Tsagaan (Цагааны) Turbat (Төрбат/Турбат)

Paper published in Vol. 31 of Studia Archaeologica, of the Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences in 2011. Dealing with Xiongnu commoner burials orientation and positioning of bodies. Based on the orientation of graves suggested some reconstructions of another world in religious perceptions of Xiongnu. Special attention made on the common and different orientations in those graves.

This monographic study is the 3rd volume of a series of works on the study of Deer Stones, the emblematic symbol of Mongolian ancient civilization and the best representative of monumental art. The 1st and 2nd volumes contain a brief scientific description of 1241 Mongolian Deer Stones, richly illustrated with hand-drawings and color photographs, and some site maps. The 3rd volume is covering all major issues of Deer Stone study, as well as contains the catalogue of about 340 Deer Stones from all over Eurasia and near 80 newly discovered in Mongolia.

Хүннүгийн түүх, соёл, археологи, палеоантропологийн судалгаанд холбогдох 700 илүү ном бүтээлийг хамруулсан анхны ном зүйн энэхүү бүтээлийг Төв Азийн нүүдэлчдийн түүх соёлыг судлагч хэн бүхэнд зориулав.

First special bibliography dedicated to the Xiongnu study contains more than 700 entities.

A man and a woman were found in a double burial dating from the 1st century BC and located in a Xiongnu burial site in northern Mongolia. An offering box at the head of the man's coffin contained both remains of domestic animals and a human hyoid bone. The skeleton of the man was complete whereas the woman's hyoid bone was missing. The isolated hyoid bone could belong to the buried woman, which suggests the removal of her tongue and probably her sacrifice.

Abstract Identifying the isotopic signatures of vertical mobility and alpine meadows exploitation in the teeth of domesticated animals can be a key to understanding the subsistence strategies used by pastoral communities through history. Indeed, the oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) isotopic composition of sequentially sampled tooth enamel, used alone or in combination have been commonly employed to investigate altitudinal mobility and alpine exploitation. However, conflicting interpretations of the outcomes of these analyses exist, due in part to the paucity of modern reference datasets. In this study, we propose a new reference set, composed of GPS monitored sheep, goats and horses from the Mongolian Altai, to investigate the influence of vertical mobility and mean grazing altitude, on the C and O isotopic compositions of sequentially sampled tooth enamel and on the C isotopic composition of horse tail hair. We found that δ13C values were negatively correlated with the mean grazing altitude and time of residency of alpine meadows. Although no correlation was found between the average δ18O values of tooth enamel and mean grazing altitude, vertically mobile livestock had a higher intra-tooth range in δ18O values than vertically immobile livestock, possibly reflecting the ingestion of isotopically more diverse sources of water. Moreover, the coefficient of the correlation between δ13C and δ18O values of tooth enamel was - although weakly - negatively correlated with the standard deviation of the animal mean grazing altitude (i.e. reflecting the frequency of altitudinal mobility). These results confirm that δ13C and δ18O analyses of tooth enamel and tail hair can be used to infer animal mobility and land use in modern and ancient times.

Strontium isotopic analysis of sequentially formed tissues, such as tooth enamel, is commonly used to study provenance and mobility of humans and animals. However, the potential of 87Sr/86Sr in tooth enamel to track high-frequency movements has not yet been established, in part due to the lack of data on modern animals of known movement and predictive model of isotope variation across the landscape. To tackle this issue, we measured the 87Sr/86Sr in plant samples taken from a 2000 km2 area in the Altai Mountains (Mongolia), and the 87Sr/86Sr in tooth enamel of domestic caprines whose mobility was monitored using GPS tracking. We show that high-resolution, sequential profiles of strontium isotope composition of tooth enamel reliably reflect the high-frequency mobility of domestic livestock and that short-term residency of about 45 days can be resolved. This offers new perspectives in various disciplines, including forensics, ecology, palaeoanthropology, and bioarchaeology.

Millet is a highly adaptable plant whose cultivation dramatically altered ancient economies in northern Asia. The adoption of millet is associated with increased subsistence reliability in semi-arid settings and perceived as a cultigen compatible with pastoralism. Here, we examine the pace of millet’s transmission and locales of adoption by compiling stable carbon isotope data from humans and fauna, then comparing them to environmental variables. The Bayesian modelling of isotope data allows for the assessment of changes in dietary intake over time and space. Our results suggest variability in the pace of adoption and intensification of millet production across northern Asia.

