Ruth Baer
University of Kentucky, Psychology, Faculty Member
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The current study investigated the short-term effects of mindful and ruminative forms of self-focused attention on a behavioral measure of distress tolerance in individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD) who had completed an... more
The current study investigated the short-term effects of mindful and ruminative forms of self-focused attention on a behavioral measure of distress tolerance in individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD) who had completed an angry mood induction. Participants included 40 individuals who met criteria for BPD and were currently involved in mental health treatment. Each completed an individual 1-hr session. Following an angry mood induction, each participant was randomly assigned to engage in ruminative or mindful self-focus for several minutes. All participants then completed the computerized Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT-C), a behavioral measure of willingness to tolerate distress in the service of goal-directed behavior. The mindfulness group persisted significantly longer than the rumination group on the distress tolerance task and reported significantly lower levels of anger following the self-focus period. Results are consistent with previous studies in s...
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We examined relationships between depressive rumination, anger rumination, and features of borderline personality disorder in a sample of 93 students with a wide range of borderline symptoms. All completed self-report measures of... more
We examined relationships between depressive rumination, anger rumination, and features of borderline personality disorder in a sample of 93 students with a wide range of borderline symptoms. All completed self-report measures of borderline features; trait-level negative affect; depressive and anger rumination; and current symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. Depressive and anger rumination were strongly associated with borderline features after controlling for comorbid symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. Both types of rumination showed significant incremental validity over trait-level sadness, anger, and general negative affect in predicting borderline features. Relationships with borderline features were stronger for anger rumination than for depressive rumination. Relationships between trait-level negative affect and borderline features were substantially reduced when anger rumination was included in regression models, suggesting the need for longitudinal analyse...
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While the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) has been used widely among adult populations to evaluate the effects of frontal-lobe lesions, no comparable work has been done among younger populations due, in part, to the lack of an adequate... more
While the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) has been used widely among adult populations to evaluate the effects of frontal-lobe lesions, no comparable work has been done among younger populations due, in part, to the lack of an adequate normative base. This study presents developmental norms by age for the WCST for 105 school-age children. The data indicate that, by the time children are 10 years old, their performance on the WCST is indistinguishable from that of normal adults. Examination of the acquisition curves by age for Categories Achieved, Perseverative Errors, and Failures to Maintain Set reveals developmental changes that roughly correspond with neuroanatomical changes in the brain and cognitive stages of development. The present developmental norms are intended to complement and extend existing adult norms for the WCST and to facilitate the clinical use of the WCST as a neuropsychological test in child populations.
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Self-criticism is a form of negative self-evaluation that has strong associations with many forms of psychopathology. Rumination is a maladaptive form of repetitive thinking that is associated with many psychological disorders. Although... more
Self-criticism is a form of negative self-evaluation that has strong associations with many forms of psychopathology. Rumination is a maladaptive form of repetitive thinking that is associated with many psychological disorders. Although measures of several different types of rumination (e.g., general rumination, depressive rumination, anger rumination) have been developed, none focuses specifically on self-critical rumination. An initial pool of items addressing self-critical rumination was developed by adapting items from existing rumination measures and through a writing task administered to both student and clinical samples. Following an evaluation of content validity, 24 items were administered to a large sample of undergraduates along with measures of related constructs. The final 10-item version of the Self-Critical Rumination Scale showed excellent internal consistency, a clear single-factor structure, convergent relationships with related constructs, and incremental validity...
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This article presents 4 studies (N = 1,413) describing the development and validation of the Child and Adolescent Mindfulness Measure (CAMM). In Study 1 (n = 428), the authors determined procedures for item development and examined... more
This article presents 4 studies (N = 1,413) describing the development and validation of the Child and Adolescent Mindfulness Measure (CAMM). In Study 1 (n = 428), the authors determined procedures for item development and examined comprehensibility of the initial 25 items. In Study 2 (n = 334), they reduced the initial item pool from 25 to 10 items through exploratory factor analysis. Study 3 (n = 332) evaluated the final 10-item measure in a cross-validation sample, and Study 4 (n = 319) determined validity coefficients for the CAMM using bivariate and partial correlations with relevant variables. Results suggest that the CAMM is a developmentally appropriate measure with adequate internal consistency. As expected, CAMM scores were positively correlated with quality of life, academic competence, and social skills and negatively correlated with somatic complaints, internalizing symptoms, and externalizing behavior problems. Correlations were reduced but generally still significant ...
