in the records of the Arvals; see fratres arvales), and the oaths by his salus, became ubiquitous events. Particularly numerous are dedications to Salus in Spain, and by the equites singulares. With the augurium salutis the goddess Salus does not appear to be directly connected.

Sellisternium (Festus, Gloss. Lat. 398), a religious banquet at which the goddesses sat on chairs (sellae; Val. Max. 2. 1. 2: Juno and Minerva at the epulum Iovis, 'the banquet for Jupiter'), whereas at the lectisternium they reclined (at least originally, Livy 5. 13. 5; 22. 10. 9) together with the gods on couches. Sellisternia were commonly offered by women (for Juno, Tac.Ann. 15. 44, and at the Secular Games for Juno and Diana, CIL 6. 32323). Bibliography (updated 2021) S. Estienne, Thesaurus Cultus et Rituum Antiquorum 2 (2004), 273ff. B. Madigan, The Ceremonial Sculptures of the Roman Gods (2012), 86ff.

Strenae, originally the luck-bringing (mostly laurel) twigs (from the grove of the goddess Strenia), also figs, honey-cakes, and dates; later any gifts, lamps, coins, and even gold, exchanged by the Romans (and accompanied by good wishes) on New Year's Day.

Suovetaurilia (suovi-), a purificatory sacrifice at the conclusion of lustratio of three (generic) victims: pig, sheep, bull (sus, ovis, taurus). Suovetaurilia lactentia ('suckling') consisted of porcus, agnus, vitulus, male pig, lamb, calf (Cato, Agr. 141), and were employed at the lustration of private fields. At public lustrations (at the census, of the army) the suovetaurilia maiora ('greater') were used consisting of full-grown victims, verres, aries, taurus, boar, ram, bull (Varro, Rust. 2. 1. 10; Livy 1. 44. 2; Acta fr. Arv. p. 143 Henzen; p. 407 Scheid). The term solitaurilia Quintilian (Inst. 1.5. 67) regarded as a orruption of suovetaurilia; others (in antiquity and recently) have proposed various etymologies, none fully convincing.

Supplication, Roman (supplicationes). When calamity struck (pestilence, defeat) or danger threatened, the senate, advised by priests, frequently decreed adoration by all the people, or part of it, especially women (Livy 25. 12. 15) of all or certain gods (often placed on pulvinaria (see pulvinar), with the temples open) to expiate transgressions or to ensure future support. Supplicationes were also decreed to render thanks (gratulatio) for a signal victory. This double character of the rite favours the etymological connection with placo, 'give satisfaction', rather than with plico, 'to bend' (one's knees). Originally lasting one day, they reached 12 days for Pompey, 50 for Caesar, and 55 supplications with the total of 890 days for Augustus (RG 4. 2; on the supplications under the Empire, see the Feriale Cumanum, ILS 108). Apparently it was an old Roman rite, but it fell under Greek influence: more than half of expiatory supplications were held at the suggestion of decemvirs (and the Sibylline books; see quindecimviri; sibyl); they were occasionally associated with a lectisternium (Livy 22. 10. 8-9), and the participants frequently wore wreaths (coronati).

Templum, an augural term denoting (a) the field of vision defined by a ritual formula (templum in aere) to observe the (impetrative) auspices (see auspicium) from the flight of birds; lightning was observed in the semicircular celestial templum; (b) the quadrangular area delimited and inaugurated by the augures. Many official state functions had to take place in a templum (especially the senatorial meetings and observations of the impetrative auspices); most shrines (aedes sacrae) were templa (but not that of Vesta), also the Curia(2) and the rostra (Varro in Gell.

J.Linderski, Orbilius, Scaurus, and the Award of Corniculum, Roman Questions II, 2007, 184-215.
Corniculum as a military award: ILS 8888 turma Salluitana), Suet., De gramm. 9; Auctor de vir.ill. 72.3; Fronto 208, lines 2–3 (van den Hout 1988). The phrase corniculo merere, and cornicularii as administrative officers (Orbilius [Horatius, Sat. 1.10.1-8], M. Aemilius Scaurus). Cornicularii and canalicularii under the Empire. Ink-wells. From canalicularii to the Byzantime imperial Ink Master.

Nine reviews of : M.SORDI (ed.), Religione e politica nel mondo antico (1984); H.S.VERSNEL (ed.), Faith, Hope and Worship. Aspects of Religious Mentality in the Ancient World (1984); Y.LEHMANN, Varron: théologien et philosophe romain (2000); T. KÖVES-ZULAUF, Römische Geburtsriten (1992); M.L.FREYBURGER-GALLAND, G.FREYBURGER, J.C.TAUTIL, Sectes religieuses en Grèce et à Rome dans l’antiquité païenne; O. DE CAZANOVE (et al.), L’association Dionysiaque dans les sociétés anciennes (1988); U.EGELHAAF-GAISER, A. SCHÄFER (edd.), Religiöse Vereine in der römischen Antike (2004); M.FREY, Untersuchungen zur Religion und zur Religionspolitik des Kaisers Elagabal; R.TURCAN, Les cultes orientaux dans le monde romain (1990); S.APPLEBAUM, Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrene (1982); J.REYNOLDS and R.TANNENBAUM, Jews and Godfearers at Aphrodisias (1991).