Mongolia, with more than 500 rock art sites, may be one of the richest countries in Asia – if not the whole world – in terms of rock art. This number comes from the database kept in the Institute of Archaeology of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences and the results of the National Tangible Heritage census held in 2015 in Mongolia.
The intensity of rock art studies in Mongolia has been increasing consistently over time since the 1990s and we have seen the same trend in the last few years as well. Mongolian rock art studies between 2000-2014 have been covered in previous volumes (Miklashevich 2008; Jacobson-Tepfer 2012, 2016), and this time we present a brief survey of rock art studies carried out between 2015 and 2019.

The cultural groups that resided in the Early Iron Age Eurasian steppe in the first millennium BCE are well-known for the establishment of trade networks that became increasingly active with the advent of horse riding, resulting in the transmission of metal, iconography, and other material goods throughout the region. The spread of metal types and forms iconography can be examined and taken as supportive evidence for the social and cultural interactions that existed between mobile pastoralists, who transversed the steppe and surrounding territories, with each other and sedentary groups. To better understand the extent of these interactions, chemical and lead isotopic data for 104 copper-alloy objects were acquired from three prominent cultural groups that existed in Mongolia [Slab Grave ( n  = 45), Pazyryk ( n  = 26), and Chandmani ( n  = 33)] and used to ascertain ore exploitation preferences and metal circulation patterning. In this assemblage, there is a clear compositional difference between the artifacts that originated near the Altai-Sayan Mountains in western Mongolia and those from east of the Khangai Mountains. In the former, the artifacts are characteristically arsenical copper and contain antimony, suggesting the exploitation and smelting of local fahlore deposits. For the latter, the artifacts are more commonly tin bronze with arsenic and lead; a composition similar to the alloys found in contemporary northern China. Overall, the chemical composition and isotopic signatures of these objects are varied—even within the same cultural group's assemblage—and can be explained by the seasonal migration of Mongolian herding communities and a tendency to exploit metallogenically diverse ore deposits. The nomadic nature of these communities likely resulted in the varied exploitation of ores throughout the year and the mixing of new and existing metal stock from the steppe and abroad.

The horse, as a domestic animal, had a strong impact on the organisation of ancient societies of the eastern steppes of Eurasia by enabling people to move faster and transport goods and people more efficiently. This newfound mobility was accompanied by profound changes in the expression of ritual practices, and horses are repeatedly found in funerary monuments of the Late Bronze Age in Mongolia. While recent advances in research have highlighted the link between the presence of horses in ritual monuments and their role in the pastoralist diet, little is yet known about their practical contexts – including the season in which the animals were slaughtered and the time of year when the funerary and ritual sites were visited. In modern Mongolia, horse meat is consumed during winter, but the antiquity of this practice is currently undocumented. Here, we use stable oxygen isotope variations (δ18O) recorded by developing molars of horses to estimate the season of slaughter of two horses de...

Kazakh herders of the Mongolian Altai practice a form of nomadism characterised by high altitudinal amplitude and more frequent movements than in other regions of Mongolia. This paper proposes a local scale study of nomadic practices using an original multidisciplinary methodological approach combining anthropological surveys and several years' GPS data tracking of five herder families' herds. The dialogue between geo-localised and qualitative data over several consecutive years makes it possible to better understand the environmental, economic, social and individual factors that determine nomadic routes and calendars. It also highlights the ways in which herders cope with interannual variations. In particular, this new methodology reveals the importance of temporary herd separations and re-evaluates the frequency of nomadic movements, which might have been underestimated by the classical anthropological approach.

The initial movement of herders and livestock into the eastern steppe is of great interest, as this region has long been home to pastoralist groups. Due to a paucity of faunal remains, however, it has been difficult to discern the timing of the adoption of domesticated ruminants and horses into the region, though recent research on ancient dairying has started to shed new light on this history. Here we present proteomic evidence for shifts in dairy consumption in the Altai Mountains, drawing on evidence from sites dating from the Early Bronze to the Late Iron Age. We compare these finds with evidence for the rise of social complexity in western Mongolia, as reflected in material remains signaling population growth, the establishment of structured cemeteries, and the erection of large monuments. Our results suggest that the subsistence basis for the development of complex societies began at the dawn of the Bronze Age, with the adoption of ruminant livestock. Investments in pastoralis...