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The authors describe the development and validation of the Avoidance and Fusion Questionnaire for Youth (AFQ-Y), a child-report measure of psychological inflexibility engendered by high levels of cognitive fusion and experiential... more
The authors describe the development and validation of the Avoidance and Fusion Questionnaire for Youth (AFQ-Y), a child-report measure of psychological inflexibility engendered by high levels of cognitive fusion and experiential avoidance. Consistent with the theory underlying acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), items converged into a 17-item scale (AFQ-Y) and an 8-item short form (AFQ-Y8). A multimethod psychometric approach provides preliminary support for the reliability and validity of the AFQ-Y and AFQ-Y8. In 5 substudies, 3 samples (total N = 1369) were used to establish (a) item comprehension (n = 181), (b) initial item selection (n = 513), (c) final item reduction and development of a short form for research (n = 346), (d) comprehensive psychometric evaluation of the AFQ-Y and AFQ-Y8 (n = 329), and (e) convergent and construct validity for both versions of the AFQ-Y. Overall, results suggest that the AFQ-Y and AFQ-Y8 may be useful child-report measures of core ACT processes.
Research Interests: Psychology, Psychological Assessment, Psychometrics, Adolescent, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, and 17 morePsychoanalytic Theory, Child Behavior, Discriminant Analysis, Humans, Child, Business and Management, Female, Construct Validity, Male, Child Psychology, Child and Adolescent Psychology, STEM (short form), Children and Adolescents, Validity and Reliability, Questionnaires, Reproducibility of Results, and Adolescent Behavior
Abstract 1. The authors examined the convergent and discriminant validity of selected Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory—Adolescent (MMPI–A) content scales, including Anxiety, Depression, Health Concerns, Alienation, Anger,... more
Abstract 1. The authors examined the convergent and discriminant validity of selected Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory—Adolescent (MMPI–A) content scales, including Anxiety, Depression, Health Concerns, Alienation, Anger, Conduct Problems, ...
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Meta-analytic techniques were applied to studies of the MMPI-2 in which participants given standard instructions were compared with participants instructed or believed to have been underreporting. Traditional and supplementary indices of... more
Meta-analytic techniques were applied to studies of the MMPI-2 in which participants given standard instructions were compared with participants instructed or believed to have been underreporting. Traditional and supplementary indices of underreporting yielded a mean effect size of 1.25, suggesting that underreporting respondents differ from those responding honestly by a little more than 1 standard deviation, on the average, on these scales. Analyses of classification accuracy suggested that several scales are moderately effective in detecting underreporting, although accuracy decreases if participants have been coached about validity scales. Base rates of defensive responding in relevant populations are reviewed, and methodological issues, including research designs, coaching, and incremental validity of supplementary underreporting scales, are discussed.
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Sixty adults in outpatient psychotherapy completed the NEO Personality Inventory--Revised (NEO PI-R, P. T. Costa & R. R. McCrae, 1992a). Half were instructed to fake good and half were given standard instructions. All completed... more
Sixty adults in outpatient psychotherapy completed the NEO Personality Inventory--Revised (NEO PI-R, P. T. Costa & R. R. McCrae, 1992a). Half were instructed to fake good and half were given standard instructions. All completed the Interpersonal Adjective Scale--Revised, Big Five (J. S. Wiggins & P. D. Trapnell, 1997) under standard instructions, and their therapists completed the observer rating form of the NEO Five-Factor Inventory. A comparison group of 30 students completed the NEO PI-R under standard instructions. Standard and fake-good participants obtained significantly different NEO PI-R domain scores. Correlations between the NEO PI-R and criterion measures were significantly lower for faking than for standard patients. Validity scales for the NEO PI-R (J. A. Schinka, B. N. Kinder, & T. Kremer, 1997) were moderately accurate in discriminating faking from standard patients, but were only marginally accurate in discriminating faking patients from students.
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Page 1. Psychological Assessment 1992, Vol. 4, No. 3,369-374 Copyright 1992 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 1040-3590/92/$3.00 Sensitivity of MMPI-2 Validity Scales to Random Responding and Malingering ...
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... Ruth A. Baer, Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky. ... The impact of detailed information on closed-head injury (CHI) and/or the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory—2 (MMPI-2) validity scales on malingering of... more
... Ruth A. Baer, Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky. ... The impact of detailed information on closed-head injury (CHI) and/or the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory—2 (MMPI-2) validity scales on malingering of psychological symptoms of CHI on the MMPI-2 ...