The discovery of Paleolithic ochre paintings in the vicinity Khokh Bulag rock shelter of the Tonkhil Soum in Govi-Altai Aimag, nestled on the southern slopes of the Altai Mountains, reveals a diverse array of figurative, animal and geometric depictions. A total of 21 figures, including 13 hand stencils are meticulously created utilizing red and black ochre pigments. Predominantly featured at this site are hand stencils, executed in an archaic style, typically fashioned using Paleolithic techniques. Additionally, the presence of human and geometric motifs within this shelter draws noteworthy parallels with Paleolithic rock art findings across the globe. This discovery stands as a momentous revelation, marking the inaugural appearance of Paleolithic-style hand stencils within Central Asian rock art, thus underscoring its considerable historical and cultural importance.

In 2004, Ts. Turbat made a discovery of a significant site of engraved rock art, dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period. Situated on the south bank of the Baga Oigor River, this remarkable site lies within the protective zone of the World Heritage site of the Mongolian Altai rock art complex. The Baga Oigor-VI complex boasts an impressive array of 41 depictions featuring animals such as horses, ibex, argali, deer, cattle, and snakes from the Upper Paleolithic period, complemented by an additional 16 images originating from the Bronze Age, constituting a total of 57 images. Noteworthy is the superior preservation status of this monument, eclipsing that of comparable sites and presenting unparalleled clarity in visibility. The scarcity of open Paleolithic rock art sites across the globe that bear resemblance to this exceptional find underscores its singular nature. The geographically nearest analogous site of significance is the Gobustan monument in the South Caucasus followed by largest concentration of similar monuments in Iberian peninsula.
Beyond the renowned ochre paintings of the Khoid Tsenkher Cave, an extensive exploration of carved rock art open air monuments is underway, elevating the Mongolian Altai region to the status of a pivotal hub in the realm of ancient art. The sheer abundance and widespread distribution of these monuments contribute to its characterization as a veritable “cradle of prehistoric art”.

A group of ochre paintings traditionally classified as “Selenge type” has been discovered on a small rocky promontory at Choilon ford situated in the Dund Khuld river valley in the southern slopes of the Altai mountain range, within the Tonkhil soum of Gobi-Altai province. These ochre paintings can be categorized into two distinct groups. The initial group, characterized by a pair of triangles, is associated with a particular culture for which the exact dating remains uncertain. Conversely, the second group, featuring a pair of lines, depictions of animals, humans, and a square frame, corresponds to the Slab Grave culture, attributable to the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Adjacent to these paintings are four carvings of deer, aligning with the Deer Stone Khirgisuur culture. The significance of this rock art lies in its current location at the westernmost extremity of the “Selenge type” rock paintings affiliated with the Slab Grave culture, rendering it a subject of considerable research interest.

During the last decade Mongolian archaeology had been marked by the
discovery and/or introduction of several archaeological cultures that belong to the
Bronze and Early Iron Ages. Especially western areas of the country, namely the
Mongolian Altai region, which was still untouched by extensive archaeological
investigations, were extremely productive in terms of the discovery of new
types of archaeological monuments. Despite major achievements in Bronze age
archaeology, we are constantly encountering challenges, including terminology
and naming of new types of archaeological monuments. The author tries
to reconsider the name of a recently introduced archaeological culture in
Mongolian ancient history research, namely the “Khemcek” culture which dates
to the Early Bronze Age.
Until now, the name of this culture has been written with at least seven
different spellings: ke’ermuqi, kemuqi, chemurchek, shamirshak, kermuqi, kermuqy,
and khemcek, which is certain to cause confusion in future publications on
this subject. The author was wondering about this embarrassing situation of
terminology and tried to identify the sources of this rather unusual diversity of spellings with the study of ancient and modern geographical maps of the 17th
to 20th centuries. Additionally, the author paid a special trip to the very place
of discovery of this culture in Altai prefecture of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
Region of the PRC in August 2012.
With the hope of finding the original name of the place which gave this
archaeological culture its designation, the author made a cartographic research
taking in account the major historical maps of the region, including the Renat
Maps of 1734 (in todo Mongol and Latin script), the Qianlong Map of 1760 (in
Manchu and Chinese characters), a US War and Naval Department map of 1942,
the Xinjiang Uyghur Atlas of 1966 (in Uyghur Latin script), and some more travel
reports from the 19th century. All these first hand sources give unanimously
“Khemcek” as the original name of the place, which was corroborated by my
interviews of local Mongol people in Altai city and its vicinity.
The discoverer of this culture, Chinese archaeologist Li Zheng, called the
place “Ke’ermuqi” written in Chinese characters, which is a very regular Chinese
transcription of the Mongolian word “Khemcek”. Only in the 1980s during
the state campaign of unification and renovation of local toponyms the initial
name was modified in an inappropriate way into “Chemurchek”, based on the
contemporary Kazakh spelling of the place name.
In respect of 1) the initial name given by Chinese archaeologists and 2) the
original name of the place we suggest to use the version “Khemcek” for future
references to this culture.

Archaeological Jew’s Harps from Ancient Nomadic Cultures of
Eastern Eurasia

Until now only musical instrument from Xiongnu archaeological monuments was a Jew’s harp unearthed by Prof. D.Tseveendorj in 1989 in Morin Tolgoi burial ground, Central Mongolia. This laminare bone instrument was a unqiue piece to the study of the origin and development of not only Xiongnu but also Eurasian ancient nomad’s musical culture. Recent years more examples of similaire musical instrument found in different areas of Eastern Eurasian nomadic cultures which stimule further researches on the origin of this anicent musical instrument.
This article covers 10 pieces of laminare Jew’s harp, in bone or bambou sticks, from early nomads period or Bronze-Early Iron-Xiongnu periods of the Eastern part of Eurasian Steppe. These pieces were discovered in Mongolia, North China, Inner Mongolia, Tannu-Sayan region or Tuva and Minus hollow, all from burial monuments of different archaeological cuiltures. Some of those pieces were identi ed initially by researchers as “bone instrument” or “weaving shuttle” etc.
The oldest known Jew’s harp from nomadic world, and even in the world is a bone instrument from Xiajiadian from late Bronze Age, and the most recent archaeological Jew’s harp comes from Sakhsar burial from Tashtyk culture or Post-Xiongnu period in Minus hollow region. The Morin Tolgoi burial Xiongnu Jew’s harp together with Aimyrlyg (Tuva) played important role in the distribution of this musical instrument throughout Eurasia by the means of Xiongnu (Hun) Great Migration or/and Silk Road.

Horse accompanied burials of Syrgaly

Within this article, we are publishing excavation materials of horse accompanied two burials, in Syrgaly-II and Syrgaly-III cites in Tsengel sum, Bayan-Ulgii aimag. The excavations were made in 2010 and 2012 by researchers of Mongolian-French joint expedition team. Those two burials have some special interests in the study of Ancient Turkic period.
One of those two burials has a horse accompanied; another was two horses accompanied. This is one of the characteristic types of nomadic funeral ritual between AD 6-9th centuries oras it called in Mongolian historiography – the Ancient Turkic period. Statistically, two horses accompanied burials were richer with the funeral objects, than a horse accompanied burials. Logical outcome is according to their decease’s social origin, social status and their properties.
Syrgaly’s horse accompanied burials belongs to this period by series of features as location, external and interior structures of the tomb, positioning and orientation of the deceases, their horses, and composition of the offerings and their speci c characteristics.
Relative dating of some speci c objects such as the earrings, bronze mirrors, bronze decorations of harness, and silver, bronze pieces of the chest strap and crupper, iron bit and stirrups were very productive due to extensive analogues from Russian Altai. Those relative dating is  ts well to the time period of 7th century to 8th century AD. This is exactly showing the Ancient Turkic period of Mongolian historiography.
Acknowledgement. We would like to special thanks for R.Erdenetsetseg, Institute of History and Archaeology, MAS for her excellent jobs on the restoration and conservation of some iron objects from our excavations.