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This study investigated the validity of F, back F(Fb), and variable response inconsistency (VRIN) indices of the revised Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) for detection of self-reported partially random responding in... more
This study investigated the validity of F, back F(Fb), and variable response inconsistency (VRIN) indices of the revised Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) for detection of self-reported partially random responding in several samples, including college students, community volunteers, and job applicants. Substantial numbers of subjects admitted to providing some random responses, with 29%–60% of the various samples acknowledging an average
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... Martha W Wetter, Ruth A. Baer, David TR Berry, Lori H. Robison, and Johnny Sumpter, Department of Psychology, University of Ken-tucky. ... noses of either PTSD or paranoid schizophrenia could earn $10.00 for completion of a... more
... Martha W Wetter, Ruth A. Baer, David TR Berry, Lori H. Robison, and Johnny Sumpter, Department of Psychology, University of Ken-tucky. ... noses of either PTSD or paranoid schizophrenia could earn $10.00 for completion of a personality questionnaire. ...
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... Our consensus was that it was important to make the general finding of the impact of coaching available to clinicians and research-ers, but that it was also important to minimize the potential for David TR Berry, Martha W. Wetter,... more
... Our consensus was that it was important to make the general finding of the impact of coaching available to clinicians and research-ers, but that it was also important to minimize the potential for David TR Berry, Martha W. Wetter, Ruth A. Baer, and Thomas A. Widiger ...
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Page 1. Psychological Assessment 1995, Vol. 7, No. 4,419-423 Copyright 1995 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 1040-3590/95/53.00 Sensitivity of MMPI-2 Validity Scales to Underreporting of Symptoms Ruth A. Baer and Martha W.... more
Page 1. Psychological Assessment 1995, Vol. 7, No. 4,419-423 Copyright 1995 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 1040-3590/95/53.00 Sensitivity of MMPI-2 Validity Scales to Underreporting of Symptoms Ruth A. Baer and Martha W. Wetter University of Kentucky ...
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Single-subject research designs are used extensively in the fields of education and psychology. There are many advantages of these designs over traditional group designs and they appear particularly important for applied research in... more
Single-subject research designs are used extensively in the fields of education and psychology. There are many advantages of these designs over traditional group designs and they appear particularly important for applied research in optometry. An overview of the basic designs is presented. For each type of design, examples are provided that illustrate the application of this methodology to applied optometric research.
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Self-reported dental fear measures seldom are used in clinical practice to assess... more
Self-reported dental fear measures seldom are used in clinical practice to assess patients' fears. This study examined how well dental fear measures predicted anxious behaviors displayed during dental treatment. One hundred eight adult patients (54 percent female) in a periodontology clinic completed several paper-and-pencil demographic, dental fear and general anxiety measures before treatment. Dental practitioners, blinded to their patients' responses, rated their patients' anxiety during treatment on a series of 100-millimeter visual analog scales. Higher Dental Fear Survey scores, younger age, more invasive treatment type and previous avoidance of dental care because of a bad experience all were predictive of greater observed anxiety. Neither self-reported nor observed anxiety was affected by previous experience with a particular practitioner or treatment. Dentists may assess patients' anxiety quickly and accurately with the Dental Fear Survey or a similar measure, as well as by asking patients about their current dental attendance and previous dental experiences.
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The current study examined relationships among childhood emotional vulnerability, an invalidating childhood environment, thought suppression, and symptoms of borderline personality disorder (BPD). Emotional vulnerability and an... more
The current study examined relationships among childhood emotional vulnerability, an invalidating childhood environment, thought suppression, and symptoms of borderline personality disorder (BPD). Emotional vulnerability and an invalidating childhood environment are described by Linehan (1993) as important biosocial precursors to the development of BPD. Using a student sample selected to have a wide range of BPD symptoms, we examined whether thought suppression mediates the relationship between these biosocial precursors and symptoms of BPD. Results supported the hypothesis that thought suppression fully mediates the relationship between invalidating environment and BPD symptoms. Mixed support was found for the hypothesis that thought suppression mediates the relationship between emotional vulnerability and BPD symptoms. We also examined whether fear of emotions mediates the relationship between the biosocial precursors and thought suppression. Results supported this hypothesis, and also suggested that fear of emotion contributes independently to mediating the relationship between biosocial precursors and BPD symptoms.