Within the scope of this study, I have attempted to com- pose and give characterization to the new plast of rock art of the Altai mountainous region belonging to the Early Bronze Age in comparison with the well dated images of the Khemceg culture. The key to distinguishing the rock art of the Khemceg culture was the ochre paintings of the Dunda Bulake rock niche in the Altai prefecture of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China, and the Stone man with petrogliphs (carved images) in its frontal surfaces with similar motifs. In 2012, the author visited and documented the site personally.
The ochre paintings of Dunda Bulake has been studied by Chinese scholards since decades, and among their research occupies particularly important place the theory that skiing was originally invented in the Altai Mountains, as it is be- lieved to be a figure of skiers group of human figures. There is speculation that the paintings may be belong to the Neolithic period. Instead, I look at the Dunda Bulake paintings from a different perspective, as a monument that reflects the classic representation of the Early Bronze Age culture, with its elon- gated horned aurochs, thick-necked horses, and human face masks, cross and parallel stripes, three-horned human figures etc. and my contributions to the assembly of depitions are – man with a bell shaped robe similar to those figures depicted on the stone man of Khemceg culture, and the dancing man with the raised arm, all together forming the key features of which are currently becoming clear. Similar images are most likely to be found on rock carvings in the Altai Mountains, es- pecially in the Tsagaan Salaa-Baga Oigor of Mongolian Altai and. in Kalbak-Tash, Russian Altai. It is also found in much smaller sites like Khöltsööt and Kharganat.
The Khemceg archaeological culture (2600-1800 BCE) is a billiant archeological culture spread in the Bayan-Ulgii and Khovd provinces of Mongolia, or in the high mountain- ous region of western Mongolia’s Altai, in the Altai Terri- tory of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China.
After unravelling the Khemceg rock art from entire Bronze Age rock art, the Khemceg archaeological culture consisted of: 1) burial sites, 2) ritual features, 3) stone man, and 4) rock art sites. At present, any settlements belonging to this culture have not yet been discovered. However, it is noteworthy that in the Inner Asian region, such a complex archeological culture of the Bronze Age is still rare. In Mon- golia, Kazakhstan and the Xinjiang region of the PRC, over 70 stone man (anthropomorphic stone steles) and about 100 graves of the Khemceg culture were inventoried yet, and I have identified several rock art sites within this article.
The Khemceg rock art has a well-established figurative tradition, often recurring in character and representation, and has spread to a much wider area. There are two main types of pictorial methods: ochre painting and engraving. Usually they depicted on the surface of the rock plates and
in the rock nishes, but in few cases we have depictions on the frontal surface of stone man. In only one case, the depiction of a bell shaped anthropomorpgic figure on the stone slab of the burial monument can even be found in the Kholagash site of the Mongolian Altai, published by J. Granö in 1912.
It is not yet possible to say that the narratives in the Khemceg rock art are fully unveiled, and in our present study we have presented only the results that highlight the closest ready-made silhouettes, narratives, or compositions in the Dunda Bulake site. Furthermore, new monuments of the Khemceg rock art will likely be discovered in Mongo- lia and the surrounding regions, including Xinjiang.
An extremely important topic is the similarities of the Khemceg rock art in many respects with the art of the main archeological cultures of the western part of the Inner Asia and South Siberia. It is worth noting that the Mongolia and North Xinjiang Khemceg culture, Russia’s Altai Karakol culture, and the Okunev culture of the Minus depression have multiple of common features. At the same time, similar images appear in the Sarmysh rock art site of Central Asia, the Sauyskandyk rock art of Kazakhstan, the Mugor-Sargol rock art of Yenisei basin, the Sagan-Zaba of the Baikal re- gion, and the Dumhar rock art site in the Ladakh region in northern India, which has significant historical and cultural connections, and can be also witnessing population move- ments as well. Research will continue to evolve in this direc- tion, and the identification of these cultures will be one of the most important pillars of the early Bronze Age. There is no denying the importance of revealing the ties between above mentioned three cultures (Khemceg, Karakol and Okunevo), just as the Dunda Bulake rock painting plays its role as the key to classifying the rock art of Khemceg culture.
Present article was based on a report presented at a research conference titled “Yinshan Mountain Rock Art Field Inspection and Conference” on September 14, 2015 in Bayanuur city of Inner Mongolia of the PRC. The con- ference proceedings are still being processed in China, but significant changes have been made since then in the study of rock art of the Khemceg culture. In this article, I would like to express my original position in the discussions that are taking place on this subject. Please note that the article is published as it is in 2015, so the influences of recent research are excluded.

The funeral complex of Tamir Ulaan Khoshuu is a unique Xiongnu monument with the largest quantity of pottery within the same culture. Currently, more than 70 graves have been excavated at the site, and more than 200 pottery vessels have been found, with an average of 4-5 graves per grave. Among them, 10 pottery of new form were unearthed. At least three pots of foreign origin have been found. This article is dealt with the classification of ceramic pottery and made some suggestions on the cultural meanings.