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We investigated the effects of information about the MMPI-2's validity scales on underreporting of symptoms in a clinical outpatient population. Adults participating in outpatient psychotherapy were randomly assigned to a standard... more
We investigated the effects of information about the MMPI-2's validity scales on underreporting of symptoms in a clinical outpatient population. Adults participating in outpatient psychotherapy were randomly assigned to a standard control group or to one of two groups given instructions and incentives to underreport symptomatology. One of the underreporting groups was given brief information about the presence of validity scales designed to detect respondents attempting to create an unrealistically positive impression. The other underreporting group was given no information about the validity scales. A demographically matched group of adults from the general population who had completed the MMPI-2 under the standard instructions comprised a second control group. Results suggested that traditional and supplementary underreporting scales were reasonably effective in discriminating uncoached underreporters from standard profiles completed by both the clinical and the general population groups. These scales were somewhat less accurate in discriminating coached underreporters from either clinical or nonclinical standard respondents. These findings are consistent with previous results from a college student population suggesting that coaching about validity scales may interfere with the test's ability to detect underreporting respondents, although a few supplementary underreporting scales show promising resistance to the effects of coaching.
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The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) F(p) scale was developed by Arbisi and Ben-Porath (1995) by identification of 27 items endorsed by fewer than 20% of individuals in both normal and psychiatric samples. The F(p)... more
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) F(p) scale was developed by Arbisi and Ben-Porath (1995) by identification of 27 items endorsed by fewer than 20% of individuals in both normal and psychiatric samples. The F(p) scale was designed for applications in settings characterized by high base rates of serious psychopathology, such as psychiatric inpatient units, and is proposed as a useful scale in discriminating overreported protocols from those produced by patients with serious psychopathology. In this study we investigated the characteristics of this scale in a sample of 617 psychiatric inpatients who responded to the MMPI-2 under standard conditions, and 203 overreported protocols derived in research studies conducted with normal adult participants instructed to simulate various forms of serious psychopathology. Results of this study are consistent with prior reports of a relatively low frequency of item endorsement for F(p) scale items in psychiatric samples, and intercorrelations between the F(p) scale and the MMPI-2 basic clinical scales in clinical samples that are generally lower than those produced between either F or Fb and the basic clinical scales. However, this intercorrelational pattern between F(p) and the MMPI-2 basic scales was not as consistent for the overreported sample. Additionally, the F(p) scale appears to be effective in discriminating overreported from accurate MMPI-2 protocols, with some evidence that the optimal cutting scores for this and other MMPI-2 infrequency scales may differ as a function of gender. Finally, these findings do not show clear evidence of improved group prediction derived from the use of the F(p) scale in contrast to results obtainable through the use of the MMPI-2 F scale.
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The commitment to evidence-based practice in clinical psychology requires scientific investigation of the effects of treatment and mechanisms of change. Empirical evidence suggests that mindfulness-based treatments provide clinically... more
The commitment to evidence-based practice in clinical psychology requires scientific investigation of the effects of treatment and mechanisms of change. Empirical evidence suggests that mindfulness-based treatments provide clinically meaningful improvement for people suffering from many important problems, including depression, anxiety, pain, and stress. However, the processes of change that produce these beneficial outcomes are not entirely clear. Central questions include whether mindfulness training leads to increases in the general tendency to respond mindfully to the experiences of daily life, and if so, whether these changes are responsible for the improvements in mental health that are often observed. Answering these questions requires methods for assessing mindfulness. Several tools for this purpose are now available and early evidence suggests that they are useful and informative, despite shortcomings that require additional work. This paper summarizes the rationale for mindfulness questionnaires, the methods used to construct them, and research findings on their utility. Challenges related to maintaining consistency with Buddhist conceptions of mindfulness while applying psychological research methods to the study of its assessment are discussed.
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The empirical literature provides increasing support for the efficacy of mindfulness training in the treatment of numerous problems and disorders. However, fewer studies have examined the mechanisms through which these beneficial outcomes... more
The empirical literature provides increasing support for the efficacy of mindfulness training in the treatment of numerous problems and disorders. However, fewer studies have examined the mechanisms through which these beneficial outcomes are obtained. This article summarizes recent research examining three primary questions related to the mechanisms underlying mindfulness-based treatments: do people who practice mindfulness learn to be more mindful of the experiences of daily life? Is an increased general tendency to be mindful related to reduced symptoms and increased well-being? If so, then what psychological processes account for the beneficial effects of increased mindfulness? Recent studies suggest that the practice of mindfulness develops the ability to observe and describe present-moment experiences nonjudgmentally and nonreactively and to participate with awareness in ongoing activity. Increased mindfulness, in turn, appears to mediate improvement in psychological functioning, probably by cultivating an adaptive form of self-focused attention that reduces rumination and emotional avoidance and improves behavioral self-regulation.
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... Mindfulness Training as a Clinical Intervention: A Conceptual and Empirical Review. [REVIEW AND COMMENTARIES]. ... INTERVENTIONS BASED ON MINDFULNESS TRAINING TOP. ...
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Both dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) include training in mindfulness skills and address the synthesis of acceptance and change. DBT is a comprehensive treatment for borderline personality... more
Both dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) include training in mindfulness skills and address the synthesis of acceptance and change. DBT is a comprehensive treatment for borderline personality disorder (BPD). MBCT was developed for prevention of relapse in individuals with a history of depressive episodes. Both have considerable empirical support for their efficacy. Many individuals with BPD also suffer from depressive episodes, which can interfere with motivation to participate in DBT. In such cases, it may be helpful to integrate strategies designed to prevent recurrence of depressive episodes. This case study describes integration of MBCT into ongoing DBT in the treatment of an individual with BPD and a history of depressive episodes. Findings suggest that MBCT can be successfully integrated into ongoing DBT in cases in which prevention of depressive episodes is an important goal. Findings also suggest that mindfulness skills may be very helpful in enhancing the efficacy of traditional cognitive-behavioral treatment approaches.
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Page 1. Behavior Modification http://bmo.sagepub.com/ Generalized Verbal Control and Correspondence Training Ruth A. Baer, Julie A. Williams, Pamela G. Osnes and Trevor F. Stokes BehavModif^985 9: 477 DOI: 10.1177 ...
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Research Interests: Psychology, Assessment, Psychometrics, Mental Health, Depression, and 15 moreAnxiety, Humans, Business and Management, Female, Male, Confidence intervals, Depressive Disorder, Questionnaires, Adult, Reproducibility of Results, Chi Square Distribution, Psychological Theory, ANXIETY, Personality Tests, and Likelihood Functions
We investigated the effect of specific symptom information on faking a personality disorder on the MMPI-2. Four groups of adult subjects were studied: 23 normal adults given specific information about borderline personality disorder (BPD)... more
We investigated the effect of specific symptom information on faking a personality disorder on the MMPI-2. Four groups of adult subjects were studied: 23 normal adults given specific information about borderline personality disorder (BPD) and instructed to simulate it, 23 normal adults instructed to simulate a psychological disturbance without specific symptom information, 36 patients with a diagnosis of BPD, and 36 normal adults who completed the test with standard instructions. Comparison of test profiles showed that informed fakers obtained scores on validity scales sensitive to overreporting that were no different from scores of uninformed fakers, but which were significantly higher than scores of actual patients. On clinical scales 4, 6, 8, and 9 informed fakers obtained scores significantly higher than patients' scores. These results suggest that specific symptom information was of little help in simulating a disturbance convincingly on the MMPI-2.
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The personality functioning of adults diagnosed with attention deficit disorder (ADD) without comorbid psychiatric illness was examined. NEO PI-R profiles in a group of 25 adults referred for ADD evaluation meeting criteria for this... more
The personality functioning of adults diagnosed with attention deficit disorder (ADD) without comorbid psychiatric illness was examined. NEO PI-R profiles in a group of 25 adults referred for ADD evaluation meeting criteria for this diagnosis without any history of other psychiatric disturbance were compared to profiles from a control group of 23 nonpsychotic adult outpatients being treated with psychotherapy. All participants completed self-report measures of ADD symptoms as well as the NEO PI-R (Form S). The ADD adult group obtained significantly higher scores in the Neuroticism domain and significantly lower scores in the Conscientiousness domain than the outpatient comparison group. The NEO PI-R appears useful to the understanding of ADD in adulthood.
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Although theory and research suggest that self-awareness is necessary to regulate one’s behaviors, it is unclear what effect mindfulness, a form of present-centered, non-judgmental, and non-reactive awareness, would have on behavioral... more
Although theory and research suggest that self-awareness is necessary to regulate one’s behaviors, it is unclear what effect mindfulness, a form of present-centered, non-judgmental, and non-reactive awareness, would have on behavioral self-regulation. The present study found that trait mindfulness, particularly its nonjudging and non-reacting facets, predicted increased persistence on a difficult lab task (N=142). Although self-critical facets of self-consciousness were negatively related to mindfulness, self-consciousness did not predict persistence as expected. Mindfulness, particularly nonjudging and non-reactive aspects, may improve self-regulation.